Cover English red - Food and Agriculture Organization Kamal Tolba 31 CHAPTER 3 Urbanization Manal El-Batran 45 CHAPTER 4 Air Quality Farid Chaaban 63 CHAPTER 5 Water Resources Musa

Arab Environment:Future Challenges

EDITED BY

MOSTAFA K. TOLBA

NAJIB W. SAAB

2008 REPORT OF THE ARAB FORUM FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

V PREFACE

VII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1 CHAPTER 1Human Development and Patterns of Production and ConsumptionIbrahim Abdel Gelil

13 CHAPTER 2Integrating Environment in Development PlanningMostafa Kamal Tolba

31 CHAPTER 3UrbanizationManal El-Batran

45 CHAPTER 4Air QualityFarid Chaaban

63 CHAPTER 5Water ResourcesMusa Nimah

75 CHAPTER 6Marine EnvironmentMahmoud Khamis El Sayyed

95 CHAPTER 7Aridity, Drought and DesertificationMohamed Kassas

111 CHAPTER 8Waste ManagementNefisa Abou-Elseoud

127 CHAPTER 9Impact of Climate Change on Arab CountriesMahmoud Medany

Contents

ARAB ENVIRONMENT: FUTURE CHALLENGES IIIIII

137 CHAPTER 10Pesticides, Fertilizers and Food SafetyIsam Bashour

145 CHAPTER 11Biosafety of Biotechnology ProductsOsama El-Tayeb

159 CHAPTER 12Environmental Impact of Wars and ConflictsHassan Partow

173 CHAPTER 13Environmental LegislationMohamed Abdulaziz El-Gundy

187 CHAPTER 14The Environment in Arab MediaNajib Saab

199 CHAPTER 15Environmental EducationRiyad Hamzah

213 CHAPTER 16Environmental Scientific ResearchAhmad Gaber

227 CHAPTER 17Financing of Environment Programmes: Private-Public PartnershipHussein Abaza

241 CHAPTER 18Response to International and Regional AgreementsIbrahim Abdel Gelil

259 CONTRIBUTORS

263 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CONTENTSIIVV

Arab Environment: Future Challenges is the first annual report produced by theArab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED). The policy-orientedreport is designed to evaluate the progress made towards the realization of sus-tainable development goals and a good environmental quality. It also examinesthe Arab contribution to global environmental endeavours.

AFED was proclaimed as a regional non-governmental organization in June2006, at the conclusion of a conference on Public Opinion and theEnvironment, organized in Beirut, Lebanon, by Al-Bia Wal-Tanmia(Environment & Development) magazine. The conference deliberated on theresults of a pan-Arab survey tracing the environmental views of the public inArab countries. The outcome has been reflected in AFED’s mandate, which gaveits work a demand-driven impetus. AFED aims at encouraging Arab societies toprotect the environment and use natural resources in a sensible manner, ulti-mately resulting in sustainable development. The Organization has embarked ona wide ranging programme of activities, the main one being an independent peri-odic report on the status of Arab environment. The present report launches aseries of other reports to follow, each of which will concentrate on specific top-ics of particular significance to the Arab region.

Alongside tackling major local and global issues and challenges, the outcome ofthe report is also meant to serve as a baseline for the state of Arab environment,in a manner that will allow measuring progress in the future. It has been devel-oped to set benchmarks, by means of evaluating the state of the environmentunder different sectors. Moreover, the AFED report is meant to be independent,reflecting the views of the civil society, by relying on the wide participation ofresearchers and academic institutions, in consultation with active sectors of thesociety, while ensuring synergy with other initiatives.

The approach to preparing the report has been to build on existing knowledge ofenvironmental issues. It stresses partnerships, takes advantage of ongoing moni-toring and research. It promotes the incorporation of the traditional approach ofa State of the Environment report into the design of policy-driven, science-basedassessments, stressing major issues and challenges.

Based on analysis of the best data available, the report targets the general publicas well as policy and decision makers in public and private sectors. Data has beencollected from reliable national and international sources, and cross-checked withexperts and research institutions. One of the main constraints in preparing thisreport has been a lack of reliable and coherent national data in various sectors.To overcome this difficulty, authors of the different chapters were selected fromamong experts with extensive experience in their research areas, who could rely

ARAB ENVIRONMENT: FUTURE CHALLENGES VV

Preface

on first-hand information directly from the field. Wherever possible, authors car-ried out field surveys to collect accurate and up-to-date data. Some countries ofthe region are not included in certain tables due to lack of data. Where data gapsstill persist, the report tries to identify them in view of triggering further field andlaboratory research, not only to collect and collate existing data but to establishpermanent reliable monitoring centres and databases.

The Arab Environment Report attempts to answer five key questions:

1. How are environmental conditions in the Arab world changing?2. What are the causes of environmental deterioration, and how is it linked to

human activities and other stresses?3. Why is environment a significant issue to the Arab world?4. What is being done about it? How is society responding to the issues through

public and private initiatives?5. Are the measures taken to limit environmental degradation and deterioration

of ecosystems enough?

The report provides an easily understood overview of environmental issues for thenon-scientist without frustrating the scientific accuracy of the issues discussed.

The editors wish to thank all of those who supported this initiative, and specifical-ly Dr. Mohamed Kassas, who was a source of inspiration from the outset, along-side his unrelenting contribution to all phases of the job, from planning, to settingclear goals and appraising the outcome. Thanks are also due to Dr. Essam ElHinnawy who made an outstanding effort in designing the structure of this report.Our special thanks go to the OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID),which backed this project from its inception. Finally, we thank the team ofEnvironment & Development magazine, whose efforts made the production of thisreport in its final form possible in record time and with limited budget.

The Editors

PREFACEVVII

© 2008 Arab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED)Published with Technical Publications and Environment & Development magazineP.O.Box 113-5474, Beirut, [email protected]://www.afedonline.orgThe preparation of this report was facilitated through a grant from the OPEC Fund forInternational Development.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronicor mechanical means without permission in writing from AFED.AFED and respective authors are solely responsible for opinions expressed in this report.The contents are based on best available data. Sponsors and supporting organizationsdo not necessarily endorse the views expressed in this report.Editors: Mostafa K. Tolba and Najib W. SaabSenior Adviser: Mohamed KassasCopy Editor: William SaabGraphics and Production Coordinator: Charbel MahfoudDesign: Brand 360ºPrinting: Chemaly & Chemaly, BeirutPhotos: Environment & Development magazine archive. Reuters: pages 2,63,135,141,217. UNEP: pages 45,96,112,132,160. Fares Jammal: pages 42,75. Naomi Toyoda:pages 159,168.ISBN: 9953-437-24-6

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Arab Environment:Future ChallengesMOSTAFA K. TOLBA AND NAJIB W. SAAB

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INTRODUCTION

At the beginning of the 21st century, it is clear that the most salient issue facingthe world today is that of the environment. Environmental problems have fea-tured heavily in scientific warnings, political agendas, public concern, and mediaattention. The Arab region is not isolated from the rest of the world when itcomes to this topic. This report seeks to highlight in a holistic manner the mostimportant environmental issues facing the Arab world, and attempts to offeradvice for policymakers, citizens, scientific and academic institutions, and themedia on how to mitigate the dangers created by environmental degradation.

The Arab world has undergone huge changes in the last century. Its populationhas risen from below 50 million a century ago to over 325 million today. Duringthis same period, the environment has deteriorated and natural resources havedwindled, due to development patterns which were largely unsustainable. Inmost cases, policies were overwhelmingly sets of provisional short-term measures,meant to tackle momentary challenges rather than engage in long-term planning.

Some parts of the region have seen unprecedented growth, bringing both economicand social prosperity to millions of Arabs during the last decades, thanks, largely, tothe rising income from oil. Has this economic development, however, come at a cost?Can the patterns of development which some Arab countries are experiencing contin-ue, while sustaining livelihood and quality of life for future generations? We doubt.

Today, the state of the Arab environment stands at a pivotal juncture, withnumerous environmental problems both current and imminent threatening theregion. At the same time, awareness of the issues, as well as signs of political andsocial willingness to act, provide hope for timely intervention.

This report, the first of its kind to be compiled and authored by independentexperts from across the Arab region, offers an overview of the state of the envi-ronment in the Arab world, highlighting environmental challenges, social, polit-ical, and demographic trends, progress in regional and sub-regional cooperation,and recommendations for future action.

THE REGIONAL CONTEXT

The Arab region, which stretches from Morocco and Mauritania in the west,through northern Africa and the Levant, to the Arabian Gulf in the east, is aregion facing distinctive environmental circumstances and challenges. Althoughthe region is endowed with unique and rich natural resources, there is insufficientawareness of the importance of the environment in fuelling and sustaining eco-nomic growth and human welfare. Environmental considerations are insuffi-ciently integrated in national development plans and policies, resulting in theunsustainable use of natural resources for development programmes.

Climate change, high population growth rates, and in some countries, rapid eco-nomic growth and urbanisation, all amplify the region’s vulnerability to environ-mental challenges and constrain its ability to manage them. Among the majorchallenges that the region faces are water scarcity, land degradation and deserti-fication, inadequate capacities for waste management, coastal and marine envi-ronment degradation, air pollution and global warming.

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THE COSTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Although they are often largely invisible or ignored, the economic costs of envi-ronmental degradation in the Arab region are real, substantial, and growing.Natural resources are being used unsustainably, undermining economic develop-ment and poverty reduction efforts. The World Bank estimates that the annualcost of environmental degradation amounts to between four and nine percent ofGDP for certain Arab countries. To place these figures into perspective, inEastern Europe and the OECD countries the ratios are five and two to three per-cent of the GDP respectively. In the Arab region as a whole, the cost of environ-mental degradation is estimated at five percent of GDP.

At the same time, governments of the region have failed in addressing thesemounting economic costs with clear and effective policies. The budgetary alloca-tions for environmental purposes do not even come close to one percent of GDPfor any of the countries in the region. Moreover, the environmental agencies thatdo exist have not been granted any real support or powerful legislative mandates,limiting their ability to be effective.

INSTITUTIONAL REFORM

It should be clear from this report that environmental issues urgently need to berecognized as deserving political and economic priority, on par with other majormacroeconomic issues. Specifically, the issue of environmental sustainabilityneeds to permeate into all aspects of development and macroeconomic policies.Currently, this is not the case.

Once the importance of environmental issues within the countries of theArab region has been recognized and acknowledged, the capacities for actionneed to be strengthened. This has to be tackled through a two-prongedapproach: firstly holistic, integrated, clear, and effective legislation needs tobe created, and secondly it needs to be ensured that environmental agenciesare endowed with both the resources and the political mandates to achievethe necessary progress.

Alongside strengthening official agencies and legislation, governments of theregion need to support research and development efforts. The private sectorshould also take more initiatives to integrate environmental considerations intoits planning, moving from the charity attitude towards the social responsibilityconcept and the environmental responsibility perception. None of this wouldwork without the support of the people, which cannot be achieved in the absenceof a real effort on the part of the media and the civil society, especially non- gov-ernmental organizations, to raise awareness.

WATER

Is it acceptable to drain groundwater to the last drop? Is it rational that thelevel of water consumption per capita in some of the most water-scarceArabian Gulf countries is among the highest in the world? The unfortunateresult of such unsustainable policies has been that these countries lost basicelements of water security.

The dilemma for the Arab region is that it is among the water-scarcest regions inthe world. The average annual available water per capita in the Arab countrieswas 977 cubic metres in 2001, falling below the UN definition of water scarcity.The projections are bleak: by the year 2023, the figure is expected to decrease to460 cubic metres. In fact, with the exception of Egypt, Sudan, Iraq, Lebanon,and Syria, all the Arab countries are projected to experience severe water stress bythe year 2025.

Even at present, most countries in the Arab region find themselves with levels ofrenewable water resources far below the levels of other major regions in theworld. In fact, for many, if not most Arab countries, renewable water resourcescannot cover the sustainable human needs as defined by the United Nations.Projected global warming and consequently climate change have the potential ofplacing increasing pressure on already dwindling water supplies.

Policy issues remain a problem when it comes to water. Most of the available watersupplies in the Arab region, surpassing 80%, are used for irrigation. In addition,water use efficiency levels are relatively low in the region, typically ranging between37% and 53%. Water loss and inefficient technologies need to be corrected. As percapita water supplies get tighter, governments will have to implement strategicplanning that can both increase water use efficiency and optimise the allocation ofthis scarce resource among the agricultural, industrial, and domestic domains. Asthis report thus suggests, water policies in the Arab region will require improvedmanagement of both the supply side and the demand side, together with dedicat-ing more resources for developing local desalination technologies.

A particularly striking example of the conflict that exists between rapid econom-ic development and scarce water resources is the recent boom in the construc-tion of golf courses in certain parts of the region. In fact, most of the current andplanned golf courses are in Egypt and the Gulf region, particularly the UnitedArab Emirates, where water resources are already low, even by regional stan-dards. Expansion of water-intensive projects like grass golf courses cannot go onunchecked, especially with meagre investments to develop sustainable desalina-tion technologies. There are plans to increase the sixteen golf courses operatingin the GCC countries now to 40 in the near future. In most cases, golf coursesin the region are irrigated with desalinated sea water, treated effluent or a com-bination of the two. A 2007 report released by the international consultantsKPMG estimated the use of water for each golf course in the region at an aver-age of 1.16 million cubic metres per year, reaching 1.3 million cubic meters inDubai, enough to cover the water consumption of 15,000 inhabitants.

Using such an amount of water on leisure projects in an arid desert throws up ques-tions about sustainability and how could this infringe on the water needs of the localcommunity. This is not at all a call to impede development, but rather to allocate moreresources towards inventing innovative environmentally-friendly desalination methodsand reliable saline agriculture techniques, suitable for the arid desert environment.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Among global environmental issues, the one that has received most attentionacross nearly all domains (political, media, scientific, and civil society) is that ofclimate change. Although the Arab region does not contribute more than 5% to

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the causes of global climate change, its effects on the region will be very severe.In fact, the region is particularly vulnerable given already scarce water resources,high levels of aridity and the long coastal stretch threatened by the rising sea lev-els. Natural and physical systems in the Arab world are already facing heavy pres-sures, and these will only be intensified as temperatures in the region get higherand/or precipitation gets lower.

According to recent modelling studies, the Arab region will face an increase of 2to 5.5°C in the surface temperature by the end of the 21st century. In addition,this temperature increase will be coupled with a projected decrease in precipita-tion of between 0 and 20%. The results for the region include shorter winters,dryer and hotter summers, a higher rate of heat waves, increased weather variabil-ity, and a more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events. Clearly, adapta-tion and mitigation strategies need to be researched, discussed, and implemented.

Sea level rise, or SLR, due to rising temperatures, has the potential to cause theloss of significant portions of agricultural land in the Arab region. As an exam-ple, even a 1 m SLR could potentially cause the loss of 12% to 15% of agricul-tural land in the Nile Delta region, and could reduce Qatar’s land area by 2.6%.In addition to the agricultural sector, the industrial and tourism sectors, urbanareas and the GDP in a number of Arab countries are threatened to be negative-ly impacted by sea level rise.

Higher temperatures will also increase the incidence and impact of drought inthe region, threatening water resources and productive land. As this report shows,drought frequency has already increased in Algeria, Morocco, Syria, and Tunisia.Recent droughts in Jordan and Syria were the worst recorded in many decades.In addition, increased precipitation variability and water resource availabilitydirectly related to climate change affect a number of the countries in the region.A warmer climate brings with it increased climate variability, higher risk of bothfloods and droughts, and exacerbates the already precarious situation created bychronic water scarcity faced by most Arab countries.

This report recognizes an alarming deficiency in scientific and technologicalcapabilities, as well as the political will to address and face problems posed by cli-mate change in the Arab region. Not enough scientific facilities exist to study thisphenomenon, insufficient funds are allocated to such research, and the studiesthat are undertaken still leave gaps to be filled. Climate change mitigation andadaptation need to be integrated into development strategies, and issues of plan-ning, scientific capacity, stakeholder involvement, and public awareness need tobe urgently addressed.

AIR QUALITY

As the air quality in Arab cities continues to steadily deteriorate, the costs ofhealth and environmental consequences are drastically rising. Health problemsattributed to air pollution from the transport sector alone cost Arab countriesover five billion dollars annually.

Countries in the Arab region are highly reliant on personal transport, a fact high-lighted by the soaring car ownership rates. For example, the number of vehiclesper 1000 inhabitants is 434 in Lebanon, 378 in Qatar, 357 in Kuwait, 336 in

Saudi Arabia, and 322 in Bahrain. The transport sector is responsible for approx-imately 90% of total emissions of carbon oxides in Arab countries. In spite ofmany welcome initiatives to ban it, lead remains an additive in petrol in someArab countries, and still accounts for more than half of total lead atmosphericemissions. Some countries abruptly introduced unleaded fuel, without imposingthe use of additives required for efficient operation of the old fleet of vehicleswith older engines, which constitute the bulk of the cars in most countries. Theinefficient combustion has consequently led to an alarming increase in the levelsof ground ozone, a gas with devastating effects on health.

Per capita carbon oxides emissions have risen steadily in most countries of theregion in the last three decades. Regionally, the Gulf countries emit about 50%of the total of all Arab countries; in addition, the countries in this Arab sub-region are the only ones with carbon dioxide emissions levels above the worldaverage. To give a few examples, in 2003, emissions in the United Arab Emirates,Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait were respectively 13, 9, 8, and 7 times higher thanthe world average. Countries such as Libya, Oman, and Saudi Arabia also haveper capita emissions higher than the world average, while the rest of the Arabcountries are approximately equal or fall below it.

A major problem in the Arab region is that only a few countries monitor air pollutionlevels sufficiently, systematically and consistently, which makes scientific research andpolicy recommendations difficult. Monitoring results in Egypt recorded levels ofemissions in urban areas and coastal industrial complexes that have reached pollutionlevels between six to eight times higher than the limits set by the relevant Egyptianenvironmental laws. Similar results were collected in Lebanon and Syria.

More action needs to be undertaken. In the transportation sector, engines needto be made more efficient, hybrid vehicles and cleaner fuels needs to be advocat-ed, and public transport needs to be developed and promoted, alongside moresensible urban planning which reduces the use of cars to communicate betweenresidential, work, commercial and leisure locations.

Energy generation and consumption in the Arab region tend to be inefficient inmost countries. This report recommends for market-distorting subsidies to bephased out, thermal efficiency to be improved through technological advance-ment, hydropower resources to be fully utilised, renewable energy sources, espe-cially solar and wind, to be widely used, and less polluting fuels, such as naturalgas, to be increasingly utilized.

MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Stretching from the Atlantic to the Indian ocean, and including theMediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf, Arab countries have over 30,000 kilo-metres of coastal line, 18,000 kilometres of which are populated areas. The frag-ile marine and coastal environment of the Arab region is threatened by pollution,over-fishing, loss of biodiversity, climate change, and other problems. However,such areas are of vital importance to the Arab countries, providing benefits topublic health, food security, leisure and other economic and social benefits.

Within the Arab region, three major marine regions can be identified: theMediterranean, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (RSGA), and the ROPME (Gulf)

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regions. The UNEP Regional Seas Programme classifies these three as the MAP,PERSGA, and RSA regions, and together they encompass twenty of the twenty-two member countries of the League of Arab States.

The semi-enclosed Mediterranean Sea lies off the coasts of North African andeastern Mediterranean Arab countries. Its fragile environment is threatened bylarge-scale industrial activity on its coasts: more than 200 petrochemical andenergy installations, chemical industries, and chlorine plants are located alongit. Eutrophication – a process by which water is enriched with nutrients thatstimulate primary aquatic production and cause excessive algal blooms – is achronic problem in certain areas of the Mediterranean, where residues fromagricultural, mainly chemical fertilizer, and non-treated industrial and urbanwastewater discharges enter the marine environment. In addition, there is heavytanker traffic in the Mediterranean, connecting major consumption centres inEurope with the oil production centres of the Middle East. The most impor-tant oil traffic lane is the Suez Canal, through which 90% of total oil tankertraffic passes.

The RSGA, one of the world’s most unique coastal and marine environments, isthreatened by a variety of human activities, such as dredging and filling operations,the disposal of domestic and industrial effluents, and the expansion of the tourismindustry. Most of these environmental threats are relatively recent in origin, andcan therefore at least partially be attributed to unsustainable development.

The RSA (ROPME Sea Area) is considered a high risk pollution area, due in par-ticular to the large number of offshore oil and gas installations, tanker loadingterminals, and the high volume and density of the marine transportation of oil.It is estimated that roughly 2 million barrels of oil are spilled annually from rou-tine discharges of ballast, tanker slops, and from 800 oil and gas platforms.

Overfishing, the unsustainable exploitation of fish stocks, is a major problem inthe Mediterranean and the RSGA regions. Primarily, the main problems are thelack of information on transboundary stocks, inadequate cooperation in themanagement of shared stocks, and a lack of surveillance and enforcement ofexisting fishing regulations. In addition, the coral reefs in the RSA and theRSGA, in the vicinity of which much fishing occurs, are threatened by a diversi-ty of environmental stresses, particularly global warming.

Uncontrolled tourism and extensive urban development are the main contribu-tors to the environmental degradation of coastal and marine environments, andthis finding is applicable to all three regions. Several current or proposed marineprotected areas (MPAs), especially in the RSGA, are under high pressure fromoverfishing and tourism.

Finally, in terms of legislation, not enough designated MPAs exist, and the onesthat do exist are not in all cases adequately and efficiently managed. As is thecase for much environmental legislation in the region, issues of efficient insti-tutional capacity remain. Existing laws and regulations are not sufficientlyimplemented, compliance is not properly monitored, and regional/transbound-ary cooperation remains inadequate. It is unlikely that the state of marine envi-ronment in the Arab region is better today compared to three decades ago,when Arabs first started to join the international and regional seas conventionsand programmes.

ARIDITY, DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION

A particularly pressing concern for much of the Arab world is the high degree ofaridity and the associated increased vulnerability of lands to climate change aswell as water scarcity and variability. In particular, the land resources of the Arabregion face three main challenges: aridity, recurrent drought, and desertification.

The primal importance of the issue can hardly be overstated; as the productivecapacities of Arab agricultural lands are compromised by land degradation, thebases of food security are undermined. As populations increase and economicgrowth causes per capita consumption rates to rise, the gap between production andconsumption of food increases, and dependence on the importation of food grows.

The issue of aridity is closely related to that of the scarcity of water resources. Infact, all agriculturally productive lands in the Arab countries are fragile systemsprone to degradation and highly vulnerable to desertification. This report recog-nizes desertification as posing the most pressing threat to productive lands in thewhole Arab region. What is extremely important is to recognize that desertifica-tion is essentially a man-made phenomenon which is exacerbated by climatechange. Meaningful measures are needed in every Arab country to reduce thehuman role in expanding desertification.

As for cooperation in international endeavours, a number of regional examplesexist. Sudan formulated a national plan of action to combat desertification in1976, as did Tunisia and Egypt shortly afterwards. However, the response ofother Arab countries has so far been lacking, as an insufficient degree of priorityhas been attached to the formulation and implementation of plans and pro-grammes for combating desertification.

What is needed in the Arab region is an integrated approach that recognizes theurgency of addressing the menaces of land degradation. Such an approach shouldcomprise scientific, industrial, social, and legislative efforts. Institutes such asACSAD (Damascus) and ICARDA (Aleppo) exist, as do dedicated universityresearch units and national research centres on desertification. However, moreresources need to be mobilised to support scientific research geared at devisingsolutions which find their way to implementation. Promising examples are theinitiatives in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Egypt to estab-lish funds for supporting research, which will hopefully include programmes forthe sustainable development and management of land and water resources.

BIOTECHNOLOGY, FERTILISERS AND PESTICIDES

Fertilisers and biotechnology play an important role in the agricultural sector inthe Arab region. Except for a few products for health care, none of the Arabcountries currently produce their own biotechnology products. However, thir-teen Arab countries are parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB)which regulates the import and export of genetically modified organisms(GMOs). The issue is therefore limited to the import of biotechnology com-modities by Arab countries, and the role of the Arab region in international nego-tiations on the issue should also be viewed from this perspective. At present, themain problem in the Arab region is one of insufficient implementation of theprotocol, leading to situations in which certain GMO commodities (such as

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maize, long grain rice, soybean seeds and cooking oil) are imported and availablein Arab markets undeclared and unlabelled. The crux of the problem is a lack ofregulatory and enforcement mechanisms, legislation, administrative structures,and technical expertise. As such, more resources need to be directed to the areasof biotechnology development, allowing Arab countries to take informed deci-sions on the products they import, as well as developing their own technologiesin areas such as agriculture, medicine and chemicals.

Pesticides and fertilisers are widely used in the Arab region, and in many cases,misused. The use of NPK fertilisers in Arab countries quadrupled between 1970and 2002, with the UAE and Egypt (more than 900 kg fertilisers per hectare),Oman (644 kg), and Lebanon (414 kg) using some of the highest quantities offertilisers per hectare in the world. The heavy use of pesticides and fertilisersbrings about concerns regarding food safety as a public health issue. What is lack-ing in most of the Arab region is regulation and control over the sale, handling,and use of pesticides. In addition, accredited pesticide residue analysis laborato-ries are not available in most Arab countries. As such, new legislation and institu-tional commitments are necessary in this regard. These issues need to be tackledat the regional level. Many countries in the region have the resources and capaci-ties for a better performance; what is missing is clear awareness of the subject.

With several parts of the world moving towards organic farming, the demand forchemical fertilizers is expected to dwindle. This will pose a serious challenge tothe big producers of fertilizers in the Arab petro-chemical industries, who willhave to be ready for diversification into new products.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The Arab region produces some 250,000 tons of solid waste every day, with mostof it ending untreated in makeshift dumps. Less than 20% is properly treated ordisposed of in landfills, and no more than 5% is recycled. The per capita produc-tion of municipal solid waste in some Arab cities, such as Kuwait, Riyadh, andAbu Dhabi, is over 1.5 kg per day, making it one of the highest levels in theworld. Furthermore, parts of the Arab region that are undergoing rapid econom-ic development and urbanisation are also producing a lot of demolition and con-struction waste. Therefore, a by-product of increasing economic development,and prosperity, is that per capita waste production levels are increasing.

This report identifies a number of weaknesses of waste management in the Arabregion. In some countries, a significant proportion of the waste produced is notcollected. In Egypt, for example, it is estimated that 35% of municipal solid wasteis not systematically collected. Another issue is the improper handling, collection,and treatment of hazardous wastes originating from agricultural, industrial, med-ical, and urban activities. In this regard, however, the report recognizes a numberof promising initiatives that are being undertaken in the Arab region, such as leg-islative initiatives in the GCC, Egypt, and Oman, as well as investments into facil-ities that can separate and handle hazardous wastes, and an increased private sec-tor investment in recycling industries, especially in Saudi Arabia and UAE.

Ultimately, what this report suggests is that countries in the Arab region embarkon projects towards creating an integrated system of waste management, capableof safely handling and disposing of the rising quantities of wastes that are being

produced, starting with reduction and reuse, and soon reaching a high percent-age of recycling. As for industries, cleaner production technologies should beapplied to reduce waste generated, instead of limiting efforts to end-of-piperemedial treatment. New technologies are not a financial burden, as they have avery high rate of return on investments, in addition to meeting the social andenvironment responsibilities of industry and business in general.

URBANIZATION

Urbanisation is a phenomenon that can be observed across the Arab region, andis fuelled by such factors as high fertility rates, rural-urban migration, interna-tional labour migration, and the concentration of economic activity in urbanareas. While the urban proportion of the Arab population is currently estimat-ed to be 56%, this figure is projected to rise to 66% by 2020; urbanisation lev-els are especially high in Kuwait (97%) and Bahrain and Qatar (92%). Thus, inaddition to rapid population growth levels, the countries of the Arab regionstruggle with bringing about the necessary improvements in infrastructurecapacity in the growing urban centres. Main challenges include waste manage-ment, health care provisions, educational institutions, and transportation sys-tems. One striking remark is that urban development is overwhelmingly basedon models copied from other countries, largely ignoring the cultural and natu-ral characteristics of the region.

The rapid rate of urbanisation in the Arab region brings with it many pressureson the environment. Large-scale economic development projects are not current-ly preceded by sufficient and transparent studies of their environmental impacts(strategic, cumulative and project). It therefore remains to be seen whether thehigh pace of urbanisation in the Arab region can be matched by equally high ratesof human development and infrastructure provisions.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Effective environmental scientific research stands at the very basis of combatingenvironmental degradation. In simple terms, the basic indicators of scientificresearch can be reduced to inputs and outputs.

Inputs can generally be divided into the number of researchers and the rate ofexpenditure on scientific research, both in relative and absolute terms. Whilethe number of researchers in the Arab world stands close to that in the rest ofthe world, and has been growing by 6-7 percent annually between 1994 and1998, double the population growth rate, the rate of expenditure on scientificresearch as a percentage of GDP is abysmally low in the Arab region, at around0.2%. The world average is 1.4%, with the rate being 4% in Japan. The Arabregion’s rate is the lowest regional rate in the entire world. Thus, the state ofinputs into environmental scientific research can holistically be described as onein which many Arab scientists, whose number is increasing, are faced with dras-tically insufficient resources.

Exacerbating this situation, and a direct corollary to the situation just described, isthe so-called “brain drain”: vast numbers of Arab researchers are emigrating insearch of better research conditions. For example, 12,500 Egyptian and 11,500

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Lebanese researchers were working in the United States in 2000. This phenome-non can certainly in part be explained by the general financing crisis addressed ear-lier, combined in many cases with inadequate scientific and academic standards.

As for outputs of scientific research, these can be assessed by looking at the num-ber of research studies and the number of patents. While the Arab world’s shareof the former is low, its contribution in the latter is entirely negligible.

In order to rectify the deficiency of environmental scientific research in theArab region, this report offers a number of recommendations. First of all, itstrongly recommends that Arab countries formulate clear and effective strate-gies specifically for environmental scientific research in addition to the exist-ing strategies for scientific research in general.

As such, the great diversity of related fields, and the concurrent scattering ofthe available resources, can be made more effective by adequate managementand integration, the setting of clear priority areas, and efforts of attracting andsteering investments towards these strategic goals.

Regarding the issue of financing, this report recommends that both public andprivate agencies, bodies, and actors take their responsibility. High-level researchcritically depends on the sufficient availability of resources. While governmentscan contribute by directly providing financial support for research, legal and eco-nomic incentives must also be created in order to stimulate private sector partic-ipation in the provision of scientific research finance.

Finally, this report recommends that regional scientific databases be created andstrengthened. Making environmental research accessible reduces the possibilityof unnecessary repetition of the same research, and makes it possible for expertsand professionals in any field and from various research institutions to haveaccess to existing data. This would be even more effective if it can be undertak-en on a regional scale, integrating the environmental scientific research effortsacross the Arab region.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Closely related to the issue of environmental scientific research is that of envi-ronmental education at all levels. A number of initiatives have been taken inthis regard in the Arab region. The report could trace 40 research centres onenvironmental studies, 27 undergraduate degree programmes and 24 graduateprogrammes on environment. Yet, those programmes are still in their infancy,and many disciplines are lacking, such as environmental legislation and man-agement, as well as the integration of environment into development plans,programmes and projects. On the other hand, extracurricular activities for envi-ronmental education and awareness have been integrated into many school pro-grammes. In addition, articles and material from environmental publications,such as Al-Bia Wal Tanmia (Environment and Development) magazine arewidely used in schools as extra reading material. An Egyptian programme calledthe Egypt Environmental Education and Outreach Programme (E3OP) hasbeen implemented and is designed to promote environmental education in pri-mary and preparatory schools in Egypt, aiming to increase awareness and skillspertaining to the environment.

On the whole, the trend in the Arab world has been one of increasing attentionin educational curricula – and in official policies in general – for environmentalissues. However, more can still be done at various levels, mainly to expand thescope of environmental programmes offered in higher education, and make themmore responsive to national requirements, strengthen the environmental contentof basic education curricula, and provide credible textbooks.

THE ENVIRONMENT IN ARAB MEDIA

An important component of effective action towards environmentally sustainabledevelopment is the role of the media, in particular for disseminating information,providing environmental education, and critically observing the actions, or thelack thereof, taken nationally and regionally to address environmental concerns.In the Arab region, environmental issues have greatly proliferated in the mediaduring the last decade, and the report traced 100 Arabic periodicals and newslet-ters with environmental titles. However, the subject is seldom dealt with in depth,and critical analysis and expert insights are rarely provided. Although the increasein interest for the environment is exhibited by greater reference to environmentalissues in the Arab media, they are often limited to reporting disasters, and miss acritical, analytical perspective. This deficiency is illustrated, for example, by thefact that less than 10 percent of the Arab newspapers have full-time editors orreporters specialised in issues concerning the environment and sustainable devel-opment, with a similar percentage of all mass media (Press, Radio and TV) desig-nating a weekly page or a regular programme for environmental issues. A positivedevelopment, however, is that an increasing number of television networks havestarted to include environmental issues as a part of their news bulletins.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

There exists a general weakness of environmental legislation in the Arab region.The environmental standards provided for in relevant laws in the Arab region areoften set in conformity with effective standards applied in developed industri-alised countries, and are in many cases unreflective of the specific environmentalconditions as well as the technical and economic situation in Arab countries. Thisissue makes it difficult, from the economic perspective, to abide by these stan-dards or make them functional. Furthermore, the legal standards are often rigidand uniform, applying to production and service activities irrespective of the par-ticular pollution-combating costs and techniques.

Problems also exist in terms of environmental agencies and their personnel.Environmental affairs agencies and legislative responsibilities are often in thehands of non-specialists, as there is an absence of qualified personnel and expert-ise to draft and enforce environment related legislation. In addition, there is alack of coordination between authorities in charge of the execution of environ-mental laws, contributing to non-compliance.

As for the legislation itself, it does not create sufficient economic incentives forthe development and utilisation of clean technologies. Economic and fiscal toolsand incentives can harness market forces with the aim of effectively achievingcompliance with environmental legislation. Furthermore, such legislation is oftenlacking when it comes to punitive provisions, as apprehension exists regarding

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYXXVVIIIIII

ARAB ENVIRONMENT: FUTURE CHALLENGES XXIIXX

the social ramifications of implementing such provisions. For example, fearsregarding the fate of workers may impede the shutting down of major industrialfacilities in breach of environmental regulations. In addition, there is rarely a spe-cialised police force that is entrusted with ensuring environmental protection andmonitoring adherence to environmental legislation in most Arab countries.

When it comes to multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), the ratifica-tion and implementation thereof in the Arab region has not been ideal. In 49%of the cases, Arab countries have joined international treaties only after theirentry into force; this can be attributed both to a lack of involvement of Arabcountries in the drafting of such treaties, and the slow ratification processes inthe respective countries. A particular point on which this report recommendsfurther research is that of the link between the success and speed of implemen-tation of MEAs and the availability of financial and technical resources allocat-ed to this end and made available to the countries of the region. This report rec-ognizes that the main impediments to the satisfactory implementation in theregion of MEAs are inadequate national and regional resources, infrastructureand expertise.

In general, MEAs have spurred Arab countries into promulgating more environ-mental legislation and creating new environmental institutions. Arab involve-ment in MEAs has been most strong with the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, both dur-ing the negotiation and implementation stages, as the region is highly vulnerableto the potential impacts of climate change. However, some other MEAs that alsodeserve strong Arab involvement and interest have achieved limited success in theregion, such as the United Nations Conventions on Biodiversity and the UNConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

FINANCING OF ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMMES

In the Arab region, efforts towards the financing and functioning of environmentprogrammes must be made by governments, private, and non-governmental sec-tors. The public sector’s main responsibility is to incorporate the environmentinto national development policies, including sufficient planning and budgetallocation. The environment should be regarded as a necessary prerequisite forsustainable development, and considered as an important part within the overallmacroeconomic picture. The current system of national accounts needs to bemodified so as to provide a true indicator for sustainable development; in otherwords, the depletion and degradation of national environmental resources needto be reflected as costs instead of income.

A larger proportion of the budget needs to be dedicated to strengthening thecapacities of environmental authorities, and the funding of environmentally sus-tainable projects should come to rely less on external funding, as aid flow isdependent on geopolitical circumstances. This report therefore recommends thatenvironment, as a major component of sustainable development, be included asa priority area within funding mechanisms, with the long-term strategic goal ofreducing the region’s reliance on external funding.

As mentioned earlier, governments need to allocate more resources for researchand development, focusing on technology, monitoring, laboratory and field

research, data collection, institutional and technical capacity of the public andprivate sectors and education. In addition, governments should strive towardspromoting market incentives as a means of economically quantifying environ-mental and social costs and encouraging production and consumption patternsto move towards more sustainable models, with the aim of increasing efficiency,reducing waste, and encouraging innovation.

There is a lot of potential for private sector contributions to environmental andsustainable development initiatives in the Arab region. Unfortunately, thispotential is not being fully utilised. Nonetheless, this report recognizes that therehas been an increase in the number of private initiatives contributing to environ-mental protection.

A network of vibrant, effective, and organised civil society groupings working onraising awareness, with financial resources necessary to address key environmen-tal challenges, is still largely lacking in the Arab region. In recent years, however,a limited number of Arab NGOs have become well established and successful.

ENVIRONMENT AND CONFLICT

An unfortunate, but nonetheless important factor in the Arab region is theimpact of wars and conflicts on the environment. At present, there are in theArab region at least two major ongoing international conflicts (the Arab-Israeliconflict and Iraq) and at least five internal conflicts (Algeria, Somalia, Sudan,Western Sahara/Morocco, and Yemen). Lebanon suffered a brief but major warin summer 2006, and some countries are suffering from a combination of inter-national and civil conflict, such as in Iraq, the Palestinian territories, andSomalia. Although the social, political, and economic elements usually grab thespotlights when it comes to such conflicts, there are also negative environmentalramifications of conflicts in the Arab region.

Among the many causal factors behind conflicts are environmental factors, andin particular natural resources, also known as “ecosystem goods and services.” Asdiscussed in this report, environmental degradation aggravates natural resourcescarcity. In the Arab region, scarcity of water and land (agricultural) resourcesstand out in particular. It must of course be emphasised that the environmentallink to conflict is not necessarily direct. It often acts in concert with other social,political, and economic stresses.

Besides analysing in detail the environmental impacts of conflict in the afore-mentioned cases, this report offers a number of suggestions for Arab states inthis area. It is proposed that an Arab fund be launched to help countries dealwith the environmental root causes of conflict, and also to address the mostimmediate impacts of war. In addition, more regional and international coop-eration is recommended in order to provide early warning and assessmentcapacity of the linkages between conflict and the environment. Closer cooper-ation with international organisations, particularly the United Nations, is alsorecommended in order to draw on the available international scientific, tech-nological, and financial resources and experience in analysing and mitigatingthe environmental impacts of war, specifically in areas which have not receivedenough attention like the impact of depleted uranium (DU) warheads, andmines.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYXXXX

ARAB ENVIRONMENT: FUTURE CHALLENGES XXXXII

CONCLUSION

In the past, short-term planning was a major obstacle to environment and sus-tainable development policy making. Today, some attempts go to the oppositeextreme, ignoring pressing current environmental challenges while setting long-term grand plans, in a practice which could be termed ‘fleeing forward’. Whilelooking forward to the future is needed for sound environmental planning,ignoring current problems will not solve them, however noble the long-termgoals might be. Problems unaddressed in the present will multiply, creating evenbigger challenges in the future. Some excellent grand schemes announced in theregion regarding key issues as renewable energy, water and coastal management,with global ambitions, should not divert attention from simple measures urgent-ly required at the local level to ensure more efficient and sound use of resources.

What is needed is the implementation of long-term environmental managementstrategies, as well as powerful and effective environmental agencies and institu-tions backed up by clear political and legislative mandates in addition to suffi-cient resources. Long- and short-term planning should go hand in hand to solvetoday’s and tomorrow’s problems.

The situation is not entirely bleak. Most Arab countries now have either a Ministryof Environment, a state Environment Agency or both. The civil society and theprivate sector are getting more involved in environmental matters, though withvaried levels of effectiveness. Some government bodies responsible for the environ-ment have moved into strategic planning, spearheaded by the EnvironmentAgency of Abu Dhabi (EAD), which launched in April 2008 an EnvironmentStrategy for the Emirate. This model strategy sets two-year and five-year targets,covering ten priority areas: environmental sustainability, water resources manage-ment, air quality, hazardous waste, biodiversity, environmental awareness, safetysystems, organizational efficiency, emergency management and information sys-tems. Such initiatives are required all over the region, with significant emphasisplaced on preparing for proper implementation over the long term.

The Arab region’s fate is inextricably tied to the state of its environment, whichin turn binds the region together internally as well as giving it a stake in globalenvironmental initiatives. This report hopes to raise awareness in the Arabregion, for governments, citizens, academic institutions, the private sector, andthe media, of the urgency of incorporating environmental concerns into nation-al development plans. As this report shows, a lot has been achieved in the Arabregion when it comes to environmental awareness and initiatives, but much moreis still needed.

Human Development andPatterns of Production and Consumption

1

IBRAHIM ABDEL GELIL

CHAPTER 1

I. INTRODUCTION

The Arab region is politically and economicallyheterogeneous, and within it are shared commonreligious, cultural and ethnic profiles. Thoughthe Arab countries vary in size, natural resourcesand energy endowments, income levels, socialand political structures, and institutions, theyhave a range of shared economic and environ-mental challenges.

Where relevant, one can also distinguish betweenthree geographic sub-regions that tend to sharecloser relations: the Mashreq region groupsEgypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Syriatogether; the Maghreb region is composed ofAlgeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia; while theGulf region includes the six members of the GulfCooperation Council (GCC: Bahrain, Kuwait,Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and SaudiArabia) as they share common identities, interestsand resources. While Yemen may be consideredpart of the larger Gulf sub-region in certain cases,it also belongs to a fourth cluster of countries thatincludes the Comoros Islands, Djibouti,Mauritania, Somalia and Sudan since these alongwith Yemen are all listed by the United Nationsand the World Trade Organization (WTO) asleast developed countries (LDCs) and are charac-terized by a high degree of poverty.

Though the region is richly endowed with hydro-carbon resources, the scarcity of fresh water and

the region’s growing demand for it are increas-ingly seen as barriers to development. Waterscarcity is linked to other environmental prob-lems including deforestation, desertification, dif-ficulties in preserving and protecting coastal area,and the relative scarcity of arable land.

Demographic development in the region hasbeen a determinant development factor affectingdemand on natural resources, rates of waste gen-eration, and increasing environmental pressureson ecosystems leading in some instances to nega-tive impacts on human well-being.

In 2002, the Arab Human Development Reportof the UNDP revealed many alarming signalsconcerning population and human developmentin the region: 65 million Arab adults are illiterate,two thirds of whom are women, and 10 millionchildren are out of school. Only 0.6% of Arabsuse the internet, and spending on research anddevelopment (R&D) is one seventh of the worldaverage. Arab unemployment, at 15%, is thehighest in the developing world. While the Arabregion has harboured some of the most ancientcivilizations in the world, it currently has thelargest number of young people of any region.The age structure of the population is significant-ly younger than the global average, with almost38% under the age of 14 (UNDP, 2002). Inmany of the Arab countries, mainly because ofthe decline in fertility and in infant mortality, theproportion of young people in the populationmay have peaked. While this presents a numberof challenges, it could also bring many rewards, ifdevelopment strategies and policies place theright focus on issues affecting younger age groupsand the working-age population.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTIONCHAPTER 12

ARAB POPULATION BY COUNTRY (2005)FIGURE 1

Egypt27%

Algeria11%

Sudan14%

Morocco10%

Iraq10%

Jordan2%

Mauritania1%

Lebanon1%

Tunisia3%

Palestine1%

Libya2%

Kuwait1%

Saudi Arabia8%

Somalia3%

Syria6%

This chapter highlights the relationshipsbetween population, consumption and humandevelopment.

II. POPULATION

During the last 55 years, the Arab population hasincreased from around 72 million in 1950 toabout 300 million in the year 2005, or about 5%of the total world population. Egypt is by far themost populous (74 million) accounting for near-ly one in every four Arabs (Figure 1). Sudan andAlgeria have the next largest population sizes (36and 33 million respectively); while countries suchas Bahrain, Qatar and Djibouti all have popula-tion sizes less than 1 million.

Population growth rates differ widely across theregion, reflecting divergent economic, social andcultural factors. Population has grown fastest inthe past three decades in the oil-producing Gulfcountries, due partly to a massive influx of for-eign workers and increased spending on the pro-vision of health services, which boosted fertilityrates and cut infant mortality rates sharply.Although inflows of foreign workers have slowedmarkedly since 1990, today nationals still makeup less than half the population in Kuwait, Qatarand the UAE. The average fertility rate (birthsper woman) has decreased from about 7 between1970 and 1975 to 3.7 between 2000 and 2005(Figure 2). Currently it varies among the Arabcountries from as low as 2 in Tunisia to as highas 6.2 in Yemen.

ARAB ENVIRONMENT: FUTURE CHALLENGES 3

ARAB POPULATION GROWTHFIGURE 3

1975-2004 2004-2005

Mor

occo

Tuni

sia

Egyp

t

Alge

ria

Mau

ritan

ia

Suda

n

Liby

a

Com

oros

Syria

Bahr

ain

Kuw

ait

Om

an

Jord

an

Pale

stin

e

Yem

en

Saud

iAra

bia

Djib

outi

Qat

ar

UAE

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8(%)

TOTAL FERTILITY RATEFIGURE 2

1970-75

(birth per woman)

2000-05

Tuni

sia

Leba

non

Kuw

ait

Alge

ria

Bahr

ain

UAE

Mor

occo

Liby

a

Qat

ar

Egyp

t

Jord

an

Syria

Om

an

Saud

iAra

bia

Suda

n

Com

oros

Djib

outi

Pale

stin

e

Mau

ritan

ia

Yem

en

10

8

6

4

2

0

In terms of population growth, the Arab regionhas the highest figures in the world. Between 1975and 2004, the average growth rate was 3.3%, withonly Lebanon (at 1%) below the global average of1.4%. UAE with 7.2% growth in the same periodhas the highest growth rate among the Arab coun-tries (Figure 3). It is expected that this highgrowth rate will drop on average to 2% between2004 and 2015 with the highest rate above theaverage to remain only in Yemen (at 3.1%).

In 2005, urbanization levels varied from as lowas 27% in Yemen to as high as 98% in Kuwait.Generally, the GCC countries have higherurbanization levels than the rest of the Arabcountries. Percentages of urban population areexhibited in Figure 4. The average percentageof Arab urban population increased fromabout 52% of total population in 1975 to66.5% in 2004, and is projected to increase to71% by 2015.


URBAN POPULATIONFIGURE 4Al

geria

Bahr

ain

Com

oros

Djib

outi

Egyp

t

Jord

an

Kuw

ait

Leba

non

Liby

a

Mau

ritan

ia

Mor

occo

Pale

stin

e

Om

an

Qat

ar

Saud

iAra

bia

Suda

n

Syria

Tuni

sia

UAE

Yem

en

100

80

60

40

20

0

1975 2004 2015

(% of total)

NATIONAL POVERTY LINE IN SELECTED ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 5

Djibouti Mauritania Algeria Morocco Tunisia Jordan Egypt Yemen

96 02 96 00 88 95 90 98 90 95 91 97 95 99 98

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

(%)

Source: World Bank, 2003.

It should be noted that urban growth has a num-ber of positive impacts on the environment andhuman well-being; for example, higher popula-tion densities mean lower per capita costs of pro-viding energy, health care, infrastructure andservices. Also, urbanization has historically beenassociated with declining birth rates, whichreduces population pressure on land and naturalresources. Despite these positive impacts, almostall major cities of the region are increasinglyplagued by environmental problems. Some majoraspects are as follows:

• As a direct result of urbanization, great threatsto health and safety have arisen in cities due towater and air pollution, especially at the house-hold and community levels. Waterborne dis-eases are found most commonly in low-incomeneighbourhoods as a result of inadequate sani-tation, drainage and solid waste collection serv-ices. Health risks, especially to the poor, arealso posed by pesticides and industrial efflu-ents. These kinds of hazardous situations canoften be easily found in the slum areas of manyArab cities such as Cairo, Damascus, Rabat,Sana’a, and others.

• The productivity of many cities is adverselyaffected by traffic congestion, air quality dete-rioration and water pollution. The loss in pro-

ductivity includes the total productive timewasted in traffic and the associated increase inthe costs of operating and maintaining vehi-cles, increasing health care costs, and loss ofworking hours. Furthermore, the rising costsof treating water for industrial and domesticpurposes are damaging the productivity ofurban economies.

• Uncollected and improperly handled solidwaste can have serious health consequences by


DISPARITIES IN POVERTY LEVELSFIGURE 6

Population below national poverty lines %70

60

50

40

30

20

10

01995

Algeria1995-96

Egypt2000

Mauritania1998-99Morocco

1995Tunisia

1998Yemen

13.5

31

21.5 22.5 23.5

62

11

26

4

14

30

45

Urban Rural

Source: World Bank, 2003.

LITERACY RATES IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 7

Arab Region

Arab LDCs

GCC Countries

Maghreb Countries

Mashreq Countries

0 20 40 60 80 100

1990 2006

64

69.8

87.6

58.1

66.6

87.3

83.8

95.9

69.6

83.4

(%)

Source: UNESCWA, 2007.

blocking drainage systems and contaminatinggroundwater at landfill sites. In many cities, itis difficult to secure land for waste disposalfacilities, especially onshore landfill sites. Mostcities in the region are also unable to managethe increasing amounts of hazardous wastesgenerated by rapid industrialization. Properlyengineered landfill sites such as those inAlexandria, Jubail, and Bahrain are unfortu-nately a rarity in Arab countries.

• Conversion of agricultural land and forest, aswell as the reclamation of wetlands for urbanuses and infrastructure, are associated withwidespread removal of vegetation to supporturban ecosystems, putting additional pressure

on nearby areas that may be even more ecolog-ically sensitive. This is the case in most of theurban centres in the Arab countries.

• Urbanization in coastal areas often leads to thedestruction of sensitive ecosystems and can alsoalter the hydrology of coasts and their naturalfeatures such as mangrove swamps, reefs andbeaches that serve as barriers to erosion andform important habitats for species. This is thecase in tourism development in the Red Seaand Gulf of Aquaba, and in many coastal areasof the GCC.

Urbanization has been a key characteristic of theregion, though in different degrees between theMashreq, Maghreb and the Arabian Peninsula.In addition to political and socioeconomic con-ditions, continued military conflicts and politicalinstability have led to massive population dis-placements in many countries. This has led togreater population densities, increased water andenergy demand, deterioration of air quality,waste management problems and a generallydeteriorated urban environment. These factorscombined have caused an expansion of slumareas and refugee camps especially around the


ACCESS TO SAFE WATERFIGURE 8

Population without access to safe water %

5

10

15

20

1990 2000 2005 2015

Actual trend Required trend

Source: World Bank, 2003. Human Development Report, 2003.

ENERGY INTENSITY IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 9

050100150200250300350400450500

220.4

141.8

444.9

264.5 279.9

231.9223.9

141.9 144.7

436.1361.7

356.8

1990 2000 2003

Mashreq Countries Maghreb CountriesGCC Countries Arab LDCs

Kilograms of oil equivalent per $1,000 GDP (PPP)

Source: UNDP, 2003.

ARAB HUMANDEVELOPMENT INDICATORS

TABLE 1

Source: World Human Development Report, 2006.

Country HDI Value RankKuwait 0.871 33Bahrain 0.859 39Qatar 0.844 46UAE 0.839 49Oman 0.810 56Libya 0.798 64Saudi Arabia 0.777 76Lebanon 0.774 78Jordan 0.760 86Tunisia 0.760 87Algeria 0.728 102Syria 0.716 107Egypt 0.702 111Morocco 0.640 123Comoros 0.556 132Sudan 0.516 141Djibouti 0.494 148Yemen 0.492 150Mauritania 0.486 153

major cities of some Mashreq countries and inYemen. In the last decade, the number of peopleliving in slum conditions has almost doubled inYemen, and has increased by about 30, 15, 20,and 25 percent in Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq andSyria, respectively (UN-HABITAT, 2003).

The conflicts in Palestine and in Iraq have alsoaugmented slum areas. Today there are 400,582Palestinian refugees in Lebanon, 426,650 inSyria and 1,780,701 in Jordan. In OccupiedPalestinian Territories, there are 1,649,187 regis-tered refugees, or almost one third of the totalpopulation (UNRWA, 2005). In Iraq, stringenteconomic sanctions in the past and the continuedconflicts have led to substantive increases in

urban poverty; 32 percent of people in Iraqi citiesare living under or near the poverty line while alarge number live in refugee camps on the bor-ders with Syria and Iran.

III. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

In terms of the Human Development Index(HDI), there is considerable variation within theregion (Table 1). In terms of the sub-regions, it isclear that, except for Saudi Arabia, the Gulfregion, which is characterized by a relativelysmall population and a high concentration ofnatural resource wealth, retains a significantlyhigher HDI rating than the Mashreq and


ENERGY INTENSITY IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 10

1.61.41.2

10.80.60.40.2

0

Tonnes/1,000 US$Le

bano

n

Mor

occo

Wor

ld

Tuni

sia

Liby

a

UAE

Egyp

t

Alge

ria

Om

an

Kuw

ait

Yem

en

Aver

age

Jord

an

Saud

iAra

bia

Bahr

ain

Qat

ar

Syria

Suda

n

Iraq

Source: IEA, 2006.

ELECTRIFICATION RATE IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 11

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

%

Kuw

ait

Liby

a

Bahr

ain

Alge

ria

Saud

iAra

bia

UAE

Qat

ar

Leba

non

Jord

an Iraq

Tuni

sia

Om

an

Egyp

t

Syria

Wor

ld

Mor

occo

Yem

en

Suda

n

Source: IEA, 2006.

Maghreb regions. Kuwait is the highest-rankingArab country on the Global HDI, andMauritania has the lowest HDI value in the Arabregion (UNDP, 2006).

IV. MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs)

The prospects of the Arab region as a whole forachieving the MDGs are encouraging; however,wide gaps and significant disparities in progress,both among and within Arab sub-regions,remain. Although the region will probably con-tinue to make progress in reducing incomepoverty, Iraq, Palestine, and the Least Developed

Countries (LDCs) will likely fail to meet thepoverty related targets by 2015 without drasticimprovements in their economic and political sit-uations (Figure 5). Disparities between rural andurban populations in terms of poverty levels areevident in Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco,Tunisia, and Yemen (Figure 6).

Today, the Arab states face significant develop-ment challenges. About ten million children stilldo not go to school. Even though women’s accessto education has tripled since 1970, gender dis-parities persist. Over half of women remain illit-erate, and women occupy less than five per centof the seats in Arab legislatures.

Over the last few decades, the Arab countrieshave made progress towards many of the MDGs.Literacy rates for the 15-24 year old range steadi-ly increased from 35 per cent in 1970 around to83 per cent in 2006 (Figure 7). Life expectancysoared from 51 to 68 years between 1970 and2001. New infrastructure extended access to safewater to 83 per cent of the population, while san-itation networks spread to 87 per cent of theurban population (Figure 8).

Target 9 of the MDGs calls for integrating theprinciples of sustainable development into coun-try policies and programmes as well as reversingthe loss of environmental resources. The percent-age of land area covered by forest in the Arabregion decreased from 7.4% to 6.7% between1990 and 2004. This implies that the Arab regionas a whole is not on track to meet the set targetdespite reforestation efforts in many Arab coun-tries to increase green areas. Some of the chal-lenges facing the region include high populationdensity, deforestation due to high demand forenergy resources, especially in the Arab LDCs,lack of institutional capacity, and lack of legisla-tion and incentives encouraging reforestation.

However, despite the deficiencies in institutionalcapacity, legislation, and incentives, the Arabregion has witnessed a significant increase in pro-tected areas since 1990. The proportion of pro-tected areas in the region increased from 2.4% to3.9% between 1990 and 2004. However, theprotected area average in the Arab region remainsabout three times lower than the world average of13% in 2004. The increase is mainly due toefforts in the GCC sub-region where the size of


CO2 EMISSIONS PER CAPITAFIGURE 12

2.4

14.4

0.4

2.21.9

3.4

17.9

0.5Arab LDCs

GCC Countries

Maghreb Countries

Mashreq Countries

0 5 10 15 20

1990 2003

(metric tones)

Source: UNDP, 2003.

