CP Lesson 2 - Goal Setting

Coaching Process ALesson 2: Goal Setting

Aims

To define goal setting

To conceptualize goal setting into the sports coaching environment

Goal Orientation

Franzi Stampfi, who guided Roger Bannister to the first sub four minute mile in 1954 said “The coaches job is 20 per cent technical and 80 per cent inspirational” (Bryant, 2000).


“There is no doubt that goal setting is a powerful and effective strategy for enhancing the performance of athletes” (Cox, 1998).


“There is no doubt that goal setting is a powerful and effective strategy for enhancing the performance of athletes” (Cox, 1998).

What is goal setting?

What is goal setting?One of the most common motivational tools used by coaches and sports psychologists is goal setting (Weinberg, 1994).


A goal can be defined simply as what the individual is trying to do (Weinberg, 1994; Locke & Latham, 1985)....


A goal can be defined simply as what the individual is trying to do (Weinberg, 1994; Locke & Latham, 1985)....

but is in-fact far more complicated. Despite primarily being a motivational tool, goal setting is used for building self-confidence, enhancing technique and managing time and other resources (Locke and Latham, 1985; Minovi, 1998).

Early Research

Early Research

Majority of early studies were in industry

Early Research

Majority of early studies were in industry

Argued this research can be carried over because both require physical and mental action directed towards a goal (Locke and Latham, 1985)

This has been refuted by several authors including:


Barnett, 1977; Hall et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1975; Weinberg, Bruya & Jackson, 1985 & Weinberg, Bruya, Jackson & Garland, 1987.



However more recent research has given reason for the negative results:




Locke, (1991) - methodological flaws such as failure to manipulate control group.




Locke, (1991) - methodological flaws such as failure to manipulate control group.

Weinberg & Weigand (1993) agree with Locke’s methodological problems, but also believe that there is a difference between both the tasks and the participants in the organisation/industrial, when compared to those in the sports settings

Cohen (1988, 1992) highlights the statistical problems in comparing the two settings with the sports setting having much smaller sample sizes.


In response to the conflicting results in goal setting literature, Kyllo and Landers (1995) conducted a meta- analytic review.



Using the procedure described by Hedges & Olkin (1985) they statistically combined 36 studies and their results showed that, by setting goals, performance was improved by one-third of the standard deviation (ES = 0.34).



Using the procedure described by Hedges & Olkin (1985) they statistically combined 36 studies and their results showed that, by setting goals, performance was improved by one-third of the standard deviation (ES = 0.34).

Criteria for setting goals


For goal setting to be effective in a sporting environment the goals must encompass various criteria such as Specificity, difficulty level, type of goal orientation, time constraints, both long-term and short-term goals and acceptance from the athlete (Locke & Latham, 1985).


For goal setting to be effective in a sporting environment the goals must encompass various criteria such as Specificity, difficulty level, type of goal orientation, time constraints, both long-term and short-term goals and acceptance from the athlete (Locke & Latham, 1985).

SCUK recommend SMARTER

Specific

Specific

Measurable

Specific

Measurable

Accountability

Specific

Measurable

Accountability

Realistic

Specific

Measurable

Accountability

Realistic

Time constrained

Specific

Measurable

Accountability

Realistic

Time constrained

Exciting

Specific

Measurable

Accountability

Realistic

Time constrained

Exciting

Recorded

Specific

Measurable

Accountability

Realistic

Time constrained

Exciting

Recorded

Difficulty level

Difficulty level

problematic due to the lack of ability to operationalise the difficulty, Locke (1991) suggests a level in which no more than 10 per cent of the subjects reach their goals

Difficulty level

problematic due to the lack of ability to operationalise the difficulty, Locke (1991) suggests a level in which no more than 10 per cent of the subjects reach their goals

Kyllo and Lander (1995) describe this as “somewhat arbitrary” and tested a difficulty of 25 per cent, concluding that more research is needed.

Goal Orientation

Goal OrientationThere are two distinctive goal perspectives and various authors have used different terminology to describe these two types of goal orientation including:


Outcome and Performance (Steffin, 1995; Cox, 1998),



Mastery and Competitive (Steinberg et al, 2000).



Mastery and Competitive (Steinberg et al, 2000).

Task and Ego (Fuzhong et al 1998; Weinberg, 1994; White et al 1998)

Task Goals

Task Goals

Task goal setting involves:

Task Goals


The mastering of technique

Task Goals



Developing new skills and quality of play

Task Goals




Evaluated by personal improvement and self-reference

Task Goals




Evaluated by personal improvement and self-reference

Athletes who set task goals are intristically motivated

Ego Goals

Ego Goals

Ego goals are a demonstration of the ability to display superiority.

Ego Goals

Ego goals are a demonstration of the ability to display superiority.

Athletes who set ego goals are extrinsically motivated (Fuzhong et al, 1998; Steinberg et al, 2000; White et al; 1998)

Which type of orientation?