CELLULAR PHONESUBSCRIPTIONS

FIGURE 13

Arab Region

Arab LDCs

GCC Countries

Maghreb Countries

Mashreq Countries

0 20 40 60 80

0.4

0.1

2.4

0

0.5

15.6

39.8

64.1

7.3

25.1

(per 100 population)

2003 1996

Source: UNDP, 2003.

protected areas has more than quadrupled since1990. This is partly attributed to the protectionof 64 million hectares as a wildlife managementarea in Saudi Arabia, the largest protected area inthe world, in 1994. The lowest proportion ofprotected areas compared to surface area is in theArab LDCs, which have the highest levels of bio-logical diversity in the region and which have notwitnessed any successful efforts in expandingprotected areas in the past 15 years.

Dry lands account for over 50% of total area inthe Arab world. These are characterized by harshenvironments, fragile ecosystems, limited waterresources and non-arable lands. Land degrada-tion in the Arab region is widespread, due prima-rily to misuse, and is proceeding at an accelerat-ing rate. A growing population and changingpatterns of consumption have resulted in increas-ing food demand, hastening land degradation inthis arid environment. Wind erosion, salinity andwater erosion constitute the major threats.Failures of resource management policies areaggravated by overgrazing, overexploitation ofwater and land resources, over-cultivation ofmarginal lands, deforestation, and the use ofinappropriate technologies. Despite governmentefforts to prevent and reduce land degradation atthe national and regional levels, only limited suc-cess has been achieved, mostly due to the severi-ty of the problems.

V. PRODUCTION ANDCONSUMPTION PATTERNS

According to the World Bank, while only 2.4% ofthe Middle East and North Africa (MENA)region’s population lives in absolute poverty underan income of $1 a day, this figure jumps to a morerealistic 23% for incomes of only $2 a day.Worryingly, the reduction in the absolute numbersof poor that was achieved in the 1980s wasreversed during the 1990s despite the fact that eco-nomic growth was relatively higher for the region.

Rapidly expanding populations, rural-urbanmigration, and widespread subsidies have con-tributed to a rising demand for energy in theArab world since 1990. On average, energy con-sumption per $1,000 GDP increased by 10%between 1990 and 2003. While the Mashreq andthe Arab LDCs witnessed decreases of 5% and

22%, respectively, energy consumption per$1,000 GDP in the GCC countries rose by 23%.The Maghreb maintained a constant averagelevel over the same period (Figure 9). Of course,there are disparities among Arab countries on lev-els of energy intensity; seven countries have ener-gy intensity above the world average (Figure 10).

In per capita terms, a large discrepancy in ener-gy use persists between the GCC countries and


MOBILE PHONE PER CAPITAFIGURE 14

Libya

India

Syria

Egypt

Mauritania

Jordan

China

Morocco

Algeria

Mexico

Brazil

Oman

Tunisia

Turkey

USA

Japan

Russian Federation

Kuwait

Qatar

UAE

Norway

Bahrain

Singapore

(subscribers per 100 inhabitants)

103.4

103

102.9

100.9

92.2

88.6

83.6

74

67.6

59.6

56.3

51.9

46.2

44.3

41.5

40.9

29.9

28.9

24.3

18.4

15.5

8.2

4.1

Source: ITU, 2006.

all other Arab countries. Per capita energy con-sumption in all the GCC is higher than theworld average. Per capita electricity consump-tion in the GCC remains among the highest inthe world as well.

Electrification rates also varied widely amongArab countries, averaging 80% in 2005. WhileKuwait boasted a 100% electrification rate, someArab LDCs have limited electricity coverage.

Across the region, about 63 million people,almost 20% of the Arab population, had noaccess to electricity in 2005, and one fifth reliedon non-commercial fuels. Another 20% of peo-ple living in poor urban and rural areas had lim-ited and unreliable access to energy (Figure 11).

The regional level of per capita CO2 emissionsrose by 28% between 1990 and 2003 from 3.1 to3.9 metric tons. Mashreq and Maghreb countriesand the Arab LDCs saw total emissions of CO2rise by 66%, 80% and 57%, respectively. TheMashreq and the Arab LDCs maintained rela-tively stable levels of per capita emissions, whilethose in the Maghreb rose by 42%. The GCCremains the sub-region with both the highesttotal and per capita emissions; the formerincreased by 86% between 1990 and 2003(Figure 12; see also chapter 4).

Arab countries have expended serious efforts inimplementing the Montreal Protocol.Legislation and programmes have been devel-oped to reduce, control and monitor the con-sumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS),especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). By 2004,the region had succeeded in decreasing the levelof consumption of ODS by 31%. In fact, since2000, all sub-regions have witnessed drops intotal ODS consumption, the most significant ofwhich being the Mashreq (40%). CFCs account-ed for 64% of total ODS in the region(UNESCWA and LAS, 2007).


MAIN TELEPHONE LINES PER CAPITAFIGURE 15

(subscribers per 100 inhabitants)

Mauritania

Morocco

India

Algeria

Oman

Jordan

Tunisia

Libya

Egypt

Syria

Mexico

Kuwait

Brazil

Turkey

Qatar

China

Bahrain

UAE

Russian Federation

Singapore

Japan

Norway

USA 60.6

46.1

45.9

43.5

27.9

27.5

27

26.6

26.4

25.9

23

19

18.2

15.2

14

13.6

12.5

11.4

10.3

7.8

4.5

4.4

1.3

Source: ITU, 2006.

PERSONAL COMPUTERSBY REGION

FIGURE 16

Arab Region

Arab LDCs

GCC Countries

Maghreb Countries

Mashreq Countries

0 10 20 30

0.7

0.5

4.3

0.1

0.9

3.8

2.2

29.5

5.3

6.5

2005 1996

(per 100 population)

Source: UNESCWA, LAS, 2007.

Target 18 of the MDGs stipulates that govern-ments, in cooperation with the private sector,must endeavour to make available the benefitsof new technologies, especially in the areas ofinformation and communications. With veryfew exceptions, access to information and com-munication technologies (ICT) in the twenty-two Arab countries increased steadily over thelast decade and a half. However, despite thisprogress, the region as a whole lags consider-ably behind the world average in terms of fixedtelephone lines, personal computers, and inter-net users. Moreover, disparities between Arabcountries remain very high. The digital divideis most noticeable when comparing theadvanced countries of the GCC with manypoorer Arab countries.

The mobile sector in the Arab world has grownvery rapidly during the past decade. Between1996 and 2005, the number of cellular sub-scribers has increased by a factor of 50 and,today, there are on average more than 25 sub-scriptions per 100 people. It is the only indicatorof target 18 of MDG Goal 8 (regarding makingwidely available the benefits of new technologiesin information and communications) for whichthe average of the Arab countries comes close tothe world average. However, in Libya, there arestill less than 5 cellular subscriptions per 100 peo-ple (Figure 13).

In contrast to the mobile sector, the number offixed telephone lines in the Arab region hasgrown at a slow pace since the early 1990s. By2005, the average number of fixed lines in oper-ation per 100 people had reached only 9.5,around half of the world average. While fixedtelephone markets in some of the GCC coun-tries, namely Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the UAEare showing signs of saturation, the penetrationrate remains below 4% in all six Arab LDC coun-tries and Morocco (Figures 14, 15).

While still less than half the world’s average(6.5% as opposed to 13.4%), the number of per-sonal computers (PCs) in Arab countries hasincreased substantially since the mid 1990s. Theaverage number of PCs in the four Arab sub-regions clearly illustrates the digital divide thatseparates the GCC countries from the rest of theregion. Excluding Lebanon, all Mashreq andMaghreb countries and the Arab LDCs have

rates below 10%. The relatively high averagenumber of PCs in the Arab LDCs in 2005 is pri-marily due to a significant increase in PC usagein Sudan (Figures 16, 17).

Access to and use of the internet in Arab coun-tries have grown at a very fast pace over the pastfew years. In 2005, 7.2% of the Arab populationwas using the internet, compared to only 1% in2000. However, the average number of internetconnections in the Arab countries is still wellbelow the world average of 15.2 per 100. Internetuse is particularly limited in Iraq, Mauritania,and Yemen, where less than 1% of the popula-tion use the internet. This may be in part attrib-uted to the low number of websites available inArabic (World Economic Forum website).


PERSONAL COMPUTERS BY COUNTRIESFIGURE 17

(per 100 inhabitants)

76.2

62.2

57.2

54.1

22.3

19.8

17.9

16.9

13.1

12.1

10.5

5.6

5.3

5.1

4.7

4.2

4.1

3.8

2.4

2.3

1.5

1.4

1.1Algeria

Mauritania

India

Libya

Morocco

Egypt

China

Syria

Oman

Turkey

Jordan

Tunisia

Brazil

Russian Federation

Mexico

Bahrain

Qatar

UAE

Kuwait

Japan

Norway

Singapore

USA

Source: ITU, 2006.

As a result of the abundance of hydrocarbonresources and the heavily subsidized energyprices, energy intensive industries such as alu-minium, cement, petrochemicals, and the likehave been widely attracted to the region. Theseindustries exert heavy burdens on naturalresources and the environment. Within the cur-rent global climate policies, hosting of theseindustries could be looked at as carbon leakagefrom industrialized countries to developingcountries where no commitments to reduce car-bon emissions have been made. Additionally, anddue to scarcity of water resources in the region,especially in the GCC sub-region, those coun-tries rely heavily on sea water desalination tomeet growing water demand. The widely pene-trated desalination technologies in the regionhave been those fuelled by oil and gas, exacerbat-ing their environmental impacts and carbonemissions. Accordingly, this has led to increasingthe energy and CO2 emissions per capita in theGCC countries.

Cleaner production (CP) concepts and tools havebeen introduced in some Arab countries withinthe gradual evolution of the environmental man-agement at the national levels. One regional cen-tre promoting pollution prevention and cleanerproduction in the Mediterranean Arab countrieshas been the Regional Activity Center forCleaner Production (RAC/CP) established underthe Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) inBarcelona, Spain. The RAC/CP’s objective is toprovide technical support to its 21 membercountries of the Mediterranean and theEuropean Community, specifically through giv-ing support to businesses wishing to promote lesspolluting and more eco-efficient techniques andpractices in their activities. Since the mid-nineties, the Arab countries have been muchmore involved in CP and have progressivelyadopted measures fostering, directly or indirectly,CP implementation. National CP centres havebeen created, or are in the process of starting up,in most countries. Tunisia was the first countryin the region to operate a centre entrusted tointroduce Cleaner Production in industry in1996, followed by Morocco and Egypt. At pres-ent, most of the Arab countries have consideredor are in the process of setting up CP centres, inmany cases with support from internationaldevelopment organizations such as UNIDO(UNEP/ROWA, 2007).


UN – ESCWA and the League of Arab States. TheMillennium Development goals in the Arab region:2007, A youth lens. Beirut: UN-ESCWA, June 2007.

United Nations Development Programme. HumanDevelopment Report, 2003.

UN-HABITAT. Millennium Development Goals. UN-HABITAT, 2003. http://www.unhabitat.org/mdg(accessed 13 March 2008)

UN-HABITAT, “Guide to Monitoring Target 11:Improving the Lives of 100 Million Slum Dwellers.”UN-HABITAT, 2003.http://www.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/documents/mdgtarget11.pdf (accessed 3 March 2008)

UNRWA/United Nations Relief and Works Agency forPalestine Refugees in the Near East. Selected RefugeeStatistics - Total registered refugees per country andarea (as per 2005).http://www.un.org/unrwa/publications/pdf/rr_countryandarea.pdf (accessed 20 April 2008)

United Nations Environment Programme/ROWA.“South-South Cooperation In EnvironmentalManagement: The Arab Oil And Gas Sector.” Doha,Qater: UNEP, September 2007.

United Nations Development Programme. HumanDevelopment Report 2007.

United Nations Development Programme. TheMillennium Development goals in the Arab countries.UNDP, December 2003.

“World Economic Forum – Website.” World EconomicForum, http://www.weforum.org/en/index.htm(accessed 13 March 2008)

REFERENCES

Integrating Environmentin Development Planning

13

MOSTAFA KAMAL TOLBA

CHAPTER 2

I. INTRODUCTION

Integrating environment in development plan-ning is what we now call sustainable develop-ment with its three dimensions: economicgrowth, social development and environmentalprotection.

The concept of sustainable development did notcome up overnight. It is based on tenets expressedmore than three decades ago. At the beginning ofthe 1970s, the Club of Rome released its famousreport “Limits to Growth,” warning that theplanet’s ability to sustain us, our industries, andour agriculture was being jeopardized, and thatwhat, for a relatively small human population,had seemed infinite was actually alarmingly finite.

In Stockholm at the 1972 UN Conference on theHuman Environment, the governments of theworld agreed on the urgent need to respond to theproblem of environmental deterioration. TheStockholm Conference clarified the link betweendevelopment and the environment and suggestedan approach that would recognize the socioeco-nomic factors behind many environmental prob-lems and cure the effects by treating the causes.

The conference defined environment as thedynamic stock of physical and social resourcesavailable at any given time for the satisfaction ofhuman needs, and development as a process bywhich these resources are used for increasing andmaintaining human well-being. It became evi-dent that environmental and development objec-tives are complementary.

With this understanding a search began for anew, more rounded concept of developmentrelated to the limits of the natural-resource basein which environmental considerations play acentral role while still allowing opportunities forhuman activities. Current patterns of productionand consumption, based on waste, extravagance,and planned obsolescence, would have to bereplaced by those based on the conservation andreuse of resources.

In 1974 the Cocoyoc Declaration adopted by theUnited Nations stressed that:

1- Economic and social factors were often theroot cause of environmental degradation.

2- Different nations placed widely differingdemands on the biosphere, with the rich pre-empting and wasting many cheap naturalresources, whereas the poor were often leftwith no option except to destroy them (thisis now reflected in the concept of ecologicalfootprint).

3- The principal means of achieving both envi-ronmental and developmental goals is tofind alternative patterns of lifestyle anddevelopment.

4- This generation must not jeopardize the well-being of future generations by squandering theplanet’s resources.

Note that principles 1, 3, and 4 above have sincebecome integral parts of the concept of sustainabledevelopment.

Concerns voiced at Stockholm, Cocoyoc and sever-al subsequent international conferences have led tothe evolution of the theory and practice nowknown as sustainable development. In 1987, theUN World Commission on Environment andDevelopment elaborated the concept of sustainabledevelopment in its report “Our Common Future.”In 1992, at the Rio United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (The EarthSummit), the leaders of the world agreed that theprotection of the environment and social and eco-nomic development are prerequisites for sustain-able development.

Since Rio, the world’s nations have met in sever-al major international conferences, which defined

INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING CHAPTER 214

a comprehensive vision for the future of humani-ty. The 20th century culminated with the UNSummit in 2000 which adopted the eightMillennium Development Goals; goal 7 was“Ensure environmental sustainability.”

At the Johannesburg Summit on SustainableDevelopment in 2002, leaders of the World atHeads of State and Government Level declared:

1- We, the representatives of the peoples of theworld, reaffirm our commitment to sustainabledevelopment.

And 2- We commit ourselves to building ahumane, equitable and caring global society,cognizant of the need for human dignity for all.

Most, if not all, the Arab states participated in theadoption of all these declarations. Therefore theyhave a moral obligation to achieve theMillennium Development Goals.

Our concern in this chapter is goal number 7 –ensuring environmental sustainability – throughintegrating environment into development plansat every level.

Of course there are serious challenges that faceanyone trying to achieve such integration. Thesechallenges include: poverty eradication, changingconsumption and production patterns, protectingand managing the natural resources base andencouraging popular participation and effectivesupport to education, scientific research and pub-lic information. Achieving all of this, however, iseasier said than done because of the ills that gov-ernments themselves recognized at Johannesburgsix years ago: particularly foreign occupation,armed conflicts, corruption, and modest effortsby the rich countries to help the poor ones.Globalization, has added a new dimension tothese challenges.

The Arab states are fully aware of the challengesthey face. In fact, they addressed most of them inthe Abu Dhabi Declaration on the Future ofEnvironmental Action in the Arab World, whichwas issued on the 3rd of February 2001, more thanseven years ago.

In this declaration, the Arab ministers responsiblefor environmental affairs declared – inter alia – :

1- We note that despite the fact that we havetoday the benefit of a considerable amountof experience and expertise in dealing withthe various environmental problems thatface us, the reality is that those involved inenvironmental action in the Arab world arestill far fewer in number and far less experi-enced than the situation requires and thatinstitutions for environmental protection inthe Arab world are of recent creation, havelimited expertise and face difficult and com-plex challenges.

2- The priority environmental problems facingthe Arab world at the beginning of the twen-ty-first century are:• The acute shortage and deteriorating qual-

ity of sources of water;• The paucity and deteriorating quality of

exploitable land;• The imprudent consumption of natural

resources;• Urban sprawl and its associated problems;• The degradation of marine and coastal

areas.

3- We will apply new environmental accountingmethods; adopt “cleaner production” strategyin its widest sense; adopt measures to ensureeffective Arab participation in achievementsin the field of advanced technology for theimprovement of the Arab environment.

4- We will:• Pay greater attention to human develop-

ment and capacity building at all levels ofaction and in all environmental specializa-tions;

• Develop curricula at all educational levelsso that the environment becomes a basiccomponent thereof;

• Provide incentives to the Arab informationmedia to take more focused and clearerinterest in informing Arab citizens of envi-ronmental problems.

• Encourage civil society to participateactively in decision – making on matters ofenvironmental protection;

• Achieve a qualitative leap in the efforts ofscientific research and technological devel-opment institutions;

• Emphasize the local absorption of waterdesalination techniques.


5- We affirm the need for permanentresources to be secured for the funding ofprograms to address current and futureenvironmental problems in the region bydevising an inter-Arab mechanism tofinance environmental investments at thenational and regional levels.

II. THE ABU DHABI DECLARATION:SEVEN YEARS LATER

Let us now examine where we stand in 2008 withthe implementation of the Abu DhabiDeclaration and responding to the rest of thechallenges mentioned above.

It is important to keep in mind here that the pur-pose of this report in quantifying environmentalsustainability in the Arab world is to facilitatemore effective decision- making. Assigning blameor praise is not the goal.

Alarming figures on the environmental status ofArab countries appeared in the EnvironmentalSustainability Index (ESI) which was prepared forthe World Economic Forum by researchers at

Yale and Columbia universities, in 2002 and2005. These ESIs rank the average Arab countrymore than 10 points below other countries.

Because Arab states lie predominantly inextremely arid regions, and because water is sucha fundamental aspect to environmental sustain-ability, it is logical to suspect that the low sustain-ability scores found in Arab states are primarily afunction of location. However, when this meas-ure of aridness is included as a control in the ESIanalysis, scores of Arab states remain significant-ly below other states.

Geography, therefore, appears to matter, but notenough to account for the systematic under-per-formance observed among Arab states.

What does this data show

The Environmental Sustainability Indexes(ESIs) of 2002 and 2005 covered 142 and 146countries, respectively, including 16 of the 22Arab League member countries. They werebased on official publications by UNESCO,FAO, WHO, World Bank, FederalEnvironment Agency of Germany, World


ESI INDICATORS IN THE ARAB REGIONTABLE 1

Indicator Average Arab League Member Score Average Rest of the World ScoreAir Quality -0.28 0.04Water Quality -0.54 0.07Water Quantity -0.58 0.07Biodiversity -0.12 0.01Terrestrial Systems 0.54 -0.07Reducing Air pollution -0.14 0.02Reducing Water Stress -0.76 0.12Reducing ecosystem Stress -0.54 -0.07Reducing Water & consumption pressures -0.14 0.14Reducing population growth -0.63 0.08Basic human sustenance 0.22 -0.03Environmental Health -0.06 0.01Science and technology -0.23 -0.19Capacity for debate -0.43 0.05Environmental governance -0.61 -0.02Private Sector Responsiveness -0.28 -0.12Eco- efficiency -0.52 0.07Participation in international cooperative efforts -0.33 0.02Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions -0.44 0.06Reducing Transboundary Environmental Pressures 0.03 0.04

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) 2005

Economic Forum and National Reports pre-pared by the World Economic Forum and Yaleand Columbia universities.

It should be noted that Bahrain, Comoros,Djibouti, Qatar, Palestine, and Somalia wereomitted for various technical reasons.

To start with, we have to admit that there is apaucity of environmental data, and huge gapsexist in the data that is available. All this data,with few exceptions, dates back to latenineties of the past century to 2003 and onlyfew from 2004.

Arab countries score above average when it comesto preserving land from human influence and inreducing human vulnerability to environmentalharms. The above average performance in reduc-ing human vulnerability is especially notable.Arab countries, however, score below average onseventeen of the ESI’s twenty indicators, as sum-marized in Table 1:

The Arab states score, in general, far below aver-age in, for example, air and water quality and inmeasures of social and institutional capacity andglobal stewardship.

Population growth and urbanization

The Arab rate of population growth is stillamong the highest in the world in spite of all theefforts exerted by the governments of the regionto implement family planning policies. The pop-ulation of the Arab world was around 72 millionpeople in 1950, increasing to nearly 300 millionin 2000, and is expected to reach 466 by 2025.

Table 2 shows the population indicators of allmembers of the Arab League as they were calcu-lated in 2002/2003.

This very high rate of population growth puts aheavy burden on natural resources and socialservices and heightens the need for employmentopportunities growth as youths seek to enter thework force. High rates of population growth sig-nificantly dampen prospects for lasting econom-ic development.

Rapid urbanization is also endemic throughoutthe region. The United Nations Population

Division reports that on average, urban areas inthe Arab world are growing a percentage pointfaster than in the rest of the world. Some of thepoorest countries, such as Comoros, Mauritania,and Somalia, have rates of urbanization in excessof 4 percent per year, which puts tremendousstrains on urban water supplies and sanitationinfrastructure. Cairo, the largest Arab city with apopulation of 10.6 million, has significant airquality and sanitation problems. Casablanca, acity of 3.3 million, properly disposes of only 10percent of household waste through sanitarylandfills and incineration. Sana’a (Yemen), with1.2 million people, effectively has no sanitarywaste disposal facilities. The proportion of house-hold waste that is processed ranges from only 3percent in Damascus to 83 percent in Tunisia.

Table 3 shows the waste recycling rates recordedin the ESI tables. With very few exceptions, the16 Arab countries reported score very low onwaste recycling indices.


POPULATION INDICATOR OF THE ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 2

Country Total Fertility Projected Change inRate Population by 2050 (%)

Algeria 3.1 66.2Bahrain 2.8 300.4Comoros 6.8 207.9Djibouti 6.1 67.1Egypt 3.5 64.3Iraq 5.3 127.1Jordan 3.6 128.5Kuwait 4.2 180.7Lebanon 2.5 35.4Libya 3.9 106.4Mauritania 6.0 207.9Morocco 3.4 66.0Oman 6.1 218.0Qatar 3.9 45.3Saudi Arabia 5.7 185.4Somalia 7.3 240.5Sudan 4.9 99.9Syrian AR 4.1 105.9Tunisia 2.3 46.5U.A.E. 3.5 53.6West Bank and Gaza 5.9 239.4Yemen 7.2 295.0Arab country average 4.6 140.3World average 3.4 66.2

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI), 2002


PERCENTAGE OF WASTE RECYCLING TABLE 3

Max 91 Min 0Albania 0.00 Algeria .. Angola .. Argentina 0.30 Armenia 0.00 Australia 47.00 Austria 84.00 Azerbaijan .. Bangladesh 35.00 Belarus 0.00 Belgium 87.00 Benin 25.00 Bhutan .. Bolivia 2.00 Bosnia and Herz. ..Botswana 1.00 Brazil 22.00 Bulgaria 22.80 Burkina Faso 12.00 Burundi 0.00 Cambodia 15.00 Cameroon 8.00 Canada 54.00Central Afr. Rep. 0.00 Chad 0.00 Chile 8.00 China ..Colombia 11.50 Congo 26.20 Costa Rica .. Côte d'Ivoire 3.00 Croatia 13.00 Cuba 0.00 Czech Rep. 42.00 Dem. Rep. Congo 4.90 Denmark 65.00 Dominican Rep. .. Ecuador 20.00 Egypt 0.00 El Salvador 0.00 Estonia 0.00 Ethiopia 0.00 Finland 89.00 France 55.00 Gabon 0.00 Gambia 0.00 Georgia .. Germany 83.00

Ghana 0.00 Greece 35.00Guatemala 5.00 Guinea 5.00 Guinea-Bissau ..Guyana .. Haiti .. Honduras .. Hungary 38.00 Iceland .. India 14.50 Indonesia 30.00 Iran .. Iraq .. Ireland 35.00 Israel .. Italy 40.00Jamaica .. Japan 78.00 Jordan 0.00 Kazakhstan .. Kenya 1.00 Kuwait 0.00 Kyrgyzstan 0.00 Laos .. Latvia 0.00 Lebanon 6.00 Liberia 0.00 Libya 20.00 Lithuania .. Macedonia .. Madagascar .. Malawi .. Malaysia 10.00 Mali 0.00 Mauritania 1.00 Mexico 13.00 Moldova ..Mongolia 0.00 Morocco 0.00 Mozambique 0.00 Myanmar 14.00 Namibia 4.50 Nepal 15.90 Netherlands 78.00 New Zealand 65.00 Nicaragua .. Niger .. Nigeria .. North Korea ..

Norway 85.00 Oman .. P. N. Guinea ..Pakistan 12.00 Panama 0.00 Paraguay 4.00 Peru 7.00 Philippines 0.00 Poland 17.20 Portugal 40.00 Romania .. Russia 13.90Rwanda 0.00Saudi Arabia ..Senegal 0.00Serbia and Mont. 0.70Sierra Leone ..Slovakia 40.00Slovenia 8.00South Africa 0.00South Korea 67.00Spain 54.00Sri Lanka 0.00Sudan ..Sweden 86.00Switzerland 91.00Syria 21.00Taiwan 14.60Tajikistan ..Tanzania ..Thailand 0.00Togo 0.00Trin. and Tob. ..Tunisia 5.00Turkey 40.00Turkmenistan ..Uganda 2.50Ukraine ..United Arab. Em. ..United Kingdom 41.00United States 42.00Uruguay 0.00Uzbekistan ..Venezuela ..Viet Nam 15.00Yemen 5.00Zambia ..Zimbabwe 16.00

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). 2005Note: “..” means the data point is missing.


PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO IMPROVED DRINKING WATER SOURCE TABLE 4

Max 100Min 13 Albania 97.00 Algeria 87.00 Angola 50.00 Argentina [88.93] Armenia 92.00 Australia 100.00 Austria 100.00 Azerbaijan 77.00 Bangladesh 75.00 Belarus 100.00 Belgium 96.45 Benin 68.00 Bhutan 62.00 Bolivia 85.00 Bosnia and Herz. 98.00 Botswana 95.00 Brazil 89.00 Bulgaria 100.00 Burkina Faso 51.00 Burundi 79.00 Cambodia 34.00 Cameroon 63.00 Canada 100.00 Central Afr. Rep. 75.00Chad 34.00 Chile 95.00 China 77.00 Colombia 92.00 Congo 46.00 Costa Rica 97.00Côte d'Ivoire 84.00 Croatia [95.48] Cuba 91.00 Czech Rep. [96.86] Dem. Rep. Congo 46.00 Denmark 100.00 Dominican Rep. 93.00 Ecuador 86.00 Egypt 98.00 El Salvador 82.00 Estonia [101.83] Ethiopia 22.00 Finland 100.00France [101.75] Gabon 87.00 Gambia 82.00 Georgia 76.00 Germany 100.00

Ghana 79.00 Greece [102.16] Guatemala 95.00 Guinea 51.00 Guinea-Bissau 59.00 Guyana 83.00 Haiti 71.00 Honduras 90.00 Hungary 99.00 Iceland 100.00 India 86.00Indonesia 78.00 Iran 93.00 Iraq 81.00 Ireland 100.00 Israel 100.00 Italy 94.10 Jamaica 93.00 Japan 100.00 Jordan 91.00 Kazakhstan 86.00 Kenya 62.00 Kuwait [98.75] Kyrgyzstan 76.00 Laos 43.00 Latvia [98.73] Lebanon 100.00 Liberia 62.00 Libya 72.00 Lithuania [98.01] Macedonia [86.05] Madagascar 45.00 Malawi 67.00 Malaysia 95.00 Mali 48.00 Mauritania 56.00 Mexico 91.00 Moldova 92.00 Mongolia 62.00 Morocco 80.00 Mozambique 42.00Myanmar 80.00 Namibia 80.00 Nepal 84.00 Netherlands 100.00 New Zealand [97.7] Nicaragua 81.00 Niger 46.00 Nigeria 60.00 North Korea 100.00

Norway 100.00 Oman 79.00 P. N. Guinea 39.00 Pakistan 90.00 Panama 91.00 Paraguay 83.00 Peru 81.00 Philippines 85.00 Poland [102.2] Portugal [98.51] Romania 57.00 Russia 96.00Rwanda 73.00Saudi Arabia [87.55]Senegal 72.00Serbia and Mont. 93.00Sierra Leone 57.00Slovakia 100.00Slovenia [103.1]South Africa 87.00South Korea 92.00Spain [99.85]Sri Lanka 78.00Sudan 69.00Sweden 100.00Switzerland 100.00Syria 79.00Taiwan 100.00Tajikistan 58.00Tanzania 73.00Thailand 85.00Togo 51.00Trin. and Tob. 91.00Tunisia 82.00Turkey 93.00Turkmenistan 71.00Uganda 56.00Ukraine 98.00United Arab. Em. 98.00United Kingdom [100.1]United States 100.00Uruguay 98.00Uzbekistan 89.00Venezuela 83.00Viet Nam 73.00Yemen 69.00Zambia 55.00Zimbabwe 83.00Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). 2005Note: Data in “[ ]” indicates imputed values; “..” meansthe data point is missing.

Note that the following variables are taken intoaccount for the relevant indicators presented intable 5:• Water Quantity: (i) freshwater available per capi-

ta and (ii) internal groundwater availability percapita.

• Water Quality: (i) dissolved oxygen concentra-tion; (ii) electrical conductivity; (iii) phosphorusconcentration; and (iv) suspended solids.

• Reducing Water Stress: (i) Industrial organicwater pollutant (BOD) emissions per availablefreshwater; (ii) fertilizer consumption per hectareof available land; (iii) pesticide consumption perhectare of available land; and (iv) percentage ofcountry under severe water stress.

On the other hand, the Arab states fare relativelywell when it comes to percentages of populationwith access to improved drinking water source(Table 4).

The fact that 70% of the region is arid certainly hasa major influence in shaping environmental and sus-tainability issues in the Arab region (see Chapter 7).

Freshwater resources

Freshwater resources in the Arab world representonly 1.2% of global water reserves although the

region accounts for about 3% of the world’s popu-lation and 10% of world land. Average per capitarenewable water resources in the Arab region are farbelow 1,000 cubic meters per year, considered theworld’s water poverty line. Note that the worldaverage is 7,000 cubic meters.

Under these circumstances, non-conventionalresources provide an invaluable escape. Theseinclude: (i) rain water; (ii) desalination; (iii) cloudseeding; (iv) towing icebergs; and (v) reusing andtreating wastewater.

Most of these forms are used or have been tried tovarious degrees and with various levels of success ina number of Arab countries.

Among the listed options, desalination is consid-ered to be the best alternative. In the Arab region,desalination is heavily used especially in the ArabPeninsula. While desalinated water represents lessthan 1% of total fresh water in the Arab region as awhole, it represents 12% of that in the ArabPeninsula. The “production” of desalinated waterin the Arab region constitutes about 60% of totalworld production. In the Gulf, one desalinationplant produces 7.6% of the world’s production (1million cubic meters/day). Ten years ago, SaudiArabia alone produced 27% (14mcm/day) of the


ESI WATER INDICATORS IN ARAB STATESTABLE 5

Country Water Quantity Water Quality Reducing Water StressAlgeria -1.04 -0.18 -0.18Egypt -0.27 -0.55 -0.82Iraq -0.08 -0.66 -0.47Jordan -0.70 -0.53 -0.45Kuwait -1.09 -1.10 -2.79Lebanon -1.07 -0.79 -1.48Libya -0.66 -0.75 -0.61Mauritania 0.14 -0.53 0.59Morocco -1.07 -0.69 -0.27Oman -1.06 -0.05 -1.54Saudi -1.08 -0.56 -0.59Somalia -0.08 -0.25 0.26Sudan -0.01 -0.75 0.45Syrian AR -0.18 -0.40 -0.76Tunisia -0.64 0.05 -0.62U.A.E. -0.36 -0.92 -2.87Arab average -0.58 -0.54 -0.76World average 0.00 0.00 0.11

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). 2002


INTERNAL GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY PER CAPITA (MEASURED PER THOUSAND CUBIC METERS)TABLE 6

Max 110.27 Min 0.00 Albania 1.92Algeria 0.05 Angola 5.42 Argentina 3.38 Armenia 1.31 Australia 3.58 Austria 0.74 Azerbaijan 0.78 Bangladesh 0.15 Belarus 1.84 Belgium 0.09 Benin 0.25 Bhutan .. Bolivia 14.83 Bosnia and Herz. .. Botswana 1.01 Brazil 10.46 Bulgaria 0.82 Burkina Faso .. Burundi 0.34 Cambodia 1.34 Cameroon 6.23 Canada 11.60 Central Afr. Rep. 14.97 Chad 1.21Chile 8.76 China 0.64 Colombia 11.25 Congo 110.27 Costa Rica 8.84 Côte d'Ivoire 2.23 Croatia 2.48 Cuba 0.58 Czech Rep. 0.14Dem. Rep. Congo 0.23 Denmark 0.80 Dominican Rep. 1.33 Ecuador 10.00 Egypt 0.02 El Salvador 0.92Estonia 2.97 Ethiopia 0.55 Finland 0.42 France 1.67 Gabon 45.89 Gambia 0.32Georgia 0.01 Germany 0.21

Ghana 2.14 Greece 0.94 Guatemala 2.66 Guinea 4.11Guinea-Bissau 9.10 Guyana .. Haiti 0.27 Honduras 5.55 Hungary 0.60 Iceland 82.19 India 0.39 Indonesia 2.08 Iran 0.73 Iraq 0.05 Ireland 2.66 Israel 0.07 Italy 0.74Jamaica 1.47 Japan 0.21 Jordan 0.09 Kazakhstan 0.41 Kenya 0.09 Kuwait 0.00 Kyrgyzstan 2.69 Laos 6.55 Latvia 0.95Lebanon 0.71 Liberia 17.21 Libya 0.09 Lithuania 0.35 Macedonia .. Madagascar 3.14 Malawi 0.12 Malaysia 2.50 Mali 1.49 Mauritania 0.10 Mexico 1.31 Moldova 0.10 Mongolia 2.42 Morocco 0.33 Mozambique 0.89 Myanmar 3.11 Namibia 1.10 Nepal 0.81 Netherlands 0.28 New Zealand .. Nicaragua 10.49 Niger 0.20 Nigeria 0.63 North Korea 0.57

Norway 20.92 Oman 0.36 P. N. Guinea .. Pakistan 0.35 Panama 6.62 Paraguay 6.81 Peru 11.00 Philippines 2.15 Poland 0.33 Portugal 0.38Romania 0.38 Russia 5.47Rwanda 0.43Saudi Arabia 0.09Senegal 0.70Serbia and Mont. ..Sierra Leone 9.67Slovakia 0.32Slovenia 6.76South Africa 0.10South Korea ..Spain 0.70Sri Lanka 0.40Sudan 0.18Sweden 2.22Switzerland 0.34Syria 0.23Taiwan ..Tajikistan 0.91Tanzania 0.83Thailand 0.66Togo 1.03Trin. and Tob. ..Tunisia 0.14Turkey 0.97Turkmenistan 0.06Uganda 1.11Ukraine 0.42United Arab. Em. 0.03United Kingdom 0.16United States 4.43Uruguay 6.77Uzbekistan 0.33Venezuela 8.67Viet Nam 0.59Yemen 0.07Zambia 4.30Zimbabwe 0.39

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). 2005Note: “..” indicates that the data point is missing.


NUMBER OF ISO 14001 CERTIFIED PER BILLION DOLLARS GDP (PPP) TABLE 7

Max 41.51 Min 0.00 Albania 0.00 Algeria 0.02 Angola 0.00 Argentina 41.51 Armenia 0.00 Australia 1.50 Austria 2.13 Azerbaijan 0.19 Bangladesh 0.02 Belarus 0.04 Belgium 1.06 Benin 0.00 Bhutan 0.00 Bolivia 0.23 Bosnia and Herz. .. Botswana 0.14 Brazil 0.74 Bulgaria 0.30 Burkina Faso 0.00 Burundi 0.00 Cambodia 0.04 Cameroon 0.06 Canada 1.34 Central Afr. Rep. 0.00 Chad 0.00 Chile 0.52 China 0.86 Colombia 0.32 Congo 0.00 Costa Rica 1.15 Côte d'Ivoire 0.00 Croatia 1.14 Cuba 0.00 Czech Rep. 3.76 Dem. Rep. Congo 0.00 Denmark 4.28 Dominican Rep. 0.02Ecuador 0.04 Egypt 0.77 El Salvador 0.00 Estonia 4.45 Ethiopia 0.00 Finland 7.78 France 1.46 Gabon 0.00 Gambia 0.00 Georgia 0.00 Germany 1.86

Ghana 0.02 Greece 0.45 Guatemala 0.04 Guinea 0.00 Guinea-Bissau 0.00 Guyana 0.92 Haiti 0.00 Honduras 0.11 Hungary 4.68 Iceland 0.36 India 0.22 Indonesia 0.36 Iran 0.22 Iraq 0.00Ireland 0.75Israel 0.87 Italy 2.05 Jamaica 0.10Japan 4.03 Jordan 0.73 Kazakhstan 0.05 Kenya 0.03 Kuwait 0.08 Kyrgyzstan 0.00 Laos 0.00 Latvia 0.93 Lebanon 0.26 Liberia 0.00 Libya 0.00 Lithuania 2.01 Macedonia 0.08 Madagascar 0.00 Malawi 0.48 Malaysia 1.66 Mali 0.00 Mauritania 0.00 Mexico 0.45 Moldova 0.00 Mongolia 0.00 Morocco 0.10 Mozambique 0.05 Myanmar 0.03 Namibia 0.32 Nepal 0.03 Netherlands 2.47 New Zealand 1.17 Nicaragua 0.00 Niger 0.11 Nigeria 0.09 North Korea 0.00

Norway 2.11 Oman 0.18 P. N. Guinea 0.00 Pakistan 0.09 Panama 0.06 Paraguay 0.00 Peru 0.23 Philippines 0.50 Poland 1.06 Portugal 1.33 Romania 0.66 Russia 0.04Rwanda 0.00Saudi Arabia 0.03Senegal 0.13Serbia and Mont. ..Sierra Leone 0.00Slovakia 1.06Slovenia 5.63South Africa 0.58South Korea 1.85Spain 5.54Sri Lanka 0.19Sudan 0.02Sweden 9.94Switzerland 5.28Syria 0.55Taiwan ..Tajikistan 0.00Tanzania 0.05Thailand 1.70Togo 0.00Trin. and Tob. 0.57Tunisia 0.27Turkey 0.30Turkmenistan ..Uganda 0.09Ukraine 0.02United Arab. Em. 1.71United Kingdom 1.88United States 0.34Uruguay 1.22Uzbekistan 0.00Venezuela 0.13Viet Nam 0.30Yemen 0.00Zambia 0.23Zimbabwe ..

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). 2005

world’s capacity. Still, what happens in the Arabregion in the area of desalination is buying turn keytechnologies. We are far from successfully imple-menting the commitment of the Arab Ministers ofEnvironment in 2001 to ensure the local absorp-tion of these technologies. There are separateefforts in some Arab countries such as Egypt,Jordan, Oman and Saudi Arabia, but what is cer-tainly needed is meaningful regional co-operationin this very important area.

The measure of water stress used in the ESI wasthe percentage of territory in which water con-sumption exceeded availability by 40 percent ormore. The average Arab state had in this index avalue of 71 percent as compared to 20 percentfor other states. African members of the ArabLeague countries fare better on water issues thando the West Asian countries.

For a number of Arab countries water inflowsand groundwater resources are far below levelsneeded to support basic human needs and eco-nomic growth. More troubling is the acknowl-edged failure to integrate planning for meetingwater needs with other aspects of social andresource planning. The 2002 United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) ArabDevelopment Report draws attention to the weakconservation and reuse programs; the failure tocome to grips with tradeoffs among agricultural,industrial, and human water needs; and the lack-luster attention paid to the challenges of manag-ing transboundary freshwater resources. Regional

assessments increasingly raise concerns about theability of the region to meet its freshwater needsover the coming decades in the absence of effec-tive integrated planning. Among Arab Leaguemembers, Iraq, Libya, and the Syrian ArabRepublic have especially worrisome prospects.

“Surface water is an important part of the pictureof a country’s water resources. The more ground-water is available per capita, the higher the proba-bility that a country can sustainably manage itsgroundwater resources, e.g. for agricultural produc-tion” (ESI 2005, Methodology Appendix). Table 6gives the values of Internal Groundwater availabil-ity per capita as reported in the ESI 2005.

The UAE has unveiled a three-year environmentalplan focused on the rational use of the country’snatural resources, aimed in particular at reducingthe use of groundwater and other natural reservesover the next three years in a bid to shift focus toalternative sources such as desalination. In July2007 Abu Dhabi invited offers from at least 20international firms to build a water desalinationand power plant in the country. The move alsoinvolves creating awareness among UAE nationalsabout rational water use.

Tables 7 and 8 show that Arab countries reportedon in the ESI publications score very low withrespect to the number of nationally active ISO14001 ISO (environmentally sound) companiesand most of them likewise fare badly in measures ofthe number of researchers.



NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS PER MILLION INHABITANTS TABLE 8

Max 7110.45 Min 1.82 Albania [451.31] Algeria [-4.23]Angola [-354.55] Argentina 684.38 Armenia 1534.00 Australia 3438.51Austria 2313.29 Azerbaijan 2798.58 Bangladesh [-163.45 Belarus [1004.23] Belgium 2953.26 Benin [-405.16] Bhutan [147.9] Bolivia 123.31 Bosnia and Herz. [1136.14] Botswana [1051.19] Brazil 323.36Bulgaria 1166.65Burkina Faso 16.00Burundi [-713.55]Cambodia [166.95]Cameroon [-111.32] Canada 2978.16Central Afr. Rep. [184.72] Chad [29.32]Chile 418.58China 583.93 Colombia 100.70 Congo [197.44] Costa Rica [1014.64] Côte d'Ivoire [-631.24] Croatia 1186.95 Cuba 489.40 Czech Rep. 1465.87 Dem. Rep. Congo [-962.82]Denmark 3475.75 Dominican Rep. [-339.29] Ecuador 83.29 Egypt [1321.94] El Salvador 46.67 Estonia 1946.70 Ethiopia [-544.65] Finland 7110.45 France 2717.85 Gabon [433.96] Gambia [545.27] Georgia 2420.78 Germany 3153.01

Ghana [557.12] Greece 1400.06 Guatemala [-183.78]Guinea [-975.42] Guinea-Bissau [-194.44]Guyana [607.39] Haiti [-1027.86] Honduras [-631.7]Hungary 1439.68Iceland 6639.29India [285.91]Indonesia [218.59]Iran [-14.32]Iraq [257.49]Ireland 2190.03Israel 1563.29 Italy 1127.85 Jamaica [762.49] Japan 5320.77 Jordan 1948.37Kazakhstan 715.80Kenya [-47.48] Kuwait 212.08Kyrgyzstan 581.27 Laos [116.56] Latvia 1078.24 Lebanon [2005.59] Liberia [-977.07] Libya [1644.9] Lithuania 2303.2 Macedonia [641.0] Madagascar 15.03 Malawi [-971.19] Malaysia 159.93 Mali [-252.28] Mauritania [671.54] Mexico 224.73 Moldova 329.49 Mongolia [1365.79] Morocco [257.41] Mozambique [37.06]Myanmar [280.15] Namibia [1086.91] Nepal [56.42]Netherlands 2572.2New Zealand 2197.1Nicaragua 72.67Niger [143.07]Nigeria [-851.62]Norway 4376.6

North Korea [1516.76] Oman [761.3]P. N. Guinea [100.9] Pakistan [86.7]Panama 95.27Paraguay 166.03 Peru 228.83 Philippines [-391.16] Poland 1473.0 Portugal 1754.1 Romania 879.25 Russia 3494.1Rwanda [-238.34]Saudi Arabia [969.33]Senegal 1.82Serbia and Mont. [915.0]Sierra Leone [-623.94]Slovakia 1773.6Slovenia 2258.0South Africa [826.3]South Korea 2879.7Spain 1947.6Sri Lanka 190.54Sudan [-991.66]Sweden 5186.0Switzerland 3591.8Syria 29.44Taiwan 1258.4Tajikistan [965.55]Tanzania [174.8]Thailand 73.81Togo [-670.92]Trin. and Tob. 455.82Tunisia 336.41Turkey 305.52Turkmenistan [116.29]Uganda 23.56Ukraine 2117.6United Arab. Em. [2327.82]United Kingdom 2666.4United States 4099.3Uruguay 276.29Uzbekistan [1261.55]Venezuela 193.08Viet Nam [525.62]Yemen [1.13]Zambia [283.39]Zimbabwe [295.33]

Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). 2005Note: data in “[ ]” indicates imputed values.

The Arab region contains 53% of the world’sknown oil reserves and 26% of natural gas reserves.But energy needs and costs are fast escalating.Investments of $100 billion are reportedly neededin the next 10 years across the Gulf CooperationCouncil (GCC) to double power generation aspopulations grow and industrialize.

Biodiversity

Most of the Arab states established and are con-tinuing to establish and maintain protectedareas on land and in the sea. But the Arab regionhas one painfully negative record. For the firsttime in its history, the UNESCO WorldHeritage Programme had to take the hard deci-sion of removing one site from its glamorous listof global natural wonders, the site in questionbeing an Arabian Oryx sanctuary in Oman. TheOmani government itself had requested removalof the site from the list and both UNESCO andthe International Union for Conservation of

Nature (IUCN) reluctantly complied. IUCNhad identified serious threats to the natural val-ues of the site for a number of years. These werediscussed several times by the World HeritageCommittee, which called for urgent action toaddress the threats. The population of ArabianOryx has significantly declined from 450 in1996 to the current situation where thereremains only one breeding herd of four femalesand four males. The capacity of the ArabianOryx Sanctuary to maintain a viable free-rang-ing population of this endangered species hasbeen extremely reduced. This unprecedentedepisode constituted a particularly big loss since,among the Arab countries, Oman has a veryimpressive record of environmental awarenessand effective policies.

The great importance assigned to wildlife conserva-tion by Arab leaders could be seen, however, as outof sync with the region’s priorities as identified byenvironmental ministers.


SHINING EXAMPLES OFENVIRONMENTALLY SOUNDBUSINESS IN THE FIELD OF ENERGYMANAGEMENT IN VARIOUSARAB COUNTRIES

Abu Dhabi has launched an innovative clean energyinitiative, Masdar, promising to invest $15 billion intoit. This includes building a city powered entirely byrenewable energy. Masdar announced that it will investin clean technology companies, a sustainabilityresearch centre and major green power projects.

A Jordanian company established in 1991 received theSpecial Recognition Award at the 16th World EnergyCongress in the U.S. Today, it is considered to be theleading energy service company in the Middle East,providing its services to over 500 large corporationsand government institutions in the region.

More developers and companies in the Middle Eastare working towards achieving LEED (Leadership inEnergy and Environmental Design) certification, anofficial recognition that was developed by the U.S.Green Building Council. The Gulf states are taking thelead in this area.

Energy City Qatar (ECQ), a $2.6 billion project, is the

Middle East’s first hydrocarbon industry business cen-tre. Experts are predicting that ECQ will become oneof the region’s most viable environmentally sound busi-ness centres.

The Commercial Bank of Dubai’s head office reporteda 15% reduction in its annual energy expenditure overa period of 10 months and one of the buildings inDubai witnessed a 50% saving.

The Arab Forum for Environment and Development(AFED) convened a Business Summit on CorporateEnvironmental Responsibility in the Arab World in AbuDhabi in November 2007. In their declaration, theChief Executive Officers (CEOs) present committedthemselves to cut down the use of water and energy intheir products and services by 20% by the year 2012from the base year 2002 levels.

Work on the Arab region’s first “bio-refinery,” whichwill produce ethanol mainly from date palms for usein motor vechicles as a substitute for petrol anddiesel, is due to start in Oman’s Batinah region townof Sohar soon. The 11 million riyal ($28.5 million)plant, to be imported from Brazil, is expected tocreate 4,000 jobs for nationals, in addition toturning in a profit of $225 million in its very first yearof operation.

Wildlife and habitat protection receive almost asmuch attention in the press of a number of Arabcountries as freshwater issues, and almost ten timesas much as either air pollution or climate change,this may reflect an imbalance in priorities.

Arab countries – with the exception of Jordan andPalestine – do not publish specific reports on envi-ronment statistics. A number of them publish Stateof the Environment Reports.

Particularly significant data gaps exist in the Arabregion in a number of key areas:• Land: land use (agricultural and cultivatable

land) and land degradation; there is no usage ofthe Land Degradation Assessment Drylands(LADA) method for classification.

• Biodiversity: threatened species, protected areas,and forest cover.

• Coastal ecosystems: marine pollution, urban devel-opment in coastal areas, and destruction ofmarine habitats.

Application and enforcement

It is not clear from the available information howfar countries in the Arab region apply the tools ofenvironmental economics and environmentalaccounting in development planning.

Arab countries are tackling environment enforce-ment issues and preparing environment actionplans. Chapter 13 of this report deals specificallywith environmental legislation in the Arabregion. It identifies that its weak enforcement is amajor obstacle to improving the state of the envi-ronment in the region. The first Arab RegionalConference on the Inspection and Enforcementof Environmental Regulations was held in Jordanin May 2007 with the aim of increasing cooper-ation on these key issues. The conference wasorganized by the International Network forEnvironmental Compliance and Enforcement(INECE) with the participation of experts fromAlgeria, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, SaudiArabia and Yemen.

Environmental Awarenessin the Arab World

This subject is covered in detail in Chapter 14 byNajib Saab which shows that media on environ-ment in Arab countries, with few exceptions, are

restricted to fragmented national and interna-tional news items spread over any pages in Arabicnewspapers. Both radio and TV programs arelargely devoid of environmental coverage exceptin few cases.

III. WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

Progress has been made in countries of the regionin addressing the challenges of environmentalsustainability.

A number of political forums have been establishedat the regional level to improve governance, definegoals and priority action areas, and adopt an inte-grated approach to sustainable development.Examples are the Arab Initiative of SustainableDevelopment in 2002, and the Abu AhabiDeclaration on Environment and Energy in 2003.

There have been noticeable improvements in waterpolicies and water-related governance issues, whichhave been reflected in better coordination and inte-gration of efforts among various institutions andstakeholders, including partnerships between pub-lic and private sector organizations.

However, achieving environmental sustainabilityrequires more concrete efforts to protect and con-serve natural resources, particularly energy, waterand soil resources, to improve efficiency in theuse of non-renewable energy and water resourcesand to correct market failures and distortions bytaking into consideration the environment innational accounts. Some of the concrete actionsneeded are:

Data collection and dissemination

First and foremost there is an urgent need to dealseriously with the issue of reliable environmentaldata which is not readily available in the region.This is due to:

• A lack of suitable infrastructure for environmen-tal statistics.

• Several departments collect data on environmentand the different departments do not follow thesame methodology and appropriate cooperationnetworks are virtually absent.

• Inadequate monitoring of the state of the envi-ronment.


Only about 50% of states in the Arab world carryout regular environmental data collection. Whilewaste and water are mostly covered, internation-ally agreed-upon statistical methodologies for thecollection of environmental statistics are not fol-lowed, and countries do not apply the same con-cepts and definitions.

To address these problems of reliability of environ-mental data the Arab states need, among otherthings, to:

• Invest in environmental data collection (finan-cial, technical, human resources).

• Set up environmental monitoring systems tocompile comprehensive data based on systematicmeasurements.

• Ensure quality assurance and quality controlpractices (QA / QC) according to internationalguidelines.

• Increase temporal and spatial coverage to gener-ate time-series data to be used for monitoringenvironmental trends across the country.

• Disseminate quality environmental data regu-larly.

• Enhance regional cooperation in the field ofenvironmental monitoring and data collection.

Integration, globalizationand standardization

The Arab world needs to respond effectively toglobalization challenges and benefit from theopportunities it offers. This will require action to:

• Strongly – in co-operation with other develop-ing countries – defend the need for open, equi-table, rule-based, predictable and non-discrimi-natory multilateral trading and financial sys-tems.

• Enhance our capacities to develop local tech-nologies that can compete in the fast-growingenvironmental technologies market.

• Ensure corporate environmental responsibilityand accountability.

Achieving environmental sustainability

No Arab state can achieve environmental sustain-ability (integrating environment in developmentplanning) without:

• Evaluating the resources available to it - natural,human and financial - and then evaluating therealistic options available to the country.


ESI INDICATORS FOR HABITAT AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 9

Country Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentageof mammals of birds of territory of territory of cities* of territoryendangered endangered with very low with very high reporting protected

human influence human influence requirements metAlgeria 14.1 3.1 80.4 0.5 60.0 2.4Egypt 12.2 4.6 70.1 2.4 19.0 0.1Iraq 12.3 6.4 3.7 1.2 0.0 0.0Jordan 11.3 5.7 2.1 1.0 35.0 3.1Kuwait 4.8 35.0 0.1 7.0 0.0 1.0Lebanon 10.5 4.5 0.0 14.5 0.0 0.5Libya 11.8 1.1 80.4 0.1 0.0 0.1Mauritania 16.4 0.7 79.5 0.0 0.0 0.5Morocco 15.2 4.3 17.5 1.5 60.9 0.7Oman 16.1 9.3 54.0 0.8 0.0 12.5Saudi Arabia 9.1 9.7 44.3 0.4 0.0 34.2Somalia 11.1 2.4 17.7 0.1 7.7 0.3Sudan 9.0 0.9 41.4 0.2 56.3 4.9Syrian AR 6.3 3.9 0.1 2.0 0.0 0.0Tunisia 14.1 2.9 26.2 4.3 100.0 0.3U.A.E. 12.0 11.9 0.2 2.6 66.7 0.0Arab average 11.7 6.2 32.3 2.4 25.4 3.5World average 13.0 4.2 18.6 7.1 57.0 8.4*Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Source: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) 2002

• Decision makers moving from react-and-cureto anticipatory and preventive policies throughapplying the whole series of strategic andcumulative environmental assessments andproject impact statements. This needs reliabletime-series data and information.

• Applying the new environmental economictools: cost / benefit analysis, risk analysis, envi-ronmental accounting, natural resourcesaccounting, ecological accounting, life cycleanalysis and finally the latest tool, the ecologi-cal footprint. Wackernagel and Rees (1996)define the ecological footprint as “The area ofproductive land and water ecosystems requiredto produce the resources that the populationconsumes and assimilate the wastes that thepopulation produces, wherever, on Earth thatland /water is located.”

• Ensuring public participation in the decision-making process and in the implementation ofdevelopment strategies.

• Achieving a number of critical transitions: anenergy transition to an era in which energy isproduced and used at high efficiency withoutaggravating the environment; a demographictransition to a stable population; and a resourcetransition to reliance on nature’s income andnot depletion of its “capital.”

The role of the mediain the Arab world

Upgrading the professionalism and effectivenessof environmental media in Arab countriesrequires a complete shift of media mentalitytowards a better understanding and appreciationof the importance of environmental issues.Special training initiatives must be conducted toraise the professionalism of environmental jour-

nalists and provide some career incentives. Themost important awareness targets should be edi-tors in chief, who must take into considerationthe importance of providing a continuous, highlevel environmental media service for their read-ers. It is not a luxury nor over-optimism to askthat a fixed environmental page or section beestablished in every newspaper and magazine,and a weekly radio and TV programs be pro-duced in the mainstream channels, as well as ded-icated internet sites.

The role of NGOs

At the top of all this there must be genuine effortof governments in the Arab countries to empowerNGOs to take major responsibility for upgradingthe environmental media sector in Arab countriesand environmental public awareness in general.

Closing thoughts

Is all this possible? I believe it is. But it requiresstrengthening the institutional framework atboth local and regional levels.

At the regional level we need the provision ofadequate financing for the implementation ofregionally agreed upon good environmentalresource management programmes and projects.Fortunately this is in the process of being estab-lished in the form of an Arab EnvironmentFacility along the lines of the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF) but not as a replace-ment to it. At the national level, each countrymust accept the fact that it has primary responsi-bility for integrating environment in its develop-ment plans. It must arrange its governmentoffices and responsibilities accordingly.

CHAPTER 228 INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING


Business leaders, meeting at the ArabCorporate Responsibility Summit in AbuDhabi on 29 November 2007, at the invita-tion of the Arab Forum for Environment andDevelopment (AFED), hosted byEnvironment Agency under the patronage ofHH Sheikh Mohammad Bin Zayed, CrownPrince of Abu Dhabi;

Being aware of the magnitude of environ-mental challenges facing the Arab regionand the world;

Realizing that low-carbon technology willbe the driver of economic change;Recognizing that taking the environmentfully into account is key to achieving sus-tainable development and regarding it as afundamental prerequisite for sound busi-ness management;

Further recognizing that achieving sustain-able development is a collective responsibil-ity of government, business and the civilsociety;

Believing that environmental responsibilityshould be a corporate commitment and anintegral part of our pursuit of good corpo-rate citizenship;

Declare:

1- Eco-efficiency, Cleaner Production andGreen Production methods will be ourpreferred options, as they are funda-mental to our competitiveness locally,regionally and internationally.

2- We commit ourselves to integratingenvironmental considerations in ourinternal and external operations andadopt preventive environmental strate-gies at all levels of business.

3- We are committed to adopting innova-tive solutions that shift the priority from

end-of-pipe to preventive strategies andsupporting the provision of products andservices that meet environmental andhealth standards.

4- We commit our selves to setting a targetof 20% reduction in the use of energyand water in the production of our prod-ucts per unit by the year 2012 from baseyear 2002, and strive to compete active-ly in the growing global environmentalindustries.

5- We are also committed to complyingwith national and international environ-mental regulations applicable to ouroperations and business. Beyond com-pliance, we shall strive to develop andadopt voluntary targets and encourageour clients, partners and suppliers to dolikewise.

6- We will conduct internal environmentalreviews, and periodically report on theresults.

7- We recommend that all corporationsin the Arab World develop and publishstatements of their environmental poli-cies and the steps they have taken topromote the integration of environ-mental considerations into their oper-ations.

8- We request the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP), theWorld Business Council for SustainableDevelopment (WBCSD) and the ArabForum for Environment andDevelopment (AFED) to assist corpora-tions operating in the Arab region to fur-ther the principles and goals of this dec-laration, through providing technicalassistance, training and relevant infor-mation relating to best practices inachieving corporate environmentalresponsibility.

ABU DHABI DECLARATIONON CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITYAND CLEANER PRODUCTION

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United Nations Economic and Social Council. “TheArab Declaration to the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD).” E/CN.17/2002/PC.2/. 1December 2001.

<http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/westasiaministerial.pdf> (accessed 4 February 2008).

United Nations Development Program. Arab HumanDevelopment Report. New York: UNDP, 2002.

Wackernagel, William, and Mathis Rees. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact onthe Earth. Gabriola Island, BC: New SocietyPublishers, 1996.

World Economic Forum, Yale University, and ColumbiaUniversity. 2002 Environmental Sustainability Index.2002. http: //www.ciesin.columbia.edu/indicators/ESI/(accessed 15 January 2008)

World Economic Forum, Yale University, and ColumbiaUniversity. 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index.http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/esi/ (accessed 15 January 2008)

UN-ESCWA. “Compendium of Environment Statisticsin the ESCWA Region.” New York: United Nations,2007.

REFERENCES


Urbanization

31

MANAL EL-BATRAN

CHAPTER 3

I. INTRODUCTION

The population of the Arab region is around 320million people, living in 22 countries stretchingfrom Morocco and Algeria in the west to Yemenand Oman in the east. The region is characterizedby a wide diversity, not just in political, ethnic,social, cultural, and economic terms, but also interms of the progress that individual states havemade in terms of development. In terms of sub-regional divisions, we consider four main group-ings, bearing in mind that some LDC group mem-bers tend to also belong to another group: ArabLeast Developed Countries (LDCs), the Mashreqand the Maghreb regions, and the GulfCooperation Council (GCC).1 Taken together, theArab countries offer examples of conflict and post-conflict situations; range from very openeconomies to economic isolation; and display high-ly urbanized to predominantly rural populations.

Urbanization in the Arab region has been fuelledby high fertility rates, substantial rural-urbanmigration, international labour migration andthe concentration of economic activity in urbanareas. Housing policies have also contributed tourban growth. Infrastructure development hasnot kept pace with this growth (UNFPA, 1996).Rural development activities often intended tocounter urbanization trends, have received lowpriority policy attention. The states in the GCChave some of the world’s highest rates of labourimmigration. Migrants are concentrated in theGulf cities, contributing to this sub-region’s highurbanization levels.

Over the last few decades, infrastructureimprovements in the Arab region brought drink-ing water to 82 percent of the population, andsanitation to most of those living in urban areas.However, progress slowed in the 1990s and insome countries has reversed. Since 1990 the per-centage of people living below $1 per day has notimproved, and the percentage living below $2 perday has increased from 21 to 23 percent of thepopulation. According to World Bank estimates,adopting the income poverty line $1/day per per-son does not reflect reality in the Arab region:some countries, namely in the GCC, are classi-fied as high income, while many of those in theMashreq and Maghreb are considered middleincome (ESCWA, 2005).

The region once had the highest populationgrowth rates in the world. Fertility declined sig-nificantly in the 1990s, but the growth rate is stillhigh – about 2 percent compared to 1.4 percentfor the less-developed world as a whole. In addi-tion, the region’s relatively high proportion ofyouths means that the population is expected togrow strongly in the future. UN-Habitat projectsthat the region will be home to some 395 millionpeople by 2020 (compared to about 303.9 mil-lion in 2003, and 144.6 million in 1975). It willbe a challenge for the countries of the region toensure that population growth is matched by cor-responding social and economic development.(Figure 1 shows the total population of the Arabregion between 1980-2015).

II. URBANISATION TRENDSIN THE ARAB STATES

The Arab region is marked by the widespreadand very swift expansion of cities, with this highlevel of urbanization bringing about a range ofsocial, economic, and demographic changes.Today, urban areas account for 56 percent of thetotal population of 320 million; this figure is pro-jected to increase to 66% by 2020. The “urbanexplosion” witnessed in the Arab world has notjust been evident in the massive growth of theregion’s major cities, but small- and medium-sized towns have also shown high and speedy lev-els of urbanization and development.

Rapid population growth remains a major chal-lenge. Some countries have annual population

URBANIZATIONCHAPTER 332

ARAB STATES REGION- POPULATION 1980- 2015FIGURE 1

Total Population Urban Population

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

400000Population 000’s

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

71,475 (44.9%)109,529 (51.2%)

152,382 (56.4%)

204,446 (61.4%)

259,963 (65.8%)

Source: UN, World Urbanization Prospects, 1999.

growth rates between 3 and 5.5 percent, whilesome urban growth rates are even higher: 6.4 per-cent (Iraq), 5.9 percent (United Arab Emirates),and 4.1 percent (Oman and Bahrain). Urbangrowth rates will remain higher than total popu-lation growth rates for the foreseeable future.Although these changes show a sustained increasein the Arab states, they give rise to a process ofurbanisation that is far from uniform. The diver-sity of national situations and the existence ofdistinct urban traditions in each country explainthe heterogeneity of the urban contexts(Kharoufi, 1996).

In the region’s more diversified economies, urbangrowth has been the result of rural-to-urbanmigration as well as high fertility and decliningrates of mortality. In some countries, however,high rates of urbanization have been stimulatedby transnational migration as well as naturalincrease (UN-Habitat, 2001).

Urban population is greatest in the smaller states(Kuwait 97 percent, the Gaza Strip 95 percent,and Bahrain and Qatar 92 percent). SaudiArabia, one of the largest Arab states, is 86 per-cent urban and this figure is projected to rise to89 percent by 2010. Egypt is 45 percent urbanand Sudan 36 percent. Both countries will

remain among the region’s least-urbanized inthe years to come. Table 1 shows Size andGrowth of Urban and Rural Populations,Urbanization Trends.

At present, there are 19 mega-cities in the world(i.e. with populations exceeding 10 million),with a total population of over 275 million and8.8% of the world’s urban population, four ofwhich are from developed parts of the world. Theother 15 mega-cities are from the developingworld. Cairo is the only mega-city in the Arabregion with 11.1 million inhabitants.

In the Arab states, the urban framework oftenappears to be in a state of disequilibrium due togeographical constraints. This common featuredoes not apply a similar pattern of development.Apart from the “City States” of the GulfCooperation Council, where the presence of onemetropolis dominates the whole urban system,varying degrees of unbalance can be noted in theother countries (Kharoufi, 1996).

In the case of the Maghreb, (Algeria, Libyan ArabJamahiriya, Morocco, Tunisia), despite initialrestoration of the balance of regional disparitieswith regard to the concentration of city dwellers,the coastal regions still display the highest degree


of urbanization. As for the “urban explosion”prevalent on the outskirts of big centres(Casablanca, Algiers, Tunis), a significant obser-vation has been the intensification of relationsbetween these centres and their outskirts(Kharoufi, 1996).

The region’s considerable internal disparities arereflected in the conditions in its cities and haveresulted in widely varying domestic needs andpriorities: rehabilitation and reconstruction(Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine and Somalia); povertyalleviation (Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Morocco and

Yemen); urban management and housing needs (Egypt, Jordan and Algeria); and capacity build-ing (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, SaudiArabia, United Arab Emirates, Libyan ArabJamahiriya) (UN-Habitat, 2001).

Water and sanitation

Access to acceptable drinking water sourcesremains a problem in the Arab region. Between1990 and 2004, the proportion of the populationusing such water sources was constant at around82%. Regional disparities exist: there were


SIZE AND GROWTH OF URBAN AND RURAL POPULATIONS, URBANIZATION TRENDSTABLE 1

Level of Urbanization Urban Population(%) Estimates & Projections (thousands)

2000 2015 2030 2000 2015 2030WORLD 47.0 53.4 60.3 2,845,049 3,817,292 4,889,393More developed regions 76.0 79.7 83.5 902,993 968,223 1,009,808Less developed regions 39.9 48.0 56.2 1,942,056 2,849,069 3,879,585AFRICA 37.9 46.5 54.5 297,139 501,015 765,709Algeria 60.3 68.5 74.4 18,969 28,214 36,721Comoros 33.2 42.6 52.2 231 425 656Djibouti 83.3 86.3 88.8 531 747 975Egypt 45.2 51.2 59.9 30,954 43,641 60,115Libya 87.6 90.3 92.0 4,911 6,841 8,465Mauritania 57.7 68.6 74.4 1,541 2,665 3,856Morocco 56.1 65.6 72.0 15,902 22,829 29,139Somalia 27.5 35.9 45.8 2,776 5,869 10,846Sudan 36.1 48.7 57.7 10,652 19,381 28,237Tunisia 65.5 73.5 78.4 6,281 8,528 10,491ASIA 36.7 44.7 53.4 1,351,806 1943245 2,604,757Bahrain 92.2 95.0 95.8 569 724 858Palestine (Gaza Strip)** 94.6 95.5 96.2 1,060 1,897 3,095Iraq 76.8 81.6 85.0 17,756 27,804 37,326Jordan 74.2 79.8 83.5 4,948 7,906 10,869Kuwait 97.6 98.2 98.5 1,924 2,574 3,067Lebanon 89.7 92.6 93.9 2,945 3,651 4,324Oman 84.0 92.8 94.0 2,135 3,805 5,636Qatar 92.5 94.2 95.2 554 690 755Saudi Arabia 85.7 89.7 91.5 18,526 29,259 39,331Syria 54.5 62.1 69.1 8,783 14,063 19,409UAE 85.9 88.8 90.8 2,097 2,688 3,065Yemen 24.7 31.2 41.0 4,476 9,221 17,943EUROPE 74.8 78.6 82.6 544,848 565,599 570,612LATIN AMERICA 75.3 79.9 83.2 390,868 504,184 604,002NORTHERN AMERICA 77.2 80.9 84.4 239,049 277,563 313,663OCEANIA 70.2 71.2 74.4 21,338 25,688 30,650

Source: - United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), The State of the World's Cities 2006/7:The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability - Thirty years of Shaping the Habitat Agenda., UN Habitat –Earth scan, 2006. ** the available data only cover Gaza strip, and there is no available date about the rest of Palestine.

improvements in the GCC, Mashreq, andMaghreb, raising the percentages there to 100%,94%, and 86%, respectively, but the percentagefor the Arab LDCs fell from 68% to 63%. It isclear, therefore, that more efforts still need to bemade in order to improve the situation for thepeople still without adequate access to drinkingwater (ESCWA/LAS, 2007).

There still exist wide discrepancies betweenrural and urban populations when it comes toaccess to improved water sources; in 2004, theproportion of the population with such access

in rural areas was 13% less than that in urbanareas. This big difference can primarily beexplained by the considerable divide betweenurban and rural populations in the Maghreb;56% of the Maghreb population live inMorocco, where the percentages for urban andrural are 99% and 56%, respectively. For ArabLDCs, the situation is equally grim: almost halfthe rural population has no access to improvedwater sources. It is clear that national develop-ment strategies in the region need to take thisproblem into account and close the rural-urbangap (El-Habr, 2007).


Annual Growth Rate Rural Population Annual Growth Rate(%) Estimates & Projections (thousands) (%)

2000-2015 2015-2030 2000 2015 2030 2000-2015 2015-20302.0 1.7 3,210,000 3,337,074 3,222,587 0.3 -0.20.5 0.3 284,987 246,171 199,699 -1.0 -1.42.6 2.1 2,925,013 3,090,903 3,022,888 0.4 -0.23.5 2.8 487,306 576,781 640,216 1.1 0.72.7 1.8 12,502 12,985 12,661 0.3 -0.24.1 2.9 464 573 601 1.4 0.32.3 1.8 106 118 124 0.7 0.32.3 2.1 37,515 41,583 40,256 0.7 -0.22.2 1.4 693 732 735 0.4 0.03.7 2.5 1,128 1,221 1,324 0.5 0.52.4 1.6 12,448 11,955 11,312 -0.3 -0.45.0 4.1 7,321 10,481 12,838 2.4 1.44.0 2.5 18,838 20,430 20,723 0.5 0.12.0 1.4 3,305 3,079 2,890 -0.5 -0.42.4 2.0 2,330,744 2,403,649 2,271,823 0.2 -0.41.6 1.1 48 38 38 -1.6 -3.9 3.3 61 90 121 2.6 2.03.0 2.0 5,359 6,259 6,603 1.0 0.43.1 2.1 1,721 2,003 2,150 1.0 0.51.9 1.2 47 48 48 0.1 -1.4 1.1 337 291 282 -1.0 -0.23.9 2.6 407 297 360 -2.1 1.31.5 0.6 45 42 38 -0.5 -0.73.1 2.0 3,081 3,364 3,660 0.6 0.63.1 2.2 7,342 8,583 8,669 1.0 0.11.7 0.9 344 339 311 -0.1 -0.64.8 4.4 13,636 20,374 25,791 2.7 1.60.3 0.1 184,039 153,709 120,364 -1.2 -1.61.7 1.2 128,275 126,931 121,534 -0.1 -0.31.0 0.8 70,582 65,602 58,112 -0.5 -0.81.2 1.2 9,055 10,401 10,538 0.9 0.1

Figure 2 indicates the proportion of the popula-tion using improved drinking water sources,2004 (%).

As for access to sanitation facilities, we can observeslow improvement in the Arab sub-regions duringthe last 15 years. In 2004, the proportion of thepopulation in Arab LDCs with access to improvedsanitation facilities was only 42% compared to99% in the GCC, 87% in the Maghreb, and 84%in the Mashreq. Nonetheless, at this pace, an esti-mated 124 million people in the Arab region willremain without access to sanitation facilities by2015, and 50% of these people will be living inthe Arab LDCs (ESCWA/LAS, 2007).

Figure 3 indicates the proportion of populationusing improved sanitation facilities, 2004 (%).

As with access to clean water, access to sanitationfacilities varies widely between urban and ruralareas; the difference is particularly striking in theArab LDCs, where the figure stands at 26% and60% for rural and urban areas, respectively.Nonetheless, the aforementioned improvements ofthe last 15 years have mostly been due to improvedaccess in rural areas in the region. In fact, it isinteresting to note that the proportion of ruralpopulations with access to clean sanitation facili-ties improved by 13%, 14%, and 8% in the GCC,Mashreq, and Maghreb regions, respectively, rising


URBAN AGGLOMERATIONS POPULATION SIZE AND GROWTH RATETABLE 2

Estimates and Projections (thousands)1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

AFRICAAlgeria Algiers 1,480 1,561 1,687 1,885 2,142 2,407 2,622Algeria Oran 604 679 774 895 1,034 1,171 1,282Egypt Alexandria 2,835 3,212 3,648 4,113 4,586 5,051 5,525Egypt Cairo 7,691 8,572 9,533 10,552 11,605 12,664 13,751Egypt Shubra El-Khemia 661 789 906 1,033 1,163 1,294 1,430Libya Benghazi 508 634 752 871 987 1,087 1,171Libya Tripoli 1,040 1,318 1,573 1,822 2,056 2,253 2,413Mali Bamako 599 738 912 1,131 1,404 1,738 2,130Morocco Casablanca 2,387 2,721 3,101 3,541 4,019 4,477 4,862Morocco Rabat 967 1,118 1,293 1,496 1,716 1,926 2,105Somalia Mogadishu 548 779 965 1,219 1,552 1,955 2,443Sudan Khartoum 1,485 1,828 2,249 2,731 3,299 3,950 4,615Tunisia Tunis 1,428 1,568 1,722 1,897 2,087 2,279 2,454

ASIAGaza Strip Gaza Strip (Urban) 486 601 853 1,060 1,299 1,575 1,897Iraq Arbil 691 1,157 1,743 2,369 2,925 3,380 3,768Iraq Baghdad 3,681 4,039 4,336 4,797 5,438 6,155 6,833Iraq Mosul 603 744 879 1,034 1,210 1,390 1,560Jordan Amman 782 955 1,179 1,430 1,700 1,965 2,212Kuwait Kuwait City 942 1,090 1,090 1,190 1,313 1,418 1,513Lebanon Beirut 1,385 1,582 1,826 2,055 2,238 2,366 2,468Saudi Arabia Jeddah 952 1,216 1,492 1,810 2,139 2,460 2,753Saudi Arabia Mecca 550 663 777 919 1,079 1,244 1,399Saudi Arabia Riyadh 1,401 1,975 2,619 3,324 3,990 4,587 5,111Syria Aleppo 1,288 1,543 1,840 2,173 2,536 2,923 3,305Syria Damascus 1,585 1,790 2,036 2,335 2,694 3,096 3,500UAE Abu Dhabi 415 624 799 927 1,022 1,093 1,153Yemen Sana'a 402 678 965 1,303 1,697 2,157 2,709

Source : - United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), The State of the World's Cities 2006/7: The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability - Thirty years of Shaping the Habitat Agenda., UN Habitat –Earth scan, 2006.

from 54% to 59% in rural areas in the Arab regionas a whole. At the same time, the percentage fell inurban areas from 87% to 85%, though this fall canpartly be attributed to the increased pressures onurban infrastructures through rural-urban migra-tion (ESCWA/LAS, 2007).

III. IMPACTS OF NEW MIGRATION PATTERNS

Changes in migration patterns and types of pop-ulation mobility can be observed in the past fourdecades; while in the 1960s the big cities of theArab region could still accommodate high

inflows of migrants, this rural exodus has slowedtoday as the absorptive capacity of these cities haslessened considerably. In fact, as indicated above,urban conditions may actually have worsened insome cases due to increased strains on existinginfrastructure, such as sanitation.

In the specific case of the oil-producing Arabcountries, and particularly in the GCC region,urban expansion has been strongly fuelled byinternational migration. In the UAE and SaudiArabia, for example, the high urban growth ratecan be attributed to the immigration of foreignworkers from both Arab countries (such asPalestine, Egypt, Yemen, and Syria) and Asian


Annual Growth Rate (%) Share in Country's Urban Population %1985-1995 1995-2005 2005-2015 1985 2000 2015

AFRICA1.3 2.4 2.0 14.1 9.9 9.32.5 2.9 2.2 5.8 4.7 4.52.5 2.3 1.9 13.0 13.3 12.72.2 2.0 1.7 35.2 34.1 31.53.2 2.5 2.1 3.0 3.3 3.33.9 2.7 1.7 17.5 17.7 17.14.1 2.7 1.6 35.9 37.1 35.34.2 4.3 4.2 36.0 33.5 31.92.6 2.6 1.9 24.7 22.3 21.32.9 2.8 2.0 10.0 9.4 9.25.7 4.8 4.5 36.1 43.9 41.64.2 3.8 3.4 30.9 25.6 23.81.9 1.9 1.6 36.2 30.2 28.8

ASIA5.6 4.2 3.8 … … …9.3 5.2 2.5 6.6 13.3 13.61.6 2.3 2.3 35.0 27.0 24.63.8 3.2 2.5 5.7 5.8 5.64.1 3.7 2.6 29.6 28.9 28.01.5 1.9 1.4 58.4 61.8 58.82.8 2.0 1.0 65.4 69.8 67.64.5 3.6 2.5 10.4 9.8 9.43.5 3.3 2.6 6.0 5.0 4.86.3 4.2 2.5 15.2 17.9 17.53.6 3.2 2.7 25.6 24.7 23.52.5 2.8 2.6 31.5 26.6 24.96.6 2.5 1.2 34.8 44.2 42.98.8 6.5 4.7 18.8 29.1 29.4

countries (such as Bangladesh, India, Pakistan,the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, SriLanka, and Thailand (Kharoufi, 1996).

Turning to the examples of Algeria, Morocco,Tunisia, and Egypt we find another pattern,namely that of large, medium, and even small-sized towns increasingly becoming urbanized. InEgypt, we even observe villages around townsurbanizing in this manner. Nonetheless, moreresearch needs to be done to explore more clear-ly the role of small and medium-sized towns inthe changing urbanization patterns in the Arabregion, and the ensuing redistributive spatial dis-positions. It will be interesting to study theimpacts of better transportation links betweenrural and urban areas, on the migratory patternsbetween them (Kharoufi, 1996).

With their increasing urbanization, small townsin the Arab region are increasing in functionalimportance and capacity, for example developingservice activities which include administration,education and health. Through decentralizationand the downward migration of civil servants andmanagerial personnel, they have acquired theposition of administrative, commercial and evenmanufacturing centres (Kharoufi, 1996).

Although the predominant pattern in the regionis one of a decline of rural populations, analready-observed pattern in the 1990-2000 peri-od, and also for the current decade, six countriesin the region face both urban growth rates and

rapidly expanding rural populations. These areYemen, the Gaza Strip, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, andEgypt (UN-Habitat, 2001).

For many countries, urban growth is still muchhigher than rural, and urban centres continue tohold large portions of the population. In Tunisia,for example, the Tunis district holds around one-fifth of the country’s population and is exhibitinga strong population growth rate. In Algeria, 95%of the population lives in a 1200 by 100 km ter-ritory by the sea. And in Egypt, the regionaround Cairo and by the Nile holds a consider-able proportion of the country’s population.

For many of the region’s major cities, existinginfrastructure, such as educational facilities, workas a force attracting rural to urban migration, andcities such as Damascus, Cairo, Alexandria, andAmman can expect – and need to prepare for –strong rural to urban migration. This truly placesgreat strains on the resources of these states andcities, dealing as they have to with dwindlingresources, high demand on existing facilities,increasing poverty, and the serious environmen-tal consequences of such highly concentratedurban populations.

Historically, there have also been instances in theArab world of forced migrations to urban centres.Demographic changes such as these have beenobserved in Sudan, in 1983-1984, when about 5million people forcibly changed their place of res-ident; in Mauritania, in 1989, during the conflictwith Senegal; and in Iraq in 2003. “Followingthe invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in 1991, the Near


PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVEDDRINKING WATER SOURCES, 2004 (%)

FIGURE 2

Mashreq Countries

Maghreb Countries

GCC Countries

Arab LDCs

Arab Region

0 20 40 60 80 100

88

68

99

95

98

75

57

100

73

86

Rural Urban

Source: The Millennium Development Goals in the Arab Region, ESCWA- 2007

East saw the biggest forced migration of popula-tions of these last decades: 4 or 5 million peoplehad to leave the Gulf region. The vastness of thismigration has shattered the migratory patterns inthe Near East putting the countries which fur-nish labour in a difficult economic and social sit-uation” (Kharoufi, 1996). Naturally, such over-whelming population movements cause consid-erable difficulties for the authorities when itcomes to the management of urban centres aswell as the controlled expansion thereof.

Although chapter 12 deals with this issue ingreater detail, it must be mentioned that politi-cal upheavals, instability, and armed conflictshave become added complications in the Arabregion’s attempts at development and povertyreduction. The examples of Iraq, the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, the civil strife in Sudan andSomalia, and the summer 2006 conflict inLebanon and Israel are notable examples of suchhighly problematic conflicts. The destruction ofhousing and urban infrastructure, such as inLebanon, for example, caused migratory move-ments, mainly to urban centres, placing greaterpressures on the already-limited infrastructurefacilities thereof. In addition, terrorist acts incountries such as Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, andSaudi Arabia contributed to economic insecurityand population displacement. Many conflictssuch as those mentioned above have partiallyeroded earlier progress in development.

IV. SLUMS IN THE ARAB STATES

In the Arab region, Egypt and Tunisia are con-sidered among the “on track” countries when itcomes to reducing the numbers of slum dwellersand slum expansion.

Tunisia has succeeded in more than halving thenumber of slum dwellers to approximately190,000. Egypt succeeded in reducing thenumber of slum dwellers by 3 million from1990 to 2005.

On the other hand, in Sudan, one of the off-trackgroup, the numbers of slum dwellers grew con-siderably during the same period. AlthoughMorocco is doing slightly better than the off-track group when it comes to managing slumgrowth rates, it still has a relatively proportion of

people living in slum conditions (30%). Swiftaction is needed in order to reverse the process ofslum formation and improve living conditionsfor slum dwellers.

For the Arab region as a whole, we can note thatmost of the Arab states still need to review andimprove existing housing policies and improveperformance. Table 3 shows the Population ofSlum Areas at Mid- Year by Region andCountry; 1990, 2001 and Slum AnnualGrowth Rate.

V. THE CHANGING CHARACTEROF THE ARAB CITY

A study published by ESCWA in 2005, entitled“Urbanization and the Changing Character ofthe Arab City” examines the role of developmentin shaping the character of Arab cities. The studyfocuses on three cities: Amman, Jordan; Dubai,UAE; and Beirut, Lebanon, considering theircharacteristics generalizable to other cities in theregion as a whole. In particular, the study exam-ined the effects on these cities of dynamics andprocesses such as rural-urban migration, popula-tion growth, and socio-economic developments,while taking into consideration the particular his-torical and social background of the cities(ESCWA, 2006).


PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVEDSANITATION FACILITIES, 2004 (%)

FIGURE 3

Mashreq Countries

Maghreb Countries

GCC Countries

Arab LDCs

Arab Region

0 20 40 60 80 100

85

60

99

95

92

59

26

98

74

70

Rural Urban

Source: The Millennium Development Goals in the Arab Region, ESCWA- 2007

While it is undeniable that the three cities differ interms of urban history, archeological identity,bureaucracy, economic and tourism activities, theydo share common characteristics, such as compara-ble populations, a growing mall culture, and therole of foreign capital in their development. Also,like many cities in the region, they were in someway influenced by regional conflicts. Beirut, suffer-ing major destruction and devastation during the15-year civil war, and again during the 2006 sum-mer war, has been the site of much reconstructionduring the past years. Amman struggled to dealwith signification population inflows, while Dubai,

geographically further from conflict zones, hasexhibited incredible urban and economic develop-ment as a result of its high economic growth andambitious policies aimed at making it a globallysignificant economic and financial centre.

“The resultant diversity and difference provideda cosmopolitan life of various intensities in thethree cities. Among the three cities, Amman isthe city that has undergone the most qualitativechanges; Beirut is the oldest continuously inhab-ited; and Dubai is the most economicallyvibrant” (ESCWA, 2005).


POPULATION OF SLUM AREAS AT MID- YEAR BY REGION AND COUNTRY; 1990, 2001 TABLE 3

1990Total Population Urban Population Percentage Percentage Slum Population

(thousands) (thousands) Urban Slum (thousands)WORLD 5,254,807 2,285,693 43.5 31.3 714,972Developed regions 933,494 694,260 74.4 6.0 41,750Developing regions 4,039,703 1,407,172 34.8 46.5 654,294AFRICAAlgeria 24,855 12,776 51.4 11.8 1,508Comoros 527 147 27.9 61.7 91Djibouti 504 408 81.0Egypt 56,223 24,499 43.6 57.5 14,087Libya 4,311 3,528 81.8 35.2 1,242Mauritania 1,992 877 44.0 94.3Morocco 24,624 11,917 48.4 37.4 4,457Somalia 7,163 1,734 24.2 96.3 1,670Sudan 24,818 6,606 26.6 86.4 5,708Tunisia 8,156 4,726 57.9 9.0 425ASIABahrain 490 429 87.9 0.0Palestine (Gaza Strip) ** 2,154 1,379 64.0Iraq 17,271 12,027 69.6 56.7 6,825Jordan 3,254 2,350 72.2 16.5 388Kuwait 2,143 2,034 94.9 3.0 60Lebanon 2,713 2,284 84.2 50.0 1,142Oman 1,785 1,109 62.1 60.5 671Qatar 453 407 89.8 2.0 8Saudi Arabia 15,400 12,046 78.2 19.8 2,385Syria 12,386 6,061 48.9 10.4 629UAE 2,014 1,615 80.2 2.0 32Yemen 11,590 2,648 22.8 67.5 1,787EUROPE 214,807 152,222 70.9 6.0 9,208LATIN AMERICA 440,419 312,995 71.1 35.4 110,837NORTHERN AMERICAOCEANIA 6,066 1,430 23.6 24.5 350

Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision. Source : - United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), The State of the World's Cities 2006/7: The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability - Thirty years of Shaping the Habitat Agenda., UN Habitat –Earth scan, 2006. ** the available data only cover Gaza strip, and there is no available date about the rest of Palestine.

One feature shared by all three cities is that of somekind of demographic stratification; that is, differentneighborhoods accommodating different sections ofthe population. In Beirut, these are the poor south-ern suburbs; in Amman, the affluent western sub-urbs; and in Dubai, the evident residential stratifica-tion by which nationals and foreign expatriates areaccommodated. This feature can be seen in manyother Arab cities, for example Cairo and Baghdad.

The study also revealed that the development ofcities is driven by various factors, including thefollowing: (a) strengthening and sustaining insti-

tutions, in the case of Amman; (b) political will,which, in the case of Beirut, was promoted by theLebanese Company for the Development andReconstruction of Beirut Central District(SOLIDERE); and (c) economic growth as inDubai. However, in general terms the visibledevelopment of cities is one of the most tangiblemanifestations of positive national development,whereby advancement in the quality of life can beobserved and gauged.

Architecturally, the three cities face similar chal-lenges, balanced as they are between traditional


AND SLUM ANNUAL GROWTH RATE

2001Total Population Urban Population Percentage Percentage Slum Population Slum

(thousands) (thousands) Urban Slum (thousands) Annual Growth Rate (%)6,134,124 2,923,184 47.7 31.2 912,918 2.22

985,592 753,909 76.5 6.0 45,191 0.724,865,893 1,988,093 40.9 42.7 849,013 2.37

30,841 17,801 57.7 11.8 2,101 3.02727 246 33.8 61.2 151 4.61644 542 84.2

69,080 29,475 42.7 39.9 11,762 -1.645,408 4,757 88.0 35.2 1,674 2.722,747 1,624 59.1 94.3 1,531 5.60

30,430 17,082 56.1 32.7 5,579 2.049,157 2,557 27.9 97.1 2,482 3.60

31,809 11,790 37.1 85.7 10,107 5.199,562 6,329 66.2 3.7 234 -5,43

652 603 92.5 2.0 123,311 2,222 67.1 60.0 1,333

23,584 15,907 67.4 56.7 9,026 2.545,051 3,979 78.7 15.7 623 4.321,971 1,894 96.1 3.0 56 -0.653,556 3,203 90.1 50.0 1,602 3.072,622 2,006 76.5 60.5 1,214 5.39

575 534 92.9 2.0 11 2.4721,028 18,229 86.7 19.8 3,609 3.7716,610 8,596 51.8 10.4 892 3.18

2,654 2,314 87.2 2.0 46 3.2719,114 4,778 25.0 65.1 3,110 5.03

208,208 147,673 70.9 6.0 8,878 -0.33526,594 399,322 75.8 31.9 127,566 1.28

7,755 2,072 26.7 24.1 499 3.24

urban designs and modern, distinctive develop-ment. The two have not synthesized, but rathercause what the study deems a kind of “identifycrisis in architectural forms” (ESCWA, 2005).

Then there is the big change in commercial spacesvis-à-vis the traditional souks that has been broughtabout by the mall culture. In particular, malls tendto be isolated from the neighbourhoods in whichthey are situated by large parking lots, and consti-tuting mini-cities in and of themselves. Unlike thesouks, such malls do not perform a social functionwithin their areas (ESCWA, 2005).

Dubai is a fascinating case, in that it represents atonce a city trying to escape from the stereotypicalrepresentations of the Arab city, but at the sametime sometimes lavishly displaying waste andopulence. It is yet to be seen if, through plannedand sustainable development, it can avoid the lat-ter; plans such as the “Green Building Codes” arepromising initiatives, though most buildings inDubai still follow the glass screen design with fewenergy-saving features. Still, Dubai is developingeconomically less reliant on oil, and may there-fore well move towards durable economic successas a regional economic powerhouse.

In terms of the environment, however, it remainsto be seen whether the extraordinarily rapid urbandevelopments in Dubai, Bahrain, and Qatar, andelsewhere in the Arab region, aimed at economi-

cally diversifying away from oil revenues, andattracting investors and business, can come toterms with the long-term environmental impactsof their ventures. Some argue, for example, thatprojects such as those of the artificial islands forluxury developments have not been preceded bysatisfactory amounts of research into the environ-mental impacts of such coastal structures.

Further research is needed into the role of rapid-ly-growing urban centres, fuelled by massive for-eign immigration and high natural growth rates,especially as this pattern of development is pro-jected to continue in the future.

VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The main growth in the Arab region has been inurban centres, and on the whole, it can beobserved that the population growth and inflowinto these centres has generally outpaced theirability to adequately develop. Huge strains haveensued on water, sanitation, public transport,sewage networks, waste management, education,and other services. In turn, this has caused strainson the environment.

The Arab states need to revise their urbanizationpolicies to deal seriously with their problems ofimbalances in infrastructure, slums and thechanging face of their cities.



All buildings in Dubai will have to be constructed asper environment-friendly “green building”, SheikhMohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-Presidentand Prime Minister of the UAE, has instructed in hiscapacity as the Ruler of Dubai.Owners of residential, commercial and other buildingswill have to implement the decision according to thehighest international standards that are suitable forDubai, to maintain a healthy city that follows the glob-al benchmarks in sustainable development and cleanenvironment. Mohammad Al Gergawi, Minister of State for CabinetAffairs, said the decision enhances Dubai’s keen effortstowards contribution in international efforts to combatenvironmental challenges, such as the global initiativeto control climate change and heat retention. The deci-sion makes Dubai the first city in the Middle East toimplement this method.Environmentalists lauded the decision as a major boostto environmentally-conscious construction. Dr SadekOwainati, co-founder of the Emirates Green BuildingCouncil, said the decision will favourably impact theconstruction industry to go sustainable and will enforce

the “expectation we have of construction in this part ofthe world.” He said the principle for older buildings hasnot been laid out yet, but the council is encouragingthe reviewing of energy consumption in older build-ings. “You cannot change the orientation of a buildingbut you can remove hazardous materials.”A green building is environment-friendly by abidinginternational standards to reduce its impact on the envi-ronment. It achieves this by increasing its efficiency anduse of energy, water, and materials, and reducingimpacts on human health and the environment, throughbetter design, construction, operation and maintenance. According to the US Green Buildings Council, a greenbuilding on average saves 70 per cent of electricity, 50to 60 per cent of water and 36 per cent of energy thanstandard buildings. Based on a point system for every level of efficiencythere are about 16,000 green buildings in the UnitedStates. There are 16 Platinum green buildings in theworld, which is the highest level of eco-friendliness fora structure. By using solar panels and wind turbines towater efficient faucets, buildings can make a differenceto how they impact the environment.

READERS’ COMMENTSOn 25 October, the followingcomments from readers appeared onGulf News website:

Shame it has taken so long. By thetime this comes into effect think ofall the hundreds of towers andthousands of villas that havemissed out. The energy usagefrom those buildings that havealready gone up is huge - howcan that be rectified? Jayne, Dubai,UAE

I hope the construction phasewhere many toxic materials aregenerated is also considered.What about the community’s car-bon footprints after the building isbuilt? There is a long way to goone step at a time!Sherry, Dubai,UAE

FROM ARCHITECTURAL RECORD5 December 2007

“The U.A.E. is picking up on messages from around theworld, and one of those is sustainability, and they have theability to implement it,” says Chris Johnson, a Genslermanaging principal.But to do so, the country should pay heed to its own vernacu-lar forms—large tents, for example, cooled by breezes and notair conditioning—and not rush to re-create a Manhattan-styleskyline, contends Robert Fox, a partner in Cook + Fox. In1995, he helped design Four Times Square, in New YorkCity, which is often cited as one of the earliest green skyscrap-ers in the U.S. Fox worries that a U.A.E.-specific LEED ratingssystem could allow developers to score extra points for, say,photovoltaic panels while neglecting fundamental designissues. “What are the lessons they could learn from their fore-fathers?” he wonders. “I don’t think that any of the forefathersthought that skiing in the middle of the desert would havebeen a good idea.”

GREEN BUILDINGS IN DUBAIFrom an article in Gulf News, Dubai, By Emmanuelle Landais, published on 24 October 2007.

El-Arifi, Salih A. “The nature of urbanization in thegulf countries” , Department of Geography, Universityof Qatar, POB 2713, Doha, Qatar - Thursday, October 28, 2004.

El-Habr, Habib N. “Clean Drinking Water andSanitation: The Experience in the Arab Region,” UN Chronicle, December 2007.

Escallier, Robert et Signoles Pierre (avec lacollaboration de Mostafa Kharoufi, François Iretonet Emmanuel Ma Mung). ‘Les nouvelles formesde la mobilité spatiale dans le monde arabe’.Tours : Urbama, Fascicule de Recherches n° 28,Tome II. 1995.

ESCWA, “The Millennium Development Goals in theArab Region: A youth lens”, ESCWA- 2007.http://www.surf-as.org/RegionalWorkshop/CoP%20Sharm%20El-Sheikh/DAY%201/2.%20%20REGIONAL%20OVERVIEW/The%20Millennium%20Development%20Goals%20in%20the%20Arab%20Region%20Khalid%20A.ppt(accessed May 12, 2008).

ESCWA, “Urbanization and the Changing Character ofthe Arab City”, 2005.

ESCWA. “Activities of the Economic and SocialCommission for Western Asia.” July 2006.http://www.un.org/Depts/rcnyo/newsletter/NL20/actescwa.htm (accessed April 16, 2008).

ESCWA. The Millennium Development Goals in theArab Region 2005. New York, United Nations, 2005.

Kharoufi, M. “Urbanization and Urban Research in theArab World”, Management Of Social Transformations– [MOST], Discussion Paper Series - No. 11. Paris:UNESCO, 1996.

UNFPA. “Arab States: Overview”.http://www.unfpa.org/arabstates/overview.cfm(accessed May 23, 2008).

UN-Habitat, The State of the World’s Cities 2006/7:The Millennium Development Goals and UrbanSustainability - Thirty years of Shaping the HabitatAgenda., UN Habitat –Earth Scan, 2006.

UN-Habitat. “Slums of the World: The face ofurban poverty in the new millennium?” Workingpaper, 2003.

UN-Habitat. The State of the World’s Cities Report2001. - United Nations Centre for Human Settlements(Habitat). 2001.

1 Note that these three groupings comprise thefollowing countries: Mashreq: Egypt, Iraq, Jordan,Lebanon, Palestine, Syrian Arab Republic;Maghreb: Algeria, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,Morocco, Tunisia; and Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC): Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, SaudiArabia, United Arab Emirates; Least DevelopedCountries (LDCs): Comoros, Djibouti, Mauritania,Somalia, Sudan, Yemen.

REFERENCES NOTE


Air Quality

45

FARID B. CHAABAN

CHAPTER 4

I. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, worldwide public concern overdeteriorating air quality and the associated localand global impacts has grown significantly. Theimpacts on human health could be the most dras-tic since human lungs, containing very sensitivetissues, receive daily around 15Kg of air com-pared to 2.5Kg of water and 1.5Kg of food.Moreover, polluted air spreads over long dis-tances and can practically not be avoided. Also,the global impact of pollution-related phenome-na such as global warming has been proven tohave alarming consequences. This has led gov-ernments and local authorities, mainly in indus-trialized countries, into taking these issues moreseriously and hence establishing various emis-sions limits and standards and implementingmitigation measures to reduce the pollution ofthe air down to bearable levels.

Concerns related to air quality degradation arisein several quite distinct contexts, often requiringseparate legal and other policy responses andactions. By far the most important problem isambient air – the air people breathe outsidebuildings and, more broadly, the air in the tro-pospheric layer. Next are the two global concernsrelated to the stratosphere: climate change causedby excessive green house gases emissions; and the

depletion of the ozone layer protecting life fromUV radiation reaching the earth from the sun.Finally, there is the problem of indoor air pollu-tion and odour that may impose a lethal healthrisk which is sometimes neglected by environ-

AIR QUALITYCHAPTER 446

RECENT STATISTICS FROM THE ARAB COUNTRIES (FOR YEARS 2002-2004)TABLE 1

Country

AlgeriaBahrainEgyptIraqJordanKuwaitLebanonLibyaMoroccoOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSyriaTunisiaUAEYemen

Populationin 2007 [1]33,857,913

752,64775,497,91428,993,376

5,924,2472,851,1444,099,1146,160,481

31,224,1362,595,132

840,63424,734,53219,928,51810,327,285

4,380,43922,389,172

Number of Vehiclesper 1000 inhabitants [2]

87322

305047

357434234

53150378336

5071

19347

Capital

AlgiersManamaCairoBaghdadAmmanKuwaitBeirutTripoliRabatMuscatDohaRiyadhDamascusTunisAbu DhabiSana’a

CapitalPopulation1,980,000

162,000 9,600,000 5,750,000 1,147,447

32,400 2,012,000 1,150,000 1,620,000

24,769 340,000

4,087,152 1,614,500

728,453 552,000

1,747,627

Number of Vehicles inthe Capital [3,4]

600,000 280,000

2,000,0001,000,000

471500 900,000300,000

1,243,418 254,674 316,786 252,959 985,000 250,000 550,000 212,686 823556

Sources: 1. Abdalla, 2006 ; 2. United Nations, 2007 ; 3. NationMaster, 2008 ; 4. PCBS

mentalists as it does not affect nature. Recentstudies conducted by national and internationalorganizations, including the World Bank, haveindicated that the annual cost of all aspects of airquality degradation is substantial and could con-stitute up to around 2% of GDP in developedcountries and more than 5% in developing coun-tries. These costs include mortality, chronic ill-ness, hospital admissions, lower worker and agri-cultural productivity, IQ loss, and reduction ofvisibility. Up to 800,000 premature deaths, andup to 1 million pre-natal deaths have been esti-mated as one consequence of air pollution glob-ally (Abdalla, 2006).

Table 1 presents a list of Arab countries with sta-tistics about the population densities of eachcountry, the number of vehicles allocated forevery 1,000 inhabitants, i.e. the car ownershiprate. According to these two sets of statistics, thetotal number of vehicles in a country is estimat-ed. The population of the capital city for eachcountry is also presented, together with the num-ber of vehicles in each capital.

The car ownership rate indicates the reliance ofeach Arab state on the transport sector, and is toa certain extent related to the economic standingof the country. Table 2 correlates energy con-sumption with the national GDP. Here also therecorded figures are much related to the levels ofurbanization and economic development in indi-vidual countries. Energy consumption per GDPin developing countries, in general, is higher thanthat of more advanced nations, and this is inter-preted sometimes as indicating the inefficient useof energy through the reliance on old technolo-gies for energy conversion, including the trans-port sector. This gap, however, has been nar-rowed as indicated in table 2. It is also worthhighlighting that some Arab countries have wit-nessed a drop in relative consumption between1990 and 2003.

II. EMISSIONS IN THE ARAB WORLD

Most countries in the region, and in particularthe capitals and other major cities, suffer fromdifferent degrees of air pollution. About 90 per-cent of total emissions of carbon monoxide (CO)in Arab countries is due to transportation activi-ties. It is estimated that Arab countries emit col-

lectively about 16 million tons/year of CO (ElRaey, 2006). The Arab vehicle fleets emit 1.1million tons/year of nitrogen oxides (NOX).Between 70 and 80 percent of total hydrocarbon(HC) emissions originate from the transporta-tion sector, and play an important role in the for-mation of photochemical oxidants. Lead, used asan additive in petrol, still accounts for more thanhalf of total lead atmospheric emission in theArab countries and almost 100 percent in urbanareas. Diesel engines also emit sulphur dioxides(SO2) and fine particulate. Stationary sources,such as thermal power plants, refineries, smelters,fertilizers plants, cement manufacturing, andwater desalination plants also significantly con-tribute to air quality deterioration. Industrialcompounds and manufacturing facilities emitgases such as CO2, methane, Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxide (NOX).In the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) coun-tries total atmospheric emission loads are about3.85 million tones per year, made of 28% CO,27% SO2 and 23% particulates (UNEP, 1999).

Recent studies have indicated that the Gulf coun-tries emit about 50% of the total of Arab coun-tries’ (254 million metric tons of carbon) emis-sions of CO2. A summary of various regionalemissions is presented in Table 3.


ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER GDP IN TONESOF OIL EQUIVALENT (toe) PER MILLIONCONSTANT 2000 INTERNATIONAL $

TABLE 2

CountryAlgeriaBahrainEgyptJordanKuwaitLebanonMoroccoOmanSaudi ArabiaSudanSyrian Arab RepTunisiaUnited Arab EmiratesYemenDeveloped CountriesDeveloping Countries

Source: EarthTrends

1990174.2666.8197.8286.1

..366.884.0

233.3353.1364.3350.8149.5530.9332.6219.1300.0

2000177.2582.5189.3

276566

339.1101.1311.1

426244.2322.2126.9

535345

221.1230.1

2003176.8559.4201.4253.1

48132796.4

361.6448

266.7294.3123.3481.3335.9211.8224.3

Recent reports have included several Arab coun-tries amongst the top 50 countries with highestCO2-emitting power sectors (Center for GlobalDevelopment, 2007). These are Saudi Arabia(75,900,000 tons and ranked 22nd), Egypt(45,000,000 tons, and ranked 30), Kuwait(19,000,000 tons and ranked 48th), and Algeria(17,700,000 tons and ranked 49th).

Table 4 shows the changes in the carbon dioxideper capita emissions over the past 3 decades. Inmost listed countries a substantial increase hasbeen recorded between 1980 and 2003. Thesefigures are also compared to the Middle East andWorld averages. These figures clearly indicate the

wide variations amongst regional nations in ener-gy consumption intensities and patterns. In gen-eral, GCC and other oil-exporting nations haveemissions rates higher than the world average.

Table 5 shows the net thermal electric power (inkilowatt hours - kWh) generated from thermalpower plants in the Arab region. The presentedfigures show that the increase in demand for elec-tricity in some countries has been higher than theworld average. It should also be noted that thevast majority of the operating power plants arethermal, and mostly driven by fuel oil derivatives.

Recently, several electric utilities in the regionhave begun to use natural gas for thermal powergeneration. The amounts of emissions associatedwith generated power could be deduced from theemission rates from typical power plants asshown in Table 6.

The electric power sector in the region has thefollowing common characteristics:• Typical energy conversion efficiencies in the

range of 30-35%.• In most countries, the power sector is entrust-

ed to a state-controlled monopoly for the gen-eration, transmission, and distribution of elec-tricity. This trend has been recently changed insome countries.

• Consequently, the limited available state finan-cial resources, the future size of investments,and uncertainty about the future becomemajor obstacles in any technology updatingprocess.

• Fuel used for electricity generation is mostlybeing subsidized by the governments, and thisleads to a significant undervaluation of electric-ity prices, causing misleading and distortedmarket signals provided to producers and con-sumers alike.

• Traditional electricity planning in these coun-tries has focused on expanding supplyresources to meet anticipated demand growth.


THE ARAB REGION’S NATIONAL PER CAPITA CO2

EMISSIONS FROM THE CONSUMPTIONAND FLARING OF FOSSIL FUELS

TABLE 4

Region/CountryAlgeriaBahrainEgyptIraqJordanKuwaitLebanonLibyaMauritaniaMoroccoOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSomaliaSudanSyriaTunisiaUnited Arab EmiratesYemenMiddle East AverageWorld Average

Source: EIA World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Use of Fossil Fuels

19800.946.110.271.040.676.120.582.830.100.210.88

16.374.790.050.050.520.368.090.211.431.12

19900.907.680.441.030.853.480.402.740.130.241.90

10.543.530.040.040.810.43

10.990.251.481.11

20000.758.660.460.880.848.151.242.210.330.282.33

12.643.390.030.050.860.56

12.610.151.761.07

20030.709.130.530.780.858.161.172.770.290.292.17

10.783.740.020.070.800.57

14.450.141.891.11

ARAB COUNTRIES ANNUAL EMISSIONS (1000 TONS) FROM THE TRANSPORTSECTOR, AND THE PERCENTAGE THIS REPRESENTS OF TOTAL EMISSIONS

TABLE 3

Road TransportSO2

200(5%)

NOx

1,100(37%)

TSP120

(10%)

CO16,000(<90 %)

HC3,000

(<80 %)

Source: El Raey, 2006

In general, no account has been given to glob-al initiatives related to the sustainability of thesector.

• Subsequently, insufficient investments havebeen made into critical areas such as energyconservation and load management, systemoptimization and loss reduction, renewableenergy, and fuel substitution, and others.

III. POLLUTION LEVELSIN SOME ARAB COUNTRIES

According to the 2006 Yearbook of the UNEPGlobal Environmental Outlook (GEO), theurban growth rates in the region were very rapid;the urban population increased from 38% of thetotal in 1970, to 63% by 2005. In the same peri-

od, the urban share in the Mashreq sub-region(Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the Occupied PalestinianTerritories and Syria) increased from 52% to65%. By 2030, the urban population in West Asiais projected to reach 143 million. The concentra-tion of population in urban areas has resulted,among other problems, in increased air pollution.

According to the yearbook, cities such as Sana’a,Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad and Manama amongother major cities in the region suffer air pollu-tion levels that sometimes exceed WHO guide-lines. Although few countries monitor air pollu-tion levels systematically, available data andreports indicate that the main sources includeindustrial processes, inappropriate disposal ofsolid and hazardous waste, vehicle emissions andthe burning of oil in electric power generation.


NET THERMAL POWER PRODUCTION [BILLION kWh]TABLE 5

Region/CountryAlgeriaBahrainEgyptIraqJordanKuwaitLebanonLibyaMauritaniaMoroccoOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSomaliaSudanSyriaTunisiaUnited Arab EmiratesYemenWorld Total


19806.441.558.56

10.051.008.821.784.530.063.430.902.28

20.450.110.471.202.605.900.47

5,588.54

199015.01

3.2831.5320.12

3.4119.37

2.1315.79

0.117.905.024.53

64.900.250.525.615.16

16.061.56

7,137.85

200023.84

5.9257.9729.41

6.9030.88

6.9514.57

0.1212.16

8.568.59

118.620.271.19

20.679.88

37.553.21

9,255.70

200327.55

7.3073.9926.23

7.4737.41

8.6317.81

0.1315.4613.7411.29

143.820.272.06

25.1411.4846.57

3.8510,438.90

TYPICAL EMISSION FROM POWER PLANTS [g/kWh]TABLE 6

Fuel typeNatural gasFuel oilCoal

CO0.2

0.190.11

CO2

490781

1,060

SO2

0.0045.15.5

NOx

1.51.52.4

VOC0.0250.050.01

Source: EPRI

In what follows, a brief statistical overview isoffered about pollutants concentration in majorcities and urbanized regions in the Arab world.

Egypt

It has been estimated that Egypt’s emissions ofgreenhouse gases (GHG) figure is around 0.6%of estimated total world emissions.Measurements inside urban areas and close toindustrial complexes have sometimes recordedpollution levels higher (sometimes 6 to 8 times)than the limits set by Environmental Law 4(ratified in 1994). Egypt has an average con-centration of SO2 of around 69µg/m3 of (com-pared to the WHO standard of 50µg/m3)(Anderson, Loeb, Nasralla, 2001; El Raey,2006). The peak levels recorded, however, aremuch higher than recorded averages. High par-ticulates concentrations are generally caused bythe climatic conditions and winds blown fromthe desert. Measurements, however, alsoshowed that smaller particulates that causemajor health problems are generated fromindustrial complexes and power plants. Theseparticle levels are also accompanied by high sul-phur concentrations, an indication of the burn-ing of fossil fuels in these complexes. Levels ofPM10 have reached 580µg/m3 in Cairo and450µg/m3 in Alexandria. A sample of recordedconcentration levels of various major air pollu-tants in comparison to national standards isshown in Table 7.

Syria

The transport sector in Syria causes around 70%of urban air pollution. The concentration ofPM10 in Damascus is estimated at 749µg/m3 inhighly congested traffic areas and 333µg/m3 inresidential zones (El Raey, 2006). This is due to

the fossil fuel combustion in industrial complex-es in and around the city, and is also attributed tothe generally old and poorlymaintained vehiclesfleet, quality of transport fuel, and high relianceof diesel- driven microbuses for public transportin major cities (Haffar, 2004).

Diesel stoves are the second biggest polluters(Kurze 2004). They also strongly contaminatethe air with sulphur dioxide. There is hardly aprivate household in Damascus that does not usediesel (Mazut), for heating in the cold monthsfrom November to March. The stoves, which donot cost more than 25 Euro, can be boughteverywhere in town, and Mazut is cheap.

Lebanon

The power sector in Lebanon relies almost com-pletely on imported fuel oil to operate its thermalpower plants. These plants are regarded as themain source of air pollution in nearby areas, andthis has been confirmed by series of measure-ments conducted mainly by academic institu-tions and NGOs. Levels of particulates andoxides of sulphur were found to be several timeshigher than international standards.

Air pollution from the industrial sector is record-ed in the vicinity of major cement factories alongthe Lebanese coast. Particulates and dust are themain effluents from these factories.

The transport sector is the major source of GHGemissions in the country. The motor vehiclesfleet of Lebanon constitutes over 1.4 million reg-istered vehicles, 55% of which are more than 15years old (Chaaban and Chedid 2003). CO2

emissions in 1999 totaled 4,585 Gg (gigagram)compared to around 3,957 Gg in 1994, anincrease of around 16% (see table 8). Currently,emissions have topped the 5,000 Gg level.

Lead concentrations in Beirut varied by the endof the 20th century from 0.17 to 4.64µg/m3 withan average value of 1.86µg/m3, and the totalTSP concentrations is 166µg/m3. Levels ofozone and smog measured in Beirut were sever-al times higher than the world norms. This hasbeen partially mitigated by the enforcement oflaw 341 in 2003 that has banned the use ofindustrial diesel for transport, and also bannedleaded fuel.


AIR POLLUTION IN CAIROTABLE 7

PollutantPM10

SO2

NO2

OzoneCOPb


Standard (ug/m3)70 (annual)150 (24 hour)150 (24 hour)120 (8 hour)10mg/m3 (8-hour)1 (annual)

Peak values30035116438034

1.6

Bahrain

The transport sector is the main source of pollu-tion in Bahrain, according to air quality tests(Sami and Khonji, 2006). In one such air qualitytest, air monitoring equipment was set up in eachof Bahrain’s five governorates; the resultsrevealed a significant increase in pollutants asso-ciated with vehicle emissions over the past 10years – particularly nitrogen oxides and ozonegas. These increases were attributed primarily tovehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, petrolvapours and chemical solvents – as well as natu-ral sources – emitting NOX and volatile organiccompounds, which form ozone.

Levels of sulphur dioxide (SO2), which ispumped into the atmosphere by industries suchas petroleum refineries, cement manufacturersand metal processing facilities, have been relative-ly stable in Bahrain at under 5ppb (parts per bil-lion) over the last 10 years. There were spikesupwards to 10ppb in 1998 and 9ppb in 2002,but the figure currently stands at 7ppb. SO2 alsocontributes to respiratory illness and acid rain.However, Bahrain’s air quality tests showed thatcertain parts of the country are more pollutedthan others.