It has been demonstrated in the industrial, organisational and sports settings that task goals show greater improvements to performance than ego goals (Duda 1988; Duda, 1989; Weinberg, 1994).



This is attributed to greater task enjoyment, less boredom and less anxiety (Fox et al, 1994; Hall 1990).



This is attributed to greater task enjoyment, less boredom and less anxiety (Fox et al, 1994; Hall 1990).

More recent research has indicated that a combination of task and ego goals may be preferable for optimum performance.

Combining Orientation

Combining OrientationSteinberg et al, (2000) demonstrated that using both task and ego goals enable greater achievements in sport than single goal orientation.


Other researchers, such as Hom et al, 1993; Fox et al, 1994 and Duda, 1989 have found similar results.



Duda, (1989) argues that “a person who stresses both goal perspectives has two sources of success and several reasons to continue participation”.



Duda, (1989) argues that “a person who stresses both goal perspectives has two sources of success and several reasons to continue participation”.

Steinberg & Maurer, (1999) suggest that the type of goal allocated to a task is dependant on the situation and timing, this is also supported by Jackson and Roberts, (1992).

Any Questions?

ReferencesBarnett, M.L. (1977). Effects of two methods of goal setting on learning a gross motor task. Research quarterly, 48, 19-23.

Bryant, J. (2001). Faster higher stronger. Sports coach UK. (12): 5

Cox, R.H. (1998). Sport psychology. Concepts & applications. 4th ed. Great Britain: McGraw- Hill.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological bulletin. 112: 155-159.

Duda, J.L., (1989). The relationship between goal perspectives, persistence and behavioural intensity among male and female recreational sports participants. Leisure sciences, 10: 95-106.

Duda, J.L. (1989). Goal perspectives, participation and persistence in sport. International journal of sports psychology. 20: 42-56.

Fox, K., Goudas, M., Biddle, S., Duda., J., & Armstrong, N. (1994). Children’s task and ego goal profiles in sport. British journal of educational psychology. 64: 253-261.

Fuzhong, L., Harmer, P., Duncan, T.E., Acock, A, & Yamamoto, T. (1998). Confirmatory factor analysis of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire with cross-validation. The American alliance for health, physical education, recreation and dance. 69 (3): 276- 283

Hall, H., Weinberg, R., & Jackson, A. (1987). Effects of goal specificity, goal difficulty, and information feedback on endurance performance. Journal of sports psychology. 9: 43-54.

Hall, H.K.(1990). A social cognitive approach to goal-setting: The mediating affects of achievement goals and perceived ability. Doctorial dissertation, university of Illinois, urbana-champaign.

Hedges, L.V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta- analysis. New York: academic press.

Hollingsworth, B. (1975). Effects of performance goals and anxiety on learning gross motor task. Research quarterly. 46, 162-168.

Jackson, S.A., & Roberts, G.C. (1992). Positive performance states of athletes toward a conceptual understanding of peak performance. The sports psychologist. 6: 156-171.

Kyllo, L.B., & Landers, D.M. (1995). Goal setting in sport and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy. Journal of sport and exercise psychology. 17: 117-137.

Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1985). The application of goal setting to sports. Journal of sport psychology. (7): 205-222.

Locke, E.A. (1991). Problems with goal setting research in sport and their solutions. Journal of sport and exercise psychology. (3): 311-316.

Steinberg, G.M., & Maurer, M. (1999). Multiple goal strategy: Theoretical implications and practical approaches for motor skill instruction. Journal of physical education, Recreation and Dance. 70 (2): 61-70.

Steinberg, G.M., Singer, R.N., & Murphey, M. (2000). The benefits of sports achievement when a multiple goal orientation is emphasised. Journal of sport behaviour. 23 (4): 407-417.

Weinberg, R.S., Bryua, L., & Jackson, A. (1985). The effects of goal proximity and goal specificity on endurance performance. Journal of sports psychology. 7: 296-305.

Weinberg, R.S., Bryua, L., Jackson, A., & Garland, H. (1987). Goal difficulty and endurance performance: a challenge to the goal attainability assumption. Journal of sports behaviour. 10: 82-92.

Weinberg, R.S. (1994). Goal setting and performance in sport and exercise settings: a synthesis and critique. Medicine and science in sport and exercise. 26 (4): 460-477.

Weinberg, R.S., Stitcher., T., & Richardson, P. (1994). Effects of seasonal goal- setting program on lacrosse performance. Sport psychologist. (2): 166-175.

Weinberg, R.S., & Weigand, D. (1993). Goal setting in sport and exercise: A reaction to Locke. Journal of sport and exercise psychology. 15, 88-95.

White, S.A., Duda, J.L., & Keller, M.R. (1998). The relationship between goal orientation and perceived purpose of sport among youth sports participants. Journal of sport Behaviour. 21 (4): 474 –480.

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CP Lesson 2 - Goal Setting