The amount of low-level O3 in Bahrain is51ppb, whereas NOX concentration has risenfrom 15ppb 10 years ago, reaching a peak of30ppb in late 2002. CO2 emissions from thetransportation sector represent only 5.6 percentof the total CO2 emissions in Bahrain (Sami andKhonji 2006).

Algeria

Urban air pollution in Algeria is caused by thetransport sector in the large cities of Algiers,Oran and Constantine; by burning municipal

waste; and by heavy industries in Annaba,Skikda, and Gazaouet. Such pollution has trig-gered on a yearly basis 353,000 cases of bronchi-tis, 544,000 asthma attacks and could be a causebehind 1,500 cases of lung cancer. Morbidityand mortality were evaluated in terms of DALYs(Disability Adjusted Life Years). It was estimatedthat 157,000 DALYs a year are lost because ofoutdoor air pollution and 88,820 are lost annu-ally due to indoor air pollution (METAP, 2003).The environmental cost mounts to around 0.9%of national GDP.

The annual concentration of PM10 in Algiers isabout 50µg/m3 (SMAP RMSU 2004), and theozone concentration is 180µg/m3. SO2 concen-tration is 360µg/m3, and NOX is 400µg/m3,


MAJOR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONSFROM THE TRANSPORT SECTOR IN LEBANON, IN Gg

TABLE 8

GH Gas SourceCivil aviation Road transportation Navigation Total Transport (1994)

CO2

6.028533,949.839

1.25643,957.124

NOX

0.025534.824

0.0273434.877

CO0.00851447.1930.0182

447.220

NMVOC0.0042583.87080.0036483.879

SO2

0.0018722.67669

02.679

Source: Lebanon Ministry of Environment 2001 (State of the Environment Report)

whereas CO concentration is 10,000µg/m3. Aquantity of 180 tons lead/year is emitted in thestreets of the capital. Other cities also suffer fromair quality degradation but at smaller scale.

Jordan

A recent study has been conducted to assess vehic-ular emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocar-bons for gasoline-driven motor vehicles in theGreater Amman Area in order to provide the gov-ernment with the basic information necessary forupdating and developing new vehicular exhaustemissions standards. It was found that the incom-pliance rates of CO and HC to limits specified inTraffic Law no. 14/1984 were 40% and 25%respectively. Motor vehicles age was found to bethe most important factor affecting vehicularemission levels. Old motor vehicles were found toemit double the CO amount and triple the HCamount emitted by new automobiles.Additionally, public transport vehicles were foundto contribute to higher CO and HC emission lev-els than those of private cars. The total CO2 emis-sions in the country were estimated at around5.18 million tons, 2.3% of which were attributedto the power sector (UNESCWA, 2001).

Zarqa is home to 52% of the country’s indus-tries. Phosphate accumulation and emissionsfrom local refineries are among the governorate’smajor environmental problems. The area also isaffected by emissions from the nearby thermalpower plant, industrial wastewater, and the dustfrom brick and stone quarries.

Saudi Arabia

The air pollution problem in the Riyadh region ismainly attributed to the nearby refineries, powerplants, and to transport. Sulphur dioxide is themain air pollutant emitted from the refiningprocesses. The main source of sulphur dioxideemission is the hydrogen sulphide incinerator.There are no apparent serious environmentalproblems with any other air effluents. In Riyadh

the following concentrations were reported: SO2

concentration is 23.8µg/m3 (Spektor, 1998),whereas the concentration of ozone is 53.4µg/m3.Average interior CO concentrations (inside vehi-cles) during non-peak traffic times ranged from 10to 25 parts per million (ppm). Also, lead concen-trations have exceeded international norms.

Morocco

Sources of air pollution are the industrial andmining, transport, and agriculture sectors. InRabat, fine particulates (less than 3µm in diame-ter) have an annual average of 243µg/m3 (WorldBank 2003; National Environment Observatoryof Morocco 2001). PM10 levels ranges between70 and 123µg/m3, CO2 concentrations reach144µg/m3, SO2 concentrations vary between 8and 144µg/m3 depending on the region insidethe city. Data from Tetuan city is also summa-rized in Table 9.

A correlation has been found between air pollu-tion and health needs in a number of cities.Mortality, for example, has increased by 2% dueto the increase of PM10 concentrations by22µg/m3.

Palestine

Although air pollution may not be as severe anenvironmental issue as the pressures on water andland resources, it still poses a threat to the localcommunity. The main problem is the lack ofmonitoring stations and therefore reliable data,and the institutional capacity to interpret dataand take appropriate action. Air quality in theregion is generally on the decline, largely due tolack of relevant regulations, proper solid wastedisposal and the lack of control over industrialand transport-related emissions. Another impor-tant factor is the growing population, using anexpanding fleet of vehicles running on diesel andleaded fuel (El Raey, 2006). Some parts of theWest Bank are downwind from industrial zones,and these further reduce ambient air quality.


EMISSIONS FROM THE TRANSPORT SECTOR IN TETUAN IN TONS/YEARTABLE 9

NVOC CH4 CO CO2 NOX SOX N2O PM10

503.09 19.26 4,681.4 286,634 489.93 1,656.6 2.96 31.06

Sources: World Bank 2003; National Environment Observatory of Morocco 2001

UAE

Air pollution exists in the UAE in the larger citiessuch as Abu Dhabi, Dubai and Sharjah. Onesource is wind-blown sand; the incidence andscale of this problem varies according to the timeof year. The anthropogenic sources of air-pollu-tion in the UAE, and mainly in Dubai, are most-ly the construction sector, which kicks up a lot ofdust, and the ever increasing traffic. According tothe State of the Environment report, the CO2

emissions rate in the UAE has increased fromaround 80.8 million tons in 1990 up to over 94million tons in 2002.

In Abu Dhabi, NO2 concentrations are between250-270µg/m3 (Abu Dhabi EnvironmentMinistry), SO2 concentrations are between 100-150µg/m3. In the Al Ain region, NO2 concentra-tions inside the city reach 230µg/m3, while SO2

concentrations reach its maximum in Al AinCentre around 60µg/m3. Typical concentrationlevels in Mussafah and Ruwais are shown inTable 10.

Yemen

The capital city of Sana’a, located at an altitudeof around 2300m, suffers from extensive air pol-lution emitted mainly from the transport, electricpower, and energy-intensive industries located inand around the city. The transport sector has wit-nessed a large growth. According to a recent UNstudy (Chaaban, 2004), the transport sector inSana’a constitutes over 100,000 personal vehi-cles, added to it around 40,000 small taxis, and70,000 minibuses. There is a heavy reliance ondiesel for transport because its cost is almost 50%

that of petrol. The fleet is very old and poorlymaintained. The pollutant concentrations areestimated to be several times higher than the lev-els set by norms and standards.

Tunisia

In Tunisia, the electric power and transport sec-tors are the major contributors to air pollution, at31% and 30%, respectively. Samples of pollutantconcentrations in Ben Arous (Tunis) in the year2000 are shown in the Table 11.

IV. INITIATIVES TO REDUCEAIR POLLUTION

There exists a wide scope of mitigation optionsand strategies for air pollution abatement. Thefeasibility of these options varies from one coun-try to another depending on the social and eco-nomic welfare of each nation. However, optionslike setting air quality standards, establishing airmonitoring networks, increasing awarenessamong citizens as well as decision makers, andallocating sufficient funding could be adopted inmost Arab countries. Each country has conduct-ed steps and set regulations aiming at solving theair quality problem. In what follows is a briefoverview of selected countries.

Lebanon

A technology needs assessment has been con-ducted for all economic sectors for GHG mitiga-tion (Chaaban and Chedid, 2002). The transportsector was analyzed under six options. These arethe promotion of mass transport, improving the


CONCENTRATIONS IN MUSSAFAH AND RUWAIS (UAE)TABLE 10

Pollutant

NOX

NONO2

SO2

H2SCOO3

PM10

Source: Abu Dhabi Environment Ministry

Mean concentrations inMussafah (µg/m3)

83.720.252.814.7

9.70.6

41.4135.0

Mean concentrationsin Ruwais (µg/m3)

28.94.8

21.717.24.10.3

90.828.9

AIR POLLUTIONCONCENTRATIONSIN BEN AROUS, TUNISIA

TABLE 11

PollutantSO2

O3

NO2

COH2SPM10

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency

Concentration in µg/m3

10486

1783143

77226

technical status of the fleet, switching to alterna-tive fuels, improving traffic management, updat-ing and enforcing environmental standards andregulations and finally improving urban planningand land use. The results shown in Table 12reflect the ranking of these technologies, asobtained from a nation-wide consultationprocess that included decision makers, experts,NGOs, and others. The scores are also listed toshow the margins between individual options.

There is a need to consolidate and enforce pro-grams and policies associated with Law 341/2001

on reducing air pollution from the transport sec-tor. Specifically, in designing and implementinga fuel quality improvement program, and sup-porting a vehicle inspection and maintenanceprogram. A national strategy for the improve-ment of fuel quality has targeted a complete leadphase-out in gasoline and the reduction of dieselsulphur content, also banning the use of industri-al diesel for small and medium vehicles.

In the power sector, eight options have beenfound suitable to reduce emissions, mainlyGHG gases. Based on the comparative analysismade possible by the ranking tables designed forthat purpose, it was found that electricity inter-connection is the most important option, fol-lowed by combined cycle technology, switchingto natural gas and then partial switching torenewable energy.

In the industrial sector, five options were identi-fied. The natural gas option has the highest pri-ority followed by boiler improvement, energyefficient systems, co-generation and finally ener-gy-efficient motors.

Egypt

Initiatives and activities are carried out on boththe strategic and operational levels.

On a strategic level, the preparation of an AirQuality Management Strategy is underway, pri-marily addressing air pollution resulting fromthe mismanagement of solid waste, as well aspollution abatement from mobile sources.Moreover, an emissions inventory in GreaterCairo including all sources of air pollution,industrial and non-industrial, is to be carriedout (EEAA).

On an operational level, a number of activitiesand initiatives were carried out during2000/2001 with a particular focus on the GreaterCairo area, where the highest levels of air pollu-tion occur:

1. Monitoring of Ambient Air Quality:A comprehensive national air quality moni-toring system has been established as part ofthe Environmental Information andMonitoring Program of the EgyptianEnvironmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). The


SUMMARY OF TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS RANKINGIN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR

TABLE 12

OptionPromoting mass transportImproving technical status of the fleetSwitching to alternative fuels (NG)Improving traffic managementEnvironmental standards and regulationsUrban planning and land use

Source: Chaaban and Chedid 2002

Overall Score78.2076.5073.7569.3068.5062.50

SUMMARY OF TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS RANKINGIN THE POWER SECTOR

TABLE 13

OptionElectric InterconnectionDeployment of Combined CyclesSwitching to Natural GasPartially Switching to Renewable EnergyRecycling/phasing out SubsidiesReduction of Transmission lossesDemand-Side ManagementTechnology upgrading


Overall Score82.1080.3077.4077.0075.3071.1070.9570.55

SUMMARY OF TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS RANKINGIN THE INDUSTRY SECTOR

TABLE 14

OptionSwitching to Natural GasBoiler ImprovementEnergy Efficient SystemsCogenerationEfficient Motors


Overall Score80.7580.3078.8071.1570.00

monitoring system measures concentrationsof common air pollutants.

2. Reduction of Vehicle Emissions inGreater Cairo:On-road testing of vehicles with mobileemission analyzers has been enforced in part-nership with the Ministry of Interior.Moreover, a network of stationary facilitiesfor emissions testing, operated through theTraffic Department has been identified asthe most feasible option for systematic test-ing of vehicles in the long term. With theobjective of demonstrating the feasibility ofreplacing diesel-fuelled city public transportbuses with compressed natural gas (CNG),the introduction of CNG buses into thefleets of the public bus companies of GreaterCairo is currently taking place.

3. Conversion to the Use of Natural Gas:The conversion of the power plants in theGreater Cairo region from the use of fossilfuels to that of natural gas, was successfullycarried out, thereby reducing ambient con-centrations of sulphur dioxide.

Jordan

“Horizon 2020” has set the following frame-work for the country to mitigate air qualitydegradation:

Initiative 1:Legal frameworkThe primary piece of environmental legislation isLaw No. 1 of 2003, which has substituted theEnvironmental Protection Law of 1995. As aresult, many regulations are issued by the govern-ment; among them is “The Air ProtectionRegulation”. Clean Draft Act (2000) sets out theresponsibilities for determining maximum allow-able concentrations.

Initiative 2:Develop and implement action plansConsolidate the institutional set-up for environ-mental management, particularly on pollutionmanagement (monitoring and enforcement). Inthe same context, enhanced communication andcoordination between the involved entities isneeded. In addition, the preparation of aninspection program, as well as the mechanism to

monitor the environmental mitigation plans pro-posed for various industrial units (industrialemissions) and the enforcement of the relatedarticles of the environment law is a priority.

Initiative 3:Technical capacityThe capacity to manage integrated environmen-tal management systems and technologies inJordan is weak, and Jordanian experience withsome of the modern systems and technologiesused in environmental management programs islimited in the field of air pollution. The improve-ment of Jordan’s technical capacity in this field isthus a key objective.

UAE

The UAE’s ban on leaded fuel, which came intoforce on 1 January 2003, has favorably impactedair quality in the country. These changes beganwhen the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)asserted in December 1998 the need for a region-al transition towards unleaded fuel. Four yearslater the UAE phased out leaded gasoline entire-ly and replaced it with unleaded gasoline(ERWDA- Abu Dhabi Research and WildlifeManagement Agency 2005).


In response to the rising concern over the preserva-tion of air quality, ERWDA (now EnvironmentalAgency Abu Dhabi - EAD) embarked on an ambi-tious air quality management project aimed atmonitoring air quality. By the end of 2003,ERWDA conducted an 18 month air quality mon-itoring and management study for Abu Dhabi. Aspart of the air quality management effort, 15 fixedand 2 mobile stations were acquired to monitor airquality and pollution.

EAD has completed the second stage of the proj-ect, bringing to a close the baseline data collec-tion and assessment process, as well as the analy-sis of emissions and dispersion of flue gases fromindustrial stacks and vehicular traffic. The thirdstage will involve the creation of a full fledgedCentral Network System and an Air QualityManagement System, to operate and continuallyenhance the equipment to achieve maximumefficient utilization of resources.

Another planned measure is to draw up an actionplan to introduce natural gas as a substitute forpetrol, especially for specific vehicular categoriesthat are high fuel consumers. Indeed, accordingto the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD)report, 20 percent of government-owned vehiclesand taxis in the emirate will be converted to runon CNG, which EAD also calls Clean NaturalGas, by 2012. All government diesel vehicles willalso be converted to run on Ultra Low SulphurFuel (ULSF) with at least Euro III emission lim-its or equivalent by 2012.

Saudi Arabia

Air quality management in Saudi Arabia is cur-rently concerned with establishing air qualitystandards for limits on sulphur dioxide, particu-lates, ozone, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxideand hydrogen sulphide, and other pollutants(Abu Dhabi Research and Wildlife ManagementAgency, 2005).

The Kingdom’s Meteorology and EnvironmentalProtection Administration (MEPA) has undertak-en studies on the hazards of pollution, inventoryof pollutants, development of necessary environ-mental standards and measures to protect air qual-ity. Collaborating with MEPA, Saudi Aramco, thecountry’s largest petroleum entity, also conductsits own air quality monitoring program.

Aramco operates ten Air Quality Monitoring andMeteorology Network stations and fifteen mete-orology-only stations throughout the Kingdom.These stations ensure facilities meet national andcompany air quality standards for limits on majorair pollutants.

On the other hand, Saudi air quality has beenimproved by the introduction of unleaded gaso-line in the country in January 2001. Currently,service stations in Saudi Arabia sell lead-freegasoline with the octane boosting additiveMTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether). Leadedgasoline has now been almost eliminated.

Bahrain

The most important legislation was set forth asAmiri Decree No. 7 in August 1980, whichformed the Environmental ProtectionCommittee (EPC) and the EnvironmentalProtection Technical Secretariat (EPTS). AnAmiri decree-law No. 21 (1996) was enactedwith the establishment of an EnvironmentalAffairs agency (EA), an agency under theMinistry of Housing, Municipalities andEnvironment.

Continuous monitoring of atmospheric pollu-tants at four geographical locations began inAugust 1993 (United Nations, 1997). Majorpollutants such as SO2, NO2, NO, O3, CO, H2S,HC, and PM10 are monitored. Recorded data ateach station is transmitted via modems to a cen-tral computer system. Various mean values areautomatically calculated and compared to accept-able ambient air quality standards. All measuredvalues are available for statistical evaluation.Daily, weekly, monthly and annual reports areutilized in the decision-making process.

There is a joint effort within the GCC to imple-ment an action plan to reduce car emissions andintroduce unleaded petrol. A program called“Fume watch”, which was introduced in Bahrainin 1994, aimed to report vehicles visibly emittingsmoke, followed by an immediate approach torectify these situations. This program yielded anoticeable improvement.

Recent studies have also suggested that removingsubsidies and internationalizing the external costsof electricity generation could lead to resources


use optimization, and would also enhance thestability of the sector (Al-Hesabi, 2004).Electricity tariffs should, according to these stud-ies, reflect the cost of the environmental andhealth impacts of emissions.

Qatar

The State of Qatar has established guidelines toreduce air pollution in urbanized regions. Theseare based on the following initiatives:

Initiative 1:Control of air pollutionThe Supreme Council for Environment andNatural Reserves has developed a network offixed and mobile air quality monitoring stationsin many industrial cities to conduct air qualitymonitoring activities. These stations providevaluable data related to the major pollutants.

Initiative 2:LegislationBy publishing the executive regulations of LawNumber 30 of 2002 related to the environmen-tal protection in the country, the norms and stan-dards related to gas emissions became legallybinding. Equally, any development projectsincluding industrial projects became subject toenvironmental impact approval.

According to this law, all industrial plants areobliged to monitor their emissions according tonorms, standards and conditions agreed upon inadvance and subject to a quarterly report.

Initiative 3:General policies to improve fuel qualityAll transport vehicles use unleaded gasoline. Ithas also been planned to start in 2005 to producegreen diesel produced through convertingNatural Gas to Liquefied fuels. This is yet to befully implemented. A nationwide energy audit isbeing conducted for the residential sector.

Initiative 4:Capacity building, information researchand developmentParticular efforts are made in Qatar towardsbuilding and strengthening national institutionaland legal capacities to preserve good air quality.In addition, the importance of creating publicawareness of these issues is recognized by partiesinvolved in the dissemination of relevant publica-tions and the implementation of specific pro-grams at the school level throughout the country.

Tunisia

In the Tunisian capital, Tunis, motor vehiclesand motorcycles are the main causes of air pollu-


tion. A national control and monitoring programis conducted by the Environment andManagement body of the Territory Ministrywith the National Environment ProtectionAgency and CITET (“Centre International desTechnologies de l’Environnement de Tunis” –Tunis International Centre for EnvironmentalTechnologies) (Japan International CooperationAgency, 2002). The objective of this program isthe preservation of air quality by identification,characterization and reduction of origin of thefixed (industrial emissions) or mobile pollutions.

Five continuous monitoring stations form a firstgroup of national monitoring network that is cur-rently extended to 25 fixed monitoring stations.

Syria

Syria has enacted a multifaceted national actionplan for controlling air emissions from varioussectors (Kayyal, 2005). The proposed goalsinclude:

1. Phase out leaded gasoline from use by vehic-ular traffic, and provide incentives for mini-buses operating in Tartous, Lattakia andJableh to also run in rural areas.

2. Enforce vehicular emissions standards andcontrols, control technical performance ofvehicles, and develop appropriate rules andregulations in accordance with internationalstandards for imports with the aim of pre-venting pollution.

3. Shift towards natural gas as a main fuel forthe power sector and for major industrialcomplexes.

4. Deployment of modern heating systems toreplace the old diesel stoves in residential sec-tor.

5. Adhere to a regular and annual vehiclesinspection system for monitoring exhaust gasemissions, and provide the necessary tech-nologies for this task.

6. Reduce demand on vehicular transport,adjust peak periods, and substitute the indi-vidual vehicular traffic with an integratedmodern public transport system.

Yemen

Mitigation strategies sought for the transport sec-tor are classified as:

1. To establish a sampling/monitoring networkto assess air quality in Sana’a, in collabora-tion with UNEP and experts from academicresearch units.

2. To further rely on cleaner fuel for electricitygeneration.

3. On the technical side, to improve the tech-nical status of the fleet through regularinspection and maintenance programs,phasing out leaded fuel, adopting cleanerfuels and dual fuels systems using LPG,diesel, and gasoline.

4. On the planning and regulatory sides, toestablish modern and reliable mass transportsystems, to provide incentives to shifttowards unleaded and other cleaner fuels,and to upgrade traffic management systemsin major cities.

5. To adopt local and international standardson emissions from industries and ambient airquality and to have these standards enforced.

6. On the awareness side, to publicize the eco-nomic cost and health impacts of air qualitydegradation, to highlight technical and eco-nomic benefits of cleaner fuels and technolo-gies, and to conduct public awareness cam-paigns in collaboration with local media andNGOs.

To conclude, Table 15 shows the current statusof diesel fuel in a number of Arab countries anda brief of future plans.

V. STRATEGIES FOR A MORE EFFICIENT ENERGY SECTOR ANDEMISSIONS REDUCTION

Electric power sector

Feasible options include:1. Reducing the role of governments to achieve

sector reform and the elimination/reductionof bills and fuel subsidies to reduce con-sumption and emissions;

2. Introduction of appropriate tariff structuresto encourage consumers to shift theirdemand off peak intervals, thus reducing thetotal installed capacities;

3. Improvement of the thermal efficiencythrough the adoption of new and advancedtechnologies like combined cycle units;

4. Full utilization of hydropower resources tak-


ing into account various relevant environ-mental and social issues;

5. Deployment of other renewable energy tech-nologies, especially for water heating, on ascale wide enough to impact the nationalenergy situation;

6. Upgrading of the power transmission anddistribution networks to minimize losses;and

7. Shifting to less polluting fuels, namely natu-ral gas.

Industrial sector

Options in this category include:1. Establishment of mandatory building codes

that account for energy-efficient designs andoperation of commercial buildings;

2. Minimization of heat and power losses andthe expanded use of waste heat recovery tech-nologies and automated process controls;especially in energy- intensive industries suchas cement, steel, and glass factories.

3. Greater exploitation of cogeneration poten-tial; and

4. Establishment of mandatory standards andevaluation of optimum operating conditionsfor motor-driven systems.

Transport sector

Options in this category include:1. Promotion of more efficient vehicle tech-

nologies; examples include electric andhybrid electric vehicles;

2. Traffic management in urbanized regionsleading to a drop in trip duration and hencereduction in fuel consumption;

3. Improving the technical status of the fleetthrough strict annual checks;

4. Promotion of public/mass transport; and5. Promotion of cleaner fuels.

It should be noted that implementing the fullrange of above-listed actions requires nationalcommitment to strengthening existing institu-tions engaged in energy efficiency activities or toestablishing new ones.

Most Arab countries will need, in addition totheir own efforts, assistance from more developednations to achieve these objectives.

Appropriate economic and institutional reformswould be required to encourage private sectorinvolvement that can attract investments in ener-gy efficient technologies.


ARAB WORLD’S DIESEL SULPHUR MATRIXTABLE 15

COUNTRY

AlgeriaBahrainEgyptIraqJordanKuwaitLebanonLibyaMoroccoOmanPalestineQatarSaudi Arabia

SyriaTunisiaUAEYemen

Source: UNEP 2006

CURRENT STATUSDiesel Sulphur Content (ppm)

900 5,000 (500)

5,000 10,000

9,000 3,500

6,500 (350)1,000

10,000 (350) 5,500

10,0005,0005,000

6,50010,000

5,00010,000

COMMENT

No plans to process crude furtherTo be reduced to further by 2007, some low sulfur availableNo Plans to reduce levels, Standard 10,000 ppmActual Standards 25,000 ppmActual Standards 12,000 ppmActual Standards 5,000 ppmShift towards green dieselStandards are about 1,500 ppmIntroduction of 350 ppm sulfur diesel on a very limited basisActual Standards 10,000 ppmGets fuel from Jordan which is at 10,000 ppmShift towards lower sulfur dieselCurrent Standards 10,000 ppm.Plans to go to 500 ppm by 2007 and 50 ppm in futureActual Standards 7,000 ppmActual Standards 10,000 ppm. Change in 2011Plans to go to 2,500 ppm in late 2005 and 50 ppm by 2010No current Standards. Improvements planned for 2010

VI. CFC ABATEMENT

Data on chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissionsfrom various economic sectors in the region isnot readily available. Many countries have bene-fited from the multilateral funds made availablefrom the Montreal Protocol to establish officesand units whose main objectives are:• Dissemination of information on ozone issues.• Development of policies and legislation to ban

CFC substances and hence reduce their emissions.• Establishing data bank information on ozone

depleting substances (ODS).• Providing assistance to industrial sector to

phase out ODS consumption.• Conducting training and awareness programs

and workshops.

VII. NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution is not considered as severe asother forms of pollution because it is not as fatalas water pollution or air pollution. Moreover,unlike the other forms of pollution, it can beavoided. The main – and overwhelming – sourceof noise pollution in urbanized regions is generat-ed by transportation. Governments all over theworld have changed their perception of noise pol-lution over the past 40 years. However, for devel-oping countries including those in the Arabregion, this issue remains unaddressed due topolitical, economic, and technological limitations.In many regional countries, no direct legislativeimplementations deal with noise pollution,though there are laws and directives aimed at lim-iting or banning honking during the night hours.

A recent study conducted in Beirut, Lebanon hasshown that major roads suffer from periodical highnoise pollution levels, reaching up to around 90dBduring rush hours. The study also surveyed peopleliving in the vicinities of these roads, and conclud-ed that they generally suffer from problems such asheadaches, heart palpitations and learning impair-ment (Fares, Nehme, Jouni, 2007).

Noise measurements in Amman, Jordan, werecarried out at many locations and the results ofthe investigation showed that the minimum andthe maximum noise levels are 46 dBA and 81dBA during day-time and 58 dBA and 71 dBAduring night-time. The measured noise level

exceeded the 62 dBA acceptable limit at most ofthe locations (Jarmah, Al-Omari, Sharabi, 2006).

In Dubai, high traffic generates a high noise level,added to it the amount of noise created at con-struction sites currently building rail stations,sections of track and depots. Noise pollution isthe key focus of an environmental audit launchedby the Roads and Transport Authority. Areasbeing targeted for the audit include the assess-ment of acceptable operating noise levels (GulfNews, 2006). There will be a focus on efforts toreduce the impact of noise generating equipmentused in construction.

Reduction measures generally fall into 3 cate-gories:

(i) Control at the source

These measures can be implemented at thedesign stage by the manufacturers, and theyinclude fitting sound absorbers in the vehicle toreduce mechanical and engine noises andimproving tires design, improving the exhaustnoise mufflers especially for trucks and motorcy-cles, improving the engine design so as to reduceits noise and vibration.

(ii) Control in the transmission path

These measures, usually provided by localauthorities, include keeping the noise source(traffic) as far from the residential areas as eco-nomically possible, fitting noise barriers (walls)to partially reflect noise waves away from the res-idents, banning heavy-load trucks (and motorcy-cles) from operating in residential areas duringnight hours, and constructing tunnels and under-ground mass transportation networks.

(iii) Control at the recipient

These measures are in principle similar to thoseimplemented by planners and local authorities; theyinclude building houses away from the traffic andusing some insulation systems in the constructionsuch as double-glazing, and building barriers closeto the traffic or close to the buildings. Planting treescan also lead to significant noise reduction in addi-tion to the natural beauty they offer. Also, control-ling the technical status of personal vehicles couldlead to substantial noise reduction.


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“Cost of environmental degradation, Algeria,”Mediterranean Environmental Technical AssistanceProgram, 2003.http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/mna/mena.nsf/METAP+Documents/61BE59E44198423085256C860074E8C6?OpenDocument (accessed March 23, 2008).

“EarthTrends: Energy Intensity: Energyconsumption per GDP.” EarthTrends:Environmental Information.http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=6&variable_ID=668&action=select_countries (accessed March 7, 2008).

El Raey, Mohamed. Air Quality and AtmosphericPollution In the Arab Region. ESCWA/League ofArab States/UNEP, Regional Office for West AsiaReport. 2006.http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd14/escwaRIM_bp1.pdf (accessed March 14 2008).

El-Naqeeb, Amira. “Inhaling CO2 in Cairo,” AlAhram Weekly. February 2, 2007. Retrieved fromhttp://www.arabenvironment.net/archive/2007/2/151608.html (accessed January 30, 2008).

Fares, D, M. Nehme, and K. Jouni, “Noisepollution in Beirut,” Final Year Project, Faculty ofEngineering, American University of Beirut, May 2007.

Gulf News: Traffic Watch. Issue 21, December 2006.

Haffar, M. “Impact of transport on current air pollutionin Syria, and mitigation strategies.” Seminar on CleanFuels and Vehicles in Western Asia and North Africa,Beirut, 17-19 March 2004.

Japan International Cooperation Agency. “Countryprofile on environment: Tunisia.” Planning andEvaluation Department, Japan InternationalCooperation Agency. February 2002.http://www.jica.go.jp/english/global/env/profiles/pdf/12.pdf (accessed April 4, 2008)

Jarmah, A, A. Al-Omari, and R. Sharabi,“Evaluation of traffic noise pollution in Amman,Jordan,” Environmental Monitoring andAssessment, Vol.120, No. 1-3, September 2006.

“Jordan.” Support to DG Environment fordevelopment of the Mediterranean De-pollutionInitiative “HORIZON 2020” Report No070201/2006/436133/MAR/E3. EuropeanCommission, 2006.http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enlarg/med/pdf/jordan_en.pdf (accessed March 14, 2008).

Kayyal, M. “National action plan for protection ofthe Mediterranean marine environment fromland-based activities in the Syrian ArabRepublic,” Syrian Ministry of Local Administrationand Environment, July 2005.http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/npa_syria_english.pdf (accessed April 10, 2008)

Kurze, Elena. “Measuring labs on patrol”, GTZ,Akzente, Clean Air in Cities, 2004.

Lebanon Ministry of the Environment. LebanonState of the Environment Report, 2001.

“Motor vehicles (most recent) by country.”NationMaster - World Statistics, Country Comparisons.http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/tra_mot_veh-transportation-motor-vehicles (accessed March 24, 2008).

“Options and opportunities for GHG abatement inthe energy sector of the ESCWA region,” vol.2.UNESCWA Report. New York: UNESCWA, 2001.

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Sami, Sara, and Tariq Khonji. “Traffic Blamed forAir Pollution in Bahrain,” Gulf Daily News.October 14, 2006. Retrieved fromhttp://www.arabenvironment.net/archive/2006/10/106334.html (accessed January 26, 2008).

SMAP RMSU. “Rapport Annuel d’Activités réseaude mesure de la qualité de l’air (SAMASAFIA):année 2004.” Bulletin Annuel 2004.http://smap.ewindows.eu.org/fol112686/fol102088/fol912729/fol098298/rapport_annuel_2004.pdf (accessed March 24, 2008).

Spektor, Dalia M. Oil well fires. Volume 6 of AReview of the Scientific Literature As It Pertainsto Gulf War Illnesses. RAND National DefenseResearch Institute, 1998.

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“West Asia, Middle East & North Africa DieselSulphur Matrix,” UNEP Report, July 2006.

World Bank - Middle East and North AfricaRegion - Water, Environment, Social and RuralDevelopment Department. “Kingdom of Morocco:Cost assessment of environmental degradation,”Report No 25992-MOR. World Bank, June 2003.

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Water Resources

63

MUSA N. NIMAH

CHAPTER 5

I. INTRODUCTION

At present worldwide freshwater resources are onthe decline, with demand far exceeding the avail-able supply. Although the global water supplymay be adequate to combat this problem for thetime being, it is quickly dwindling, as more andmore consumption increases are becoming unsus-tainable; it is projected that 90% of all availablefreshwater could be consumed by the year 2025(Salem, 2003). The potentially adverse impact ofclimate change on water resources is particularlyworrisome for the Arab, Middle East and NorthAfrican regions since the already meagre waterresources of countries in these regions are beingstretched thin by rising water demand driven bypopulation growth and rising living standards.Water is considered the single most constrainingfactor of growth in the Arab countries.

Water resources are unevenly distributed amongand within countries, with some presently facingsevere drought and water scarcity, especially inthe Arab region. In the 2001 benchmark reportentitled The Future of Environmental Action in theArab World, M.K. Tolba et al estimated that theaverage annual available water per capita in theArab countries was 977 cubic meters in 2001, andthat this figure will decrease to 460 cubic metersin the year 2023. The United Nations definition

of a nation under water stress is when its availableannual water per capita is less than 1,500 cubicmeters, under water scarcity if the annual avail-able water is less than 1000 cubic meters, andsevere water stress if the available annual water isless than 500 cubic meters; in the year 2025 Iraqwill be above the water stress line, Lebanon, Syriaand Egypt will be above the severe water stressline, and the rest will be under the severe waterstress line. M.E. Osman compiled in 2004 waterstress data in some Arab countries, outlining theoccurrence of water scarcity in the years 2003,2015 and 2025 as presented in Figure 1.

The United Nations estimates that globally some1.1 billion people lack access to clean water and2.4 billion lack access to proper sanitation (mostof these being in developing countries). In addi-tion, a third of the world’s population has seriouswater shortage problems (this number couldgrow to two thirds by the year 2025 if correctivemeasures are not taken) (McCarthy, 2003).Exacerbating these problems are accelerated pop-ulation growth, especially in third world coun-tries, coupled with the concomitant expansion ofthe agriculture and industrial sectors whichincrease pollution (higher water usage anduntreated wastewater); along with climatechanges, these factors combined produce drasticdeclines in the global water supply (Rosegrant,

WATER RESOURCESCHAPTER 564

WATER STRESS, WATER SCARCITY, AND SEVERE WATER SCARCITY IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESIN THE YEARS 2003, 2015, AND 2025

FIGURE 1

Source: Proceedings of the Symposium on challenges facing water resources management in arid and Semi-arid regions. American University of Beirut, Oct 7-9, 2004. (CD Publication).

Bahr

ain

Egyp

t

Iraq

Jord

an

Kuw

ait

Leba

non

Om

an

Pale

stin

e

Qat

ar

Saud

iAra

bia

Syria

UAE

Yem

en

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

50

0

Severe Water Scarcity

Water Scarcity

Water Stress

2003 2015 2025

Water (m3/capita/year)

1995). Although wide and concrete evidence ofthis crisis exists there is little or slow progress inbringing about sufficient national, regional andinternational political commitment and imple-mentation to try and reverse this process.

This situation is very pertinent to the countries ofthe Arab region: the region accounts for 3% of theworld’s population, 10% of its land, but only 1.2%of the world’s renewable water reserves. Many ofthe countries in this region are fragile developingcountries, struggling with the dual demographicand economic strains of increasing populations andhigh demand for policies of economic expansion(via industrial and agricultural development),which together lead to even more acute pressure ontheir already scarce water resources.

II. PRESENT FRESH WATERAVAILABILITY AND USE PER SECTORIN THE ARAB WORLD

The Arab region is characterized by very lowrainfall that is not equally distributed in time andspace and is not predictable from year to year.The actual water situation in the region can easi-

ly be described as precarious. Within one life-time, annual average per capita renewable sup-plies excluding so-called “fossil” aquifers willhave fallen by about 80%, from 3,430 cubicmeters per capita (in 1960) to 667 cubic meters(in 2025) (World Bank 1994). These levels arefar below the levels of other major regions in theworld. In several, if not most, Arab countries,renewable water will barely cover the sustainablehuman needs as defined by the United Nations(as mentioned above). Moreover, more than 10rivers flowing from outside the region supplyingaround 35 percent of these renewable water sup-plies are vulnerable to extraction by upstreamriparian countries (Tolba et al., 2001). Table 1shows the renewable fresh water resources forsome Arab counties in annual cubic meters percapita for the years 1955, 1990, 2000, 2010,2015, 2025, and 2050.

As the above figure makes alarmingly clear, renew-able freshwater availability is projected to decreaseon per capita basis by a factor of thirty-five in theUAE, a factor of ten in Oman and Iraq, and fivein Algeria between the years 1955 and 2025. OnlyIraq will remain above the water scarcity line(1,000 cubic meters) by the year 2025.


FRESH WATER AVAILABILITY PER CAPITA PER YEAR IN DIFFERENT ARAB COUNTRIES FROM 1955-2050TABLE 1

Water availability m3 / capita / yearCountry 1955b 1990b 2000a 2003c 2010a 2015c 2025a 2050d

Algeria 1,770 689 332 300Bahrain 672 179 170 153 139 120 89Egypt 2,561 1,123 800 770 750 600 550 510Iraq 18,441 6,029 3,100 2,800 2,400 2,100 1,700Jordan 906 327 <500 150 <500 130 121 100Kuwait <100 <100 <100 <100Lebanon 3,088 1,818 900 900 800 800 867 800Libya 4,105 1,017 359 250Morocco 2,763 1,117 590 600Oman 4,240 1,266 500 500 450 450 410Qatar 1,427 117 <100 <100 <100 <100 68Saudi Arabia 1,266 306 <500 400 320 250 113Syria 6,500 2,087 1,250 1,250 900 850 732 600Tunisia 1,127 540 324 400United Arab Emirates 6,195 308 <500 <400 <300 <200 176 West Bank and Gaza 1,229 461 <500 <500 264Yemen 1,098 445 <500 300 250 200 152

Sources:a- Policies and institutions for coping with environmental aspects of water scarcity in western Asia, by Hosni Khordagui Ph.D., Lebanon

http://www.unwater.org/downloads/wwwKhordagui.pdfb- ITT industries guidebook to global water issues http://itt.com/waterbook/per_cap_country.aspc- Economic and Social commision for Western Asia, UN, 2003 - http://www.escwa.org.lb/information/publications/edit/upload/sdpd-03-13.pdfd- Water demand management in the Mediterranean, Hamdy A., http://www.idrc.org.sg/en/ev-42818-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

The vital importance of water can hardly be over-stated. In arid regions, where most of the Arabcounties are located, it largely determines the pat-tern of settlement and plays a crucial role inhuman culture and life-style. Health and nutritiondepend on the availability of water of acceptablequality, and it is an essential input for most eco-nomic activities, especially in rural areas. On theother hand, throughout history the Arab countrieshave depended on irrigated agriculture, and gov-ernments have given irrigation projects priority tofeed the growing population. Examples are Egypt,Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and oth-ers. Investment in the water sector has been signif-icant in these countries, typically accounting for10-20 percent of total public sector investment,and equivalent to perhaps 2 to 4 percent of theGNP as shown in table 2.

By far most of the available water supplies areused for irrigation, accounting for more than 80percent of total water use in most Arab countries(Table 3). However, with the projected increasingscarcity of fresh water availability, the priority willincreasingly be placed on human consumption tomeet basic needs. This future shift from irrigationto domestic water use requires careful analysis ofthe various factors affecting the improvement anddevelopment of the water sector – resource man-agement – and the efficient utilization of thewater balance – demand management.

Lamentably, as shown in table 3, water use efficien-cy barely exceeds 40 percent in most of the coun-tries in the Arab world. Strategic planning shouldtherefore stress on water productivity – productionof any commodity per unit of water – and focusespecially on the agriculture sector, in order toattempt to achieve more value per unit of water.

Annual renewable water supplies in the Arabcountries average about 219 BCM (billioncubic metres) as compared to 4,184 BCM inAfrica, 10,485 BCM in Asia and 40,673 in theworld (World Resources Institute 1992). Ofthis figure, about 120 BCM are from flowingfrom outside the region (table 4): 84 BCM bythe Nile, 28 BCM by the Euphrates, and 38BCM by the Tigris and its tributaries. In suchsituations, countries are more sensitive toexogenous shocks as they do not themselvescontrol the river source. Besides renewable sur-face water and groundwater, there are substan-tial non-renewable groundwater resources, andcountries in the Arab region have varying accessto brackish water and unlimited seawater forfuture development.

Table 4 compares renewable fresh waterresources per capita in the countries with esti-mates for other regions of the world.

Many Arab countries have been intensively min-ing their groundwater; this is especially the casein the Gulf States as well as Algeria, Jordan,Lebanon, Palestine and Yemen. Egypt is alsomining water from the Nubian Sandstoneaquifer. Mining the accessible groundwaterresources is often risky since interactions withriver flows may affect surface supplies, and thelowering of the water tables can cause no waterflow in the river during the summer season andresult in saline intrusion from brackish waterand/or seawater on the coastal area.

Non-conventional water sources are becomingincreasingly important. The region in general,especially the Gulf states, produces more than60% of the desalinized water in the world. Due


GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON WATER AS PERCENT OF THE GNP IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 2

Public expenditure on water as a share of GDP (%)*** Ground water depletion as % of GNPCountry 2001 2002 2003 2004Algeria 1.3 1.7 1.7 1.5 -Egypt - 3.6 3.3 2.4 1.3Morocco 3.6 3.6 3.6 30.6 0Saudi Arabia - 1.7 - - -Tunisia 1.7a - - - 1.2Yemen - - 3.5 - 1.4Jordan 2.1

a- Average 1997-2001 *** World Bank 2004b, 2005b, 2006g; AWC 2006.

to its physical constraints and the relatively highcost of desalinization, this source of water is stillconfined to industrial and domestic water use.

Water availability depends mainly on seasonaland inter-annual variability; 65 percent of renew-able fresh water depends on precipitation, and in

Countries Renewable resources per capita Total withdrawal1960 1990 2025 BCM % of Total % of Total

Algeria 1,704 737 354 3 16 27Bahrain na na na 0.2 naEgypt 2,251 1,112 645 56.4 97 93Iraq 14,706 5,285 2,000 42.8 43 52Jordan 529 224 91 0.8 87 77Lebanon 2,000 1,407 809 0.8 16 24Libya 538 154 55 2.8 404 854Morocco 2,560 1,185 651 11 37 35Oman 4,000 1,333 421 0.4 22Qatar na na na na 174Saudi Arabia 537 156 49 2.3 106 643Syria 1,196 439 161 3.3 61 73Tunisia 1,036 532 319 2.3 53 54UAE 3,000 189 113 0.4 140Yemen 481 214 72 3.4 136 151MENA 3,430 1,436 667 177.2 51Africa 14,884 6,516 2,620 144 3Asia 6,290 3,368 2,134 1,531 15World 13,471 7,685 4,783 3,240 8

Countries Per sector % of totalDomestic Industry Agriculture BCM BCM water use

agric.need agric. actual efficiencyAlgeria 22 4 74 1.45 3.94 37Bahrain 60 36 4Egypt 7 5 88 28.51 54 53Iraq 3 5 92 11.2 39.38 28Jordan 29 6 65 0.29 0.68 43Lebanon 11 4 85 0.42 1.06 40Libya 15 10 75 2.56 5.13 50Morocco 6 3 91 4.24 10.18 42Oman 3 3 94Qatar 36 26 38Saudi Arabia 45 51 4 6.68 15.42 43Syria 7 10 83 8.53 18.96 45Tunisia 13 7 80 1.21 2.43 50UAE 11 9 80Yemen 5 2 93 2.48 6.19 40MENA 6 7 87Africa 7 5 88Asia 6 8 86World 8 23 69


RENEWABLE FRESH WATER RESOURCES AND TOTAL WITHDRAWAL AND USE PERSECTOR IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIES IN BILLION CUBIC METERS (BCM)

TABLE 3

Sources: A strategy for Managing water in the MENA 1993AQUASTAT FAO's information System on Water and Agriculture 2001. www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/waterres_tab.htm

the semi-arid and arid climate prevalent in muchof the Arab region precipitation varies from yearto year, and from place to place. In many areasrainfall occurs at the wrong time and in thewrong place with the wrong intensity and is con-fined to a very short period of the year. In thecase of Lebanon, there are a maximum of 80 daysof rainfall a year, and this is mostly confined tothe coastal areas. Annual precipitation variesfrom negligible amounts in desert areas to about1,500 mm in mountainous areas with most rainfalling in the winter season. Stream flows varyconsiderably during the year in response to rain-fall patterns. Water availability therefore fluctu-ates markedly about the average in table 4. Forexample, low flows on the Tigris and Euphrateshave been recorded at less than one third of theaverage annual flows, on the Jordan at less thanhalf, and at the Litani at less than one tenth.

This water supply variability implies three impor-tant constraints in water management. First,expensive storage capacity is required to utilize the

variability of flows in space and time, subjectingthe stored water to evaporation losses. Fourteenpercent of the Nile flow at Aswan is lost in evapo-ration from the reservoir and deep percolationlosses. Groundwater recharge and storage can playan important role in minimizing these losses, butthis requires expensive geophysical studies todefine the underground storage aquifers and theirboundaries. Second, it introduces an element ofrisk, which makes estimation of water’s trueopportunity cost – its value in the next best eco-nomics use – quite difficult. This is relevant, sincethe cross sectional comparison of water’s opportu-nity cost becomes increasingly important as scarci-ty increases. And third, this variability requiressystematic contingency planning.

The minimum amount of water required to sus-tain human life is 25 litres per day (about 10cubic meters per year); a reasonable supply tomaintain health may be 100-200 litres per dayper capita, although in developed/industrialcountries domestic use can exceed 300-400 litres


per day. In some Arab countries, the renewablewater supply exceeds basic human requirements,but still remains far less than the minimumamount of water required to sustain good liveli-hood – food and daily use – which is estimated tobe 1,000 cubic meters per year, as defined by theUnited Nations. Tables 5 and 6 below, abstract-ed from different sources summarize the with-drawal of water for various sectors, i.e. domestic,industrials and agricultural use.

Water demand is expanding most rapidly inurban areas. Most countries in the region are clas-sified as middle income and the percentage of theurban population that has access to safe drinkingwater is approaching 100 percent. In contrast,rural areas are much less well served with accessi-bility to drinking water, with only about 66 per-cent having safe access. Population growth ratesare expected to slow down in the region, reachingaround 2.5 percent between 2000 and 2025,which is still high by world standards; the region’spopulation is expected to increase to 466 million

in 2025. The urban share of population is alsoexpected to increase from 60 percent to 75 per-cent, leading to a dramatic increase in domesticwater use, which must be met by increasing theefficiency of water used in agriculture so that thesaving can be reallocated to different sectors.

Water withdrawal, or use, in most of the Arabcountries already exceeds renewable supplies; thisis the case in Libya, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf states,and Yemen. Only Iraq and Lebanon have renew-able water resources that are adequate and welldistributed relative to population. Nonetheless,even for these two countries water conservationprojects are necessary.

Reliably modelling a demand-supply strategy isdifficult and uncertain, because the data on sup-ply and demand are variable. Each sector can pre-dict its own water demand with a certain degreeof accuracy and reasonably estimate the invest-ments needed for meeting these demands, but ifinvestments are faced with financial and/or phys-


TOTAL ANNUAL INTERNAL RENEWABLE WATER, ANNUAL RIVER FLOWS,AND NET ANNUAL RENEWABLE RESOURCES IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 4

Countries

AlgeriaBahrainEgyptIraqJordanLebanonLibyaMoroccoOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSyriaTunisiaUAEYemenArab CountriesAfricaAsiaWorld

Totalrenewable

BCM15na5875

141

29

226

4

4219

4,18410,48540,673

From othercountries

0.2na

56.566

0.16nananananana

27.90.6nana

Totalavailable/ year

BCM11.30

16.00

**3.90

-3.0020.50

24.501.50

Annual river flows Net annualrenewable resources

BCM18.4na

58.31000.863.940.7

29.720

2.25.5

4.350.32.5

Sources: A strategy for Managing water in the MENA 1993AQUASTAT FAO's information System on Water and Agriculture 2001www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/waterres_tab.htmMargat, J., Domitille, V., 1999. Mediterranean Vision on Water, Population and the Environment for the XXIst century.Contribution to the world water council and the global water partnership prepared by the Blue Plan in the framework of the MEDTAC/GWP.

To othercountries

0.7na**na**

0.86na

0.3******

30nana**

ical constraints, then a deficit in demand willoccur. Ultimately and with good planning andmanagement supply and demand should balance.The question is at what cost?

Besides its role as a basic need and an economicinput into production sectors, water is also one ofthe three prime natural resources besides land

and air. Comprehensive data on water quality isnot fully available in most countries. No data isavailable on the availability and use of salinewater. Some data is available on treated wastewater and its recycling for use in landscape as pre-sented before. But recent World Bank studiessuggest that deteriorating water quality, whichadds to fresh water scarcity, is becoming a seriousissue in many countries. The principle sources ofwater pollution include the following:

1. Seepage and runoff of agrochemicals such asnitrogen, and pesticides;

2. Seepage from landfills due to the dumping ofthe solid wastes;

3. Untreated municipal waste water;4. Untreated industrial wastes, either discharg-

ing in municipal sewer systems or directly inwatercourses.

This decline in water quality is adding anotherdimension to the scarcity thereof, which in thelong run will affect the human health, the pro-ductivity of water, and the quality of life.Declining water quality, besides being hazardous,increases the purification cost to downstreamusers and may not be suitable to be used for par-ticular purposes.


WATER RESOURCES IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIES FROM CONVENTIONAL RENEWABLE ANDNON-CONVENTIONAL WATER RESOURCES, INCLUDING DESALINIZED AND TREATED WASTE WATER(IN MILLION CUBIC METERS (MCM)

TABLE 5

Country

LebanonOmanWest bank and GazaYemenJordanBahrainSaudi ArabiaQatarUnited Arab EmiratesIraqSyriaEgyptKuwait

Surfacewater2,500

91830

2,2503500.2

2,2301.4185

70,37016,37555,500

0.1

Conventional water resource (MCM) Non-conventional water resources (MCM)Groundwater

recharge600550185

1,400277100

3,85085

1302,0005,1004,100

160

Groundwateruse240

1,644200

2,200486258

14,430185900513

3,5004,850

405

Desalination

510.5

92.575

7951314557.4

26.6

388

Wastewaterand drainage reuse

2232

5261

17.7 (3)131 (24)

28108

1,5001,4473,800

30

(values in brackets are drainage water reuse)

‘Shared groundwater resources in the ESCWA region: the need, potential benefits and requirements for enhanced cooperation,’ paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting onLegal Aspects of the Management of Shared Water Resources, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, 8–11 June 2007 – cited in “Sectoral Water Allocation Policies in Selected ESCWACountries”, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia of the United Nations. November 2003. 5

VIRTUAL WATERThe concept of virtual water refers to the amount of waterembedded in certain goods; that is, the amount of water thatis required to produce the good. For example, with crops thisrefers to the amount of water needed to grow a certain quan-tity of the crop. The implications of the concept of virtual water– a concept developed by Professor John Anthony Allan ofKing’s College London and the School of Oriental andAfrican Studies – for water-scarce countries such as those inthe arid regions of the Arab world, are that an awareness ofthe content of virtual water, when taken into account in theproduction of goods, can aid a country in using its scarcewater resources in a more sustainable manner. Using tradetheory, then, it would make sense for water-scarce countriesto import goods for whose production water is intensivelyused, thereby saving the domestically available water supplyfor other uses.

III. CONCLUSIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONS

The water scarcity problem described so farrequires an integrated multi-disciplinary andmulti-dimensional approach in order to beresolved. The problem no longer requires the soleexpertise of water technicians and specialists to beresolved; it should be integrated within nationalsocial and economic planning. Economists, poli-cy makers, legislative and executive branches ofthe government, industrialists, agronomic spe-cialists, public health officials, as well as publicadministrators need to pool resources and energytogether to come out with a plausible and accept-able solution to this water crisis.

Management of the supply side is inadequatewithout a concomitant management of thedemand side; both these areas should beapproached in concert (that is, one cannot bedealt with without the other). This is especiallytrue in the Arab region where most of the renew-able water resources have already been exploited

and new conventional sources of water are scarce.Therefore, the management of the supply sidewith a broad and comprehensive policy alone isinsufficient. The demand side needs also to bestrictly managed and accounted for.

On the demand side, the most basic needed stepis a long-term plan that is multi-dimensional andincorporates all sides of the equation (bothdemand and supply sources). To this extent anumber of issues should be considered:

Water losses should be reduced. These losses couldbe due to leakages in closed conduits or seepagesfrom open watercourses. It has been shown thatlow water costs encourage and lead to increasedconsumption and waste. Therefore, dealing withwater as an economic commodity and placing aprice tag to account for the externalities or increas-ing the water charge would create an environmentof conservation and self-management and hencereduce water loss. This has been proven effective inmany European nations where water utilization ischarged just like electricity; studies have revealed a


SECTORAL WATER DEMANDS IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIES FOR THE YEARS 2010 AND 2025TABLE 6

Countries Sectoral water demand projectionDomestic Agriculture Industry Energy Total

2010 2025 2010 2025 2010 2025 2010 2025 2010 2025Algeria 0.83 0.80 1.90 1.90 0.2 0.3 2.93 3BahrainEgypt 5.00 6.00 75.00 95.00 10 14 90 115Jordan 0.43 0.57 1.75 2.40 0.13 0.2 2.31 3.17Lebanon 0.40 0.52 0.92 1.10 0.1 0.14 1.42 1.76Libya 1.00 1.76 9.00 11.90 0.24 0.57 10.2 14.2Morocco 2.80 3.70 1.10 1.40 6 8 10 12 19.9 25.1Syria 2.10 3.00 17.60 25.20 0.3 0.37 0.1 0.1 20.1 28.7Tunisia 0.42 0.53 3.37 4.23 0.16 0.26 3.95 5.02

Countries Sectoral water demand sustainableDomestic Agriculture Industry Energy Total

2010 2025 2010 2025 2010 2025 2010 2025 2010 2025Algeria 0.50 0.60 1.00 1.30 0.15 0.20 0 0 1.65 2.10BahrainEgypt 4.00 5.00 60.00 65.00 8.60 11.4 0 0 72.60 81.40Jordan 0.34 0.50 1.30 2.00 0.12 0.20 0 0 1.76 2.70Lebanon 0.40 0.48 0.78 0.82 0.10 0.14 0 0 1.28 1.44Libya 0.90 1.50 5.85 8.70 0.20 0.50 0 0 6.95 10.70Morocco 1.20 1.80 0.80 0.80 5.00 5.00 8 8 15.00 15.30Syria 1.00 1.26 17.20 20.70 0.30 0.47 0 0 18.50 22.40Tunisia 0.40 0.50 2.50 2.05 0.12 0.17 0 0 3.02 2.72


decrease in water waste and consumption after theimplementation of these water taxes or price tags,as well as an improvement of the efficiency andequity among users. This can and should beapplied to all sectors. In the industrial sector,industries should be made to implement waterusage quality standards; this would force the man-ufacturing managers to re-circulate their waterprocesses substantially decreasing water demand.

Furthermore, water saving technologies shouldbe introduced to the industry and replace theolder more water demanding mechanizationprocesses; although more costly in the shortterm, its return in both water conservation andresource preservation will even out in the longterm. Moreover, if environmental laws were alsoapplied, pollution would decline, increasing theavailability of freshwater supply and the sustain-

TOTAL VIRTUAL WATER AND TOTAL AVAILABLE NON-CONVENTIONAL WATER AVAILABLEIN THE REGION IN PERCENTAGE AND MILLION CUBIC METERS (MCM).

TABLE 7

Countries Virtual water Treated wastewaterEq. 1,000m3 of net import % Pop access to drink % Pop access to sanit %Agric. %Total

Algeria 12.4 94 73Bahrain 680 5.9 3.4Egypt 18.17 95 94 0.4 0.4Iraq 2.18 85 79Jordan 3.467 96 99 6.8 5.1Lebanon 100 99Libya 3.237 72 97 2.5 2.2Morocco 2.419 82 75Oman 39 92 2.3 2.1Qatar 12 8.8Saudi Arabia 13.86 1.4 1.3Syria 1.014 80 90 2.7 2.6Tunisia 0.7 0.7UAE 3.362 7.7 5.1Yemen 3.375 69 45

Countries Desalinised water Non-conventional Total consumption%Agric. %Total Total MCM Drinking Agric Industry Total

Algeria 3.6 1.422 474.6 2,181 2,543 680 5,404Bahrain 42.3 18.264 111 107 161 19 287Egypt 0.3 0.045 4,432 2,700 54,500 5,900 63,100Iraq 77 1,179 47,584 344 49,107Jordan 0.8 0.203 61 245 1,088 50 1,383Lebanon 61 415 750 60 1,225Libya 11.7 1.522 320 408 4,275 74 4,757Morocco 3,55.6 543 10,180 322 11,045Oman 45.3 2.78 60 85 1,150 6 1,241Qatar 132.7 34.609 229 85 337 17 439Saudi Arabia 41.8 4.196 1,321 2,387 18,575 193 21,155Syria 1,643 773 13,618 175 14,566Tunisia 2.4 0.27 108.7 313 2,518 69 2,900UAE 55 18.436 489 600 1,539 73 2,212Yemen 29 470 3,280 69 3,819

Sources: J.A. Allan, 1999. “Virtual Water”: An essential Element in Stabilizing the Political Economies of the Middle East. School of oriental & African studies, University of London. World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund, 2000. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment. 2000 Report. www.un.org/Depts/unsd/social/watsan.htmWHO publicationsWorld Water Council, 1999. The Arab Water Vision. Regional Consultations, Arab Countries.

ability of present resources. In the agriculturalarena, water losses can be reused via drainagesystems or channelled to recharge the under-ground water, thereby increasing overall basinefficiency. Moreover, farmers should be encour-aged to use more effective methods of irrigationlike levelling their field for higher yield surfaceirrigation or using more efficient technologieslike sprinkler and trickle irrigation. In thedomestic sector, water should be treated likeelectricity and elevated charges applied, whichin turn will induce people to become morethrifty and conscious of water wasting andpreservation, hence declining the demand with-in the domestic sector. This is especially impor-tant when we realize that paradoxically per capi-ta consumption for domestic use in some water-poor Arabian Gulf countries, depending entire-ly on desalinated sea water, exceeds averageglobal levels!

In order to achieve the needed sustainability ofthe Arab region’s scarce water resources a holis-tic and comprehensive approach should beadopted. The above-mentioned solutions aremeaningless without simultaneous capacitybuilding, public and technical education, andincreased public awareness.

To sum up, the Arab region countries are facedwith many challenges related to the water scarci-ty problem. In order to alleviate the pressure anddevelop socio-economically in an adequate andsustainable fashion, they should adopt the fol-lowing recommendations for long-term strategyplanning:

1. Optimization of water allocation among thethree domains (agricultural, industrial,domestic).

2. Implementation of an optimal water produc-tivity strategy that leads to the import ofwater through virtual water.

3. Holistic and integrated approach to waterresources supply and demand planning andmanagement.

4. Capacity building and technical upgradingof all stakeholders.

5. Awareness raising at levels, from end users todecision makers.

6. Issuing and implementing of sustainablewater policies based on the above points, cur-rent and prospective water data and research.

7. Development of water resources manage-ment models that will be able to unfoldmany solution scenarios to select the optimalapproach.

Whereas the topic of virtual water may be new tothe region many nations worldwide have success-fully invested in its development and invested init to help reduce water shortages and wastes.Therefore it could be of value for water-scarcenations to invest and shift their resources toimport water-rich products instead of growingthem domestically and loosing the rare availablewater resources (this shift would create morewater for use in other needed sectors). Based oninternational trade theories, nations shouldimport products in which they have a compara-tive disadvantage in production (i.e. water-inten-sive products for water-poor nations) and exportthose products in which they have a comparableeconomic advantage.


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El Kady, Mona Mostafa. “Water Scarcity fromProblems to Opportunities in the Middle East.” NWRCPublication, 2003.

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FAO. Drought Impact Mitigation and Prevention: Long-term Perspective. Twenty-first FAO RegionalConference for Africa. Yaounde, Cameroon 21-25February, 2000.

FAO. Proceedings of the Workshop on Livestock andDrought: Policies for Coping with Changes. Egypt, 24-27 May, 1999.

FAO. Special Alert No 308; Millions of PeopleSeriously Affected by Drought in Several Countries inthe Near East and South Asia. FAO Global Informationand Early Warning system on Food and Agriculture.May 11, 2000.

Francona, Rick. “The Euphrates River: The Politics ofWater.” November 15, 1999.http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/3874/28688(accessed November 18, 2007).

Frederick, Kenneth D, “Water as a Source ofInternational Conflict.” Resources 123, Spring 1996.

“From Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential:Water for Peace.” IHP/UNESCO-Green Crossinitiative, 2002.

Hoekstra, A. Y. (ed.), Virtual Water Trade: Proceedingsof the International Expert Meeting on Virtual WaterTrade, Value of Water Research Report, Series No 12,IHE Delft, February 2003.

IPCC. Working Group II: contribution to the ThirdAssessment Report of the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC) “ClimateChange 2001: Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability “. Geneva, Switzerland. 13-16February, 2001.

Libiszewski, Stephan. “Water Disputes in the JordanBasin Region and their Role in the Resolution of theArab-Israeli Conflict.” ENCOP Occasional Paper No 13,August 1995.

El Fadel, M, M. Zeinati, D. Jamali, “WaterResources Management in Lebanon: InstitutionalFramework and Policy Options,” Water Policy,Vol. 3(5), 2001: 425-448.

McCarthy, Michael. “Water Scarcity Could AffectBillions: Is This the Biggest Crisis of All?” CommonDreams News Center; September 3, 2003.

Mubarak, Jamil. “Middle East and North Africa:Development Policy in View of a Narrow AgriculturalNatural Resource Base.” World Development. Vol 26,May 1998: 877-895.

Murakami, Asako, “Flood of opinions solicited forwater forum,” The Japan Times, March 1, 2003.

Nimah, Musa. “Water Resources Management inthe Near east and North Africa Region.” Currentand Emerging Issues for Economic Analysis andPolicy Research CUREMIS II NENA. Cairo,November 19-20; 2002.

Ohlsson, Leif. Water Scarcity and Conflict. Bern,Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1999.

Osman, Mohammad Ehsan, “Agricultural Policies inthe Arab World.” Proceedings of the Symposium onchallenges facing water resources management inarid and Semi-arid regions. Musa N. Nimah andNadim Farajallah (editors). American University ofBeirut. 7-9 October 2004. (CD Publication).

Otchet, Amy. “Sabre-rattling among thirsty nations.”UNESCO Courier, October 2001.

Patrick, Kevin, “Water and Wastewater resource andInfrastructure Master Planning, Financing andConflict,” Concept Paper for Patrick & Stowell, P.C.,Aspen Colorado, 2000.

Rosegrant, Mark. “Dealing with Water Scarcity in theNext Century.” International Food Policy and ResearchInstitute, June 1995.

Saleh, W. “The “Four Pillars” Approach to WaterSustainability.” Paper presented at the 2ndInternational Water Conference in the Arab Countries;July 7-10, 2003.

Salem, F. “Water Sustainability-A National SecurityIssue for the Middle East and North Africa Region.”Paper presented at the 2nd International WaterConference in the Arab Countries; July 7-10, 2003.

‘Shared groundwater resources in the ESCWA region:the need, potential benefits and requirements forenhanced cooperation,’ paper presented at the ExpertGroup Meeting on Legal Aspects of the Managementof Shared Water Resources, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt,8–11 June 2007 – cited in “Sectoral Water Allocation

Policies in Selected ESCWA Countries”, Economic andSocial Commission for Western Asia of the UnitedNations. November 2003.

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United Nations. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries ExperiencingSerious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, 1994.

Walker, W.R., M.S. Hrezo, and C.J. Haley,“Management of Water Resources for DroughtConditions,” 1991, in Paulson, R.W., E.B. Chase, R.S.Roberts, and D.W. Moody (Compilers), National WaterSummary 1988-89—Hydrologic Events and Floodsand Droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-SupplyPaper 2375, 1991.

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World Bank. “Public Health in the Middle East andNorth Africa: A Situation Analysis.” June 10, 2002.

REFERENCES


Marine Environment

75

MAHMOUD KHAMIS EL SAYYED

CHAPTER 6

I. INTRODUCTION

The sustainable use of coastal and oceanresources is linked to public health, food securi-ty, and economic and social benefits, includingcultural values and traditional livelihoods. Morebroadly, these elements are understood as deci-sive elements for the alleviation of poverty.Activities from industrial and agricultural pro-duction to daily domestic routines all generateimpacts that cumulatively affect the health ofthese critical marine ecosystems and ultimatelytheir economic development.

The major threats to the health, productivity andbiodiversity of the marine environment resultfrom human activities on land and in coastalareas. Most of the pollution load of the oceans,including municipal, industrial and agriculturalwastes and run-off, as well as atmospheric depo-sition, arises from land-based activities (LBA)and affects the most productive areas of themarine and coastal environments.

II. ARAB MARINE ENVIRONMENT:POLLUTION CAUSES AND REMEDIAL ACTIONS

Three of the UNEP Regional Seas Programmeregions – the Mediterranean Region (MAP),the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region (PERS-GA) and the ROPME Sea Area (RSA) –encompass twenty Arab States out of the twen-ty-two member countries of the Arab League.Some of these countries (Egypt, Morocco,Saudi Arabia) straddle more than a region, forexample Egypt’s coastlines extend on both theMediterranean and the Red Sea, and SaudiArabia’s coastlines extend on both the Red Seaand the Gulf.

Basic information on the coastal and marineenvironment of the Arab countries is presented inTable 1.

Arab Environment ofthe Mediterranean Region

The Mediterranean basin, a semi-enclosed sea, issituated at the centre of a complex mosaic formedby tectonic plates, and is subject to heavy seismicand volcanic activity. With the exception of thesoutheast and some 3,000 km along the Libyanand Egyptian coasts where the Saharan platformdirectly meets the sea, there are mountains every-where (Jeftic et al, 1989).

There are a number of large alluvial plains associ-ated with the deltas of major rivers (Ebro, Rhone,Po and Nile) and with those of numerous small-er rivers of the basin, as in Tunisia. These riversdrain soils far removed from the coastline andcarry very large volumes of sediment to the sea(Batisse & Grissac, 2003).

Seven Arab countries (Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon,Libya, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia) are SignatoryStates to the Barcelona Convention (1976), thatinclude 22 Mediterranean counties.

MARINE ENVIRONMENTCHAPTER 676

THE UNEP REGIONALSEAS PROGRAMMEUNEP Regional Seas Programme has emerged over the lastquarter century as an inspiring example of how to craft aregional approach to protecting the environment and manag-ing natural resources. The Regional Seas Conventions andAction Plans cover issues ranging from chemical wastes andcoastal development to the conservation of marine animalsand ecosystems.

Around 150 million people (in 2000) are con-centrated along the 46,000 km of theMediterranean coastline, 54 million people ofwhich are from the 7 Mediterranean Arab coun-tries. Some 200 million tourists descend on theMediterranean region every year, of which 17million are tourists visiting the Arab countries ofthe region (Benoit & Comeau, 2005). More than200 petrochemical and energy installations,chemical industries and chlorine plants are locat-ed along the Mediterranean coast. These figuresrepresent the major challenge for the preservationof the environment of the Mediterranean owingto the transboundary nature of the pollution thatoriginates from land-based sources around thewhole basin. The Mediterranean countries havebeen devoting specific attention over the past

decades to prevent, halt, reduce and ultimatelyeliminate the main sources of pollution for themarine environment.

The major sources of pollution in theMediterranean include:

• Municipal wastewater treatment and disposal; • Urban solid waste disposal; • Activities contributing to air pollution from

mobile sources; • Release of harmful concentrations of nutrients

into the marine environment;• Storage, transportation and disposal of radioac-

tive and hazardous waste; and• Activities contributing to the destruction of the

coastline and coastal habitats.


BASIC INFORMATION ON THE COASTAL AND MARINE ARAB ENVIRONMENTTABLE 1

COASTAL & SHELF EXTENSION & AREARegion Arab Countries Coastline km Cont. shelf km2 Territorial Sea km2

MED Region Morocco 2,008** 70,365 37,481Algeria 1,557** 9,688 27,863Tunisia 1,927** 65,347 36,773Lybia 2,025** 63,595 38,131Egypt# 2,450** (Med+RS) 50,060 (Med+RS) 82,048Lebanon 294** 1,169 4,702Syria 212** 852 3,866

PERSGA Red Sea Djibouti 443*** 3,406 4,853& Gulf of Aden Region Egypt 1,800*** X X

Jordan 27*** 82 87Saudi Arabia 1,840*** (RS+RSA) 95,580 (RS+RSA) 95,580Somalia 3,898*** 40,392 68,849Sudan 2,245*** 15,861 32,645Yemen 3,149*** 65,341 82,359

ROPME Sea Area Bahrain 255# 7,967 4,006(GULF Region) Iraq 105# 1,034 716

Kuwait 756# 6,526 5,362Oman 3,165# 46,670 51,821Qatar 909# 31,156 11,373Saudi Arabia 790# (RS+RSA) 95,580 (RS+RSA) 95,580UAE 735# 51,394 30,962

Other Regions Mauritania 1,268 28,370 19,455Comoros 469 1,426 12,684

Main source: World resource Institution. Earth trends: The Environmental Information Portal (2006)** EEAA (2006)*** PERSGA (1998)# ROPME (2003)Med: Mediterranean SeaRS: Red SeaROPME Sea Area: RSA

Arab Environment of the Red Sea andGulf of Aden Region (PERSGA)

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (RSGA) is recog-nized as one of the world’s most unique coastaland marine environments, in its role as an impor-tant repository of marine biodiversity, largelythrough its complex systems of coral reefs, inter-spersed with mangroves, seagrass beds and otherdiverse coastal habitats. The relative physical iso-lation of the sea has given rise to high levels ofspecies endemism, especially among some groupsof reef fishes and reef-associated invertebrates.The Gulf of Aden presents a very different situa-tion: its cold, nutrient rich upwelling water mayinhibit coral development but gives rise to prodi-gious fisheries production (PERSGA, 2004a).

The marine resources of this region have sus-tained human cultures for centuries. Until rela-tively recently, the RSGA region remained com-paratively unaffected by the changes beingwrought worldwide, especially in neighbouringareas such as the Mediterranean Sea. The envi-ronment and resources of the RSGA are threat-ened by a variety of human activities such asdredging and filling operations, the disposal of

domestic and industrial effluent, the non-sustain-able use of non-living resources and the expan-sion of the tourism industry. Yet the presenttransboundary and region-wide concerns are far-reaching and require actions to minimize loss ofvital ecological and economic services to the peo-ple of this region (PERSGA, 2004a).

The Member States to PERSGA (RegionalOrganization for the Conservation of theEnvironment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden)are: Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia,Somalia, Sudan and Yemen.

Arab Environment of the ROPMESea Area (Gulf Region)

ROPME (Regional Organization for theProtection of the Marine Environment) Sea Area(RSA), is the sea area located at the most north-western part of the Indian Ocean. The RSA ismade up of three parts. These include the innerRSA which extends over 1,000 km along theNW-SW axis from the Strait of Hormuz to thenorthern coast of Iran; the middle RSA, whichconsists of the deep basin of the Gulf of Oman,with depths exceeding 2,500 m along its centralchannel; and the outer RSA, which extends tothe southern border of Oman, and is an integralpart of the Indian Ocean.

The ROPME area is surrounded by eightMember States, seven of whom are Arab coun-tries: Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, SaudiArabia and the United Arab Emirates.

The RSA is considered to have one of the great-est pollution risks in the world due to the largenumber of offshore installations, tanker loadingterminals, and the high volume and density ofmarine transportation of oil (UNEP/GPA,2006). Roughly two million barrels of oil arespilled annually from routine discharges of bal-last, tanker slops and from 800 oil and gas plat-forms (GESAMP, 2001).

The most pressing current and emerging envi-ronmental issues in the RSA include: the intro-duction of various pollutants, physical alterationand destruction of habitats, the use of destructivefishing techniques and overexploitation ofmarine biological resources, and the introductionof invasive species (ROPME, 2003).


III. ALGAE CONCENTRATIONIN COASTAL WATERS(EUTROPHICATION)

Eutrophication is a process by which watersenriched with nutrients (nitrogen and phospho-rus) stimulates primary aquatic production. Thisleads to an increase in phytoplankton biomassassociated with excessive algal blooms, includingseaweed, ‘red tides’, seaweed scum, the growth ofbenthic algae and sometimes a massive growth ofimmersed and floating microphytes; oxygendepletion and fish kills.

The sources of excessive amounts of nutrients inthe marine environment are diverse and includeindustry, agriculture, river run-off and sewagedischarges.

The Mediterranean Region

Eutrophication has become a chronic problem inshallow waters near deltas such as the Nile inEgypt and major urban areas, because of the dif-fuse agricultural and industrial discharges.Agricultural projections in the Mediterraneanindicate that the use of fertilizers could increasebetween 2000 and 2025 by as much as 70% inthe east and 50% in the south.

The discharge of non-treated wastewater fromindustry and cities contributes 10% of the totalinput of phosphorus and 20% of nitrogen. Thiscan intensify eutrophication locally. Examplesare the hot spots associated with eutrophicationin Egypt and Tunisia (UNEP / MAP / MED-POL, 2005).

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region

All Red Sea and Gulf of Aden countries haveidentified nutrients (particularly nitrogen, phos-phorus and their compounds) as a primary areaof concern (PERSGA, 2005).

The nutrients’ principal sources in the regioninclude:

• Fertilizer factories in Jordan and Egypt;• Agricultural run-off; • Discharge of untreated sewage. This appears to

be a drastic problem in Djibouti, Somalia andYemen (PERSGA, 1997).

Some areas, particularly on the west coast of theRed Sea south of Suez, still receive a consider-able load of nutrients and Biochemical OxygenDemand (BOD) discharges from domesticsewage. This contributes to eutrophication ofthe coastal waters around selected populationcentres, major ports and tourist facilities(Gerges, 2002).

The ROPME Sea Area

Dense mats of filamentous green algae grew inthe intertidal zone of the northern coast ofBahrain, indicating eutrophication. Similarly,sewage and agro-based industries have causedincreased growth of benthic algae in the north-west RSA off Shatt Al-Arab. Signs of eutrophica-tion were observed in Kuwait Bay and in thecoastal waters of Muscat (Oman), Dhahran(Saudi Arabia) and Abu Dhabi (UAE). Oxygendepletion associated with high levels of H2S,ammonia and the discharge of large quantities ofwastewater in Kuwait Bay have led to severalmajor incidents of fish mortality, such as the inci-dent of 1999 which was the result of anoxic con-ditions caused by massive algal blooms. Red tideswere recorded in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia; thismay be taken as a result of eutrophication(ROPME, 2003).

IV. COASTAL ANDMARINE POLLUTION


Land-based sources of pollution

Pollution from land-based sources consists ofuntreated sewage discharge, agricultural runoffscontaining pesticides, nitrates and phosphates,


Eutrophication is recognized in the Arab MarineEnvironment of the Mediterranean, RSGA and RSARegions. However, eutrophication has become a chronicproblem in shallow waters near deltas such as the Nile inEgypt and major urban areas. Rational agriculture – makingmore efficient use of fertilizers – could limit the risks of exces-sive soil additives, and thus the diffuse discharges of agricul-tural origin that are a primary cause of eutrophication. Alongwith waste treatment, this will minimize the eutrophication.

ill-managed coastal development and emissionsof contaminants directly from the ever-expand-ing industries around the Mediterranean orthrough rivers. Industrial pollution mainlycomes from the chemical/petrochemical andmetallurgy sectors.

Direct impacts of effluents from industry causepollution problems at the site level and create‘hot spot’ areas. Pollution Hot Spots in the ArabMediterranean Environment are shown inTable 2.

Sea-based sources of pollution

The Mediterranean Sea is the major route fortransportation of crude oil from the oil fields inthe Middle East and North Africa, and oil portsin the Black Sea towards major consumptioncentres in Europe and North America. The mostimportant oil traffic lane (90% of total oil tankertraffic) connects the Suez Canal and the SidiKerir terminal of the SUMED pipeline in Egyptwith Gibraltar, passing between Sicily and Maltaand then following the coasts of Tunisia, Algeria


PRIORITY POLLUTION HOT SPOTS IN THE ARAB MEDITERRANEANENVIRONMENT AND ESTIMATES OF BOD DISCHARGED FROM THEIR HOT SPOTS

TABLE 2

Country Hot Spot Effluent Type BOD t/y (UNEP/MAP, 2004)Algeria Oran Domestic +industrial 113,600

Rouiba-Peghaia Domestic +industrialGhazaouet Domestic +industrialAlger Domestic +industrialMostaganem Domestic +industrialBejaia Domestic +industrialAnnaba Domestic +industrialSkikda Domestic +industrial

Egypt El-Manzala Mixed (Wastewater) 213,160Abu-Qir Bay MixedEl-Mex Bay Mixed (Wastewater)Alexandria DomesticDamietta Mixed (River)

Lebanon Greater Beirut area Municipal +industrial 4,090Jounieh Municipal +industrialSaida-Ghaziye Municipal +industrialTripoli MunicipalBatroun-Selaata Municipal +industrial

Libya Zawia Domestic 2,160Tripoli DomesticZanzur IndustrialBenghazi DomesticTobruk Domestic

Morocco Tangier Domestic +industrial 5,180Tetouan Domestic+ industrialNador Domestic+ industrial

Syria Tartous Municipal +industrial 580Lattakia Municipal +industrialBanias Municipal +industrialJableh Municipal +industrial

Tunisia Gabes Municipal +industrial 7,250Lake of Tunis Municipal +industrialLake of Bizerte Municipal +industrialSfax-South Municipal +industrial

Sources: UNEP/WHO, 1999 ; UNEP/MAP, 2004

and Morocco (REMPEC, 2002). Naturally, suchheavy naval traffic brings with it many risks ofmarine pollution.

The Red Sea & Gulf of Aden Region

Land-based Sources of Pollution

The main land-based sources of pollution are:

Municipal wastewater discharges: The dis-charge of municipal wastewaters continues topresent significant management problems in theRegion. Although the levels of sewage dischargein the Red Sea are not particularly severe com-pared to other areas, due to the relatively limitedcoastal population and general lack of major pop-ulation centres in its catchments area, the resultsof discharges are cumulative.

Industrial effluents: Impacts of industrial efflu-ents, in the form of thermal pollution or brinewater from power and desalinization plants, par-ticulate matter and mineral dust from fertilizerand cement factories, and chemicals and organicwastes from food and textile processing factories,contribute to the land-based sources of pollutionaffecting coastal waters in the RSGA region(Gerges, 2002).

Sea-based Sources of Pollution

Although approximately 11% of the world’sseaborne oil is transported through the RSGAregion, there have been no major spills (>5,000tonnes) resulting from shipping accidents. Mostspills in this region have been the result of oper-ational discharges, equipment failures andgroundings (ITOPF, 2003).

Despite the low occurrence of major accidentswithin the region, the high volume of shippingresults in chronic pollution in the form of tarballsarriving on the shorelines. Studies of water quali-ty suggest that the Red Sea environment receivesmore oil/km2 than any other regional sea. Thecoast of Saudi Arabia between Jeddah and Yemenis tarred in several places. The Egyptian coast nearthe offshore oil fields of the Gulf of Suez is simi-larly affected by oil discharges (ITOPF, 2003).

Plans to increase the volume of oil transportedvia the Yanbu Petroline and the SUMED

Pipeline, along with the possibility of expandingthe capacity of the Suez Canal to accommodatefully laden vessels of 250,000 tonnes createincreased risks of major oil spills. Other potentialsea-based sources of pollution in the region arethe risks of spills and other production accidentsassociated with the offshore oil activities andoperations (Gerges, 2002).

The ROPME Sea Area

Land-based Sources of Pollution

The impacts of municipal sewage and industrialeffluents, particularly those of petroleum refiner-ies and the petrochemical industry, are signifi-cant. Power plants cause thermal pollution anddesalination plants release chlorine, brine andthermal loads into the seawater (ROPME, 2003).

Sea-based Sources of Pollution

The RSA has one of the highest oil pollutionrisks in the world because of the concentration ofoffshore installations, tanker loading terminalsand the huge volume and density of marinetransportation of oil. Out of twenty cases of oilspills greater than ten million gallons worldwide,six cases have taken place in the RSA. Smallerscale oil pollution incidents such as submarinepipeline rupture and well blowout are more fre-quent in the RSA (ROPME, 2003).

V. MARINE FISHERIES & ANNUAL CATCH


In the Mediterranean, 540 species of fish havebeen recorded (Batisse & Jeudy de Grissac,2003). The yield of Mediterranean fisheries, ingeneral, is relatively low compared to otheroceans, probably as a result of the relatively lowprimary productivity and generally narrow conti-nental shelves. There is some evidence of a gradi-


Pollution from land-based sources (mainly untreated domes-tic sewage and industrial wastes) is a common marine envi-ronmental issue in the Arab countries, while sea- based pol-lution is more acute in the RSA.

ent in the yield, decreasing from west to east andfrom north to south.

Exploitation of Resources

Approximately 1.5 million tons of fish are caughtin the whole Mediterranean Sea each year(WWF, 2004), and fishing from the LevantBasin during 2000 was 80,915 tonnes (Benoit &Comeau, 2005). Overfishing is becoming anincreasing problem in the Mediterranean waters,and is being driven by the rising prices anddemand in the past decades. This is resulting inunsustainable exploitation of many fish stocks,and the destruction of their natural habitats.With 22 Mediterranean countries plus Asianfishing fleets competing for the same fishresources, there has been a dramatic decline infish stocks which have already fallen to 20% ofnatural levels in some areas. Destructive andoften illegal fishing methods have contributed todepleting fish stocks.

Data on the Capture Fishes of the Mediterraneanregion are shown in Table 3.


The fisheries of the RSGA are of considerablesocio-economic importance in terms of nationalfood security and income generation for ruralcommunities. Fisheries resources are exploited byartisanal fishermen, local commercial fisheriesand foreign industrial fisheries targeting inverte-brates, demersal finfish and pelagic finfish. Theshark resources in the region are heavily fished,especially in Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan andYemen. Fish and shellfish stocks of the RSGAsupport artisanal, semi-industrial and industrialfisheries fleets of Djibouti, Egypt, Saudi Arabia,Somalia, Sudan and Yemen (PERSGA, 2004a).

A large number of fish stocks are exploited. Ofthe vast number of species of fish in the region,only around 65 species are presently consideredto be of economic importance, in addition tosharks, rays, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, molluscsand sea cucumber.

Very few large-scale resource surveys and stockassessments have been conducted on majorspecies on a regional basis. The total potentialyield of fisheries resources for the Red Sea has

been calculated at 360,000 mt (megatons) and267,000 to 414,000 mt for the Gulf of Aden.

Unsustainable exploitation of living marineresources

According to PERSGA (2000), Egypt’s trawl,purse-seine and reef-associated fisheries are allconsidered over-exploited. Severe fishing pres-sure, coupled with water pollution in the Gulf ofSuez and the Red Sea have been indicated as neg-ative impacts on fisheries.

In Sudan, stocks are fully exploited in watersadjacent to Suakin in the south and MohammedQol in the north; a steady decline in finfishcatches of certain species of snapper is observed.Production from Suakin dropped from 163 mtin 1990/91 to 26.3 mt in 1992/93 and exports asa whole declined from 485 mt in 1991/92 to432.7 mt in 1994/95. Shark resources have alsoshown rapid decline to only 163 mt in 1990/91to 26.3 mt in 1993/94.

In Djibouti, parts of the coasts and territorialwaters are still in a largely pristine state.However, some studies shown that in severalareas there are alarming signs of degradation andthreats. Djibouti has only traditional fisheries.

In Yemen, the lucrative industrial fishery for cut-tlefish in the Gulf of Aden illustrates a clear exam-ple of overfishing and resultant decline of the fish-ery. The stock today has still not recovered and isstill far below its biological potential. Similarly thedeep-sea lobster was also over-fished. Reasonabledata for landings by the Gulf of Aden rock lobsterfishery off the coast of Yemen indicate that land-ings have declined since 1990 and the average sizeof rock lobster has decreased. Declines in the land-ings of sharks by fishermen operating in theYemen’s Red Sea waters and in Sudan is an indica-tion of overfishing (PERSGA, 2000).

Data on the Capture Fishes of the RSGA areshown in Table 3.

The ROPME Sea Area

There is a generally low diversity of fish species inthe RSA. The fisheries sector plays only a minorrole in the national economies in the Region.The inner part of the RSA supports more than


500 fish species, most of which live in pelagic orsoft substrate demersal habitats: at least 125species are found on the reefs; about 130 fishspecies are known to occur in Kuwait; 71 speciesin Bahrain; and 106 species from reefs in SaudiArabia. Environmental extremes in the innerRSA have restricted the distribution of manyspecies of fish (ROPME, 2003).

The commercial fisheries of the region are support-ed by over 1,000 species of finfish and shellfish,including six species of shrimp, two species ofspiny lobster, one species of shovel nose lobster,one species of cuttlefish, one species of abalone andone species of crab. Considering the Arab countriesof the RSA, the highest fish landings have beenreported in Oman and UAE. Qatar had the lowestquantities during the period 1995–1999. Bahrainand Kuwait had similar volumes of landings.

The fisheries of the region are affected by envi-ronmental degradation caused by coastal zoneactivities which have led to the elimination of

nursery areas for commercially important speciesof fin and shellfish. The reduction of outflowfrom Shatt Al-Arab has had significant negativeeffects on the reproduction of certain marinespecies. Bottom trawling has severely destroyedthe benthic communities of the region. Severalcountries have taken remedial measures to pro-tect shrimp stocks. Data on the Capture Fishes ofthe RSA are shown in Table 3.


CAPTURE FISHES FROM THE ARAB COUNTRIES OF THE MED, RSGA AND RSA TABLE 3

1000 tonsRegion Countries Demersal Pelagic #Marine Crustacean Molluscs Cephalopod

mar. fish mar. fish fish NEIMED Region Morocco 68 749 37 10 2 29

Algeria 12 115 9 3 0 1Tunisia 31 54 6 7 1 12Libya - - - - - -*Egypt MED+RS 216 35 19 14 4 3Lebanon 1 2 0 0Syria 1 1 0 0

PERSGA Djibouti - - - - - -Red Sea & Jordan 0 0 0 - - -Gulf of Aden *Saudi Arabia RS+RSA 26 18 1 18 - 1Region Somalia - - - - - -

Sudan 0 0 5 - - -Yemen 56 183 3 - 13

ROPME Bahrain 6 1 1 6 0Sea Area Iraq - - - - - -

Kuwait 2 1 0 2 - -Qatar 7 3 1 0 0Oman 50 97 6 1 0 12UAE 57 31 2 0 - 0

#NEI not elsewhere included*Egypt and Saudi Arabia data are for their total production from different regional seas.Source: FAO, 2004

In the Mediterranean and the RSGA, overfishing is becomingan increasingly severe problem as a result of unsustainableexploitation of many fish stocks. The fisheries of the RSA areaffected by environmental degradation caused by coastal zoneactivities that eliminate nursery areas for important species.Inadequate Fisheries management is a result of the:• lack of information on transboundary stocks and coopera-

tion in management of shared stocks;• inadequate baseline data on benthic and demersal stocks;• lack of surveillance and enforcement of existing fishing reg-

ulations.

VI. CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs represent an important resource, bothin terms of global biological diversity and withrespect to the well-being of the people who livenear or depend upon them. Reefs are an essentialsupplier of protein to subsistence communities; avaluable currency earner through exploitation oftheir resources and through tourism; and a natu-ralist’s paradise (UNEP/IUCN, 1993).

Coral reefs exist only in the PERSGA andROPME regions.


The Red Sea is most famous for its extensivefringing coral reefs. These reefs are composed ofapproximately 200 species of stony corals(belonging to more than 50 genera, Table 4).The warm water and absence of freshwater inputprovide very suitable conditions for coral reef for-mation adjacent to the coastline. This beautifulenvironment is extremely attractive as a touristresource and is currently visited by hundreds ofthousands of people each year particularly inEgypt, who dive and swim in the waters adjacentto the reefs. Further south the coastal shelfbecomes much broader and shallower and thefringing reefs gradually disappear to be replacedby shallow, sandy shorelines and mangroves.

Reef development varies from north to south inthe Red Sea, with well-developed, narrow fring-ing reefs north of 20ºN with steep slopes drop-ping into very deep water. In the northern RedSea the coast is fringed by an almost continuousband of coral reef, which physically protects thenearby shoreline. A longitudinal series of coralreefs exists within the Red Sea, effectively form-ing a series of barrier reefs. These barrier reefs are

10-40 km offshore of the Saudi Arabian coast-line and extend southward for 400 km. Similarsystems of reefs occur on the African side of theRed Sea. There are also isolated patch reefs andatoll-like structures, the most famous of which isSanganeb Atoll in Sudan (PERSGA, 2002).

Corals require a range of physical conditions forhealthy growth and reproduction, all of which areinfluenced by human activities. Physical destruc-tion, changes in water quality, such as raised nutri-ent levels, and changes in salinity and tempera-ture, high levels of sedimentation, and changes inwater currents can all damage coral reefs.Recovery, through new growth and larval settle-ment, requires a considerable amount of time andfreedom from chronic stress (PERSGA, 1998).

The ROPME Sea Area

There are numerous patch reefs in the RSA, withcoral islands representing the peak of their devel-opment. Because of scouring by loose sand in thewater column, patch reefs support fewer and lessdense communities than island coral reefs, whichhave extensive reef flats and extend to depths of10-20 meters. About 55-60 coral species have beenidentified in the RSA. This compares to about 200species in the Red Sea (ROPME, 2003).

The coral reefs in the RSA are subject to a widerange of natural environmental stresses andhuman influences. Coral bleaching has beenreported on some reefs in Bahrain, Oman, SaudiArabia and the UAE over the past few years.Coral reefs are extensively destroyed by Crown ofThorns Starfish (COTS) in Oman and UAE.

Although the region contains only about 8% ofthe world’s mapped coral reefs, almost two-thirdsof them are classified as being at risk.

VII. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD) IN MARINE WATERS


Algeria and Egypt are the highest BOD contrib-utors among all Mediterranean countriesincluding the Arab states of the southMediterranean. The BOD discharged fromindustrial sources in Algeria was estimated at


Most fishing activities in the RSGA occur in shallow waters inthe vicinity of coral reefs.Corals are largely destroyed in areas affected by “uncon-trolled” urban and tourism development and tourism.Sedimentation from these operations has an adverse effect onthe surrounding ecosystems (e.g coral reefs). The coral reefsin the RSA are subject to a wide range of natural environ-mental stress and human influences. Coral bleaching hasbeen reported on some reefs.

113,600 tons/year. This value is about 28% ofthe total industrial BOD discharged to theMediterranean. The Egyptian Mediterraneancoastal waters receive the pollution load of themajor part of the country’s population, agricul-tural and industrial activities. Accordingly, theBOD discharged from industrial sources inEgypt was estimated at 213,160 tons/year; thiscontributes about 52% of the total industrialBOD discharged to the Mediterranean.

BOD discharged from Hot Spots of the ArabMediterranean countries is presented in Table 2.


Some areas, particularly on the west coast of theRed Sea south of Suez still receive a considerableload of nutrients and BOD discharges fromdomestic sewage (Gerges, 2002). According toPERSGA (2001), estimated total BOD generat-ed by Saudi Arabia’s municipal sewage treatmentalong the Red Sea coast is 122,000 t/y.

The ROPME Sea Area

Desalination and power plants discharge around48% of the total industrial effluent volumewhich contribute to the BOD, COD (ChemicalOxygen Demand) and SS (Suspended Solids)

load in the marine environment of the RSA(ROPME, 2003).

The liquid industrial discharge from Saudi Arabiais mainly from sewage treatment plants, andincludes domestic and industrial wastes. In 1999,the quantity of waste discharged on the SaudiArabian coast of the RSA was 600,000 m3/d. Thecontaminant load of the discharged waste indicat-ed that the BOD load was 6,622 t/y.

Levels of industrial liquid waste produced in theUAE were estimated at 37x106m3 in 1998, andBOD estimated as 11,082 t/y. In Abu Dhabi, theBOD is estimated at 3,018 t/y.

VIII. IMPACT OF COASTAL DEVELOPMENTS


The coasts of the Mediterranean Arab states sup-ported a population of approximately 53 millioninhabitants in 2000, a figure which is rapidlyincreasing, and is projected to rise to 77 millioninhabitants in 2025 (Benoit & Comeau, 2005).Associated with this urban spread is the threat tospecies and habitats from land reclamation, wastewater discharges and construction disturbance.


Tourism is flourishing at present in the southernMediterranean (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egyptand Lebanon). The Arab Mediterranean countriesreceived about 17 million tourists in 2005, with aprojection of about 48 million in 2025 (Benoit &Comeau, 2005). The negative impact of tourismis the environmental degradation through exten-sive development, added pressure to the coastalareas, and stress on the marine environment.


The physical alteration and destruction of habi-tats as a result of dredging and filling operationsassociated with urban expansion, tourism andindustrial developments are among the mainsources of environmental degradation in theRSGA region. This is particularly witnessed inEgypt and Saudi Arabia (Gerges, 2002).Sedimentation from these operations has anadverse effect on the surrounding ecosystems(mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs) and, asa consequence, a decline in the productivity ofthe sea. In addition, uncontrolled tourism hasresulted in significant damage and destruction ofkey habitats. Although the environmental impactof tourism in the southern RSGA is not asprominent as in the northern and central areas,the growing tourism investment plans in variousparts of these countries will ultimately induceenvironmental impacts on a regional scale(PERSGA, 2005).

The ROPME Sea Area

The coastline of the RSA is under increasingpressure from the high pace of development andextensive economic activities. By the early 1990s,some countries had already developed more than40% of their coastlines (ROPME, 2003). Severalcoastal development projects have been or arebeing implemented in the region’s countries. In

Bahrain such activities considerably increased inthe 1970s, due to industrial and residential pres-sures such as the construction of industrial com-plexes and to build the King Fahd Causeway.The reclaimed land in Bahrain increased the sur-face area of Bahrain from 661.87 km2 in 1975 to700 km2 in 1994. Recently, urbanization hasencroached on significant parts of the coastalareas of Bahrain.

Considerable stretches of the intertidal areasalong the Kuwait City coast and some sectionsalong the southern coast of Kuwait have beenreclaimed. As a result, significant erosion prob-lems have developed along most of the fill edge ofthe reclaimed areas.

Reclamation and particularly dredging for port,harbour and seafront development contributedto changes in coastal environments in theSultanate of Oman in 2002.

Commercial and residential development hastaken place along the coastal areas of SaudiArabia, particularly around Jubail, and furthersouth around Tarut Bay, Dammam and Khobar.

Industrial complexes and desalination plantswere established in the UAE. Significant urbandevelopment is taking place along the coasts andtheir surrounding areas in Abu Dhabi andDubai.

ROPME (2003) concluded that althoughdredging and land reclamation are also perma-nent features in many coastal areas of the regionwith significant damaging effects on the envi-ronment, the alarming magnitude of the physi-cal alteration of the coastline of the RSA has hadseveral adverse environmental effects on thecoastal environment.

IX. MARINE AND COASTALPROTECTED AREAS (MPAS)

A Marine Protected Area (MPA) is Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain,together with its overlying water and associatedflora, fauna, historical and cultural features,which has been reserved by law or other effec-tive means to protect part or all of the enclosedenvironment (IUCN, 1988).


The negative impact of tourism and uncontrolled urban devel-opment is the environmental degradation which has generat-ed several adverse environmental effects on the coastal envi-ronment of the three regions. The lack of proper land use planning, ineffective zoning andenvironmental audit procedures in some countries, particular-ly with regard to urban development and industrial expansionare growing problems in different areas.


MPAs can provide a range of benefits to localcommunities and national development throughthe sustainable use of living marine resources andbiodiversity conservation.

The coastal and marine protected areas in theArab countries are listed in Table 4.

Significant efforts were recognized in the threeregional seas to develop marine and coastal pro-tected areas as a rational management tool for thecoastal area and within the strategy of the sustain-able development.


As part of the Mediterranean Action Plan, a pro-tocol concerning specially protected areas andbiological diversity in the Mediterranean wasadopted by the contracting parties in June 1995.The protocol calls for the establishment of a listof Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean

Importance (SPAMI), with the objectives of bio-diversity conservation and protection of specificMediterranean ecosystems.

MEDPAN (the Mediterranean Protected AreasNetwork) was established in 1991 to facilitate theexchange of experience between protected areasmanagers.


PERSGA (2004b) found that although all coun-tries in the region had designated MPAs, theywere few in number and only one or two wereadequately managed. Many of the current and/orproposed protected areas were under high pres-sure from fishing and/or tourism. Others were atrisk from navigation and development activitiesin adjacent areas.

MPAs have been established in many parts of theRSGA. This has been initiated through the inte-

THE COASTAL AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 4

Region Arab Number Mar & Coast *Protected Areas Number of ScleractiniaCountries Protected Areas % of total land areas (2003) Coral Genera

MED Region Morocco 10 1.2 XAlgeria 8 5.1 XTunisia 7 1.5 XLibya X 0.1 XEgypt 4 (Med + RS) 9.42** XLebanon 1 0.7 XSyria X 1.9 X

PERSGA Djibouti 2 0.5 55Red Sea & Gulf Egypt 7 (Med + RS) 9.42** 57of Aden Region Jordan 1 3.02** 44

Saudi Arabia 4 (RS+RSA) 2.8 54Somalia 2 0.3 50Sudan 2 4.9 56Yemen X X 51

ROPME Bahrain 1 1.3 29Sea Area Iraq X X X(GULF Region) Kuwait 4 0.0 23

Oman 2 13.74** 40Qatar 4 1.1 27Saudi Arabia (RS+RSA) 4 (RS+RSA) 2.8 54UAE 4 0.3 28

Main source: World Resource Institute. Earth trends: The Environmental Information Portal (2006)*Protected Areas (all types and categories, and not restricted to coastal and marine only) % of total land areas as in 2003 **EEAA (2006)


gration of 12 MPAs from throughout the regioninto a Regional Network of MPAs for the RSGA.

Twelve declared and proposed MPAs, represent-ing different ecosystem types and biodiversityrichness and uniqueness, were identified as region-ally or globally important (PERSGA, 2004b)

The ROPME Sea Area

In the RSA there are eight parks and reservesalready established along the coasts of the region,and over 85 sites have been recommended forprotection (ROPME, 2003)

Of the protected areas, some areas are also cov-ered by international conventions and pro-grammes. In Iraq, most of the important natureconservation areas in the country are unprotectedalthough many have been recommended forfuture protection as national parks or reserves.The coastline of Iraq is restricted to an area nextto Faw by the mouth of the Shatt Al-Arab. Little-developed areas recommended for protectioninclude the mudflats near Al-Faw and KhorZubair/Khor Abdullah.

Table 4 shows the numbers of Marine andCoastal protected areas as well as the percentage(%) of protected areas to the total land areas inthe three regional seas in the Arab world.

X. MARINE REGULATORYPROGRAMMES, REGIONAL ANDINTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS


The environmental policy of the Mediterraneancountries is becoming progressively aligned withthe requirements of the Barcelona Convention of

1976 and its Protocols, formally known as “TheConvention for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment and the Coastal Region of theMediterranean.

The Barcelona Convention was adopted in 1976and entered into force in 1978. The following arethe Protocols related to this Convention:

• Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of theMediterranean Sea by Dumping from Shipsand Aircraft (1976).

• The Protocol concerning Co-operation inCombating Pollution of the Mediterranean Seaby Oil and other Harmful Substances in casesof Emergency (Emergency Protocol) (1976).

• The Protocol concerning Co-operation inPreventing Pollution from Ships and, in casesof Emergency, Combating Pollution of theMediterranean Sea (1976).

• The Protocol for the protection of theMediterranean Sea against Pollution fromLand-based Sources (LBS Protocol) (1980).

• Protocol for the Protection of theMediterranean Sea against Pollution resultingfrom Exploration and Exploitation (OffshoreProtocol) of the Continental Shelf and theSeabed and its Subsoil (1994).

• The Protocol concerning Specially ProtectedAreas and Biological Diversity in theMediterranean (SPA & Biodiversity Protocol)(1995).

• Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of theMediterranean Sea by TransboundaryMovements of Hazardous Wastes and theirDisposal (Hazardous Wastes Protocol) (1996).

THE RED SEA & GULFOF ADEN REGION

The Jeddah Convention of 1982, formally titledRegional Convention for the Conservation of theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment, and itstwo Protocols Concerning Regional Cooperationin Combating Pollution by Oil and OtherHarmful Substances in Cases of Emergency(1982) and the Protocol for the Protection of theMarine Environment in the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden from Land-based Sources of Pollution andActivities (2005), provide an important basis forenvironmental cooperation in the region. Inaddition, another supportive instrument wasdeveloped, namely the Action Plan for the

Although the Arab countries have designated MPAs, issues oftheir adequate and efficient management remain. Several ofthe current and/or proposed protected areas, particularly inthe RSGA, are under high pressure from fishing and tourism.Others are at risk from navigation and development activitiesin adjacent areas. Designation of MPAs that can be ade-quately managed should be associated with efficient institu-tional and capacity building, including resource mobilization.


Conservation of the Marine Environment andCoastal Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.

The ROPME Sea Area

The Kuwait Regional Convention forCooperation on the Protection of the MarineEnvironment from Pollution (1978) has fourrelated protocols that were developed in accor-dance with the recommendations of the LegalComponent of the Kuwait Action Plan. Theseprotocols are:

• Protocol concerning Regional Cooperation inCombating Pollution by Oil and otherHarmful Substances in Cases of Emergency(1978).

• Protocol concerning Marine Pollution result-ing from Exploration and

• Exploitation of the Continental Shelf (1989).• Protocol for the Protection of the Marine

Environment against Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1990).

• Protocol on the Control of MarineTransboundary Movements and Disposal ofHazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (1998).

The status of the ratification of the regional andinternational conventions and protocols by theArab states in the three regional seas is presentedin Table 5 (UNEP, 1991; PERSGA, 2003,ROPME, 2003; EEAA, 2006).

XI. EMERGING ISSUES; THEIMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

According to UNEP (1992), a substantial rise inthe sea level would eventually invade wetlandsand lowlands, accelerate coastal erosion, aggravatecoastal flooding and salinisation of fertile landsand increase the salinity of estuaries and aquifers.Global climate change would play a role in theincrease of coral bleaching events, and couldcause the destruction of major reef tracts and theextinction of many coral species (GIWA, 2006).Climate changes would also affect the productiv-ity and fisheries in the marine environment.

In the Mediterranean Arab Region, the Nile deltain Egypt and the deltaic plain of the RiverMedjerda in Tunis are examples of areas vulner-able to a rising sea level.

In the RSGA no bleaching has been observed todate in the Gulf of Aqaba, the Gulf of Suez oralong the Egyptian coast of the main basin.Bleaching was patchy along the Saudi Arabiancoast, being more severe to the south. In Sudan,bleaching occurred at several locations, above allsouth of Port Sudan. Along the Red Sea coastlineof Yemen, where reefs are already under consid-erable human-induced stress, effects of coralbleaching were severe. However, no quantitativedata is available. Many areas of the Gulf of Adenwere affected by bleaching. In Somalia, almost allcorals in an area east of Berbera were killed,whereas further west, corals were only slightlyaffected. In Yemen, many corals along the shore-line died, and more than half of the corals of theSocotra Archipelago were affected by the bleach-ing (GIWA, 2006).

In the RSA coral bleaching has been reported inBahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia and UAE becauseof high temperatures over the past few years.

XII. PRIORITY ENVIRONMENTALISSUES, IMMEDIATE & ROOT CAUSESAND PROPOSED REMEDIALMEASURES

Although located in different regional seas, themarine and coastal Arab environments sharecommon priority issues. Some of these issuesare transboundary in nature (e.g. pollution,overfishing).

Priority environmental issues, immediate androot causes and remedial measures in the Arabenvironment of the Mediterranean, PERSGAand ROPME regions are presented in Table 6.

Although regional and national legislation concerning thecoastal and marine environments were developed in the Arabcountries of the three regions, the following are shared prob-lems in most countries:• Lack of enforcement of the existing laws and regulations• Inefficient monitoring for compliance• The need to standardise terms and identifications related to

definitions, ecosystem, biodiversity and integrated manage-ment

• The need to consider regional/interregional transboundaryissues (cooperation mechanism and dispute resolution)


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PRIORITY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, IMMEDIATE & ROOT CAUSES AND PROPOSED REMEDIAL MEASURESTABLE 6

Region

MEDRegion

PERSGARedSea &Gulf ofAdenRegion

Priority Envir.IssuesLand-BasedActivities

Urban andTourismDevelopment

Destruction ofHabitats

Exploitationof LMR(Living marineResources)

Sea-basedActivities

Land-BasedActivities


ImmediateCausesDischarge ofIndustrial wasteDischarge of untreated orpartially treated sewage

Large scale urban andtourism developmentCoastal modificationPopulation pressure andmobilization

Destruction of seagrassmeadows, coastalhabitatsRelease of untreatedwaste

OverfishingDecline in landingsIncreased fishing effortsLanding beyondMaximum SustainableYield. Destructive fishingtechnique

Accidental oil spill,sand mining

Discharge of Industrialwaste. Discharge ofuntreated or partiallytreated sewage

Destruction of coral reefsby anchoring, trawlingand landfill, andmangrove

RootCausesLack of regulationand enforcementInadequatemonitoringInadequatetechnology

Lack ofawareness, lack ofenforcement

Lack ofenforcement,limited awareness,poor navigationalcontrol

Lack of stockassessmentLack of monitoringLack of regulationenforcement

Inadequatecontrol. Lack ofreception facilities

Lack of regulationand enforcementInadequatemonitoringInadequatetechnology

Lack ofregulations andenforcement,limited awareness

ProposedRemedial MeasuresDevelop/ implement NAP on LBAReduce BOD by 50% by the year 2010(UNEP/MAP/RAC/CP (2004)Establish WWTPPrevent/Reduce discharge of wasteApply Clean Production & BATEnhancement of AwarenessEnforce Laws and regulations

Develop/implement ICZMPrevent/Reduce landfill and dredge inthe coastal areasDetermine the carrying capacity ofcoastal development & Tourism

Prevent/Reduce landfill and dredge inthe coastal areasPrevent/Reduce discharge of solidand wastewaterEnhancement of awareness

Enforcement of regulationsPrevent destructive fishing techniquesAssessment & Monitoring

Navigational controlEstablish reception facilitiesEnhancement of REMPEC

Develop NAP on LBAEstablish WWTPPrevent/Reduce discharge of wasteApply Clean Production & BATEnhancement of Awareness & EnforceLaws and regulations

Prevent/Reduce landfill and dredge inthe coastal areas.Prevent or reducedischarge of solid and wastewaterCarrying capacity for diving in coral reefareas/ NAP for coral reef managementProtection of mangrove/ NAP formangrove management. Prevent curiotrade. Enhancement of awareness

CONTINUEDTABLE 6

Region

ROPMESeaArea

Priority Envir.IssuesUrban andTourismDevelopment

Sea-BasedActivities

Exploitation ofLMR(Living marineResources)

Sea-BasedActivities

ImmediateCausesLarge scale urban andtourism developmentExtensive dredging andfilling

Exploitation of oilTar balls and slicks onbeaches and waterDischarge of ballast andbilge waterDischarge from Pipe lines

OverfishingDecline in landingsIncreased fishing effortsLanding beyondMaximumSustainable YieldDestructive fishingtechnique

Oil spill (2 million b/y)Exploitation of oilTar balls and slicks onbeaches and waterDischarge of ballast andbilge waterDischarge from Pipe lines

RootCausesLack ofawareness, lack ofregulations andenforcement

InadequatecontrolLack of receptionfacilities

Lack of stockassessmentLack of monitoringLack of regulation& enforcement

InadequatecontrolLack of receptionfacilities

ProposedRemedial MeasuresDevelop/implement ICZMPrevent/Reduce landfill and dredge inthe coastal areasDetermine the carrying capacity ofcoastal development & Tourism

Navigational controlEstablish reception facilitiesEnhancement of MEMAC

Enforcement of regulationsPrevent/Reduce destructive fishingtechniquesAssessment and monitoring

Navigational controlEstablish reception facilitiesEnhancement of MEMAC


CONTINUEDTABLE 6

Region Priority Envir.IssuesLand-BasedActivities

Urban andTourismDevelopment


Exploitation ofLMR(Living marineResources)

ImmediateCausesDischarge of IndustrialwasteDischarge of untreated orpartially treated sewage

Large scale urban andtourism developmentExtensive dredging andfilling

Destruction of seagrass,coral reefs by anchoring,trawling and landfill

OverfishingDecline in landingsIncreased fishing effortsLanding beyondMaximum SustainableYield. Destructive fishingtechnique

RootCausesLack of regulationand enforcementInadequatemonitoringInadequatetechnology

Lack ofawareness, lack ofenforcement

Lack ofenforcement,limited awareness,poor navigationalcontrol

Lack of stockassessmentLack of monitoringLack of regulation& enforcement

ProposedRemedial MeasuresDevelop NAP on LBAEstablish WWTPPrevent/Reduce discharge of wasteApply Clean Production & BATIncrease Awareness & EnforceLaws and regulations

Develop/implement ICZMPrevent/Reduce landfill and dredge inthe coastal areasDetermine the carrying capacity ofcoastal development & Tourism

Prevent/Reduce landfill and dredge inthe coastal areasPrevent or reduce discharge of solidand wastewaterCarrying capacity for diving in coral reefareas/ NAP for coral reef managementPrevent curio tradeEnhancement of awareness

Enforcement of regulationsPrevent/Reduce destructive fishingtechniquesAssessment and monitoring



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EEAA. Protected Areas of Egypt: Towards the Future.2006.

El-Sayed, M. Kh. “Rising sea level and subsidence ofthe northern Nile Delta,” in: J. Milliman, J. D. and B.U. Haq (eds.). Sea-level Rise and Coastal Subsidence.Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers,1996.

“FAO Home.” FAO. http://www.fao.org (accessed Nov. 27, 2007).

Fouda M, Gerges M. Implications of climate change inthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region: an overview.UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies, No. 156,UNEP, 1994: p. 58.

Gerges, M.A. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ActionPlan—Facing the challenges of an ocean gateway.Ocean & Coastal Management 45 (2002) 885–903.

GESAMP. Protecting the oceans from land-basedactivities – Land-based sources and activitiesaffecting the quality and uses of the marine, coastaland associated freshwater environment. GESAMP No. 71. United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, Nairobi, 2001.

GIWA. Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Draft Report). 2004.

ITOPF.The International Tanker Owners PollutionFederation Limited. 2003.

IUCN. Resolution 17.38 of the 17th General Assemblyof the IUCN. Gland and Cambridge: IUCN, 1988.

Jeftic, L., Bernhard, M., Demetropoulos, A., Fernex,F., Gabrielides, G.P., Gasparovic, F., Halim, Y., Orhon,D., Saliba, L.J. and Fukai, R State of theMediterranean Marine Environment. MAP TechnicalReports Series No. 28. UNEP, Athens, 1989.

PERSGA. Assessment of land based sources andactivities affecting the marine environment of the RedSea and Gulf of Aden. 1997.

PERSGA. Strategic Action Programme for the Red Seaand Gulf of Aden. 1998.

PERSGA. State of the Living Marine Resources in theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden Region. 2000.

PERSGA. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden RegionalNetwork of Marine Protected Areas. Regional MasterPlan. 2002.

PERSGA. Final report on Marine EnvironmentalLegislation in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region.Part 1. 2003.

PERSGA (2004a). The Strategic Action Program forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: Terminal Report. 2004.

PERSGA (2004b). Terminal Evaluation Report on theImplementation of of the Strategic Action Programmefor the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. 2004.

PERSGA. Regional Action Plan for the Protection of theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden from Pollution from landbased activities. PERSGA Publication. 2005.

REMPEC. Protecting the Mediterranean againstMaritime Accidents and Illegal Discharges from Ships.Regional Marine Pollution Emergency ResponseCentre for the Mediterranean Sea. Malta 2002.

ROPME. State of the Marine Environment Report.2003.

Stanley, D. J. and A. G. Warne. “Nile Delta: recentgeological evolution and human impact.” Science 260,1993: 628-634.

UNEP. Register of International Treaties and otherAgreements in the field of Environment. 1991.

UNEP. Climatic change and the Mediterranean:environmental and societal impacts of climate changeand sea-level rise in the Mediterranean region. Jeftic, L; Milliman, J.D and Sestini, G (Eds). 1992.

UNEP/IUCN. Reefs at risk. 1993.

UNEP (1996) State of the Marine and CoastalEnvironment in the Mediterranean Region. MAPTechnical Report Series No.100, UNEP, Athens. 1996.

UNEP/WHO. Identification of Priority Pollution HotSpots and Sensitive Areas in the Mediterranean. MAP.Technical Reports Series No.124. UNEP, Athens.

UNEP/MAP/CP/RAC. Plan on reduction of input ofBOD by 50% by 2010 from industrial sources forthe Mediterranean Region. MAP TechnicalReports Series No. 144, UNEP/MAP, Athens.2004.

UNEP/MAP/MEDPOL. Transboundary DiagnosticAnalysis for the Mediterranean, Athens. 2005.

UNEP/GPA. The State of the Marine Environment:Trends and Processes. UNEP/GPA, The Hague. 2006.

WWF. Why and how to protect the MediterraneanSea? 2004.

REFERENCES

Aridity, Drought and Desertification

95

MOHAMED KASSAS

CHAPTER 7

I. INTRODUCTION

The Arab region extends from the Atlantic coast(Morocco, Mauritania) in the west to the ArabGulf in the east. It occupies the main part of theAfro-Asian desert. With the exception of thehumid and rainy territories in the coastal high-lands of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, andLebanon, southern Sudan, and the Iraqi high-lands, the region is part of the arid belt thatextends across Africa north of the equator toWest Asia (the Arab Peninsula and its adjoiningterritories). The Arab region comprises thesouthern sector of the Mediterranean basin (win-ter rainfall), and extends southwards to territoriesof summer rainfall (tropical) in Mauritania,Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen and Oman.On the whole, aridity prevails, and habitable ter-ritories are limited.

The Arab region is crossed by a limited number oflarge river basins: the Nile (Egypt and Sudan), theEuphrates and Tigris (Iraq and Syria), and Yarmuk(Syria and Jordan). Other small rivers are presentin Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.Underground aquifers are present all over theregion: Nubia Sandstone aquifers prevail in north-east Africa (Egypt, Sudan, Libya and Chad), lime-stone aquifers prevail in Morocco, Mauritania,Algeria and Tunisia. A diversity of aquifer forma-tions extend in the Arabian Peninsula. The waterof these aquifers is available under artesian pressurein oases, but otherwise requires pumping that is

often expensive. Saudi Arabia and Libya haveembarked on large-scale schemes of exploitingunderground water resources. In Egypt the East-Oweinat project of land reclamation depends onunderground water resources.

The area of the Arab region extends over 13.8 mil-lion km2. Of this area, 3.4% is farmlands (crops,orchards, vegetables, etc.), 18.8% rangelands, and10% forests and woodlands. This means that thetotal productive lands (4.1 million km2) representjust over 30% of the total area, while the remain-ing territory is very arid. These proportions varyconsiderably: productive lands represent 30% ofthe total areas of Syria and Lebanon, 3% in Egypt,Algeria and Sudan, to a minimum of 0.5% inSaudi Arabia, Oman and Mauritania.

The map (Fig. 1) shows isohyets (annual rainfall)in the Arab region (from Atlas of Arab Homeland,pp. 38-39, 1995). It shows that low rainfall pre-vails in most of the territories of the region.

Land resources in the Arab region face three mainissues: aridity, recurrent drought, and desertifica-tion. Aridity relates to shortage in waterresources: water income less the expenditure(potential evapotranspiration). Aridity is wide-spread in drylands of the world, where a shortageof water prevails through the whole, or most of,the year. Aridity may be assessed on the basis of(1) climate variables (index of aridity), or (2)number of days when water balance favours plantgrowth (length of growing season).

Low rainfall is the salient feature of aridity. But itis the efficiency of rainfall that matters. Efficiencyis high with low temperatures and high humidi-ty: low evapotranspiration; efficiency is low withhigh temperatures and low humidity: high evap-otranspiration. Several formulae have been sug-gested for calculating the index of aridity. TheUNEP Atlas of Desertification (1992) adopted thesimple formula:index of aridity = rainfall (mm)/ potential evapo-transpiration.

Drylands are accordingly classified into:

• extremely arid, aridity index = less than 0.05,• arid, aridity index = 0.05 – 0.2, (200 mm. in

winter rainfall territories, 300 mm. in summerrainfall territories).

ARIDITY, DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATIONCHAPTER 796

• semi-arid, aridity index = 0.2 – 0.5 (500 mm.in winter rainfall territories, 800 mm. in sum-mer rainfall territories).

• dry sub-humid, aridity index = 0.5 – 0.65.

Within the boundaries of this classification, dry-lands occupy 47.2% of the terrestrial areas of theworld: 7.5% is extremely arid, 12.1% arid,17.7% semi-arid and 9.9% dry sub-humid.

The FAO classification based on “length of grow-ing season” gives the following divisions: lessthan 120 days in drylands, 74 days or less in aridlands, and 75-115 days in semi-arid lands. TheFAO assessment adds that arid lands climate ischaracterized by rainfall that is low and variable;this in turn means low and variable crops andlivestock. This classification is based on rates ofland productivity that depends on the volume ofrainfall and its season.

Drought, a recurrent feature of rainfall in theworld’s drylands, means that available waterresources are less than average (calculatedthrough finding the means of a series of years). Itmay be manifest as:• rainfall less than average,• river flow less than average,• groundwater resources depleted.

Management of drought is comparable to man-agement of other natural hazards, and comprisesthree principal elements: a system of early warn-ing, a system of societal preparedness, and anenabling system that provides support and assis-tance to imperilled societies.

Desertification as defined in the UN Conventionto Combat Desertification is “land degradationin arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas result-ing from various factors, including climatic vari-ation and human activities.” Land is defined as“the terrestrial bio-productive system that com-prises soil, vegetation, other biota, and the eco-logical and hydrological processes that operatewithin the system.” Land degradation is definedas “reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and drysub-humid areas, of the biological or economicproductivity and complexity of rainfed cropland,irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest andwoodlands resulting from land uses or from aprocess or combination of processes, includingprocesses arising from human activities and habi-tation patterns.”

The three principal productive land systems inthe drylands are: irrigated farmlands where addi-tional water resources are available (rivers, under-ground aquifers), rainfed farmlands (in semi-arid


Source: World Atlas of Desertification, UNEP, 1992.

FIGURE 1 MAP SHOWING THE WORLD DRYLAND. THE ARAB REGION OCCUPIES THE HEART AREA OF WORLD DRYLAND. ARIDITY ZONES OF THE WORLD

and dry sub-humid territories), and rangelands.To this we may add scrub and woodlands (with-in rangelands and rainfed farmland) and tree beltsplanted as shelterbelts to conserve land and com-bat soil erosion (and to provide fuelwood).Desertification is manifest in diverse formsaccording to land use. In irrigated farmlandsdegradation relates to imbalance between exces-sive irrigation and poor drainage. This results inwaterlogging, salinisation, etc. In rainfed agricul-ture degradation relates to soil erosion, loss of soilorganic content, depletion of nutrients, etc. Inrangelands, degradation relates to loss of plantcover and capacity of range to provide for feedneeds of livestock, invasion of non-palatablespecies. An FAO (1982) report refers to desertifi-cation as the breakdown of the fragile balance thatprovides for plants, animals and man to survive inarid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid territories.This breakdown relates to physical, chemical andbiological factors and presents the initiation of aself-destructive process of all aspects of life. Soil isexposed to erosion by water and wind, groundwa-ter becomes deeper, plant life is impaired and itsability to compensate losses decreases. These areall outcomes of desertification.

II. LAND AND WATER RESOURCES

Table 1 provides estimates of areas of land use inthe Arab countries, giving a broad picture ofland resources. Estimates are subject to yearlychanges due to land reclamation programmes,afforestation and range management schemes,land transformation due to non-agriculturalland-uses (urban sprawl, roads, etc) in urbanand rural areas, and due to land degradation(desertification).

Figures in Table 1 show that certain countries(e.g. Egypt) are riverain oases that depend on irri-gated agriculture, and where rainfed farmlandsare limited, and while rangelands seem extensivetheir contribution to agricultural economies ispoor. In countries like Algeria, Morocco,Tunisia, Syria and Yemen, rainfed agriculturerepresents the principal element of farmlands.Rangelands in Sudan, Somalia, and Saudi Arabiaare extensive; Sudan and Somalia are exporters oflivestock products. Balance among the threeprincipal land use systems prevails in Sudan, Iraqand Syria.


AREAS (1000 HA) OF IRRIGATED FARMLANDS (I.F.), RAINFED FARMLANDS (R.F.),RANGELANDS (R.) AND EXTREMELY ARID LANDS (D) IN ARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 1

Country I.F. R.F. R. D. TotalAlgeria 338 6,934 38,120 190,063 235,455Bahrain 1 0 50 0 51Egypt 2,486 10 2,604 94,900 100,000Iraq 1,750 1,950 38,395 0 42,095Jordan 43 375 6,862 1,820 9,100Kuwait 1 0 2,306 0 2,307Lebanon 86 214 688 0 988Libya 234 1,659 17,172 157,655 176,720Mauritania 8 170 59,173 43,702 103,062Morocco 525 7,484 36,693 1,050 45,752Oman 41 6 19,642 7,506 27,195Pal.+Israel 271 147 369 1,246 2,033Qatar 0 4 876 220 1,100Saudi Arabia 415 760 112,345 126,480 240,000Somalia 16 1,039 60,669 1,260 62,984Sudan 1,700 5,108 142,542 68,700 218,050Syria 652 4,971 12,945 0 18,568Tunisia 215 4,258 7,968 3,037 15,478UAE 5 0 1,008 8,197 9,210Yemen 309 1,209 32,590 1,692 35,800

Source: Dregne & Chou, 1992

The following are general comments on the fig-ures in Table 1:

• About half of all territories are extremely aridlands (deserts) that may be agriculturallyreclaimed wherever water resources are avail-able (groundwater). Other land uses (oil andmineral production, urban settlements, indus-trial centres, etc.) are welcome prospects.

• Rangelands seem to occupy the main bulk ofproductive Arab territories, and these are terri-tories prone to desertification.

• Rainfed farmlands areas occupy four times thetotal area of irrigated farmlands, but are proneto desertifaction, and their share of agricultur-al production is often less than that of irrigatedfarmlands.

• All agriculturally productive lands in the Arabcountries are fragile systems prone to degrada-tion. It may be stated that desertification is theprime threat to productive lands in the wholeArab region.

• In some of Arab countries where precipitoushighlands prevail (e.g. Yemen), rainfed farmingdepends on the establishment and maintenanceof terraces and contour-lines that conserve soiland water. These are labour-intensive struc-tures. Emigration of labour from Yemen to oil-rich countries caused labour shortages that ledto degradation of these conservation structures.Again the 20th century witnessed change in agri-culture on the Yemeni slopes from productionsof traditional Arab coffee to production of qat;this is a special socio-cultural change.

• Rangelands in arid territories are prone to inci-dents of drought (rainfall below average).Range societies have, all through history, man-aged to survive through nomadism or transhu-mance: across-country movements of herdersand their flocks from territories of water short-age to less austere territories. Nomadism is asocietal mechanism for survival under condi-tions of extreme variability of water resources(such as rainfall). Nomadism is often a seasonaljourney from winter ranges to summer ranges.An extreme case is the Gizzu range, where rain-fall is not an annual event but an event thatmay only happen once in several years. When it

happens in otherwise rainless territories, e.g.,northern Sudan, news attracts herders who withtheir flock to travel several hundreds of kilome-tres to take advantage of the almost accidentalgrowth of vegetation (see El Shamy, 1965).

• While areas of food-producing land may haveincreased through land-reclamation projects,populations have increased at higher rates,and the balance between production and theneeds of people has been upset. Many Arabcountries (e.g. Algeria and Syria) were till themid-20th century wheat exporters; now allArab countries import considerable volumesof their food needs.

• The GEO 4 report (UNEP, 2007) sums up thesituation in the eastern Arab region (12 Arabcountries in the Gulf and Arab Peninsula): atthe beginning of the 21st century 79% of landis impaired, 98% of which damaged by manand ill-management.

In Table 2 estimates are given of water resourcesavailable in the Arab region in 1996, as present-ed by a study of the Arab Centre for Studies onArid Lands (ACSAD) and the Arab Fund forDevelopment (1997).

The general picture is that the Arab region fallswithin the category of water stress areas (less than1,000 m3 of water per head/ year).

Water resources in Jordan and Palestine rest atthe lowest levels. In the Gulf states the role ofdesalination establishments is evident as a princi-pal source of freshwater. Riverain countries withrich resources that provide for irrigated farming(Iraq, Syria, Egypt and Sudan) are downstreamcountries in international river basins; this is asituation conducive to conflicts, a situation thatis prevalent around all international river basins.

The GEO 4 report (UNEP, 2007) addresses thestate of water resources in the region:

The per capita share of available water resourcesper year decreased from 1,700 m3 in 1985 to 907m3 in 2005, and is expected to decrease further to420 m3 by 2050.

Riverain countries in the region need to enactregional river basin conventions that establish a


framework of just and fair sharing of river resources(water and energy). The Nile Basin Initiative that isbeing elaborated by the ten countries of the Basinis a good example of action in the right direction.

Overexploitation of groundwater resources,which are mostly fossil (non-renewable), posesfurther threats to the water resources issues atpresent and in the future.

Exposure of surface and underground waters topollution from industrial, agricultural anddomestic sources, and especially from new urbancentres, is a hazard that threatens water sourcesand human health. This is an especially impor-tant issue in Egypt where several land reclama-tion projects depend on the re-use of agriculturaldrainage water (15 billion m3 discharged into thenorthern lakes and the Mediterranean).

The high rates of water consumption in humansettlements, exacerbated by increasing popula-tions in Gulf cities, are issues that need to beaddressed. Daily per capita water consumptionranges between 300 and 750 litres, among thehigher ranges by world standards.

Water use by agriculture in the eastern Arabcountries increased from 73.5 billion m3 in 1990to 90 billion m3 in 2000.

From these comments, which may be repeated forthe western section of the Arab region, it is evidentthat issues of freshwater (development of resources,protection against pollution, rational use of its lim-ited resources) set one of the clear priorities for theArab region. National and regional capacities infields of science, technology and management toaddress such issues should be mobilized to guidewater resources management in the region.

III. DESERTIFICATION IN THE ARAB REGION

Most of the territories of the Arab region fallwithin the boundaries of arid lands, where landdegradation, primarily desertification, reducesabilities to produce. To clearly present an assess-ment of land degradation, we may rememberthat productive lands in arid regions include: irri-gated farmlands, rainfed farmlands, and range-lands and animal husbandry. To this we may add


WATER RESOURCES (MILLION M3/YEAR) IN ARAB COUNTRIES, 1996 ESTIMATESTABLE 2

Traditional Resources Non-traditional resources TotalSurface Ground Desal. Agr.Dr. Sewage

Algeria 13,000 2,000 74.6 - 400.0 15,474.6Bahrain 8 112 73.0 - 11.0 206.0Egypt 55,570 4,100 31.7 3,800 600.0 64,101.70Iraq 60,480 3,419 7.4 - - 63,906.40Jordan 692 276 3.0 - 51.0 1,022Kuwait - 182 350.0 - 42.0 574.10Lebanon 4,800 4,250 1.7 - 2.0 9,053.70Libya 397 650 210.0 - 110.0 1,367Mauritania 5,800 1,500 1.7 - 67.6 7,369.30Morocco 22,500 7,500 1.2 - 350.0 30,351.20Oman 1,450 475 47.3 - 5.5 1,977.80Palestine 306 185 - - - 491.0Qatar - 40 98.6 - 35.4 174.0Saudi Arabia 3,210 2,340 7.95 - 100.0 6,445.0Somalia 8,160 3,300 0.1 - - 11,460.10Sudan 26,000 1,000 0.6 - - 27,000.60Syria 16,375 5,075 2.0 1,270 - 22,722.0Tunisia 2,700 1,200 8.7 - 6.0 3,914.70UAE 185 120 385.0 - 108.0 798.0Yemen 3,500 1,550 9.0 - 6.0 5,065.0

Note: Surface= rivers, Ground= aquifers, Desal= desalination, Agr.Dr= agricultural drainage, Sewage= treated sewage water. Source: ACSAD, 1997

that man obtains his fuel (agricultural residues,wood from shrubs and trees) and other materials(drugs, etc.) from the products of land.

Table 3 gives estimates of irrigated farmlands andrates of their degradation in the Arab countries.Besides the low or slight degradation category(10% loss), we may consider losses (income fore-gone) of medium (10-25% loss), severe (25-50%loss) and very severe (more than 50% loss). Thisprovides a useful measure of degradation (area ofdegraded lands as percentage of the total irrigat-ed farmlands). The overall estimate of landdegradation is 34% which is near the world esti-mate of 30% (Dregne et. al, 1991).

Irrigated agriculture depends on the waterresources of principal rivers in Egypt, Sudan,Syria and Iraq. Land degradation ranges from17% in Syria to 70% in Iraq. The history of irri-gated agriculture in Iraq (Mesopotamia) is old; itis the cradle of irrigated farming. All through itslong history the rise and fall of agriculture relat-ed to the state of governance: political stabilityand rational government meant maintenance ofirrigation and drainage networks and hence

flourishing of agriculture, and vice versa(Jacobon, 1958). Land degradation in riverbasins means imbalance between irrigation andefficiency of drainage. Conservation of land inirrigated farmlands requires undertaking projectsto correct and maintain drainage networks (opendrains and networks of tile-drains).

In irrigated farmlands that depend on small riversor on underground water resources, excessive irri-gation is not prevalent, but drainage networks areoften limited or absent. Saudi Arabia is a specialcase (desertification 63%): here degradation doesnot relate to poor drainage and waterlogging (asis prevalent in lands of major river basins), butrelates to failure in the management of waterresources due to excessive use.

Studies presented to the UN Conference onDesertification in 1977 included a case-study onland degradation in irrigated farmlands in Iraq:the Greater Mussayeb Project. Work in thisproject extended for long years, aiming atreclaiming degraded lands and conservation ofproductive lands. The study showed that recla-mation depends on a “packet of means” that


comprises: technical, economic and socialmeans. Success requires integration of all ele-ments. The situation in the Greater Mussayebarea is closely similar to problems of irrigatedfarmlands in the Indian sub-continent (a secondcase-study came from Pakistan, see Mabbut andFloret, 1980); similar conditions prevail inSyria, Egypt and Sudan. Lessons learned showthat the way to combat desertification com-bines: technical means (completion, conserva-tion and reclamation of drainage network; soilreclamation by adding conditioners as gypsum,etc.); and economic means relating to prices ofreclaimed land, taxes, systems of agriculture sub-sidies and crop marketing. We may note thatthe World Bank and related agencies promotethe idea of “pricing irrigation water” as a meansof limiting excessive irrigation. Societal meansinclude forming farmers’ organizations and landlords’ associations, that would be capable of pro-viding support to farm management, enactingrules for owner-farmer and farmer-labour rela-tionships, and setting rules of participation forall stakeholders in planning for developmentand in implementation of plans.

Table 4 provides estimates of land degradation inrainfed farmlands in countries of the Arab region.Rainfed farmlands prevail in semi-arid and drysub-humid territories (annual rainfall more than500 mm). Estimates of the total combined areaof these lands in the Arab region amount to 36million ha, degraded lands amount to 67%, com-pared with a world overage of 47%.

Greater rainfed farmlands are present inMorocco (7.4 million ha), Algeria (7 million ha),Sudan (5 million ha) and Tunisia (more than 4million ha). Countries with less rainfed farm-lands include Libya, Somalia, Iraq and Yemen (1-2 million ha, each). Estimates of desertification(medium and more) are highest in Algeria(93%), and are also high in Morocco (69%),Tunisia (69%) and Syria (70%). The figure is less(41%) in Sudan.

Aspects of desertification in rainfed farmlandsinclude:• Soils are subject to erosion (wind-water) dam-

age, through which organic matter and nutri-ent-rich surface layers are removed. Land dam-


ESTIMATES (1000 HA) OF DEGREE OF DESERTIFICATION IN IRRIGATEDFARMLANDS (I.F.) IN ARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 3

Country I.F. Degree of desertification %s m sv vsv m+

Algeria 338 288 40 10 0 50 15Bahrain 1 1 0 0 0 0 0Egypt 2,486 1,735 700 50 1 751 30Iraq 1,750 500 750 300 200 1,250 70Jordan 43 30 10 3 0 13 30Kuwait 1 1 0 0 0 0 0Lebanon 86 80 6 0 0 6 7Libya 234 179 50 5 0 55 24Mauritania 8 7 1 0 0 1 12Morocco 525 474 51 0 0 51 10Oman 41 30 11 0 0 11 27Pal.+Israel 271 230 31 10 0 41 15Qatar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Saudi Arabia 415 155 200 40 20 260 63Somalia 16 13 3 0 0 3 19Sudan 1,700 1,340 350 10 0 360 21Syria 652 542 70 30 10 110 17Tunisia 215 145 60 10 0 70 33UAE 5 3 2 0 0 2 40Yemen 309 259 40 10 0 50 16

Note: s= slight, m= medium, sv= severe, vsv= very severe, m+=medium+severe+very severe. Source: Dregne & Chou, 1992

aged by gullies, surface crusts that impedewater percolation to root zones and increasesurface runoff.

• Increases in crop losses by pathogenic and par-asitic pests.

• The net outcome is a reduction of crop yieldsfrom land units (per hectare); this is “incomeforgone.”

One important factor in this area related to risesin population (increase in density), and henceincreased competition for land, is the subsequentreduction in periods of fallow that are necessaryfor soil recuperation. Deficiencies or impropermanagement of soil conservation measures suchas bunds, contour terraces, shelterbelts, etc. areadded causes for degradation.

Relationships between rainfed farmlands andrangelands could be “integration” when farmersand herders agree that herds may use farmlandstubble (after harvest), and the soil would benefitfrom livestock droppings. Conflicts between thetwo groups arise when farmers expand their usedlands onto rangelands, often in years with above-

average rainfall. Conflicts between tribes of farm-ers and rangers are societal issues that are parts ofthe history of the Sahel (sub-Saharan Africa).

Table 5 provides estimates of degradation inrangelands of the Arab countries. Rangelands areextensive (more than 593 million ha), rates ofdesertification (medium and more) here amountto 83%, higher than the world average of 73%(Dregne et al, 1992). Rangelands extend fromthe fringes of arid and semi-arid zones, and showgradation from cattle herds in semi-arid territo-ries, to sheep and goat herds in arid territories,and camels in nomadic ranges.

Grazing lands in arid territories may not bewidespread but can be confined to water-col-lecting sites in wadis and depressions. In semi-arid territories (annual rainfall 500 mm.) graz-ing lands are more spread out. Grazing andlivestock husbandry are associated with tran-shumance: travel seeking plant growth.Journeys may be seasonal (summer range –winter range) or may be accidental in years ofdrought. Nomadism is part of the traditional


ESTIMATES (1000 HA) OF DEGREE OF DESERTIFICATION IN RAINFEDFARMLANDS IN ARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 4

Country R.F. Degree of desertification %s m sv vsv m+

Algeria 6,934 484 5,800 600 50 6,450 93Bahrain --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Egypt 10 9 1 0 0 1 10Iraq 1,950 550 1,150 230 20 1,400 72Jordan 375 165 155 54 1 210 56Kuwait --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Lebanon 214 84 90 39 1 130 61Libya 1,659 1079 540 40 0 580 35Mauritania 179 150 27 2 0 29 16Morocco 7,484 2284 4.9 270 30 5,200 69Oman 6 3 2 1 0 3 50Pal.+Israel 147 47 35 63 2 100 68Qatar 4 3 1 0 0 1 25Saudi Arabia 760 300 420 38 2 460 61Somalia 1,039 489 450 95 5 550 53Sudan 5,108 3018 1,870 205 15 2,090 41Syria 4,971 1,471 2,840 650 10 3,500 70Tunisia 4,258 1318 2,500 400 40 2,940 69UAE --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Yemen 1,209 429 700 73 7 780 65


culture of the whole of the Arab region. In allcases rangeland degradation is caused by over-grazing, that is, exploiting the range beyond itscarrying capacity.

Countries with extensive rangelands includeAlgeria, Iraq, Mauritania, Morocco, SaudiArabia, and Sudan. Rates of desertification maybe as high as 80%.

If we apply cost estimates of desertified lands(income forgone, Dregne and Chou, 1992):$250 per ha in irrigated farmlands, $38 per ha inrainfed farmlands, and $7 per ha in rangelands,we calculate that yearly income foregone in theArab region due to desertification is about $5 bil-lion. This may sound little compared with thetotal GNP of the region including the oil richcountries. But while traditional land uses includ-ing grazing may have receded in oil-producingterritories, development programmes in all Arabcountries, including Saudi Arabia and Gulfstates, include agricultural schemes with a view tosecuring – at least partly – food security.

IV. COMBATING DESERTIFICATION IN THE ARAB REGION

Sudan was the site of earlier studies on “desertcreep” and “desert encroachment” publishedbetween 1937 and 1953 (see Stebbing 1937,and Kassas 1970). The regular pattern of iso-hyets in the midlands of Sudan (between isohyet200 mm and isohyet 800 mm) is associated witha regular pattern of vegetation types in beltsfrom the arid north to wooded Savanna belts inthe south. In west Sudan, Kordofan and Darfur(sand), and east Sudan, Butana and Gezira(clay), patterns of vegetation structure are simi-lar though species are different. These patternsmade possible the monitoring of change anddegree of degradation by comparing maps (andaerial photographs) over a sequence of years.Land degradation causing deterioration ofrangeland, degradation of gum arabic producingterritories in the west and rainfed farmland inthe east were matters of concern to governmentagencies and research institutions.

The Government of Sudan (Ministry ofAgriculture and the National Research Council),with technical assistance of UNDP and FAO, for-

mulated a national plan for combating desertifica-tion and rehabilitation of degraded lands. Theplan and programmes of action (projects) werecompleted in 1976, one year before the UNConference on Desertification (UNCOD, 1977).The Sudanese document (DECARP, 1976) waspresented to the UNCOD. This pioneering pro-gramme comprised 3 principal elements:1- A unit for monitoring and assessment,

preparing maps of environment and natu-ral resources, and surveillance of landdegradation.

2- A central unit for managing the programmesof action and providing supporting measures(training, public awareness, public participa-tion, etc.).

3- Programmes (groups of field projects) forcorrective actions (rehabilitation, reclama-tion, etc), and for establishing reserve areas.Special attention was given to rehabilitationof rangelands and the gum arabic belt, stabi-lization of sand formations, building greenbelts around towns and villages, and devel-opment of water resources.

The Government of Sudan – with internationalaid – implemented several of the DECARP proj-ects. In 1984 the Sudanese Ministry ofAgriculture with the assistance of UNEP set thesecond phase of the national plan guided by theUNCOD Plan of Action. This phase addressed inparticular rehabilitation of rainfed farmlands ineast Sudan and gum arabic belts in west Sudan.

Tunisia is one of the pioneering Arab countriesin fields of survey of natural resources, landdegradation, conservation of biodiversity andestablishing nature reserves. Tunisia has a wellperceived atlas of scientifically based maps.Features of desertification (land degradation)prevail in areas estimated to be 10 million ha,64% of the total area of Tunisia. Aspects ofdesertification include:• The number of grazing animals increased from

4 million to 7 million, leading to overgrazing.• Water erosion menaces some 60% of farm-

lands, with one consequence being the siltingof water reservoirs.

• Wind erosion is evident in building of sandbodies, and encroachment of sand dunes overproductive lands.

• Salinisation of land expanded salt-affectedareas (sebkhas), reaching 557 thousand ha.


• Forested areas decreased, by cutting and inci-dents of fire, and due to clearing for expansionof farmlands.

• Area of alfa-grasslands decreased from 950thousand ha in 1931 to 433 thousand ha in1985.

One of the case studies presented to UNCOD(1977) prepared by Tunisia, with assistance ofUNESCO and UNEP, addressed desertificationin the Oglat Merteba Region representing winterrainfall (Mediterranean) drylands, an area of20,000 ha. The study provided analyses of landdegradation and means for rehabilitation(Mabbut and Floret, 1980).

In 1985, Tunisia completed – with internationalassistance – setting a national plan of action tocombat desertification guided by the UNCOD(1977) world plan of action. The Tunisia plancomprised 21 projects of corrective measures withestimated costs of implementations of 50 millionTunesian Dinar. The Government managed tomobilize international aid and national resourcesto implement most (14) of these projects.

Other Arab countries set national action plans in thelight of the UNCOD world action plan: examplesare Mauritania (principal issue movements of sandformations) and Yemen (principal issue conserva-tion of mountain slopes and of water resources).

Several Arab countries responded to the UNConvention for Combating Desertification(1994) by revising earlier plans or preparing newones. An example is the national action plan pre-pared by Egypt (Desert Research Centre). Theplan envisaged two frames: a set of thematic landuse systems (irrigated farmlands, rainfed farm-lands, rangelands and sand movements) and a setof four eco-agricultural regions (coastal belt ofnorth Egypt, Nile Basin and Delta, oases andremote areas of western desert, deserts in EasternEgypt and Sinai). A matrix of the two sets indi-cates areas of action. To this is added a pro-gramme of supporting measures: field surveys,monitoring, manpower development, and socie-tal participation. (For details see ACSAD, 1996.)

The Arab countries established science institu-tions capable of addressing issues of arid lands,


ESTIMATES (1000 HA) OF DEGREE OF DESERTIFICATION IN RANGELANDS IN ARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 5

Country R Degree of desertification %s m sv vsv m+

Algeria 38,120 3,820 9,200 25,000 100 34,300 90Bahrain 50 40 10 0 0 10 20Egypt 2,604 504 300 1,800 0 2,100 81Iraq 38,395 3,815 7,000 27,250 250 34,500 90Jordan 6,862 662 1,150 5,000 50 6,200 90Kuwait 2,306 346 1,558 400 2 1,960 85Lebanon 688 68 195 400 25 620 90Libya 17,172 3,472 1,700 11,800 200 13,700 80Mauritania 59,173 17,773 5,000 36,000 400 41,400 70Morocco 36,693 3,693 3,000 29,900 100 33,000 90Oman 19,642 1,942 5,000 12,650 50 17,700 90Pal.+Israel 369 39 80 230 20 330 89Qatar 876 86 100 685 5 790 90Saudi Arabia 112,345 22,345 60,000 29,800 200 90,000 80Somalia 60,669 15,669 10,000 34,900 100 45,000 74Sudan 142,542 28,540 30,500 83,000 500 114,000 80Syria 12,945 1,345 3,000 8,550 50 11,600 90Tunisia 7,968 1,168 1,270 5,500 30 6,800 85UAE 1,008 108 198 700 2 900 80Yemen 32,590 6,590 10,000 15,900 100 26,000 80


dealing with conservation and development ofnatural resources; ACSAD (Damascus) andICARDA (Aleppo) are two of these regionalinstitutions. The Council of Arab Ministers ofEnvironment set the issues of drylands amongthe priorities of its agenda and established aworkforce of experts to set frameworks of region-al programmes of collaborative actions.

These are all commendable efforts that deserveappreciation, but are still short of what would setback menaces of land degradation. Moreresources (financial, manpower, etc) need to bemobilized in this area.

V. DROUGHT

Drought is (often) due to a failure of rainfall, thatis, the volume of rainfall is less than expected(long-term mean). Mean annual rainfall at theagricultural research station at Borg-el-Arab (45km to the west of Alexandria) is 150 mm.; this isa mathematical mean, and actual rainfall may be250 mm or more (‘fat’ years) or 50 mm or less(lean years - drought). An incident of droughtmay be short (one year) or may be long: adrought of several consecutive years, as menacedthe African Sudano-Sahel belt from 1968 to1984, is referred to as a protracted drought. Inyears of drought range and livestock deteriorate,and crops fail. Drought is a natural hazard, aslean years are a naturally recurring aspect of dry-land climate. This is one difference betweendesertification that is primarily the result of mis-management of the land system and whose com-bating requires revised procedures of develop-ment and use of natural resources, and droughtthat is a natural hazard.

A Pioneering Syrian DroughtManagement Programme

We refer to a Syrian pioneering experiment thatis nearest to complete management of drought,and it provides lessons to be learned. Rangelandsprevail all over the Arabian Peninsula, and theSyrian Badia is its northern part. The Syrianrangelands are menaced by recurrent incidents ofdrought associated with losses in livestock.Between 1958 and 1961 the sheep populationdecreased from 6 million to 3 million. Losseswere due to death or low-priced hurried sales. It

was usual for the Syrian Government (and donorinstitutions) to rush relief support to menacedsocieties. The Syrian Government wanted a sys-tem that would enable these often menacedrangelands to survive incidents of drought. Thiswas the pioneering programme (Draz, 1995) thatwas implemented. It comprised four principalsectors: societal organization, technical support,financial resources, and research and training.

1- Societal organization

Herders communities are usually organized on atribal basis: ethnic or cultural. Here they re-organ-ized themselves on the basis of their relation tospace: hema. The re-organized communitybecame a cooperative, a functional unit of herders.Between 1969 and 1973 eight cooperatives wereformed: six in Hama Governorate and one inDamascus rangelands, and one in Homs range-lands. Then the process became widespread, andthe number of cooperatives in 1979 became 46covering rangeland territories of 4.5 million ha.

The concept of cooperatives was further developedby establishing specialized cooperatives: a firstsheep fattening cooperative was created in Hama;14 such cooperatives were operative by the end of1972, each with feedlots and feed storage barns;and by 1979 there were 65 such cooperatives withfeed storage capacities of 160 thousand tons.

2- Technical Support

The first technical centre was established at WadiEl-Azeeb in 1959 to train herders and to provide


extension services. The success and utility of thiscentre encouraged the creation of eight centres in1971-75 at Hesya (Homs), El-Manqora(Damascus), Marg-Maryan (Hama), Tool Eleba(El-Ragga), Om-madfa (El-Hasaka), El-Shoula(Der-el-zour), Orai (Esuweida), and Shatha(Hama). Other centres were added, all providingtechnical support and services to herders, andthey also helped in clearing and rehabilitatingancient water storage cisterns, and in buildingwater conservation dams on wadis.

3- Fodder Fund

This was a financial mechanism to support theherders and fattening cooperatives, established in1965 with resources from:• Sales of materials provided by the World Food

Programme;• Government contributions;• Loans and donations from the World Bank.

By 1983 the Fund had collected 120 millionSyrian Lira. The Fund provided loans to thecooperatives and through them to members.

4- Research and Training

Seven research centres participated in pro-grammes for selecting and testing plant speciesthat may be used in range improvements, anddevelopment of water-harvesting studies.Faculties of agriculture participated with researchcentres in training technicians and specialists.

With this integrated scheme the rangelands (land)and the herders (societies) became capable of with-standing incidents of drought without losing theirherds through death and urgent sales. This pio-neering scheme deserves to be studied so as to beemulated on a regional scale, with appropriatemodifications to suit rangelands in Arab countries.

VI. BIODIVERSITY

The most apparent and visible manifestation ofdesertification is degradation of vegetation (plantcover) and its insufficiency to protect soil againsterosion; subsequently its productivity fails to pro-vide fodder in rangelands or crops in farmlands.Loss of plant cover entails loss of animal life. Thisdegradation has another aspect: loss of biodiversi-

ty, that is, loss of elements of plants and animalsthat fail to withstand habitat deterioration (deser-tification). This loss has special global importance.

The Fertile Crescent is a region that embraces theLevant and its adjoining territories in Asia Minorand Iraq. Specialists in the history of agricultureincluding history of domestication of plants(crops) and animals (livestock), consider theFertile Crescent region one of the centres of ori-gin of agriculture. This means that certain specieshave been domesticated (and husbanded) intocrops. The Russian scientist Vavilov (1949) con-cludes that the East Mediterranean region is thecentre of origin of 83 cultivated plants:

18 crop plants,39 fodder plants,26 fruits and spices plants.

Principal crop plants, whose centre of origin isdesignated in East Mediterranean Basin, include:

• Triticum turgidum subsp dicoccum (emmerwheat)

• Triticum monococcum (Einkorn wheat)• Hordeum vulgare (barley)• Pisum sativum (pea)• Cicer arietinum (chickpea)• Vicia faba (broad/fava bean)• Linum usitassimum (flax plant that linen can

be produced from)

In addition we may include several species oflegumes and grasses that provide fodder. Theimportance of this region relates to the presence ofa diversity of wild relatives of these crop species thatmaintain valuable gene-resources (see Balter, 2007).

To this we may add that the flora of the Arabregion include hundreds of plant species thathave long provided the people of the region withuseful drugs. The pharmaceutical industry sup-ports survey missions in many parts of the worldfor plant prospecting for chemical resources. Theisland of Socotra (Yemen) is one of the world’s“hot spots” for such surveys. The relics of theonce extensive Cedrus libani (Lebanese cedar)forests of Lebanon represent another “hot spot”area. Conservation of biodiversity in the Arabregion has critical regional and worldwide signif-icance. It is therefore the responsibility of theregion to guard these biodiversity resources forthe benefit of the world.


Territories with ample rainfall that could supportforest growth are limited in the Arab region. Butcertain countries have areas of forests. Table 6presents estimates of forest areas and areas ofafforestation projects (in 1,000 ha) in the Arabcountries (FAO, 2005).

The largest forested areas are in Sudan, whosesouthern humid territories and eastern and west-ern highlands have forest habitats. Somalia,Morocco, Algeria and Saudi Arabia have areas offorest that range from 7.5 million ha (in Somalia)to 1.5 million ha (in Saudi Arabia). Areas ofafforestation seem limited, but there is an appar-ent parallel between areas of natural forests andareas of afforestation. We refer later to forests andafforestation in Sudan (a case study).

The plantation of trees in drylands of the Arabregion relates to sewage treatment plants. Thepurpose is often to use the treated water for estab-lishing green belts (to protect human settlementsagainst sand storms), environmental improve-ment, and as a source of fuelwood. In Egypt suchprojects consider planting African mahogany trees

(timber for furniture), mulberry shrubs (for silk-worm husbandry), and species of Jatropha (forproduction of biofuel). Almost all Gulf States havecarried out field projects for rehabilitation of man-grove forests in their coastal zones.

The FAO established six forestry commissions inthe world, including the Near East ForestryCommission (1953) and the African Forestry andWildlife Commission (1959). Each Commissionholds a general conference every two years. Thetwo commissions held a joint conference inKhartoum, Sudan in February 2008. The confer-ence addressed issues related to impacts of climatechanges in the 21st century on forests.

VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Desertification and recurrent drought are amongthe most serious menaces that damage land pro-ductivity in areas of irrigated agriculture, rainfedfarming and rangelands, and also in woodlands andscrublands. The two menaces cause degradation ofthe food-producing capacities of the Arab regionand hence undermine the bases of food security. Aspopulations increase and their rates of consump-tion continue to rise, the gap between productionand consumption of food increases, and depend-ence on the importation of food increases.

Although the Council of Arab Ministers ofEnvironment gave priority to this issue, the actu-al efforts and resources devoted to the purpose areless than are needed to face up to the problem.The ventures at both the national and regionallevel remain modest. More mobilization ofnational and regional inputs remains necessary.

Governmental agencies should play the principalrole in setting work plans, national and regionalprogrammes and field projects. Mobilization ofnational and regional efforts is necessary. Non-governmental bodies should play their activeroles in ensuring positive public participation, acardinal element of success.

Reviewing worldwide endeavours to combatdesertification, we note that this movement wasspurred by the widespread damage caused bydroughts that menaced the countries of the Sahelin West Africa in 1969 and extended in timeacross several years (1969-1982) and in space


FOREST AREAS AND AREA CHANGE (1990-2000) IN ARAB COUNTRIES, (IN 1000 HA.)

TABLE 6

Country Forest Area Annual changeForest Pl.in 2000 1990-2000 (%)

Algeria 2,145 718 1.3Bahrain -- -- --Egypt 72 72 3.3Iraq 799 10 --Jordan 86 45 --Kuwait 5 5 3.5Lebanon 36 2 -1.2Libya 358 168 1.4Mauritania 202 13 -0.6Morocco 3,025 534 --Pal.+Israel 132 91 4.9Oman 1 1 5.3Qatar 1 1 9.6Saudi Arabia 1,504 4 --Somalia 7,515 3 -1Sudan 61,627 641 -1.4Syria 461 229 --Tunisia 510 202 0.2UAE 321 314 2.8Yemen 445 -- -1.9

Source: FAO, 2005

until it menaced the whole Sudano-Sahel belt.Relief materials were rushed in for salvation, andthe UN General Assembly resolved in 1974 tohold a UN Conference on Desertification(Nairobi, Kenya, August 1977) to set a plan ofaction to combat desertification. Years passedand the UN held its conference on environmentand development in 1992. This conferencereviewed the world status of desertification andthe outcomes of world action in the 1977-1992period. Outcomes were very modest. The confer-ence decided that there was need for a legallybinding convention that would commit govern-ments to action. A draft convention was ready in

1994, became operational in 1996 and its firstconference of parties was held in the same year.

One question persists: How did the Arab coun-tries participate in these international concerns?The few positive answers include the laudableactions of Sudan which formulated a national planof action to combat desertification in 1976 (oneyear earlier than the UN 1977 Conference), andof Tunisia which pioneered setting a national planof action to combat desertification in the light ofthe World Plan of Action set by the 1977Conference. Steps by other Arab countries wereslow. Countries are strongly urged to give priority


Data presented in Table 6 show that forest areas inSudan, at 61,627 thousand ha the largest forest area incountries of the Arab region, cover the equivalent of28% of the total area of Sudan. Most of these areas arein southern Sudan (upper Nile, Equatoria, Bahr El-Ghazal, Darfur and Kordofan) and in limited areas inhighlands in the middle territories.

To the natural forest areas are added areas of afforestationthat consist of indigenous species and a number of exotic(introduced) species especially eucalypts and casuarina.Afforestation schemes aim at planting crop-trees to pro-duce timber, fuelwood, gums, etc., and at rehabilitation ofdegraded forests especially in gum Arabic producingwoodlands. Degradation is often due to overcutting or todesertification. Principal afforestation areas planted withindigenous species include:52,227 ha Acacia Senegal (gum Arabic tree)18,200 ha Acacia nilotica (qarad tree)10,130 ha Tectona grandis (teak).

Areas planted with introduced species (eucalyptus)include 41,442 ha.

The Doum forests grow along the banks of water coursesof seasonal rivers (El-Gash, Atbara, etc) and principalwadis and khors (valleys) in semi-arid territories. TheDoum palm, though not a timber-producing tree, hasnotable economic value to rural communities. A button-producing industry dependent on the fruits of Doum(vegetable ivory) was initiated in Sudan, but new synthet-ic materials undermined this industry. The efficacy ofgermination and saplings growth sustain the survival ofDoum growths against negative impacts of rainfall varia-tions and hence availability of water in khors and wadis.

To these land-based woodlands we may add mangroveformations (mostly Avicennia and in a few localitiesRhizophora) along the coastal littoral of the Red Sea.Surveys show 19 sites of mangrove with a total area ofnearly 4,200 ha.

Forest management in Sudan, and in other Africancountries, relates to the management of nature reservesand national parks, and establishes links between forestmanagement and the management of nature reserves(plant and animal biodiversity conservation. In Sudanthere are 3,225 conservation sites, with a total area of11.9 million ha. Nature reserves in forest areas are sitesof tourist attraction, notable are the Dinder NationalPark in the east and Random Park in southern Darfur.There are several reserves in the south that were subjectto deterioration during the long years of unrest; thesewill hopefully regain their status in years of peace.

The growth of the gum Arabic producing trees(Acacia Senegal) has a notable place in the economy ofSudan. The gum Arabic belt extends in Africa southof the Sahara from the Atlantic to the Red Sea,between latitudes 10º and 14º N.; in Sudan this beltcovers one fifth of its area. Acacia Senegal plantationsin sand territories of the west (Darfur and Kordofan)represent the main gum Arabic producing areas.Sudan used to command the main share (nearly 80%)of the world production until the early 1990s, butdesertification in Sudan damaged this belt anddropped the Sudan share of world production to 50%(World Bank 2007). Plans to rehabilitate this gumArabic belt aim at combating desertification andrecapturing Sudan’s previous position of gum Arabicproduction in the world market.

CASE STUDY: SUDAN

to the formulation and implementation of plansand programmes for combating desertification.

Success can be achieved within the frame ofnational policies that make the combating ofdesertification an integral part of national endeav-ours to develop natural resources sustainably asoutlined in Agenda 21 (1992) and the outcomes ofthe UN Summit on Sustainable Development(2002). Every country is invited to set a nationalplan to combat desertification and to manage inci-dents of drought. Such a plan should be part of thenational plans for sustainable development of landand water resources and for the conservation ofecosystems producing renewable resources (crop-lands, rangelands, woodlands and fisheries).

Sustainable development that is the frameworkwithin which land degradation (including deser-tification) is mitigated depends on the integra-tion of three processes:1- Economic and technological efficiency,

which requires the support of institutes ofresearch and development and economicassessment;

2- Social equity that does not allow the depriva-tion of the marginalized, and that ensurespositive public participation;

3- Conservation of the environment, both interms as a human habitat, and as a depot ofnatural resources.

To set and to implement national policies for sus-tainable development (combating of desertifica-tion is one element) requires the collaboration ofvarious government sectors, non-governmentalorganizations concerned, and research institu-tions. The Arab region has several internationalresearch centres concerned with land resources(The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Landsand Dryland – ACSAD, Damascus, and theInternational Centre for Agriculture Research inDry Areas – ICARDA, Aleppo). In all Arab coun-tries there are centres of desert research or univer-sity units of research on dryland problems. Thepotentials of these scientific institutions are yet tobe effectively utilized to provide sound bases forregional and national development schemes. Wenote and welcome the initiatives in Saudi Arabiaand Qatar to establish funds for supportingresearch; it is hoped that these institutions willinclude programmes for sustainable developmentof land and water resources in their priority areas.


Balter, R. “Seeking Agriculture’s Ancient Roots.”Science, 29 June 2007: 1830-1835.

Dregne, H. E., (ed.). Degradation and Restoration ofArid Lands Texas: Texas University Press, 1992.

Dregne, H., M. Kassas and B. Rozanov. A newassessment of the world status of desertification.Desertification Control Bulletin, UNEP, vol. 20. 1991.

Dregne, H. E. and N. T. Chou. “Global DesertificationDimensions and Costs.” In: Degradation andRestoration of Arid Lands, H. E. Dregne (ed.). Texas:Texas University Press, 1992: 249-282.

FAO. State of the World’s Forests, Rome, 2005.

Kassas, M. “Desertification versus potential forrecovery in circum-Saharan territories.” In: AridLands in Transition. H. F. Dregne (ed.), AAAS,1970: 123-142.

“Desertification.” In: Degradations and Restoration ofArid Lands. H. E. Dregne (ed.). Texas: Texas UniversityPress, 1992: 11-25.

Mabbutt, J. A. and C. Floret (eds). Case Studies onDesertification, UNESCO-UNEP-UNDP, UNESCONatural Reserences Research, vol. 18, 1980.

Stebbing, J. “The threat of the Sahara.” Journal of theRoyal African Society, Supplement to vol. 35, 1937.

“The man-made desert in Africa.” Journal of the RoyalAfrican Society, supplement to vol. 37. 1938

Stebbing, E. P. The Creeping Desert in the Sudanand Elsewhere in Africa. Khartoum: McCorquodale& Co, 1953.

Sudan. Desert Encroachment Control andRehabilitation Program (DECARP), The Gov. of theSudan. 1976.

UNEP. World Atlas of Desertification, UNEP andEdward Arnold, 1992.

UN Convention on Desertification. 1994.

Global Environmental Outlook (GEO, 4). 2007.

Union of Arab Universities, 1995, Atlas ofArab World.

Vavilov, N. I. 1949. The Origin, Variation, Immunityand Breeding of Cultivated Plants, Chronica Botanica,USA, XVIII+364 pp.

World Bank. “Export Marketing of Gum Arabic fromSudan,” World Bank Policy Note, March 2007 -http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRMDTF/Resources/Gum_Arabic_Policy_Note.pdf (accessed March12, 2008).

REFERENCES

Waste Management

111

NEFISA ABOU-ELSEOUD

CHAPTER 8

I. INTRODUCTION

All types of human activity produce diverseresidues called “wastes,” and these differ in termsof quantity and quality and in their propertiesfrom one country to another. Waste treatmentmethods also vary according to the circumstancesand capabilities of respective countries. In thischapter, we intend to bring to attention the wasteissue in Arab countries by highlighting quality,quantity and efforts made to address it accordingto available information and data.

II. IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Waste in the general sense of the word is whateveris left behind from any activity and has no primaryor secondary use at source, though it might be ofvalue if present in a different site where more suit-able conditions are provided for ample utilization.

This concept underlines three important points,namely:

• Wastes are not found in nature but are gener-ated from various activities, such as domestic,industrial, agricultural and others;

• Some wastes could be of no consequence and

must be disposed of because there is no chanceof putting them to use;

• Wastes could be cost-effective resources, as theymight contain components that can be appro-priately used if the right means are employed.

Wastes can be classified according to their origi-nal condition or source of generation or magni-tude of hazard.

Classification of wastes according to their nature

Wastes are classified into two types according totheir nature: solid and liquid waste.

• Solid wastes are the solid or semi-solid sub-stances left behind from ordinary human day-to-day and other activities and are disposed ofat source as residues of no value, because theyare not considered to be worth keeping. Theycould, however, be of benefit in a different siteor under different circumstances, where moreadequate conditions are likely to be provided,which would allow reuse or recycling processes(EEAA, 2000; EEAA, 2001).

• Liquid wastes are the remains of daily activitiesin liquid form, such as wastewater, industrialeffluents and agricultural drainage. Sediments

WASTE MANAGEMENTCHAPTER 8112

known as sludge resulting from sanitary waste-water and industrial effluent treatment processesconstitute the solid strand of these liquid wastes.

Generally speaking, residues contain manifoldtypes of materials, with some having harmful orrather serious bearing, directly or indirectly, onsanitation, environment and national economy.These are called hazardous wastes.

Segregation of solid wastes accordingto the source of generation

1- Municipal solid waste or “garbage” comesfrom residential units, alongside commercial,service, educational and health facilities,streets, gardens, markets, hotels, and recre-ational places. It also covers waste of smallfactories and camps.

2- Industrial solid waste resulting from mediumand large-scale industrial activities contain-ing hazardous ingredients, such as chemicalsand heavy metals.

3- Construction and demolition as well as roadbuilding debris which include numerouscomponents that can, for example, be appro-priately recycled for utilization in buildingand construction works.

4- Health care waste from hospitals, health serv-ice units such as dispensaries, polyclinics,medical centres, pharmaceutical laboratoriesand veterinary units, which produce bothhousehold-like waste and high-risk waste.

5- Residues of wastewater and industrial efflu-ent treatment processes as well as sludge ofsewage pits and sampling tanks, which alsocontain high percentage of organic matter,pollutants and infectious organisms.

6- Wastes from dredging canals and drains inthe form of plant and animal residues (forexample grass and dead birds) and also blackmud. These wastes can be re-used if they donot contain hazardous substances.

7- Agricultural waste resulting from variousfarming activities, including:

• Agricultural crop remains, suitable for recy-cling and the production of energy, or ani-mal feed and fertilizers.

• Pesticides residues and agricultural fertilizers,which are regarded as hazardous waste, andthus require safer methods of handling.

• Animal manure and sludge of sewage pitsand sanitary wastewater tanks.

III. NON-HAZARDOUS WASTE

Quantities and Rates of Non-Hazardous Wastes

While statistics and data on quantities of solidwaste in most Arab countries are not available,Table 1 shows the quantity of solid waste in somecountries, according to published data and infor-mation collected from local sources.

There is no definitive or common rate for allArab countries at which wastes are generated,as this differs from one country to anotherand among different regions within the samecountry, according to community character-istics, social conditions and average incomein each area. Quantities of generated wasteare mainly correlated to population increasesas well as economic, industrial and urbandevelopment.


QUANTITY OF SOLID WASTE AS PER ITS SOURCE IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIES [1]TABLE 1

Source of Waste Egypt Kuwait Bahrain Qatar EmiratesMillion tons/year [2] 1,000 tons/year 1,000 tons/year [2] 1,000 tons/year 1,000 tons/year

Municipal (domestic) 15-16 905 680 563 2,120Demolition and construction 3-4 1,149 - 782 3,631Industrial 4.5-5.0 7 140 64 95Agricultural 25-30 - - - 615Sludge 1.5-2.0 - - - -Health Care 0.10-0.12 33 911 450 -Dredging of canals and drains 20 - - - -

Sources: 1. GCC 2004 ; 2. 2005 data, Egypt Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs 2006

With regard to solid municipal waste, the grossgenerated quantity from Arab countries is esti-mated at 81.3 million tons annually on thebasis of an average rate of around 0.7 kg percapita daily. Table 2 shows the average rate andquantity of solid municipal waste produced insome Arab countries, based on population fig-ures, according to available data. The quantityof municipal solid waste which is adequatelytreated is less than 20%, while recycled wastedoes not exceed 5% of the gross quantity ofresidues.

Components of Municipal Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste is comprised of a relativelyhigh percentage of organic matter, while othermaterials such as paper, glass, plastics and miner-als are less organic. Table 3 shows that the pro-portion of organic waste to total waste rangesbetween 35% in Bahrain and 63% in Jordan.

These wastes also contain some hazardous sub-stances such as drug residues, expired medicines,

chemicals, paints, household insecticides andtheir empty containers, used dry batteries, andelectrical and electronic equipment.

Organic components represent a source of com-post material intended for the improvement ofsoil properties, and, if properly sorted and recy-cled, for the production of electricity frommethane gas. The remaining components (paperand glass, for example) are subject to recoveryupon proper segregation and reuse processes ofmanufacturing of similar or different products,which yield revenues as well as economic returnsin the form of health benefits. These practices arestill very limited in the Arab region.

Efforts by Some Arab Countries in Solid Waste Management

Some Arab countries have pursued an integratedwaste management strategy, namely handlingwaste as recoverable resources through a series ofintegrated interrelated links involving successivestages (birth-to-death life cycle), starting with at-source generation (where waste is reduced quan-


RATES AND QUANTITIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 2

Country Population-2006 Average Rate of Generated Municipal Estimated Gross Quantity of Municipal(approximately) [1] (x1000) Solid Waste kg/per capita/day Solid Waste ton/Year (millions) [6]

Total Arab Countries 318,321 Approximately 0.7 81.300Egypt 71,348 0.63 2 16.400UAE 4,229 1.20 3 1.850Bahrain 746 2.70 5 0.735Saudi Arabia 23,678 1.40 3 12.100Oman 2,577 ** 0.70 3 0.658Qatar 838 1.30 3 0.398Kuwait 3,052 1.40 3 1.560Yemen 22,650 0.45 4 3.720Jordan 5,600 0.90 4 1.840Morocco 31,567 0.33 4 3.800Syria 18,701 0.50 4 3.410Tunisia 10,131 0.60 4 2.220Sudan 36,297 0.60 * 7.950Iraq 28,808 0.87 9.150Lebanon 3,917 0.60 0.858Mauritania 3,054 0.90 1.004

Source: 1. LAS 2007; 2. Egypt Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs 2006, 2007;3. GCC 2004; 4. Al Yousfi; 5. Egypt Environmental Affairs Association 2007;6. Calculated using population and average waste generation rates* Only the city of Khartoum** Year 2003

titatively, qualitatively and hazard-wise), fol-lowed by in-house storage and later multi-sourceamassing and transport to suitable sites forphased stockpiling or treatment. This strategydevelops the possibility of recycling recoverablematerials and the environmentally safe final dis-posal. However, problems still persist in respectof making this system operational. Efforts in thisregard can be highlighted as follows:

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

The GCC member countries devised a uniformwaste management system that was adopted inDecember 1997 to codify waste treatment(whether domestic, commercial or industrial,inactive or hazardous), curtail its haphazard han-dling, and put in place a monitoring mechanismfor waste production, storage, transport, treat-ment and disposal by applying techniquesinhibiting harmful effects on the health, safetyand prosperity of humans and ensuring long andshort-term environment protection.

Nonetheless, the rate of solid waste generation inBahrain was raised from around 1.3-1.6 kg toalmost 2.7 kg per capita/day as a result of grow-ing family income, increased purchasing poweralongside flourishing urban and trade businesses.Bahrain’s Environment Protection Law includesarticles on waste, and waste management isundertaken by the Ministry of Municipality

Affairs and Agriculture together with a 50-50private sector partnership. These wastes are dis-posed of by land filling, which does not seem tobe the optimal way of doing it as far as Bahrainis concerned, bearing in mind the shortage ofland for this purpose, in addition to social prob-lems and others related to environment, devel-opment and operation. At present, waste sortingand recycling processes are being implementedregarding for example paper, carton, minerals,plastic and tires, with some of these materialsexported after being compressed to scale downtheir size (GCC, 2004).

Sudan

The solid waste situation in Sudan is not muchdifferent from that in other Arab countries withsimilar circumstances. For example, in KhartoumGovernorate (with a population of approximate-ly 5 million), the solid waste generated rangesbetween 0.6 and 1 kg per capita/day (totalling3,200 tons). Only 35% of this quantity is trans-ferred to landfills, while the remaining 65% isdisposed of in open dumps. Foremost among theproblems facing solid waste management inSudan are the following:

• Absence of solid waste management strategies;• Limited financial resources coupled with out-

dated machines and equipment, poor mainte-nance operations, and low wages;


COMPONENTS OF SOLID MUNICIPAL WASTE IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 3

Country Organic materials % Paper % Plastic % Mineral % Glass % Wood % Textile % Others % Total %Egypt1 50-60 10-25 3-12 1.5-7.0 1.0-5.0 1.2-7.0 11.0-30.0 100Bahrain2 35 28 6 12 5 8 6 100Saudi Arabia3 37 28.5 5.2 8.3 4.6 8 6.4 2 100Oman2 40 26 12 11 5 6 100Qatar2 45 18 15 4 10 5 3 100Kuwait2 50 20 12.6 2.6 3.3 4.8 4.8 1.9 100Yemen3 55 14 13 2 1.5 14.5 100Jordan3 63 11 16.8 2.1 2.1 5 100Syria3 62 4 7 6 4 17 100Iraq3 63 1 1 1.1 1.6 32.3 100Lebanon3 58 18 8 2.4 8 6.6 100Dubai3 42 6 10 3 3 16 100Abu Dhabi3 49 6 12 6 9 18 100

Sources: 1. Egyptian Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs 2006; 2. GCC 2004; 3. Al Yousfi

• Meagre basic infrastructure, low-level efficien-cy of existing systems, degraded road condi-tions and deficiency of land-use planning toidentify final disposal sites;

• Non-governmental organizations are short ofsufficient resources and are in need of subsidiesto strengthen their partnership with the gov-ernment in envisaging policies on solid wastemanagement (El Sayed, 2006).

Tunisia

Dealing with the solid waste issue, and tacklingthe problem of increasing quantities accumulatedas a result of production and consumption pat-terns in the country, can only materializethrough the adoption of an integrated wastemanagement concept.

The common method of solid waste disposal inTunisia is uncontrolled land filling sites designat-ed for waste disposal, considered as temporarysites, to be gradually changed into controlleddumpsites. The problem of accumulated wastewith its impacts on environment is one that theTunisian government has so far failed to resolvenotwithstanding the fact that Tunisia was thefirst Arab country to promulgate a special law onwaste (GCC, 2004).

Egypt

Gross solid municipal waste generated daily is esti-mated at approximately 44,630 tons with a gener-al average of 0.63 kg per capita/day (rangingbetween 0.2-0.35 in rural areas and 0.4-1.3 inurban areas). These wastes include organic matter,paper, plastic, etc, with relative density amountingto almost 0.3 ton/cubic meter and humidity per-centage reaching 30% to 40%, whereas the ther-mal content is proportionally low.

The general average of waste collection efficiency isput at almost 65%; i.e. 35%, or nearly 15.6 thou-sand tons, are not systematically collected on adaily basis. In Egypt, the Environment ProtectionLaw contains articles on waste. In July 2000, thenational strategy for solid municipal waste man-agement was released and a national program wasdeveloped to encompass 13 integrated projects.

The state adopted thermal and biological treat-ment methods but favoured bio-treatment bycomposting with recyclables recovery, whichproved effective since 1995 as regards expandedmanufacture of waste by converting it intocompost materials. The number of plantsdesigned and established in Egypt was 66 in2005, the capacity of each amounting to 10tons/hour, thus possibly recycling nearly 22%of the aggregate generated municipal wastedaily if these plants were fully operated; unfor-tunately, some of them struggled with sustainedadministrative problems.

The remaining wastes or treatment processresidues are disposed of either in controlled orinformal landfills. The state therefore headed forphased transformation into sanitary dumping inappropriate sites. 52 sites were already selectedand designated in conformity with environmentprotection and human health standards, of which4 were established and made functional and therest, due to various problems and obstacles, areyet to be completed (Egyptian Ministry of Statefor Environmental Affairs, 2006, 2007).

Yemen

With reference to the incredible increases in solidwaste quantities in Yemen, legislation was issued in1999 on establishing the Municipal CleaningFund that provided for three underlying strategies:


decentralization, cost recovery and private sectorparticipation in waste management. In 2000, theSanaa Institution was incorporated into Yemen’swaste management efforts. Besides sorting waste, itundertook segregating and amassing componentsnot subject to decay and exporting some of it tosuch countries as India, China, Lebanon, Greece,Saudi Arabia and UAE, for recycling. Thus it canbe said that amounts transformed into compostmaterials were increased, and consequently rev-enues were earned and environmental benefitsaccrued. Moreover, part of the recyclable compo-nents is sold to agents whereas non-recyclables areonce again returned to the dumpsite.

Jordan

In Jordan, no national strategy for solid wastemanagement has been drafted. The average rateof solid municipal waste surge is estimated ataround 0.77 kg per capita daily, most of which iscollected and transported to a systematically reg-ulated dumpsite. In addition to recycling opera-tions carried out at the informal sector level, ini-

tiatives for utilizing organic waste for bio-gas pro-duction were launched.

Table 4 shows the percentage of treated solidmunicipal waste and different ways of their dis-posal in some Arab countries based on limiteddata made available in recent years (MetapRSWMP, 2004).

Table 4 shows low treatment and recycling ratesin general, and the reliance on disposal in opendumps or landfills.

IV. HAZARDOUS WASTE

The term “hazardous waste” is used as an indica-tion of all residues representing hazard in connec-tion with human health and environment uponuse, storage, treatment or disposal. This is due totheir characteristics, quantities and concentra-tions, thereby demanding special procedures fortheir circulation and disposal (Center for CurbingEnvironmental Risks, Cairo University, 2006).


PERCENTAGES OF SOLID WASTE TREATMENT AND RECYCLING IN SOME ARAB COUNTRIES TABLE 4

Item/Country Syria Lebanon Egypt Jordan Palestine Tunisia

QuantityMillion tons annually 3.65-5.50 1.4 15.3 (2001) 1.46 1.1 (2001) 1.8

Surge RateCountryside 0.20-0.40 0.5-0.7 0.65 0.2Urban areas 0.40-0.50 0.75-1.1 0.7-0.850 0.8

Collection processes %Rural areas Unspecified 95.0 General 95.00 General 90.0

Average AverageUrban areas 80.00 100.0 65.0 95.00 75 95.0

TreatmentTransformation into Less than 80.0 Less than 4.0compost materials % 5.00 22.0Re-cycling % Less than 15.00 8.0 5.0

Final disposalLand filling % Less than 25.00 46.0 85.00 50.0Open dumps % Over 60.00 38.0 15.00 44.6

Generated WasteAnnual increase 2.50-3.50 6.5 (Beirut) 3.4 3.00 4 2.0

The US Environment Protection Agency, theEuropean Waste Catalogue, the CanadianEnvironment Protection Law, the BaselConvention On the Control of TransboundaryMovements of Hazardous Waste, and manynational environment laws of Arab countrieshave set out definitions of hazardous waste underwhich hazard-incurring attributes apply whenthe wastes are flammable, corrosive, effective,oxidizing, irritating (non-erosive), toxic, harm-ful, distorting, cancroid or contagious, not tomention the quality of post-final disposal poten-tial transformation and generation of toxic gases.

Hazardous Waste Sources

Hazardous wastes are generated from activitiessuch as:• Heavy industries, as well as medium industries:

these produce the bulk of hazardous waste inmost Arab countries.

• Agricultural activities: expired or invalid fertil-izers and pesticides and their empty packs.

• Oil-related activities: numerous hazardouswastes result from oil drilling, refining, trans-portation and utilization.

• Therapeutic and health-care activities: wastegenerated from hospitals, health treatment units,private clinics, pharmacies and drug stores.

• Research and lab activities: examples areexpired chemicals and interaction residues.

• Service activities: sanitary wastewater stations,car-service stations, photograph laboratories,printing houses and dry-cleaning shops.

• Military operations: massive quantities of haz-ardous waste are generated, mainly from landand marine mines and expired ammunition,and lately from depleted uranium.

• Garbage and municipal waste: garbage con-tains some hazardous waste of such materials asexpired medicines, chemicals, paints, insecti-cides and their empty containers, consumeddry batteries, and electrical and electronicequipment. Slaughter house wastes includedead animals or infectious parts or remains ofanimals, amounting to sanitation hazard.

• Illicit trafficking in hazardous waste: somecountries face attempts by other countries toexport hazardous waste into their territoriesunder the cover of recycling or reuse.

Many activities commonly engender hazardouswastes which are not confined to just one activi-ty, such as:

• Residues of electric and electronic equipmentsuch as computers- televisions, telephone sets,photocopiers, fax machines, and recorders.

• Oil-related waste (machine oils – brake andmotor oils).

• Expired or non-conforming chemical substances.• Chemicals and pesticides’ empty packs.


ESTIMATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE QUANTITY ON GDP BASISTABLE 5

State World Bank GDP estimates for 2006 Waste Hazard Coefficient Estimates of hazardous wasteClassification (in $ million) Ton/$billion quantity (Around 1000 tons)

Egypt Medium-Low 107,378 2,000 214Saudi Arabia High 348,673 Over 2,000 Over 697UAE High 164,865 Over 2,000 Over 329Kuwait High 101,904 Over 2,000 Over 203Bahrain High 15,828 Over 2,000 Over 31Oman Medium-High 35,656 2,000 71Qatar High 52,722 Over 2,000 Over 105Yemen Low 21,196 1,000 21Jordan Medium-Low 14,258 2,000 28Morocco Medium-Low 65,899 2,000 132Syria Medium-Low 34,190 2,000 68Tunisia Medium-Low 31,416 2,000 63Lebanon Medium-High 23,285 2,000 46Sudan Low 43,894 1,000 44Mauritania Low 2,713 1,000 3

Source: World Bank 2007

• Used batteries and car tires.• Equipment not suitable for use, with compo-

nents containing asbestos or PCB or CFC.

Hazardous Waste Quantities

One main determinant for sound hazardouswaste management rests with the insufficiency ofavailable updated data relating to relevant quan-tities from different sources. A report issued in2004 (GCC, 2004) put forward the followingestimates of hazardous waste quantities in someGulf Cooperation Council member states duringthe second half of the 1990s:

Bahrain 95,000 tons/yearSaudi Arabia 220,000 tons/yearOman 81,000 tons/yearQatar 75,000 tons/yearKuwait 120,000 tons/year

To determine the quantity of hazardous waste,surveys and statistical studies need to be conduct-ed. There are methods that can be applied to esti-mate quantities of hazardous waste including ref-erence to universally acknowledged standards.

• By applying coefficients for weak hazardouswaste according to WHO lists for 1993.

• By conforming to standards of the US Envi-ronment Protection Agency (EPA).

Applying the GDP method (see box 1), thegross domestic product of all Arab countries in2006 can be estimated at approximately$1,276,282 million. Taking into accountprogress and development scales depending notonly on income levels but also on other criteriarelated to education, training, scientificresearch, trade movement and others, Arabcountries are categorized as developing coun-tries, some in the development stage character-ized by variant incomes. Therefore it can be saidthat the aggregate quantity of hazardous waste isestimated between 1,276 and 2,552 thousandtons from Arab countries combined, i.e.between 1.6 and 3.2% of the gross quantity ofsolid municipal waste. Based on the WorldBank country classification according to averageper capita estimates of 2005, the quantity ofhazardous waste is calculated at over 3,055thousand tons, or nearly 4% of the aggregate

quantity of solid municipal waste as shown inTable 5. Given the unavoidable inaccuracy ofthese estimates, more effort is needed to deter-mine the exact quantities which can thenbecome the basis from which to embark onsound planning for its safe handling.

Estimates of the quantity of specific types of hazardous waste(such as health-care residues)

The quantity of health-care waste in some Arabcountries is estimated as follows:

UAE 2,739 ton/yearOman 2,112 ton/year Bahrain 755 ton/yearQatar 516 ton/yearSaudi Arabia 18,860 ton/year Kuwait 2,038 ton/yearLebanon 5,568 ton/year Morocco 10,605 ton/yearSyria 9,750 ton/year

Despite the inaccuracy of hazardous waste esti-mates in general, there is obvious disparity inhealth-care waste quantity compared to grosshazardous waste, with a percentage rangingbetween less than 1% (for Qatar and Bahrain)and 8.6% (for Saudi Arabia), thus corroboratingthe significance of regularly updating data andscrutinizing existing data for inconsistencies.

Egypt

The total health-care waste is estimated atapproximately 390,901 kg/day including around109,514 kg/day as hazardous (about 28%) gener-ated from 165,138 beds in health care facilitiesaround the country; therefore the average outputof such waste can be perceived as:

2.37 kg/bed/day gross waste0.66 kg/bed/day hazardous waste


GLOBAL ESTIMATES OF HAZARDOUSWASTES ON GDP BASIS

For developing countries 1,000 ton/$billion

For countries in the development stage 2,000 ton/$billion

Yemen

A sample-based study in 2002, which covered 49health facilities in Yemen, revealed that the gen-eration rate of related waste ranged between1–2.1 kg/bed/day, 0.58 of which were hazardous.

Hazardous Waste Management

The following diagram shows stages of haz-ardous waste management from generation tofinal disposal.

Handling these wastes differs from one countryto another according to conditions and capabili-ties with regard to meeting the requirements ofthe full-fledged system. Given limited data andinformation, it becomes difficult to identify themanagement efficiency level as far as Arab coun-

tries are concerned; however some importantdeliverables are outlined to this effect:

• In GCC member countries, a unified systemfor health-care waste management was set andadopted in April 2001.

• Bahrain established a law on environment witharticles dealing with hazardous waste focusingon the concept of at-source reduction and seg-regation by applying cleaner production tech-niques. A special site is designated for final dis-posal.

• Saudi Arabia developed relevant standards andguidelines.

• Oman issued a law and a statute on manage-ment, and furnished some equipped sites inaddition to temporary storage of some of thesewastes and burning in special incinerators ofmedical waste.


Reduced output rates

Waste description quantitativelyand qualitatively

STAGE OF WASTEGENERATION (SOURCE)

Material Selection

Cleaner Production Technology

STAGE OF TEMPORARYCOLLECTION AND STORAGE

Definition of locations and Conditions

Means of Transport - Itinerary

TRANSPORT STAGE

Treatment options and alternativesPhysics/chemistry/bio-mechanicsTREATMENT STAGE

Safe land filling

Burning in cement furnaces accordingto established controls

SAFE DISPOSAL STAGE Controlled burning and incineration

FIGURE 1 STAGES OF HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT SINCE GENERATION

• Kuwait elaborated a law and set standards forenvironment protection while using burningand incineration plus land filling (sterilizationof medical waste).

• Qatar has special incinerators for medical wastes. • Tunisia provided a special site for hazardous

waste treatment.• Egypt developed a law on hazardous wastes,

also a strategy and work program for health-care waste. It laid down relevant rules, controlsand guidelines, adopted life-cycle, cleaner pro-duction and at-source reduction concepts andused burning, incineration and disposal incement furnaces and waste landfills.

V. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC WASTE (EEW)

Electrical and electronic waste is what remainsfrom the production and use of electrical andelectronic equipment, their parts and inputs,including:

• Manufacturing processes and productionwaste, such as plastic, glass and mineral materi-als, rubber and the like, in addition to oils,lubricants and inks which all contain heavymetals such as lead, cadmium, chrome, nickeland zinc, as well as precious elements (such asgold and silver).

• Waste resulting from operational processes,which include:• Inputs of operating electrical and electronic

equipment such as batteries, charging cards,magnetic tapes, printing inks and used oils;

• Expired equipment;• Equipment or parts thereof that were

irreparably damaged, broken or became dys-functional and no longer fit for use.

• Outdated equipment or parts thereof, namelyall electrical and electronic equipment, theirattachments and operational inputs are consid-ered wastes if proved unfit or unable to copewith technological advancement and modernrequirements (Abu El Saud, 2004).

Quantity and Components of Electricaland Electronic Equipment

Available data reveals that electronic and electricalwastes represent a small percentage of the aggre-gate waste generated in any country. For example,

this type of waste in the European Union mem-ber states accounts for 1% of the total generatedwaste (European Parliament, 1998), while in theUS it ranges between 2% and 5% of the grossquantity of solid municipal waste, and is increas-ing by 3% to 5% annually. Assuming an averagerate of around 3%, the quantities of electrical andelectronic residues of Arab countries can be esti-mated as shown in Table 6.

A 2004 report by the Department ofEnvironmental Health in the State of California(California IWMB, 2004) indicated that electron-ic equipment waste includes more than 1,000 sub-stances in varying, mixed or blended quantitiesregarding different ingredients of equipment, someare hazardous and others are of value for possiblybeing regarded as recyclables. Some examples are:

• Lead which is found in glass screens of TV setsand computer monitors;

• Plastic materials and heavy metals in printedcircuit boards;

• Batteries containing nickel, chrome, and otherheavy metals;

• Hazardous polychlorinated substance (PCBs)found in condensers.

• Brominated flame retardants;• Mercury found in medical apparatuses and cel-

lular phones;• Plus gold and silver, being precious elements

seen as a source of economic value on accountof their potential recovery.

The same report states that each computer con-tains 3.7 pounds of lead, 11.4 pounds of plastic,0.006 pounds of cadmium and 0.001 pounds ofmercury. These figures have been used to esti-mate quantities of various substances available incomputers used across the Arab countries (Table6). Until now, used or obsolete computers andother electronic and electrical equipment end upin dumps, while they should be segregated to re-use some components, recycle others, and prop-erly dispose of hazardous contents. Still, a limit-ed portion is recycled or reused, largely on selec-tive basis and through private initiatives.

It must be recognized that with electronics con-tinuously advancing and in view of increaseddependence thereon, it is certain that for the fewcoming years, much equipment and accessorieswill be generated as waste requiring safe disposal.


Efforts made to this end are very limited (accord-ing to available data). In Egypt, one of the mobilecompanies collected consumed batteries of cellu-lar phones from the Egyptian market for recy-cling in the United Kingdom in collaborationwith Phone Back Company. The company alsocollected fitting parts of photocopiers and print-ers for reshipping to the mother company abroad(Egyptian Ministry of State for EnvironmentalAffairs, 2007). Etisalat, the UAE based telecom-munications giant, has also announced a mobilephone recycling initiative.

Safe Alternatives Regarding Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Equipment

To achieve safe management of these wastesand redress effects related to environment andhealth of unsystematic disposal processes car-ried out in solid waste unloading sites or byburning, the optimal approach hinges on theadoption of the “reduction, reuse, recycling andrecovery” principle by applying advanced high-tech procedures and activities and clean tech-nology during the manufacturing and produc-tion stage, and other means relevant to the post-operation stage. These activities are promotedby a framework of appropriate and supportivelegislation based on specific and agreed policies.Figure 2 shows the hierarchical arrangement ofthis management.

VI. CROSS-BORDER HAZARDOUSWASTE MOVEMENT

Many countries have recourse to the export ofhazardous waste to other countries which are ableto handle it. Such movement is governed by theBasel Convention which controls theTransboundary Movements of HazardousWastes. This Convention was adopted in 1989and entered into force in 1992.

Under this Convention, members are notauthorized to proceed with export and importprocesses or transnational transfer of hazardouswaste except in accordance with controls andprocedures articulated in the Convention.

19 Arab countries have ratified this Conventionand some of them are in the process of exportinghazardous waste to other state parties. Vesselscarrying hazardous waste shipments are allowedby some other countries to cross their borders.Some examples from the Arab region:

• In 1996, Yemen exported 262 tons of expiredpesticides to Britain for disposal. Between1999-2004, around 152,500 tons of expiredbatteries were exported to Indonesia.

• In 2001, Bahrain exported 761.45 tons of acid leadbatteries to Indonesia and about 27 tons of chemi-cal waste to Canada for treatment and disposal.


QUANTITY AND CONTENTS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT WASTE TABLE 6

State No. of cellular phones/100 persons [1] No of Personal Computers [1]

1996 [4] 2004 2005 2006 1996 [5] 2002 2003 2004Egypt 6.7 10.92 19.10 23.86 337,745 1,120,000 2,000,000 2,300,000Saudi Arabia 38.21 57.64 78.05 3,300,000 5,045,000 8,476,000Kuwait 57.16 78.34 88.57 285,000 400,000 450,000Bahrain 90.77 103.04 121.71 107,000 114,000 121,000Oman 17.1 31.82 51.94 69.59 24,133 95,000 106,000 118,000Qatar 66.59 62.15 109.06 110,000 121,000 133,000Yemen 3.47 5.17 9.54 145,000 200,000 300,000Jordan 28.93 55.02 74.40 200,000 245,000 300,000Morocco 20.9 31.24 40.89 52.07 45,642 500,000 600,000 620,000Syria 2.3 12.87 15.49 23.96 20,538 330,000 500,000 600,000Tunisia 5.2 37.43 56.32 71.88 60,896 335,325 400,372 472,132Lebanon 22.7 24.91 27.78 30.53 15,355 300,000 350,000 400,000Sudan 3.04 5.21 12.66 200,000 348,000 606,000

Sources:1. ESCWA Report for 2007; 2. Calculated on the basis of 3% of total solid municipal wast;

• In 1996, Tunisia exported batteries containingcadmium and lead to some EU countries. In2001, 65 tons of electric transformers contain-ing poly-chloro bi-vinyl compounds wereexported to a private establishment in France.

• In the Sultanate of Oman, used oils are exported.

Egypt permits navigation across the Suez Canalof ships carrying hazardous waste for purposes ofrecycling, reuse or final disposal in compliancewith respective national conditions in addition toprovisions set forth in relevant international con-ventions. Saudi Arabia is set to operate observa-tion and control systems applicable to crossingand anchored ships in ports.

VII. LIQUID WASTE

Liquid waste is the wastewater resulting fromusing water for different purposes.

Quality and Quantity

• Agricultural Wastewater: These are liquidsresulting from water used in irrigation.Irrigation and agriculture water accounts forthe main percentage of water utilized inmost Arab countries. Moreover, agriculturalwastewater drainage differs in percentageaccording to type of crops, technologyapplied and climate condition, rangingbetween 30% and 90%.


Estimated quantity of wastes Estimated computer contents/2004 (tons) [3]

for 2004 (Ton/Year) Lead Plastic Cadmium Mercury480,000 3,860.0 11,889 6.30 1.050348,000 14,255.0 43,906 22.10 3.70039,000 757.0 2,331 1.23 0.20020,400 203.5 627 0.33 0.055180,000 197.5 611 0.32 0.0559,065 223.7 689 0.36 0.06099,600 504.0 1,554 0.82 0.12054,000 504.0 1,554 0.82 0.120108,900 1043.0 3,116 1.69 0.28096,000 1009.0 3,108 1.64 0.27065,100 793.8 2,445 1.29 0.21025,400 672.7 2,072 1.09 0.180219,000 1,019.0 3,139 1.65 0.270

3. Calculated according to components of electronic equipment waste, California IWMB 2004; 4. World Bank – Development Indicators for Africa, 2002; 5. Calculated against the number of population and world development indicators – World Bank 1988-2002

• Industrial Effluents: These are liquids result-ing from water consumed or used in majorindustrial activities. A report indicated thatonly 5% of the water used in industry is con-

sumed and unrecoverable. These liquidsinclude organic pollutants and chemical sub-stances posing, in most cases, environmentaland health risks.

• Drainage/Sewage: This results from usingwater in domestic, commercial and othermunicipal purposes. Though constituting thesmallest percentage of water utilization, it isnormally pathogen-bearing water that maycause illnesses, in addition to hazardous chem-ical substances, especially if mixed with indus-trial effluents. Wastewater is responsible foralmost 80%-90% of water consumption inhousehold activities.

Table 7 shows estimates of wastewater generatedand industrial effluent contamination levels inArab countries for 2000. Table 8 indicates quan-tities of recoverable treated wastewater.

Methods of handling liquid waste

Methods of handling wastewater differ fromone country to another. However, in view of


HAZARD REDUCTION

REUSE

RECYCLING

FINAL DISPOSED

Manual dismantling and segregation

Segregation of hazardous parts

Material recyclingPlastic

Minerals

Glass

Precious elements

Others

Heavy metals

Safe land filling

Incineration

Testing non hazardous materials

Product designing

Rational material use

Sale (of equipment as a whole or parts thereof)

Donation (of equipment as a whole or parts thereof)

Recycling of fit parts

FIGURE 2 HIERARCHICAL ALIGNMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

WASTEWATER IN SELECTEDARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 7

State Wastewater EstimatesMillion m3/year

Algeria 1,069Egypt 4,394Jordan 171Kuwait 160Lebanon 362Libya 308Morocco 817Oman 76Saudi Arabia 1,546Syria 479Tunisia 349UAE 424Yemen 212

Source: Estimated at 80% of domestic consumption, EarthTrends 2005

the limited water resources available, it is gen-erally required that this water is reused, direct-ly or indirectly, according to environment pro-tection and sanitation standards. Many Arabcountries have issued codes and controls forthe use of wastewater, but reuse levelsremained limited.

In Egypt, and within the framework of synergy ofministries of environment, housing and agricul-ture together with private sector participation,part of the treated sanitary wastewater is utilizedin afforestation and cultivation of wood trees topartly absorb environment-polluting gases (espe-cially carbon dioxide), provide job opportunitiesand yield returns. Up till 2005, 11,195 acreswere cultivated consuming around 492,000cubic meters daily of treated sanitary wastewater(about 0.01% of its gross quantity). In 2006, thebasic infrastructure for cultivating a further 890acres was finalized and this activity is planned tobe continued.

Abu Dhabi and Dubai use most of the treatedwastewater in irrigation, mainly for landscapingpurposes. Although 60% of the wastewater gen-erated in Kuwait is treated by advanced reverse-osmosis process, making it safe for any type ofuse, certain taboos still restrict full utilization.

VIII. CONCLUSION

Some Arab countries have embarked on theapplication of an integrated environment man-agement approach towards waste, and demon-strated deliverables especially with regard tonon-hazardous waste. However, the Arab coun-tries are still faced with numerous challengesembodied in:

• Lack of surveys, statistics and consequentlydata and information on hazardous waste inparticular;

• Lack of enforcement of environmental legisla-tion;

• Limited technical infrastructure, plans andstrategies;

• Insufficient financial resources;• Low-level of awareness;• Incomplete institutional structure and limited

participation of non-governmental organiza-tions.

Subsequently, it is worth noting that in the bestscenario, what is needed is a multi-componentintegrated system involving full waste life cyclestages starting from waste generation to final dis-posal, taking into consideration the principle ofreducing the consumption, reuse, recycling andrecovery. In all processes, the following stepsshould be duly taken:

• Provide appropriate environmental legislativeframeworks and give effect to internationalconventions regulating them;

• Promote national institutional capacities andcoordination with international organizationsto control locally-generated hazardous wastesand prevent their illicit trafficking;

• Provide human resources in sufficient num-bers, and in terms of appropriate capacity andefficiency, specify their roles and responsibili-ties at all levels and develop sustained trainingprograms;

• Sensitize entities concerned at all levels and thecommunity in general regarding issues pertain-ing to waste management;

• Provide necessary funds from different sourcesand always bear in mind local circumstances;

• Encourage research and development activitiesto ensure that technologies are adequately pro-vided to curb waste surges and secure their safehandling.

There is widespread acceptance that waste man-agement is a challenge that Arab countries haveto address by adopting an integrated approach. Afirst prerequisite for any such endeavour wouldbe the collection of accurate data, which is stilllacking, and mostly based on estimates.


REUSABLE TREATED WASTEWATERTABLE 8

Country Volume of reusable treated wastewater Percentage of(million cubic meter/year) wastewater %

Egypt 200.00 4.60Jordan 65.00 38.00Kuwait 52.00 32.50Lebanon 2.00 0.55Oman 9.00 11.80Qatar 0.13Saudi Arabia 122.60 7.90Syria 550.00Yemen 185.30 87.40

Source: UN Economic and Social Commission for West Asia (ESCWA) 2005

Note: references that refer to Arabic publications aredenoted with a *.

Abu El Saud, Nafissa. “Safe Disposal of Electrical andElectronic Equipment.” Technical Secretariat of theArab Council of Ministers Responsible for EnvironmentAffairs (CAMRE). Regional Forum on the Role ofCommunication and Information in Protection ofHumans and Modality of Curbing Environmental andHealth Impacts of their Employment, October 2004.*

Al Yousfi, Basel. “Sound Environmental Managementof Solid Waste: The Landfill Bioreactor.” UNEP, noyear given.

Arab Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). GeneralSecretariat. GCC Countries and their Role in theProtection of Environment and Preservation of itsNatural Resources. 2004.*

Arafaoui, Khadija. Association de Developpement et deProtection de l’Environnement (ADPE) La Marsa.”Management and Mismanagement of Solid waste inTunisia,” Proceedings of the Cairo InternationalConference and Exhibition - Municipal Solid WasteManagement in the Mediterranean and Arab Region.2006.

California Integrated Waste Management Board(IWMB). “Best Management Practices for ElectronicWaste.” Contractors Report to the Board. Producedunder contract by Santa Clara County Department ofEnvironmental Health, San Jose, California, April 2004.http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/publications/Electronics/63004005.pdf (accessed May 10, 2008).

Center for Curbing Environmental Risks, CairoUniversity. “Conference and Exhibition Relating toChemical and Environmental Risk Management andthe Role of Scientific Research and AdvancedTechnology in their Limitation”. Cairo, 2006.*

EarthTrends. “Fresh Water Resources 2005,”(Sources: FAO, Population Division of the Departmentof Economic and Social Affairs of the United NationsSecretariat, World Bank.) 2005.

Egyptian Environment Affairs Association. Waste,Recycling and Investment – Wealth of our Country andProtection of our Children, Third Conference, Cairo,May 2007.*

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). GuidingDocument of Solid Waste Regime in Egypt.April 2001.*

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).National Strategy for Management of Solid MunicipalWaste “General Action Framework.” GeneralDepartment for Waste. June 2000.*

Egyptian Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.

Egypt’s Environment Status Report 2005, Issue no 1,December 2006.*

Egyptian Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.Egypt’s Environment Status Report of 2006,Issued 2007.*

Egyptian Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation,Water Quality Unit. “Realities and InformationRegarding Problems of Water Resources and their Degradation.”*

El Madani, Ismael. “Integrated and SustainableManagement of Municipal Solid Waste in Bahrain,”Proceeding of the Cairo International Conference andExhibition. Municipal Solid Waste Management in theMediterranean and Arab Regions. 2006.

El Sayed, Somaya. “Solid Waste Management inSudan,” Proceedings of the Cairo InternationalConference and Exhibition - Municipal solid wasteManagement in the Mediterranean and Arab Region,2006.

European Parliament, Directorate-General forResearch, Division for the Environment, Energy andResearch, STOA, “Electronic Waste (WEEE) May 1998.

General Secretariat of the League of Arab States(LAS). Experiences of Arab Countries in the Area ofImplementing the Basel Convention and MechanismsMade Operational in Relevance to Sound Managementof Hazardous Waste. Country Papers, 2002.*

General Secretariat of the League of Arab States(LAS). Unified Arab Economic Report. 2007.*

Ghoudary, Abdul Hamid. Medical Waste Arrangementin Morocco “Workshop on Use of ChemicalSubstances and Hazard Waste in the Industrial Sectorand Ensuing Environmental and Health Effects.”League of Arab States, Abu Dhabi, 14-16 May 2001.*

Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Universityof Alexandria, Egypt. Training Course: HazardousWaste in Egypt. April 2004.

Marmaduke, Ali. “Waste Management, Yemen’s quietrevolution.” Yemen Observer. February 20, 2007.Retrieved fromhttp://www.arabenvironment.net/archive/2007/2/161277.html (accessed May 4, 2008).

METAP Regional Solid Waste Management Project(RSWMP). “Regional Solid Waste Management projectin Mashreq and Maghreb countries.” Algiers, Algeria,January 2004.

Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality.“Electronic Waste: A New Challenge For A NewMillennium.” 2001.http://www.deq.state.ne.us/Newslett.nsf/pages/Sum01-4a (accessed May 2, 2008).

Saudi Arabian Presidency of Meteorology andEnvironment (PME). Executive Regulation of the

Environment Public Order in the Kingdom of SaudiArabia. Available at www.pme.gov.sa.*

“SAUDI ARABIA: starting the first gathering ofcompanies involved in waste management andrecycling”, Middle East – International Arab Journal.Issue no 10336, 17 March 2007.*

“Sustainable Management of Medical Waste in theArab Region: Current Status and Future.” Papers ofthe Third Arab Conference on EnvironmentManagement and Waste Treatment, Sharm El-Sheikh,Egypt, 21-22 November 2007.*

World Bank. World Development Indicators 2007,World Bank Publications, 2007.

WHO. Solid Waste Manual, Ministry of Health –General Environmental Health Department, WorldHealth Organization, Tunisia, February 1995.*

Youssef, Fadel Abbas. “Solid Municipal WasteManagement in the Kingdom of Bahrain.” FirstConference on Municipal Action. Conference Center ofBahrain, 26-27 March 2006.*

REFERENCES


Impact of Climate Changeon Arab Countries

127

MAHMOUD MEDANY

CHAPTER 9

I. INTRODUCTION

There is a widely-held scientific conviction thatthe global climate is changing as a result of thecombined anthropogenic forcing due to green-house gases, aerosols, and land surface changes.Many pieces of evidence have concluded with ahigh degree of probability that human activitieshave exerted a substantial net warming influenceon climate since 1750 (IPCC, 2007b). Recent cli-matological studies found that the global surfaceair temperature increased from 1850 to 2005 by0.76ºC. Moreover, the linear warming trend overthe last 50 years is recorded by 0.13ºC per decade(IPCC, 2007b). Furthermore, there has been anincrease in the number of heat waves, a reductionin the frequency and duration of frosts, and anincrease in extreme events frequency and intensityin many parts of the world. Regarding these glob-al trends, the recent studies found that the Arabregion experienced an uneven increase in surfaceair temperature ranging from 0.2 to 2.0ºC thatoccurred from 1970 to 2004 (IPCC, 2007a).

For the next two decades, a warming of about0.2ºC per decade is projected for a range ofIPCC SRES emission scenarios. Even if the con-centrations of all greenhouse gases and aerosolshad been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a fur-ther warming of about 0.1ºC per decade wouldbe expected (IPCC, 2007b).

Physical and biological ecosystems on all conti-nents and in most oceans have already beenaffected by recent climate changes (IPCC,2007a). It is now generally accepted that this cli-mate change is the result of increasing concentra-tions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxideand other greenhouse gases (GHGs) in theatmosphere (IPCC, 2001a).

For the year 2000, the statistics showed that theworld total GHGs emissions from all resourceswas about 33 thousand Tg (teragram) (Figure 1),with Arab countries contributing about 4.2% ofthese total world emissions (WRI, 2005). As pre-sented in Figure 2, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia(KSA) is contributing the highest percentage ofthe total GHGs emissions from the Arab coun-tries, followed by Egypt and Algeria (WRI, 2005).

This relatively small contribution of GHGs of allArab countries does not correspond to the pro-jected impacts of climate change over the region.The Middle East and North Africa region is avast zone of generally diverse climatic conditions,characterized by very low and highly variableannual rainfall and a high degree of aridity (FAO,2002b). As shown in Figure 3, most of the Arabregion lands are classified as hyper-arid, semi-aridand arid land zones (WRI, 2002). Most recentassessments have concluded that arid and semi-

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON ARAB COUNTRIESCHAPTER 9128

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTIONOF GHGs EMISSIONS OF YEAR 2000

FIGURE 1

Total GHGs Emissions (Tg CO2 equivalent)Total GHGs Emissions of the world=33,309 Tg

Arab Countries4.2

Oceania1.7

SouthAmerica

5.4Central Americaand Caribbean

2.2

Africa(Excl. ArabCountries)3.6Europe

22.9

North America22.8

Asia(Excl. ArabCountries)37.1

Source: WRI, 2000

arid regions are highly vulnerable to climatechange (IPCC, 2007a; see also Chapter 7).Generally, the Arab countries are considered asdeveloping countries and are highly vulnerable toclimate change impacts due to their arid climates.If temperatures in the region get higher, or pre-cipitation gets lower, pressure on natural andphysical systems would be intensified.

According to modelling studies, the Arab regionwill face an increase of 2ºC to 5.5ºC in the surfacetemperature by the end of the 21st century. Thisincrease will be coupled with a projected decreasein precipitation from 0 to 20%. These projectedchanges will lead to shorter winters, dryer and hot-ter summers, a higher rate of heat waves, a higherlevel of weather variability and a more frequentoccurrence of extreme weather events.

The purpose of this chapter is to give a generaloverview of the studied impacts of the projectedclimatic changes in the Arab region, in order toaddress some key points in the way of adaptationand mitigation planning.

II. THE IMPACT OF SEA-LEVEL RISE

Sea level rise (SLR) is an important consequenceof climate change and a serious global threat. It isvery likely that 20th century global warming hascontributed significantly to the observed sea levelrise, through thermal expansion of sea water andwidespread loss of land ice (IPCC, 2001b). Therate of the global sea level rise was observed to be

1.8 mm per year through the period of 1961-2003; it should be noted that the observed rateover 1993 to 2003 was markedly higher, at about3.1 mm per year. The total 20th century rise isestimated to be 0.17 m (IPCC, 2007b).

The available scientific evidence has found that thecontinued growth of GHG emissions and associat-ed global warming could lead to SLR of 1 to 3m inthe 21st century, and an unexpectedly rapid break-up of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheetsmight produce a 5m SLR (IPCC, 2001b).However, there are uncertainties in the estimatesof SLR in the longer run (IPCC, 2007b).

The nature of the impacts of sea level rise willvary from place-to-place and country-to-country.This is due to a variety of factors, depending onlocal conditions such as elevation of the land andcurrently occurring geological land subsidence,reflecting that certain settings are more vulnera-


GHGS EMISSIONS OF YEAR 2000 FROM ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 2

Source: WRI, 2005

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FIGURE 3 ARIDITY ZONES OF THE WORLD

Tg CO2 equivalent

FIGURE 4 THE IMPACT (%) OF SLR ON COUNTRY AREA, GDP, AGRICULTURE EXTENT, URBAN EXTENT, ANDWETLANDS EXTENT IN ARAB COUNTRIES, UNDER FIVE SCENARIOS OF SLR OF 1, 2, 3, 4 AND 5M

Source: Dasgupta et al., 2007

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SLR 4m

SLR 1m SLR 2m

SLR 3m


Impact on Country area (%)

Impact on GDP (%)

Impact on agricultural extent (%)

Impacts on urban extent (%)

Imacts on wetlands (%)

ble than others. Socioeconomic factors, includinghuman response to climate change, are also con-sidered (Neumann et al., 2000). River deltas,low-lying coastal urban areas, and small islandshave the highest exposure of key human vulnera-bilities to climate change and sea-level rise(Nicholls, 2004).

Egypt is one of the highly vulnerable countries tothe impacts of SLR. A 1m SLR would affect 6million people in Egypt, where under this sce-nario 12 to 15% of agricultural land in the NileDelta region would be lost. The high-risk areas inEgypt include parts of Alexandria, Behaira, PortSaid, Damietta and the Suez governorate. If noprotective measures were to be taken, or a busi-ness-as-usual scenario to prevail, the agriculturesector would be severely negatively affected (aloss of over 90% of the total area of the gover-norates under risk), followed by the industrialsector (loss of 65%), and the tourism sector (lossof 55%) due to SLR of 0.5m.

The impact of SLR on the Arab countries is stud-ied in a recent assessment by the World Bank(Dasgupta et al., 2007). This study examined theimpact of SLR, of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5m, on countryarea, population, GDP, agricultural extent,urban extent, and wetlands (Figures 4 and 5).The results of the study indicated that Qatar’sland area would experience a significant reduc-tion of about 2.6 to 13% due to 1m and 5m rises,respectively. Dasgupta et al. found that with anSLR of 1m, approximately 10% of Egypt’s pop-ulation would be directly impacted, with thestrongest impact being in the Nile Delta; itreaches a loss of 20% with a 5m SLR. In theUnited Arab Emirates and Tunisia, a SLR of 1mwould impact about 5% of the population.

The study by Dasgupta et al. also covered theprojected impact of SLR on the GDP and agri-cultural sector, finding that Egypt’s GDP wouldalso be significantly impacted by SLR. Thestudy partially attributes this negative impact on


Source: Dasgupta et al., 2007

FIGURE 5 MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION, EXPOSED POPULATION TO THE NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF 5M SLR

GDP by pointing to the direct impact of SLRon agricultural production in Egypt; in fact, inthe Arab region, Egypt’s agricultural sector ismost vulnerable to SLR. A 1m SLR wouldimpact approximately 12.5% of Egypt’s agricul-tural output, with the percentage rising to 35%with a 5m SLR.

Abd-El Wahab (2005) emphasized that the pro-jected impact of SLR on agricultural lands inEgypt could be intensified by 80 to 120% due toland subsidence and ground water rise. Urbanareas of the Arab region would also be signifi-cantly impacted; in Egypt, Libya, the UnitedArab Emirates, and Tunisia, the impact reachesapproximately 5% with a 1m SLR, 6 to 7% witha 2m SLR, and approximately 10% with a 5mSLR. The wetlands of Qatar, and to lesser extentKuwait, Libya, and United Emirates would besignificantly impacted by SLR.

The results of the previous studies are presentedwith high degrees of uncertainties, and there isno continuous monitoring for the sea level in thethreatened spots. Therefore, there is no way ofassessing the real magnitude of the impact andthe suggestion of adaptation measures required.

III. THE IMPACT ON FRESHWATER SOURCES

As stated earlier, most of the Arab countries arelocated in arid and semi-arid regions that arecharacterized by low and limited water resourcesand high evaporation. Total water resources aredefined as an aggregation of total renewableground water, internal surface water resources,and external surface water resources. The higherthe “external surface water resources” percentageof “total renewable water resources,” the higherthe “dependency ratio” (%) and the lower thewater-security. The “dependency ratio” (%) isthe part of the total renewable water resourcesoriginating outside the country (FAO, 2003); ahigh dependency ratio thus implies a degree ofexternal vulnerability (see also Chapter 5).

Iraq, Sudan and Egypt have the highest annualwater resources between the Arab countries of75, 65 and 58 billion m3/year, respectively.Nonetheless, since more than 50% of their sur-face resources are external, more pressures aregenerated on their water situation. Figure 6shows that Algeria, Lebanon, Mauritania,Morocco, Somalia, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen fallin the second category of total water resourcesbetween 5 to 30 billion m3/year. The rest of Arabcountries are the worst endowed with waterresources of less than 5 billion m3/year.

Total annual groundwater resources in the Arabregion are about 35 billion m3, and more than50% of the water in the Arab Peninsula is groundwater. Annual average precipitation is variedalong the Arab region. In Lebanon and Syria theaverage annual amounts of precipitation are 600and 300 mm/year, respectively. This rate decreas-es gradually to be 300 mm/year by moving tonorthern and eastern parts of Mediterraneancoast of Morocco and Tunisia. The averageannual precipitation reaches 130 mm/year overNorth African countries and the Arab Peninsula,while the average annual precipitation over therest of the Arab countries is about 290 mm/year.

Kuwait has the poorest water resources in theArab region with average precipitation of 121mm/year, total annual water of 0.02 billion m3/year and a 100% dependency ratio. Egypt has thesecond lowest annual precipitation in the region.The overall situations of Egyptian, Mauritanian,


Syrian and Sudanese water resources are very vul-nerable, because they have high dependencyratios in the region of 97, 96, 80 and 77%,respectively, in addition to their limited totalrenewable water resources.

“Annual water resources per capita” is an impor-tant measure of national water situations. AllArab countries can be classified as vulnerable inthis regard, except Iraq that has water resourcesof more than 2,900 m3/capita/year. Syria is cur-rently facing water stress (1,000 to 1,500m3/capita/year), while the rest of the Arab coun-tries are facing water scarcity (less than 1,000m3/capita/year).

The water situation in the Arab region is threat-ened by both environmental and socio-economicpressures. Many negative impacts of climatechange on freshwater systems have been observedin recent studies. These impacts are mainly dueto the observed and projected increases in tem-perature, evaporation, sea level and precipitationvariability (IPCC, 2007a). Many arid and semi-arid areas will experience a decrease in waterresources due to climate change.

Generally, by the end of the 21st century, the flowof high latitude rivers is projected to increase,while those from major rivers in the Middle East,Europe and Central America tend to decrease.

However, the magnitude of change is highlyuncertain (Arnell, 2004). Moreover, sea-level risewill extend the area of saline groundwater, result-ing in a decrease in freshwater availability forhumans and ecosystems in coastal areas (Bobba,et al., 2000). In addition, groundwater rechargewill decrease considerably in some already water-stressed regions (Doll and Florke, 2005).

As a direct consequence of climate change, andgiven the current rapid trends of populationincreases, FAO projections show that Algeria,Egypt, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia are expectedto experience severe water shortages by 2050, andonly Iraq is expected to be in a relatively bettersituation (FAO, 2002b). Typically, heavyreliance on surface and groundwater prevails inall countries of the region, with 60–90 percent ofwater being used for agriculture. All over theregion, water demand is steadily increasing whilewater supply is steadily decreasing.

The shortage of water resources is aggravated bywater accessibility factors. Water quality, water-shed conditions, infrastructure, and policy andconflicts are nearing the top of the priority list ofwater accessibility strategies in the Arab region.Currently, the quality of water resources in theArab region is affected by pollution, urbaniza-tion, floods and over use of water resources.Climate change is projected to increase salinity


RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCES OF THE ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 6

Source: AQUASTAT- FAO, 2002a

Surface (internal) Surface (external) Ground Precipitation

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levels of lakes and ground water as a result ofincreased temperature (Haas, 2002). Moreover,higher pollutant concentrations in rivers,increased ground water contamination, andincreased leaching of agricultural chemicals intogroundwater are projected as a result of changesof runoff in catchments (IUCN, 2003).Watersheds are now facing frequent droughtcoupled with sudden intense rainfall events thatcause serious soil erosion and desertification.Under climate change conditions, watersheddegradation and desertification processes wouldintensify (Haas, 2002).

Haas (2002) projected first order impacts of cli-mate change on Mediterranean hydrological sys-tems as wetter winters and dryer summers, hottersummers and heat waves, and more variabilityand extreme weather events take their toll. Theseimpacts may induce an increase in evaporation(E) from natural and artificial water bodies andsoils that reduce the available water supply.Additionally, it will increase evapotranspiration(ETo) from crops and natural vegetation. Attaheret al. (2006) carried out a case study of Egypt toinvestigate the impact of climatic changes onETo based on air temperature changes accordingto different scenarios. The study indicated thatprojected future climatic changes will increasethe potential irrigation demand of Egypt by 6-16% due to the increase in ETo by the 2100s.

IV. THE IMPACT OF INCREASING DROUGHT

Drought is one of the serious water related disastersthreatening the Arab region for both current andfuture time scales. From a climatic point of view,drought can be defined as a “temporary reductionin water or moisture availability significantly belowthe normal or expected amount for specified peri-od.” From the hydrological point of view, droughtis “a period of abnormally dry weather sufficientlyprolonged for the lack of precipitation to cause aserious hydrological imbalance, carrying connota-tion for moisture deficiency with respect to man’susage of water” (Rossi, 2001).

Droughts affect rain-fed agricultural production aswell as water supply for domestic, industrial, andagricultural purposes. Some semi-arid and sub-humid regions of the globe have suffered from more

intense and multi-annual droughts, highlightingthe vulnerability of these regions to the increaseddrought occurrence that is expected in the futuredue to climate change (Nicholson, 2005).

Drought frequency increased during the last 20-40 years in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Syria,and changed in Morocco from an average of 1year of drought in every 5 year period, before1990, to 1 year drought for each 2 year period(Karrou, 2002. Abbas, 2002. Mougou andMansour, 2005). In Lebanon, varying conditionsof water shortage (regarding the availability ofthe hydraulic resources) have been experienced inthe last decade (Karam, 2002).

In Morocco, of the twenty-two drought years inthe twentieth century, ten occurred during thelast two decades and included the three successivedry years of 1999, 2000 and 2001. Drought isalso a recurring event in the Near East. Jordan,for example, is predominantly arid and has expe-rienced chronic water shortages and has sufferedfrom severe shortages since the 1960s. The recentdroughts in Jordan and Syria were the worst everrecorded in recent decades (FAO, 2002b).

A warmer climate, with its increased climate vari-ability, will increase the risk of both floods anddroughts (Wetherald and Manabe, 2002). Drought-affected areas will probably increase, and extremeprecipitation events, which are likely to increase infrequency and intensity, will augment flood risk.Increased frequency and severity of floods anddroughts will also have implications for sustainabledevelopment (IPCC, 2007a). Water shortage isalready the main constraint in most countries of theregion, and IPCC model simulations indicate thatwater scarcity may worsen substantially as a result offuture changes in climatic patterns.

V. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, MITIGATIONAND ADAPTATION MEASURES

Although climate change is projected to haveserious impacts on natural and human systems inthe Arab region, only modest efforts and steps aretaken in scientific research related to mitigationand adaptation.

The scientific community in most Arab countriesstill harbours many suspicions regarding climate


change phenomena, and remains hesitant toacknowledge the risks. Climate change studies arebased in most cases on using modelling, remotesensing and projection techniques, but, due to thelack of facilities and low allocated funds for the Arabresearch institutions, the empirical and experimen-tal techniques are still applied in Arab countries.

As a result of this, a small and scattered numberof research studies were published in the field ofclimate change, and there are many gaps that stillneed to be filled in the future, especially pertain-ing to the vulnerability of water resources, agri-culture, and health sectors.

Few and limited studies on mitigation and adapta-tion are developed in the Arab countries. InMorocco, a drought insurance program based onrainfall contracts is an important example of adap-tation strategies, and it had a potentially significantbenefit over the current scheme, minimizingdrought hazard and protected the cereals produc-tion (IUCN, 2003). Shoreline protection alongthe northern coast of Egypt is another obviousexample of an adaptation strategy (El-Raey, 1999).

VI. CONCLUSION ANDRECOMMENDATIONS

Integrating climate change mitigation andadaptation in development strategies and poli-

cies strengthens these strategies and increasestheir efficiency. The following considerationscould be included to encourage and enhancethe planning of adaptation and mitigationstrategies under Arab countries’ conditions:

• Improving the scientific capacity in the vari-ous fields related to climate change should bea top priority.

• Ensuring political and financial support forthe implementation of adaptation strategies.

• Applying the bottom up approach of plan-ning and implementing adaptation and miti-gation strategies.

• Developing community-based measures bystakeholders’ involvement in adaptationplanning, and improving the adaptive capac-ity of the different sectors of the society.

• Increasing public awareness of the impacts ofclimate change on the environment andhuman health. Public awareness activitiesshould cover the following:- Clarify and explain the scientific facts and

terms to improve the vision of stakeholdersand to reduce the communication gapsbetween researchers and stakeholders.

- Simplify the scientific message to matchbackground level, education level, knowl-edge level, experiences, and role of stake-holders.

- Indicate the best sources of informationavailable.


Abd-El Wahab, H. M. The impact of geographicalinformation system on environmental development.M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-AzharUniversity, Cairo, 2005.

Abbas, A. Drought Suppression Procedures for DryLands, The First Technical Workshop of theMediterranean, Component of CLIMAGRI Project onClimate Change and Agriculture, Rome, September25-27, 2002.

Arnell, N.W. “Climate change and global waterresources: SRES scenarios and socio-economicscenarios.” Global Environmental Change, 14, 2004:31-52.

Attaher, S., Medany, M. A., Abdel Aziz, A.A. and El-Gindy, A. “Irrigation- Water Demands under Currentand Future Climate Conditions in Egypt.” Misr Journalof Agricultural Engineering, 23 (4), 2006: 1077-1089.

Bobba, A., Singh, V., Berndtsson, R. and Bengtsson,L. “Numerical simulation of saltwater intrusion intoLaccadive Island aquifers due to climate change.”Journal of the Geological Society of India, 55, 2000:589-612.

Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Meisner, C. and Yan, J.“The impact of Sea Level Rise on DevelopingCountries: A Comparative Study.” World Bank PolicyResearch Working Paper 4136, February 2007.

Doll, P. and Florke, M. “Global-scale estimation ofdiffuse groundwater recharge.” Frankfurt HydrologyPaper 03. Institute of Physical Geography, FrankfurtUniversity, 2005.

El-Raey, M., Dewidar, K. R. and El-Hattab, M.“Adaptation to the Impacts of Sea Level Rise inEgypt,” Climate Research, vol. 12, 1999: 117-128.

FAO, 2002a. AQUASTAT database, 2002.http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat.

FAO, 2002b. The state of food and agriculture 2002,Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations, Rome, 2002.

FAO. Review of World Water Resources by Country,Water Reports (23), Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations, Rome, 2003.

Haas, L. “Mediterranean Water Resources Planningand Climate Change Adaptation.” MediterraneanRegional Roundtable. Athens, Greece. December 10-11, 2002. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperationand Global Water Partnership – Mediterranean. 2002.

IPCC, 2007a. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of WorkingGroup II to the Fourth Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2007.

IPCC, 2007b. Climate Change 2007: The ScientificBasis, Summary for Policymakers – Contribution ofWorking Group I to the IPCC Fourth AssessmentReport 2007.

IPCC. 2001a. Climate Change 2001: The ScientificBasis, Contribution of Working Group I to the IPCCThird Assessment Report 2001 .Cambridge, UK,Cambridge University Press, 2001.

IPCC. 2001b. Climate change 2001: synthesisreport, by R. Watson & the Core Writing Team,eds. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press,2001.

IUCN. Climate Change and Water Resources in theMediterranean. 2003. Available online atwww.uicnmed.org.

Karam, F. Climate Change and Variability in Lebanon:Impact on Land Use and Sustainable AgricultureDevelopment, The First Technical Workshop of theMediterranean, Component of CLIMAGRI Project onClimate Change and Agriculture, Rome, September25-27, 2002.

Karrou, M. Climatic Change and Drought Mitigation:Case of Morocco, The First Technical Workshop of theMediterranean, Component of CLIMAGRI Project onClimate Change and Agriculture, Rome, September25-27, 2002.

Mougou, R. and Mohsen, M. Hendi Zitoune CaseStudy: Agroclimatic Characterization andEvapotranspiration Evolution in Climate ChangeConditions, Fourth Tunisian semi annual report.Contribution to the AIACC AF 90 North Africa Project:Assessment, Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability toClimate Change on North Africa: Food and WaterResources, 2005.

Neumann, J.E., Yohe, G., Nicholls, R., andManion, M. “Sea-Level Rise & Global ClimateChange: A Review of Impacts to U.S. Coasts.”Prepared for the Pew Centre on Global ClimateChange. 2000. C.F: http://www.pewclimate.org(accessed April 23, 2008).

Nicholls, R.J. “Coastal flooding and wetland loss in the21st century: changes under the SRES climate andsocio-economic scenarios.” Global EnvironmentalChange, 14, 2004: 69-86.

Nicholson, S. “On the question of the “recovery” of therains in the West African Sahel.” J. Arid Environ., 63,2005: 615-641.

Rossi, G. “An Integrated Approach to DroughtMitigation in Mediterranean Regions,”Proceeding of “Drought mitigation for the neareast and Mediterranean” workshop, ICARDA,Syria, 2001.

Wetherald, R.T. and Manabe, S. “Simulation ofhydrologic changes associated with global warming.”J. Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 2002: 4379.

WRI. World Resources Institute. Drylands, People, andEcosystem Goods and Services: A Web-basedGeospatial Analysis. 2002. Available online at:http://www.wri.org.

WRI, Earth Trends Data Tables: Climate andAtmosphere, World Resources Institute, WashingtonD.C. 2005. Online at: http://www.earthtrends.wri.org/

REFERENCES


Pesticides, Fertilizersand Food Safety

137

ISAM BASHOUR

CHAPTER 10

I. INTRODUCTION

Arab countries face profound sustainability chal-lenges that will influence their ability to achievelasting environmental goals. The rapidly changingand globalizing food economy and the concernsand commitments of a wide range of stakeholdersabout food production and security, food safetyand quality, and the environmental sustainabilityof agriculture have prompted international organ-izations to establish standards for the safe produc-tion of fresh crops that can be safely consumed.Fertilizers and pesticides, when used in higherquantities than needed, become contaminants tofood, feed and environment. However, when usedproperly, they will improve crop yield and quality.In the Arab countries as in every other region ofthe world, the misuse of pesticides and fertilizers iscommon; it is thus a subject that should be givensufficient magnitude and attention.

II. FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES USE IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES

The Arab world is faced with many constraints,such as: limited arable land (per capita about0.22 ha); severe water shortages (16 countries arebelow the deficiency level of 500 m3 per capita ofannual renewable water resources); poor soil fer-tility; low investments in water-saving irrigation

techniques; inappropriate pricing for agriculturalcommodities; and weak marketing systems. Over55% of the increase in agricultural productionwas generally attributed to the use of fertilizers.The existing food gap in all Arab countries

PESTICIDES, FERTILIZERS AND FOOD SAFETYCHAPTER 10138

FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST REGION FIGURE 1

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

Million Tonnes Nutrients7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

N P2O5 K2O

Source: IFA, 2002.

(kg/ha)

(except perhaps Syria) would necessitate a verticalexpansion in agricultural production to meet theincreased food demand (Hamdallah, 2007)

Fertilizers

The consumption of NPK (N+ P2O5 + K2O) fer-tilizers in the Middle East region increased from1.5 million tons in 1970 to more than 6 milliontons in 2002 (Figure 1). The major share of ele-ments goes to nitrogen; phosphatic fertilizers areused at a smaller rate and then potassium is usedin very low quantities (Figure 1).

Relative to the cultivated area, the rate of appliedfertilizers in the region (overall average 108kg/ha) is lower than the world average of 218kg/ha in 2002 (Table 1). The data of the FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization) andESCWA (United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Western Asia) shows that theUAE and Egypt use the highest rates (more than900 kg fertilizers per hectare) followed by Oman(644 kg/ha) and Lebanon (414 kg/ha). However,other countries like Sudan, Yemen andMauritania use very low rates of fertilizers (8–20kg/ha). Another problem in the use of fertilizers

in the Arab states is the imbalanced applicationof nutrients (Hamdallah, 2007).

Following are some examples of impact of fertil-izers on food (Havlin et al., 2005):

• Adequate supply of N increases protein qualityand quantity (more of the essential aminoacids) and some vitamins.

• Excessive N supply tends to increase amidecontent, resulting in bad flavour after cooking,or in raising the nitrate content to unaccept-able levels, especially in vegetables grown underprotected culture systems.

• Low N causes premature ripening, while highN causes delayed ripening.

• High amounts of N and K decrease dry matterand starch content and affect the quality ofstarch in potatoes; low K affects the colorationof fried potatoes negatively and causes blackspots in fresh potatoes.

• Adequate Ca supply leads to high quality ofdifferent fruits and vegetables. Ca deficiencycauses low quality banana fruits (fruit peels andsplits at ripening).

• Sulphur increases the protein content in grainand the oil content of oil-seed crops.


TOTAL ANNUAL FERTILIZERS CONSUMPTION (Kg/ha) IN ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 1

Country Population Arable Land Total use of fertilizers Average Rate of(x1000) as of 2004 (1000 ha) as of 2000 (ton) in 2002 fertilizer (kg/ha)

Algeria 32,339 7,662 196,000 26Bahrain 739 2 200 100Egypt 73,390 2,801 2,537,606 906Iraq 17,357*** 5,300* 414,000* 78Jordan 5,614 242 67,000 276Kuwait 2,595 10 2,100 210Lebanon 3,708 190 78,840 414Libya 5,659 1,815 123,800 68Mauritania 2,980 488 5,800 12Morocco 31,064 8,767 798,000 92Oman 2,935 38 24,466 644Qatar 619 18 1,800** 100Saudi Arabia 24,919 3,592 762,600 294Sudan 34,333 16,233 138,992 8Syria 18,223 4,542 645,610 142Tunisia 9,937 2,864 204,000 72UAE 3,051 60 70,000 1,166Yemen 20,733 1,545 23,200 16TOTAL 290,195 56,169 6,094,014 4,624Source: FAO, 2006.* 1990 - ** 2001 - *** 1989 - 1991

Pesticides

There is a shortage of and a gap in the provisionof data on the use of pesticides (herbicides, insec-ticides and fungicides) given that fewer than halfthe ESCWA member countries provided data for2000, and only two countries provided such datafor 2001 (Table 2).

The data in Figure 2 shows that the rates of pes-ticides usage per hectare in Lebanon, Kuwait andQatar are 2 to 3 times the rates used in Egypt,Jordan and Oman. Farmers should use thesechemicals only when needed and in moderationto avoid sending to the market low quality prod-ucts, especially fruits and vegetables which areconsumed fresh.

III. FOOD SAFETY IN RELATIONTO FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES USE

Food Safety is increasingly viewed as an essentialpublic health issue in the Arab region. In collab-oration with the WHO, most countries of thisregion have undertaken extensive reviews oftheir food safety systems and have updated theirnational legislation. In many countries in theMiddle East, legislation is inflexible and unableto cope with new challenges. Often standardsare not consistent with international andnational needs.

In this context the FAO has established GoodAgricultural Practices (GAPs) and defined thisconcept as: “Applying available knowledge to

addressing environmental, economic andsocial sustainability for on-farm productionand post-production processes that result insafe and healthy food and non-food agricultur-al products.”

From the time of planting a crop until its con-sumption, there are many opportunities for con-tamination with harmful microorganisms, pesti-cides and other toxic substances. On the farm,soil, manure, water, animals, equipment, andworkers may spread such contaminants. Producemay be harvested on a farm, processed in oneplant, repackaged in another, then stored, dis-played, or served commercially or in the home.Each of these steps is an opportunity for harmfulcontamination of the food supply.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission was estab-lished in 1963 by the FAO and the WHO(World Health Organization) to develop interna-tional food standards, guidelines and recommen-dations to protect the health of consumers and toensure fair practices in food trade. This collectionof food standards, entitled the CodexAlimentarius, or the food code, has become theglobal reference point for consumers, food pro-ducers and processors, national food authoritiesand participants in the international food trade(FAO/WHO, 2004).

Almost all countries of the Near East region aremembers of the Codex AlimentariusCommission. Their participation in Codex work,however, is very erratic and certainly not as effec-tive as it could be in protecting their interests.


AMOUNT OF PESTICIDES USED IN KG/HA IN SELECTED ARAB COUNTRIESFIGURE 2

Kg of pesticides per hectare

Leba

non

Kuw

ait

Qat

ar

Egyp

t

Jord

an

Bahr

ain

Om

an

Yem

en

Saud

iAra

bia

Syria

Alge

ria

Tuni

sia

Iraq

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Source: ESCWA, 2007. Most recent year available 1993-2002.

The Codex Alimentarius Food HygieneCommittee mandated a working group in 1991that has since developed guidelines for theHazard Analysis and Critical Control Point(HACCP) application which is a process controlsystem designed to identify and prevent micro-bial and other hazards in food production.

Although the Best Management Practices (BMP)and quality assurance systems such as HACCPhave been introduced throughout the region,they are not fully integrated in the domesticinspection systems which continue to focus pri-marily on end-product control. In a number ofcountries, many industries apply HACCP on avoluntary basis in order to improve food safetydomestically as well as increase their share ofexport markets.

Crop protection is probably the most limitingfactor in crop production. The wide range ofpests that attack crops during the various stagesof growth from seed to fruit necessitate the appli-cation of various means of pest control. Farmershave depended mainly on the use of pesticides tocombat the multitude of pests. The developmentof the synthetic organic pesticides in the mid-for-ties was a turning point in pest control. Prior tothis development, the available quantities ofbotanical and inorganic pesticides were limitedand fairly expensive. In contrast, synthetic organ-ic pesticides were produced in huge quantitiesand thus were readily available and at reasonablecost. In the beginning, the health hazards of pes-ticides were not sufficiently studied before theirextensive use.

Furthermore, crop pests and especially insectsstarted to show resistance to these chemicalswhich in turn prompted farmers to use more andmore quantities in their quest for efficient pestcontrol. A second turning point occurred in1962 with the publication of Silent Spring byRachel Carson. The book alerted the scientificcommunity and the public about the health haz-ards of pesticides and their indiscriminate use.The book was adopted by various environmentalgroups and induced a public awareness campaignabout the hazards of pesticides. Consequently,the scientific community had to assess the situa-tion and initiated various studies about the haz-ards of the commonly used pesticides and real-ized their risks to human and animal health aswell as the environment. This resulted in thebanning of several pesticides in many countriesstarting with DDT in 1973 (Kawar, 2007). Allpersistent chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides


TOTAL INSECTICIDESCONSUMPTIONIN TONS PER YEAR

TABLE 2

Source: ESCWA, Compendium of Environment Statistics in theESCWA Region, 2007.

Country 2000 2001Bahrain 7 6Iraq 190 …Jordan 61 …Oman 91 …Qatar 60 …Syria 1,219 994Yemen 933 …

were finally banned in 2004 by the StockholmConvention (Stockholm Convention onPersistent Organic Pollutants, 2008).

Standards for pesticide residues were developed,a particularly important element of which con-cerned the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) forpesticides permitted on specific foods. TheMRL is determined from a number of factorsincluding: • How much of the food is eaten in the average

diet; • How toxic the pesticide is; and • How easily the food absorbs and retains the

pesticide.

The problem of pesticide use in the Arab coun-tries is not only a problem of unregulated use,but it is also a problem pertaining to the handlingand misuse of pesticides at all levels.

IV. ORGANIC FARMING

Production and use of inorganic manufacturedfertilizers has continued for about 160 yearsbeginning with the use of calcium phosphate in1843. By 1901, England had begun to use smallamounts of manufactured nitrogen (N) fertilizer.Over the last 100 years, use of inorganic fertiliz-

ers has played a great role in the world’s ability tosustain adequate agricultural production. TheArab countries are major producers and exportersof synthetic fertilizers in the world.

Popularization of the concept of so-called “natural”or “organic” agriculture and the increased environ-mental awareness in the Arab world has led to mis-conceptions regarding the effects of inorganic fer-tilizers on the quality and safety of agriculturalproducts and the environment. In many situations,this misinformation has resulted in general publicmisunderstanding regarding the benefits of manu-factured fertilizer application to crops. These mis-understandings commonly include four points:

1. Inorganic fertilizers pollute agricultural pro-duce and negatively affect human and ani-mal health. For example, high nitrate invegetables.

2. Application of inorganic fertilizer decreasesagricultural produce quality.

3. Manufactured inorganic fertilizer applicationresults in soil hardening and a decline insoil’s fertility.

4. Manufactured inorganic fertilizer applica-tion can negatively affect the environmentcausing greenhouse gas emission, water pol-lution and the eutrophication of lakes,rivers, and seas.


According to some, the answer to all these so-called negative effects of manufactured fertilizersis to recommend an “organic farming only” or“green food” strategy which is supposed to pro-duce agricultural products with little pollutionand greater safety. It is a fact that this regionneeds to use the entire supply of organic nutri-ents (manure/crop residue) available, but it mustalso supplement it with balanced inorganic fertil-izers to produce high yielding, high quality cropswhile protecting the environment (Potash andPhosphate Institute PPI, 2008).

Many scientific research results reported thatmanufactured fertilizers are harmless tohuman/animal health and in some situations maybe more beneficial than organic sources. Negativeeffects from inorganic fertilizers are most com-monly a result of improper use, a consequencethat can just as easily occur if organic manures aremisused. Thus, to ensure sustainable develop-ment of agricultural production and satisfy therequirement for safe agricultural products in theNear East, further discussion and understandingon this issue is needed.

V. CHALLENGES FACINGTHE ARAB COUNTRIES

Despite efforts to modernize food safety laws,there is limited information available to fullyevaluate the food safety problems and issues inthe Arab region. Pesticide regulations in theArab countries have improved but are still notsatisfactory. Regulations for the registration andimport of pesticides have been established and alarge number of pesticides have been banned.However, the sale and handling of pesticides isnot regulated and there is no control over theuse of pesticides. Accredited pesticide residueanalysis laboratories are not available in manyArab countries, and frequently shipments offresh produce are refused entry into an import-ing country because of residues exceeding theMRLs. It is imperative that all Arab countriesestablish such laboratories (De Waal andRobert, 2005).

The major constraints that face the Arab statesfor intra-regional trade include inadequateinternational transport and communicationfacilities and poor information about markets

and investment opportunities. Moreover, theexistence of administrative and proceduralobstacles to trade and the absence or inadequa-cy of a system for standardized packing, grad-ing and quality control systems at the regionallevel continue to frustrate efforts to expandtrade and establish transparent information sys-tems. Improvement and harmonization ofinspection and certification systems are amongthe missing ingredients for promotion of intra-and extra-regional trade. Inadequate financingand guaranteeing of regional exports/importshas also been a factor in some countries in theMiddle East.

In most countries responsibility for the supervi-sion and enforcement over food safety is sharedamong several agencies. In Lebanon, for example,food safety responsibility is shared among six dif-ferent government agencies. Yet, it has no com-prehensive food safety law, and the existing lawsare not fully implemented. Extensive use of pes-ticides has led the European Union to ban someexports from several Arab countries (De Waaland Robert, 2005).

VI. CONCLUSIONS

New legislation and an institutional commit-ment to environmental governance are becomingextremely important. Creating regulatory sys-tems to face the new challenges and to be updat-ed regularly is the major task that Arab countriesshould start with. Although some countries per-form better than others, all face issues that haveto be tackled at the regional level and not merelythe country level. Many countries have resourcesand capacities for a better performance if a com-mitment to greater environmental sustainabilityand food safety is made.

Governments should develop effective extensionprograms to teach farmers about proper methodsfor the use and handling of agrochemicals andadopt modern laws concerning the use of fertiliz-ers and pesticides.

In addition, governments should considerinstitutional reforms and support the establish-ment of laboratories to ensure the safety of thefood consumed, produced and exported fromthe region.


ESCWA. “Barriers to Trade impacting Arab Countriesand Regional Trade in Selected Sectors”. Cairo, Egypt:ESCWA, 2007.

FAO Statistical Yearbook 2005-2006. Volume 2/1,Rome, Italy: FAO.

FAO/WHO. Food Standards – CODEX Alimentarius.2004.http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp

Hamdallah, G.. “Balanced Plant Nutrition: A Basis forPlant, Animal and Human Health.” 13th AFAInternational Annual Fertilizers Forum and Exhibition,Egypt, 2007.

Beaton, James D., John L. Havlin, Werner L. Nelson,and Samuel L. Tisdale. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers: AnIntroduction to Nutrient Management (7th Edition).Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall, 2004.

International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA).“Fertilizer nutrient consumption, by region, 1970/71 to2000/01.” Updated October 2002.http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_cn_neast.asp (accessed Apr. 12, 2008).

Kawar, N.S. “Food safety Issues in Crop Production”.Paper presented at the Symposium on Food Safety inthe Middle East. Beirut, Lebanon: American Universityof Beirut, December 2007.

Potash and Phosphate Institute (PPI). “OrganicAgriculture’s Impact on the Food Quality and theEnvironment: A China Perspective.” 2008.http://www.ipni.net/ppiweb/sechina.nsf/$webindex/A1D6ADA378E165F548256C620031BF9E?opendocument&navigator=home+page.

Smith De Waal, Caroline, and Nadine Robert. Globaland Local Food Safety around the World. Washington:Center for Science in the Public Interest, 2005.

“Stockholm Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants(POPs).” Stockholm Convention on PersistentOrganic Pollutants(POPs). http://www.pops.int/(accessed March 6, 2008).

REFERENCES


Biosafety of Biotechnology Products

145

OSAMA EL-TAYEB

CHAPTER 11

I. INTRODUCTION: WHAT AREBIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS?

Biotechnology is the science and application of“biological entities” to provide goods and servic-es for human welfare. “Biological entities” refersto plants, animals, microorganisms and their sub-cellular components. As such, biotechnologieshave been exploited by humans since ancient his-tory for the production of food, fibres, drugs andmany products such as bread, cheese and variousfermented foods and goods.

Although the genetic material of all living beingsis essentially similar in chemical nature, it is dis-tinctive to each individual type (strains or vari-eties) of each species. While different livingbeings may live together in the same ecosystem,the exchange of their similar genetic material isstrictly limited to individuals within the samespecies. Living beings have a precise systemwhich recognizes any foreign genetic materialwhich may gain access to the cell, and subse-quently destroys it. This natural genetic barrierhelped maintain the basic unique properties andcharacteristics of each species over millennia,while allowing the development of vast diversitywithin each species.

In 1971 this natural barrier was broken in thelaboratory when genetic material from onespecies of bacteria was incorporated permanentlyin another species of bacteria and was ”expressed”in the host, imparting novel properties to it as aresult of creating a laboratory genetic hybrid pos-sessing properties derived from two incompatiblespecies. This laboratory technique was termed“genetic engineering.” Soon, the human geneticmaterial responsible for producing the hormoneinsulin (that was not then available as a drug) wasincorporated into a bacteria which was grownindustrially to produce human insulin for diabet-ic persons in unlimited quantities. More applica-tions followed in the healthcare field and later incrops. Thus the bacterial genetic material respon-sible for the production of substances which killcertain insects was incorporated into crop plantsmaking them toxic to, and hence resistant toattack by, these insects. New techniques ofbiotechnology are being developed continuouslyand offer a potential for the provision of novelservices and goods for human well being limitedonly by human imagination!

II. THE ORIGIN OF CONCERN FOR BIOSAFETY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS

The novelty of genetic engineering raised a num-ber of concerns including ethical concern withintervention with “God’s creations.” The envi-ronmental concern focused on the possibility ofescape from laboratories of exotic, possibly harm-ful, organisms developed deliberately or acciden-tally during experimentation. The concern wasthat such organisms did not develop in harmonywith nature; hence their behaviour in a naturalecosystem is unpredictable and could cause risksto humans and other beings which would be dif-ficult or impossible to contain. While the inter-action between naturally occurring living beingsfollowing rules of natural biology has been testedover millennia, interaction with genetically engi-neered beings where such rules have been violat-ed in the laboratory will not be predictable.

Over time, the scare of an escape from laborato-ries of monster living beings became muted andmore confidence crept into public opinion, cat-alyzing the commercialization of many biotech-nology products on a wide scale. Such “openenvironment release” of genetically engineeredproducts, however, raised a new alarm: whatinfluence could this massive “invasion” have onnatural biodiversity? Agenda 21 of the RioSummit of 1992 (para 16.29) recognized thepotential benefits and risks associated withbiotechnology. This coincided with the negotia-tion and drafting of the Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD) in 1992; two articlesof the CBD touched specifically on the issue:

• Article 8(g) which states that each Party “shallestablish or maintain means to regulate, manageor control the risks associated with the use andrelease of living modified organisms resultingfrom biotechnology which are likely to haveadverse environmental impacts that could affectthe conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity, taking also into account the risks tohuman health.”

• Article 19(3) which states that “The partiesshall consider the need for and modalities of aprotocol setting out appropriate procedures,including, in particular, advance informed agree-ment, in the field of the safe transfer, handling

BIOSAFETY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTSCHAPTER 11146

and use of any living modified organism resultingfrom biotechnology that may have adverse envi-ronmental effect on the conservation and sustain-able use of biological diversity.”

III. THE VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the total genetic make up of all liv-ing beings in all ecosystems on the planet, andcovers the diversity between and within species.Biodiversity was influenced not only by thechanges which the planet encountered through-out its history, but also by human activity: that is,by humans favouring, developing and manipu-lating certain varieties of species which betterserved their needs (using natural biological phe-nomena) while neglecting others. Perhaps moreimportantly, humans developed land use systemswhich destroyed entire ecosystems (and their bio-diversity) replacing them with novel ecosystemssuch as monoculture used in agriculture and ani-mal production systems.

Over thousands of years, but especially in the lastfew centuries, biodiversity was eroded. Concerns

over a continuation of these trends were expressedand calls for remedial action were raised by differ-ent groups of nature lovers. To them, maintainingbiodiversity and natural ecosystems are important.Those responsible for breeding so-called “eco-nomic species” on which further human develop-ment depends for food, fibres and drugs looked atit differently: breeding programs required parentalbreeding varieties and strains obtainable only fromtraditional farming and wild ecosystems whichcame to be called genetic resources. Modernbiotechnologists too needed all kinds of naturalgenetic material since they could not “invent” syn-thetic genetic material. These various interestsmerged in the launching of the CBD which wasdrafted in 1992 and came into force in 1994.Presently, over 190 states are Parties to the CBD.Many industrial interests, especially in the drugindustry, felt that there is an un-exploited poten-tial wealth of drugs and industrial products in bio-diversity which warrants its conservation and sus-tainable use. Since developing countries are hometo most such natural biodiversity they added athird objective to the CBD: benefit sharingbetween the developer and the provider of sustain-ably exploitable biodiversity.



BASIC DATA ON INTERACTION BETWEEN ARAB COUNTRIES AND THE CPBTABLE 1

Country CPB party since National focal Competent Nbf Bch project(dd/mm/yy) point at national authority signed signed

Algeria 3/11/2004 Environment Division, Not designated No YesMinistry of Science

Bahrain Has not signed Environment Department Not designated No NoComoros Has not signed Environmental Section, Not designated 2/12/2002 No

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry,Industry and Environment

Djibouti 11/9/2003 Environment Department, Same as NFP 1/4/2003 YesMinistry of Human Settlements and Environment

Egypt 21/3/2004 Egyptian Environmental Affairs Same as NFP 1997/1999 YesAgency, Ministry of State for (concluded)Environmental Affairs

Iraq Has not signed Embassy of Iraq, Ottawa, Canada Not designated No NoJordan 9/2/2004 Biodiversity Division, Not designated 16/06/2002 Yes, 2007

Ministry of Environment Concluded15/08/2004

Kuwait Has not signed Environment Public Authority Not designated No NoLebanon Has not signed (1) Department of Conservation Not designated 10/06/2003 Yes

of National Wealth, ConcludedMinistry of Environment 1/02/2006 (2)

Libya 12/9/2005 Environment General Authority Not designated No YesMauritania 20/10/2005 International Convention Affairs, Not designated No Yes

Prime Minister's OfficeMorocco Signed only Department of Environment, State Not designated 5/2/2004 Yes

25/05/2000 Secretary of Water and EnvironmentOman 11/9/2003 Nature Conservation, Same as NFP No No

Ministry of Regional Municipalities,Environment and water

Palestine Has not signed Not defined Not designated No NoQatar 12/6/2007 Supreme Council for Environment Same as NFP No No

and Natural ResourcesSaudi arabia 7/11/2007 King Abdul Aziz City for Not designated No No

Science and technologySomalia Has not signed Ministry of Foreign Affairs Not designated No NoSudan 11/9/2005 Higher Council for Environment and Ministry of 14/11/2002 Yes

Natural Resources, Ministry of Science and Environment and Physical Development Technology

Syria 30/06/2004 General Commission for Ministry of 30/09/2003 YesEnvironmental Affairs, Agriculture andMinistry of Local Administration Agric. Reforms (3)

and Environment Ministry of Economyand Trade (4)

Tunisia 11/9/2003 Ministry of Environment and Not designated 1997/1999 YesSustainable Development Concluded

Uae Has not signed (5) Federal Environmental Agency Not designated No NoYemen 1/3/2006 Environmental Protection Agency Not designated 27/06/2003 Yes

(1) According to the records of the CPB. According to theresponse to the questionnaire, Lebanon is a party

(2) UNDP was involved along with UNEP

(3) For microorganisms and Plants(4) For Handling, identification, import/export and human health(5) According to the records of the CPB. According to the response to the questionnaire, UAE is a Party

IV. THE SCOPE OF RISKS POSED BY BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

As mentioned above, the main risk is erosion orcontamination of natural biodiversity. However,because of the short experience humanity had hadwith biotechnology products there was concernthat human health too could be negatively impact-ed upon, hence a reference to this aspect in Article8(g) of the CBD. Negotiations for the protocolreferred to in Article 19 of the CBD started in1995 and ended with the approval by the Partiesto the CBD of the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety (CPB) regulating trans-boundary move-ment of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs,another term for Genetically Modified Organisms,or GMOs) in 2000. The protocol came into forcein 2003 and currently 141 Parties to the CBD areParties to the Protocol. Three Meetings of theParties were convened in 2004, 2005 and 2006where two unsettled issues were discussed:

1. Article 18 on documentation necessary fortransport of LMOs; and

2. Article 27 on “international rules and pro-cedures” for liability and redress for damageresulting from trans-boundary movementof LMOs

The 4th Meeting of the Parties is planned forMay 2008.

The main thrust of the protocol, in line withArticle 19 of the CBD, is to regulate trans-boundary movement of LMOs in such a way thata state accepts shipment of LMOs only afterexplicit Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) pro-cedures have been applied. Decision by animporting country on whether to receive a ship-ment relies on the provision of certain informa-tion by the exporter which makes it possible forthe National Competent Authority (NCA) of thecountry of import to decide, based on risk assess-ment (RA) in the receiving environment.Decision-making may take into account socio-economic considerations arising from the impactof LMOs on the conservation and sustainable useof biodiversity, “especially with regard to the val-ues of biodiversity to indigenous and local com-munities” (Article 26).

During the negotiations, it was recognized thatthe Protocol would have serious implications for

international trade, especially for GMO com-modities. The Preamble of the Protocol, whileclearly “reaffirming the Precautionary Approachcontained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declarationon Environment and Development,” also recog-nized “that trade and environment agreementsshould be mutually supportive with the aim ofachieving sustainable development,” and empha-sized that the Protocol “shall not be interpretedas implying a change in the rights and obligationsof a party under any existing international agree-ments” but expressed the understanding that“this is not intended to subordinate this Protocolto other international agreements.”

Finally, while the Protocol deals only with trans-boundary movement of LMOs, Article 2 dictatesthat “each Party shall take necessary and appro-priate legal, administrative and other measures toimplement its obligations under this Protocol.”Simply stated, this requires each Party to formu-late national legislation which makes compliancewith Protocol obligations possible. The Protocolalso established a Biosafety Clearing House(BCH) to facilitate the exchange of informationand experiences and to make national informa-tion available, if applicable.

V. THE ROLE OF ARAB STATES IN THENEGOTIATION OF THE PROTOCOL

Although the Arab League enjoys a formal statusat the United Nations, the Arab world is not rec-ognized as a region and is split between theAfrican and the Asia-Pacific regions. During thenegotiations for the Protocol (1995-2000) theAsia-Pacific group was not very effective exceptthrough the Group of 77 and China which in factre-formed as the Like-Minded Group (LMG) due


to conflicting positions of a few members (notablyArgentina and Uruguay) with the rest of thegroup. Arab states belonged to the LMG in whichthe African bloc exercised significant influence.Coordination among Arab states was occasionallycatalyzed by a representative from the ArabLeague but this was not particularly effective orconsistent. Within the African group, Egypt exer-cised significant influence mainly because it wasthe only Arab country where the same representa-tive was present in all negotiation sessions.Informally, there was a degree of concerted actionbetween Asian and African Arab representatives.

VI. CAPACITY BUILDING UNDER THE PROTOCOL

Capacity building is covered by Article 22 of theProtocol which encourages efforts to enhance thecapacity of developing countries towards meetingtheir obligations under the Protocol. The finan-cial mechanism established under Article 28 ofthe Protocol is the same as that established underArticle 21 of the CBD. Multilateral capacitybuilding efforts were accordingly funded by theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF) established

in 1991 as the financial mechanism for activitiesin developing countries “which protect the glob-al environment.” GEF placed emphasis on 6“focal areas,” including biodiversity to which itallocated $1.89b in 1991-2004. Its “strategy forbiodiversity” (with 4 strategic objectives)includes – within its Strategic Objective No. 3 –an “initial strategy for biosafety” supporting theimplementation of the CPB through national,sub-regional and regional projects aiming atestablishment of:

• National coordination mechanisms;• Effective regulatory policy frameworks;• Administrative frameworks;• Capacity to conduct risk assessment including

standardized regional methodologies;• Workable and up-dated biosafety clearing

house (BCH) participation including regionalcooperation.

GEF funded a pilot project in 1997-1999, evenbefore the Protocol became operational, to testthe feasibility of developing a framework forBiosafety (NBF) in each of 18 countries – includ-ing 2 Arab states: Egypt and Tunisia. The projectwas expanded, in June 2001, to cover some 139


INFORMATION AVAILABLE(1) ON ARAB COUNTRIES ON THE BCH(2)TABLE 2

Country Designate Experts Capacity Formulate Formulate URL for NFP Submit SubmitCNA listed in needs NBF National Interim First

Roster defined legislation National nationalReport Report

Algeria No 2 No No No No Yes NoBahrain No 1 No No No No No NoDjibouti Yes None No No No No No NoEgypt Yes 7 Yes Yes Draft, www.egbch.com Yes Yes

30/12/06Lebanon No(3) 6 No Yes(4) No www.biosafety.moe.gov.lb No NoMauritania No None Yes No No No No NoMorocco No 19 No No No No No NoOman Yes None No No No No No NoQatar Yes None No No No No No YesSaudi Arabia No 2 No No Yes(5) No No NoSudan Yes 2 Yes Yes(4) No www.biosafety.gov.sd (6) No YesSyria Yes 4 No No No No No YesTunisia No 7 No No No No No No

(1) The following countries only reported designation of NFP: Comoros, Iraq, Jordon, Kuwait, Libya, Somalia, UAE, Yemen. All countries listed in the table designated NFP. No decisions were reported by any of the countries listed, except for one by Syria relating to non-recognition of Israel. Palestine is not listed on the BCH

(2) www.bch.cbd.int/default.asp(3) This is in contradiction of the response to the questionnaire(4) Preliminary, to be finalized.(5) No details are available(6) Covers the NBF project only.

developing countries, including an additional 8Arab states. This was complemented with smallgrants to also develop capacity to interact withthe BCH in the same countries. GEF also fund-ed a number of medium-sized projects in a fewcountries to develop the full implementationphase of the NBFs, and this included projects inEgypt and Tunisia.

Development of NBFs includes: informationgathering, analysis, consultation, training andpreparation of a draft NBF (draft legal instru-ments, administrative systems, risk assessmentprocedures, systems for public participation andinformation). Regional workshops will: increaseunderstanding of the Protocol and assess implica-tions for risk assessment and decision-making atnational levels, while sub-regional workshops aimto identify: capacity building needs, opportuni-ties for collaboration, mechanisms for sharing ofrisk assessment and management experiences,coordination of capacity building activities andnetworking to share lessons and experiences. Thetotal cost of the project is $38.4 million. This isfunded by a contribution of $26.1 million fromGEF, with co-financing of $12.3 million fromUNEP and participating countries. These coun-tries contributes one third of the costs of theirnational projects, in cash and/or in kind.

VII. THE STATUS OF IMPLEMENTATIONOF THE PROTOCOL IN ARAB STATES

Thirteen Arab states are presently Parties to theProtocol and an additional state (Morocco) onlysigned it, while seven neither signed nor ratified(Table 1). Thirteen Arab countries are eligible forGEF funding and the GEF pilot project assistedtwo of them (Egypt and Tunisia) draft NBF in1997-1999. Within the full scale project eightadditional Arab countries were supported. While95 countries concluded their projects, only threeArab countries finalized theirs: Egypt, Jordonand Tunisia. This effort was largely done withtechnical support from the United NationsEnvironment Program (UNEP). The projectproduced three toolkits (none in Arabic) for (i)starting the project; (ii) taking stock; and (iii)consultation and analysis.

Another toolkit on drafting the NBF was pro-duced in Arabic with two components: formu-

lation of the regulatory regime and design ofthe administrative system for handling applica-tions and notification. No regional or sub-regional workshops were conducted either in orfor Arab countries.

The “add on” activity, aiming at establishingnational BCH nodes in each of the countriesfunded, aimed at “building capacity for effectiveparticipation in the BCH” of the CPB. It wassigned with 12 Arab countries but none havebeen concluded as yet (Table 2). The project des-ignated 47 “regional advisors” including fourfrom Arab countries of which only three canspeak Arabic. The project also offers free softwaresolutions for BCH nodes developed by theUnited States, Canada and Switzerland. No Arabcountry seems to have made use of this offer.

VIII. INTERACTION BETWEEN ARAB STATES AND THE BCH OF THE PROTOCOL

The BCH presents information which is volun-tarily provided by Parties and non-Parties. Theinformation provided by each of the Arab statesis presented in Table 2. Only one Arab country(Egypt) has a national site linked to the centralportal of the BCH with 2 others (Lebanon andSudan) linking their sites for the GEF NBFprojects only.

IX. RESPONSE OF THE NATIONALFOCAL POINTS IN ARAB STATES TO AQUESTIONNAIRE

In early September 2007, a questionnaire wasemailed to the NFP of each of the Arab countriesalong with a covering letter explaining the pur-pose of the questionnaire. Two appeals forspeedy responses were sent two weeks apart after-wards. The information received in nine respons-es is presented in Table 3. Since several countriesdid not respond, information was retrieved fromthe records of the BCH site as well as those ofGEF, UNEP, UNDP, and the InternationalCenter for Genetic Engineering andBiotechnology (ICGEB) – all of which maintainrecords of biosafety activities – and this informa-tion was incorporated in Tables 1 and 2.Whenever a URL for the national agency respon-


sible for implementation of the Protocol wasindicated in the records, it was consulted and rel-evant information too was incorporated inTables 1 and 2.

X. ANALYSIS OF THE STATUS OFBIOSAFETY AND PROTOCOLIMPLEMENTATION IN ARABCOUNTRIES

A paucity of information on environmentalactivities, taking a holistic concept for the envi-ronment, is common in developing countries.Thus the concept of environmentally sustainabledevelopment, for example, is not fully appreciat-ed or understood by decision-makers and by thepublic. Reasons often cited include: pressing eco-nomic and political issues and weak civil society.The environment thus largely remains a genuineconcern only for the elite and a few scientists.Only when qualities of air and water deteriorate,along with accumulation of domestic wastes –elements of classic pollution – becoming a healthhazard does the public get involved. Arab coun-tries, even the affluent ones, are no exception.Many environmental issues draw the concern ofdecision-makers and the public as a result of“environmental agitation” in developed coun-

tries, especially when their impact on the globalenvironment necessitates international action.Issues of climate change are a case in point. Thisis especially true with the current advances incommunication and closer contact between dif-ferent peoples and cultures. Interest in biosafety,and even in the broad area of biodiversity, inArab countries typically reflects the observationsmade above.

Analysis of the information presented above sug-gests the following:

Achieving inter-agency cooperation oninter-sectoral environmental issues

The environmental dimension impacts practical-ly all human activities and hence needs to betackled by joint team action of several actors.Such team action requires both a political willand strong public pressure to force the isolatedislands of governance to cooperate. The politicaland popular (and possibly even cultural) environ-ments in Arab countries do not seem to be con-ducive to this approach of inter-agency teamwork. In fact, different government agencies tendto deal with their environmental concerns sepa-rately and individually, if not with some inter-agency rivalry, regarding the environmental


INFORMATION ON ARAB COUNTRIES RESPONDING TO QUESTIONNAIRE (1)TABLE 3

Country Egypt Jordon Lebanon LibyaNBF in place Yes Yes Yes Near completionCapacity needs defined RA/RM (2) Detection, Not defined RA/RM RA/RM

Administration Administration, Detection,Detection, Interagency Law enforcement,coordination Public awareness

National legislation status Draft Approved by “launched” Draft by Ministry Chapter 10 of Ministry of Justice October 2006 of Environment Law 15-2003

on environmentNCA designated Ministry of Yes, EGA

EnvironmentDetection facilities available Yes No information Yes NoRisk assessment capability Yes No Yes NoRequirements for shipping documents No No information Yes Under preparationLiability and redress arrangements No No Yes YesBCH site operative Yes Yes NoGMO shipments received Not legally No information Not known Not knownRegional approach Useful Useful Useful Useful

(1) Only Egypt and Tunisia signed implementation projects(2) RA/RM: Risk assessment/ risk management

dimension as a hindrance and exhibiting a desireto protect their little empires! Needless to say,each agency has a primary clientele with interestsfocused on the main sector rather than inter-sec-toral approaches and concerns, such as the envi-ronment. The establishment of a coordinatingnational environmental agency did not prove toeffectively outwit this attitude and ministries ofenvironment in Arab countries did not presentnovel mechanisms for the environment to escapesectoral emphasis and rivalry.

In developed countries, mechanisms, expertiseand resources exist for achieving coordinationbetween agencies and each is held accountable forinability to respond to needs for coordination.

Public attention to and involvementwith the issues of biosafety andbiodiversity

In Arab countries, common citizens are oftenpreoccupied with concerns of immediate every-day impact (such as how to make a decent living)that over-shadow concerns for the medium ordistant future. Biodiversity by its nature is a longterm concern, obscuring the direct benefits to theindividual of supporting it. Surprisingly, andbecause of the reflection of the hot international

debate on biosafety in the local media, certainaspects of biosafety (mainly health implications)attracted some public attention. The safety offood produced by biotechnology caught theattention of certain media actors, and hence fur-nished the public with (mostly inaccurate)claims. Thus GMOs were blamed for food poi-soning, reduced flavour of vegetables and fruits,causing cancer etc, elements in which GMOs arein fact not implicated (see also chapter 10). As aresult, food biosafety acquired a much larger sec-tor of the public debate in Arab media than themost important concern which is impact on bio-diversity. In public discussions the impact ofGMOs on biodiversity was consistently over-shadowed by the health impacts. The conspiracytheory was quickly recalled accusing GMOs ofbeing a hazardous product to be tested on peo-ples from developing countries using them asguinea pigs. However, genuine socio-economicconsiderations were often raised too.

In developed countries, concern for biosafety wasraised, as early as 1971, by scientists, environ-mentalists and religious leaders. Wider spreadconcern was strongly evident during the negotia-tion stage of the CBD in 1992 and this wasreflected in Articles 8(g) and 19. The debate con-tinued in developed countries and inter-agency


Morocco Qatar Syria Sudan UAENo No NoTechnical & RA/RM RA/RM, RA/RM Technical support,financial support Detection, BCH, Detection, Training,

Legislation Legislation Training Public participationAdministration Biosafety research

Draft by Dept. of Under discussion Being drafted Law being discussed Only FederalEnvironment at NFP Law 24/1999

on Environment

No information No No Yes NoNo information No Limited Yes YesNo No Only in the Draft Law Yes YesNo No Being drafted Yes YesNo No No Yes NoNo No No No NoUseful Urgently needed Not practical Useful Useful

Workshops planned


THE CASE OF EGYPT

The case of Egypt is illustrative of the gener-al sluggishness of progress in the Arabregion: despite a head start and obviousenthusiasm, not much has progressed to itslogical conclusion in practice. Thus, whiletechnical expertise in biotechnology allowedlaboratories in Egypt to become affiliates ofthe ICGEB as early as 1983, to date,biosafety research publications are scarce.Egypt’s effort to address biosafety was set inmotion in 1992 by the terms of collabora-tion between Agricultural GeneticEngineering Research Institute (AGERI) andthe Agricultural Biotechnology SupportProject (ABSP). A biosafety system was for-mally instituted by the Ministry of Agriculturethrough two ministerial decrees: No. 85(January 25, 1995) establishing a BiosafetyCommittee, later re-designated NationalBiosafety Committee (NBC); and No. 136(February 7, 1995) adopting biosafety regu-lations and guidelines under the CentralAdministration for Seed Testing andCertification of the Ministry. This, rather thanthe much more relevant Law 4 of 1994 onthe environment, was the umbrella law forthe decrees, for reasons related to the activ-ity being initiated by the Minister ofAgriculture (to cater for specific researchactivities by the Ministry) rather than by aconcerted decision of the government as awhole. In fact, other ministries (such as thoseresponsible for scientific research, highereducation, environment, health, trade,finance, justice, foreign affairs etc) were nei-ther consulted nor informed in advance ofthe Decrees.

These described the modalities of use, han-dling, transfer, and testing of all GMOs –but in fact were designed for seed certifica-tion. They addressed laboratory practices,greenhouse containment, and small-scalefield testing including conducting risk assess-ments and issuing permits, and called forestablishment of Institutional BiosafetyCommittees at all institutions conductingrecombinant DNA research. In practice, nofunctional institutional biosafety committees

were established. The NBC does not meeton a regular basis but rather occasionally (atbest once or twice a year) and has to dealwith tens of applications for field testing ofGMO seeds as well as for other research onGMOs, within a couple of hours. It has nosecretariat, government financial resourcesor a technical-administrative system toscreen information provided by the applicant– which is often a open-page resume. Noformal signed permits are issued: only adecision is recorded in the minutes of thecommittee meeting. The NBC does notexperimentally check the claims made by theapplicant or conduct risk assessment. TheNBC did not constitute the sub-committees(on health, agriculture, industry and environ-ment) it decided will screen applications orexamine those referred to it by the NBC. Thecontradiction was evident when the Ministryof Health issued Decree No. 242 in 1997prohibiting the import of any foodstuff pro-duced through the use of GMOs “unlesssafety is confirmed” and requiring that anyimported seeds be accompanied by a certifi-cate from the country of origin confirmingthat these seeds were not produced from“untested GMO crops.” This Decree too didnot specify procedures, responsibilities,enforcement or penalties and did not men-tion how to deal with locally produced food-stuff or seeds.

discussions were initiated, along with public con-sultation, in order to formulate positions. Thepublic was heavily involved in the debate whichwas often influenced by interest groups, business,NGOs and a general mistrust of scientists andregulators after the mad cow disease fiasco. Bythe late 1990s, when negotiations for theProtocol were approaching their conclusion, con-sensus was established and genuine positions ofdeveloped countries gelled – often reflecting pop-ular demands aired by voters. Biosafety became apolitical issue.

A somewhat similar approach developed in thosedeveloping countries where the political environ-ment allowed it, such as in India and some LatinAmerican countries. This did not take place inany Arab country, and the issues only trickledinto the media as a ripple effect of the actualnegotiations for the Protocol. Governmentalconsideration was limited, at best, to followingpositions of others during the negotiations. Thisexplains the fact that, to date, not a single Arabcountry party to the Protocol has the nationallegislation, called for in Article 2, which is neces-sary for implementation while several otherdeveloping countries already have legislation andoperative regulatory systems in place.

The importance of political will

A notable observation in the above tables is thatcountry preparedness is not seriously influencedby the level of affluence or availability of expert-ise, a reflection of the fact that lack of politicalwill is a more decisive factor in the state of affairsof biosafety in Arab countries. Thus, none of theeight affluent Arab countries which do not qual-ify for GEF financial support sought technicalassistance of relevant UN agencies to develop anNBF or relied on national expertise for this pur-pose. A related observation is that countrieswhich received financial support to develop anNBF, and concluded or are close to concludingit, did not then fully develop national mecha-nisms for implementation but sought or are seek-ing further financial support for implementation,despite the fact that the cost of development andapproval of appropriate legislation is minimal.

Some contradictions within the responses of somecountries to the questionnaire were recorded,which again reflect a lack of political will and

coordination rather than resources. Thus, whilesome countries reported availability of “GMOdetection facilities” and “risk assessment capabili-ty,” the same countries reported that it is notknown whether shipments of GMOs have beenreceived or not. In some ways, this also applies toreporting availability of liability and redress pro-visions and the requirement of special shippingdocumentation for GMO products by somecountries which in fact reported lack of legislationregulating the handling and release of such prod-ucts. Similarly, most Arab countries did not noti-fy the Protocol Secretariat of their capacity build-ing needs, in response to a request to this effectmade in 2005, while an expression of such needswas made in responses to the questionnaire.

In the example of Egypt, and in general, one candetect a level of personification rather than insti-tutionalization of actions relating to biosafety inArab countries. In many cases, one can concludethat the basic question of who takes responsibili-ty for implementation of relevant regulations isstill not settled. In almost all countries, primaryresponsibility is entrusted to an office responsiblefor environmental concerns (probably becausethe mother treaty, the CBD, is an environmentaltreaty). However, when it comes to implementa-tion which necessarily also touches on health,agriculture, trade, scientific research etc, thequestion becomes more difficult to answer. Oneinteresting example is in Syria which designatedthree (in some reports even four or five) inde-pendent CNA for the protocol despite the obvi-ous fact that relevant decisions will have to takeall interests into consideration with a coordinat-ing mechanism based in the environmentalagency – as is the case with the vast majority ofparties to the Protocol. This is also an example oflack of political will hindering development ofeffective coordination mechanisms to deal withbiosafety.

Positive signs for the future

Despite these negative observations, it is safe toconclude that the international debate onbiosafety along with the initiation of GEF-sup-ported activities in several Arab countries has cat-alyzed action by government agencies and areencouraging the question of national coordina-tion to be considered and settled. The surveysand workshops conducted during the course of


the GEF projects raised both governmental andpublic awareness of the issues. Even some coun-tries which did not qualify for GEF support car-ried out somewhat similar activities on their ownwhich were instrumental in satisfying similarobjectives. Some more are being planned. TheArab League organized a workshop to review thestatus of implementation of both the CBD andthe CPB in 2006 and a network for concertedaction was proposed to be hosted by the ArabCenter for Semi-Arid Dry-lands (ACSAD) butdid not yet effectively operate. In September2007, a preparatory meeting was convened byUNEP, FAO and ICARDA (The RegionalConsultation on Biotechnology and Biosafety forAgriculture and Environment in the West Asiaand North Africa Sub-region), which includedalso certain non-Arab countries of the region, todraft a regional project on biosafety to be submit-ted to GEF. The objective of this workshop was“to develop, through a participatory approach, aproposal for an integrated regional framework onbiotechnology and biosafety involving majorstakeholders.” Biosafety regulation is recognizedhere as “an integral part of the development ofany transgenic variety.”

In a number of countries, there are strong influ-ences of trade partners and foreign interests withtheir own positions on biosafety issues. This isevident from the unexplainable delays in takingnational actions which at one point seemed to besailing through. It is known, for example, thatthe USA, which is by far the biggest producer ofbiotechnology commodities and seeds, took theEuropean Union members to the World TradeOrganization with claims for damages resultingfrom an EU de facto moratorium on approval ofGMOs, since the two trade giants hold opposingviews on the regulation of GMOs. At one point,one Arab country announced it would file suit onthe side of the USA, and this was denied by high-er authorities only after the EU expressed seriousdispleasure.

The Arab countries’ positions on GMOs

Except for a few products for health care, none ofthe Arab countries currently produce their ownbiotechnology products – especially commodi-ties. Some have active research programs fordeveloping such products, but, unlike countriessuch as Brazil, China, India and South Africa,

there are no indications that such productioncould take place in the near future, say the nextfive to ten years. Thus, apart from the health carefield, Arab countries are potential importersrather than exporters of biotechnology products.In fact, the position of the Arab world (being amajor world importer of food, especially cereals)on GMO wheat was instrumental in convincingthe wheat industry in North America to delaycommercialization of GMO wheat in 2004 anduntil now. With the recent sharp rise in the pricesof cereals and vegetable oils in world markets, asa result of moves to use them for producing bio-fuels, the situation may in fact change. On theother hand, some Arab countries export certainagricultural products such as vegetables andfruits, especially products of organic farming, tothe EU which maintains strict biosafety regula-tions. Since these exports represent significantcomponents of the balance of payment for thesecountries, they are careful to institutionalizenational regulations in conformity with those ofthe importers.

Independent studies indicated that severalimported GMO commodities are in the marketsof Arab countries, un-declared and un-labeled.These include corn and maize (sometimes con-taining the Starlink variety which is notapproved for human consumption), long grainrice (which was contaminated with a variety notapproved for commercialization) and soybeanseeds, oil and cake.

XI. CONCLUSIONS

1- Biosafety is still not a major public or policy-makers issue in Arab countries, except from afood safety perspective.

2- Biosafety is essentially entrusted to the envi-ronmental agencies but with several otheractors intervening rather than cooperating.

3- Arab countries are potential importers,rather than exporters, of most biotechnologyproducts and this situation is not likely tochange in the near future, especially in fieldof commodities.

4- Despite financial and technical support todeveloping Arab countries all still lack legalregulatory mechanisms in place and theirparticipation in the Protocol’s BCH isextremely weak.


5- Some GMOs commodities gain access toArab countries un-declared and un-labeleddue to lack of legislation, enforcementmechanisms and appropriate administrativestructures.

6- Directing resources to the areas of biotech-nology development and public communica-tion will basically means that skills in areassuch as risk assessment, which is essential forimporting countries to be able to makeinformed decisions under the AIA procedureof the Protocol, would not be well devel-oped. Without external assistance, capacityin risk management would be overlookedand Arab countries would not be able toeffectively manage risks to the conservationand sustainable use of biodiversity withintheir territory or protect their trade interests.

7- Other efforts needed are: training of the rep-

resentatives of different ministries and cus-toms staff in the field of GMO identifica-tion, AIA procedures, risk management, pro-ducing manuals for private companies,which detail their obligations under thebiosafety legislation, and building scientificcapacity to monitor longer-term impacts onenvironment, human health and biodiversitythrough a risk management program;

8- Activation of biosafety issues must awaitpolitical will and a role for civil society.Unless this takes place, biosafety activities inArab countries will not be sustainable andthey will continue to receive biotechnologyproducts un-declared and un-labelled.Negative impacts on development of indige-nous biotechnology, biodiversity, competi-tive trade advantages, socio-economic normsand health would be significant.


Mackenzie, Ruth, Françoise Burhenne-Guilmin,Antonio G.M. La Viña and Jacob D. Werksman.An Explanatory Guide to the Cartagena Protocolon Biosafety IUCN Environmental Law Paper No.46. Cambridge, UK: IUCN Environmental LawCenter, 2003.

“The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: A recordof the negotiations.” Secretariat of theConvention on Biological Diversity, United NationsEnvironment Programme. September 2003.www.biodiv.org/doc/publications/bs-brochure-03-en.pdf (accessed March 8, 2008).

In addition, the following websites containvaluable information on the topic ofbiosafety and biotechnology:

“Biosafety home page.” United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) Home Page.http://www.unep.org/biosafety/ (accessedOctober 15, 2007).

“Biosafety Information Network and AdvisoryService.” UNIDO.http://www.binas.unido.org/binas (accessedOctober 12, 2007).

“Egyptian Biosafety Clearing-House.” EgyptianBiosafety Clearing-House (EG-BCH).http://www.egbch.com (accessed October 15, 2007).

“Global Environment Facility.” Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF). http://www.gefweb.org/index.html(accessed November 23, 2007).

“Homepage - Biosafety Lebanon 2005.”Biosafety Lebanon, Lebanon Ministry ofEnvironment. http://biosafety.moe.gov.lb/(accessed December 3, 2007).

“ICGEB - Home.” The International Centre forGenetic Engineering and Biotechnology.http://www.icgeb.org (accessed December 3,2007).

“Lebanese national biosafety framework project”http://www.undp.org.lb/programme/environment/(accessed November 17, 2007).

“Nuffield Council on Bioethics - Home.” NuffieldCouncil on Bioethics.http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org (accessedOctober 18, 2007).

“Sudanese national biosafety framework project.”http://www.biosafety.gov.sd (accessed October28, 2007).

“The Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH) CentralPortal.” The Biosafety Clearing-House .http://bch.cbd.int/ (accessed November 3, 2007).

“UNDP - GEF.” United Nations DevelopmentProgramme. http://www.undp.org/gef/ (accessed March 6, 2008).

“Union of Concerned Scientists.” Union ofConcerned Scientists. http://www.ucsusa.org(accessed March 6, 2008).

REFERENCES / FURTHER READING


Environmental Impact ofWars and Conflicts

159

HASSAN PARTOW

CHAPTER 12

I. INTRODUCTION

Middle Eastern history is scarred by war. At thetime of writing, this includes two major ongoinginternational conflicts (the Arab-Israeli conflictand Iraq), and at least five internal conflicts(Algeria, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara/Morocco and Yemen). Lebanon suffered a shortbut major war in summer 2006 and since then hasbeen in turmoil. Several countries have a combi-nation of both international and civil conflict,including Iraq, the Palestinian Territories andSomalia. In addition, a wave of international ter-rorism has swept across the region. While thehuman horror and agony of war is more or lesscaptured by the media, the environmental conse-quences – the “collateral damage” – is scantily orselectively covered, if at all. Likewise, Arab coun-tries’ policies and decision makers have made lim-ited progress in recognizing and addressing thecomplex environmental dimensions and impactsof conflict. This chapter aims to shed light onboth the environmental causes and costs of armedconflict in the Arab world, and what has been andcould be done in response.1

II. ENVIRONMENTALLINKAGES TO CONFLICT

Conflicts are typically made up of complex andmultiple layers of causality, ranging from ideolo-gies, politics and personalities to economics andtrade. Natural resources, or in environmentalparlance “ecosystem goods and services,” havealso been recognised as one of the potential driv-ers of conflict. Scholarly debate on the role of theenvironment as a contributory factor in instigat-ing violent conflict is generally framed aroundtwo main precepts: (i) the “resource curse” orparadox of plenty and (ii) resource competitionunder conditions of environmental scarcity,degradation and long-term change. Whetherfrom the perspective of resource abundance orscarcity, it is important to emphasise that theenvironmental link to conflict is largely indirectand works in combination with other social,political, and economic stresses. These conceptsare discussed below within the context of recentconflicts in the Arab world.

The Resource Curse

Oil is modern civilization’s prized and master nat-ural resource. Geography has it that the Arabregion holds at least half of the world’s proven oilreserves.2 Although one would expect oil wealth tobe a blessing, in some countries it has proved animpediment. The curse of oil is a multi-facetedpredicament. According to this theory, the wind-fall of wealth generated by oil revenues may under-mine good governance by fomenting corruption,adventurism and violent conflict. Furthermore, aneconomy dominated by oil has a damaging impacton other sectors (particularly agriculture) bysqueezing them into the periphery and stiflingpotentially innovative activities that may have beenthe best means for technological progress and amore sustainable path to development. The Gulfstates with their small populations are an exceptionas they are able to guarantee their citizens highstandards of living and generous consumer wealth.Consequently, governance in the moderated formof “fatherly” rule is generally the norm. It is larger,more populous, middle-income countries such asIraq, however, that may be vulnerable to beingtrapped by the oil curse. This is because the likeli-hood of diverting oil wealth in favour of securitymeasures for military purposes and to subduesocial unrest is relatively high.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WARS AND CONFLICTSCHAPTER 12160

In addition to amplifying the risk of violent con-flict, bad governance in some oil producing statesundermines sustainable environmental manage-ment, as this is built upon the principles of infor-mation accessibility, public participation, trans-parent decision-making based on cost-benefitanalysis and accountability. These checks andbalances are difficult to achieve under weak gov-ernance and hence without restraints big oiloperations are prone to having negative environ-mental impacts. To cite an example, althoughEnvironmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) arerequired under Sudanese law, these are notenforced in practice. The consequent failure ofthe oil industry to adequately integrate environ-mental considerations in their projects, hasspurred resentment from local communities, par-ticularly in non-Arab South Sudan, (mainly dueto the impacts of untreated produced water onpasturelands). Coupled with growing disputesover benefit-sharing, the industry’s poor environ-mental performance has further aggravated dis-putes over oil in Sudan. It should equally benoted that an absence of or inadequate environ-mental governance can also be a potential sourceof conflict for other major infrastructure projects.For example, the ongoing construction of themassive Merowe dam and other planned dams innorthern Sudan has been a source of tension,erupting on more than one occasion into violentconfrontations. While Merowe is the first damproject in Sudan for which an EIA was prepared,the EIA license was delivered two years after theproject physically started and no consultationswere held with local representatives and commu-nities on its findings.

At the same time, international competition overthe sources of oil has placed the Arab world at thecrossroads of a global resource conflict. The lastGulf War in 2003 is arguably partly motivated bythe desire to secure the safe flow of oil from theregion. There is also scepticism that the interna-tional crisis over Darfur is to some extent drivenby a contest over energy sources. At the nationallevel competition for oil revenues, whether in theform of budget allocations between governmentministries or fighting between militias, fuels andprolongs conflict. Although the North-Southconflict in Sudan predates the discovery of oil,competition for ownership of the country’s oilreserves was a driving force sustaining the con-flict. Wrangling over the division of oil wealth

has contributed to worsening sectarian violencein Iraq. At the local level the ongoing struggle inBasrah to control its major oil industries and thesmuggling trade is another case in point.

Environmental scarcity, degradationand long-term change

Although not in diametric opposition to the“resource curse” paradigm, the other end of thedebate focuses on environmental scarcity anddegradation as a cause of conflict. The underly-ing premise is that resource scarcity has thepotential to trigger social breakdown and violentconflict, the foremost example being the age-oldstruggle between pastoralists and farmers, reli-giously symbolized in Cain’s (the farmer) slayingof his brother Abel (the shepherd). In ecozoneterms, this is sometimes referred to as the “desertversus the oasis” syndrome.

In the predominantly semi-arid environment ofthe Arab world, the most prominent environ-mental drivers of local conflict are pastoralist andsedentary competition over agricultural and graz-ing lands and water sources. It is important tonote, however, that conflict over these resourcesis largely limited to specific environmental set-tings, and is overall linked to conflict in a minor-ity of cases in the Arab world. For instance, in thepopulous, irrigated Nile and Tigris-Euphratesvalleys clashes between pastoralists and farmersare comparatively rare due to the regularity ofwater flows and limited overlap of pasture andirrigated lands. Historically conflict between thetwo groups had less to do with resource scarcityand was largely a result of pastoral and state rival-ry over political and economic domination,which in the modern Middle East has virtuallyceased.3 The strong presence of central govern-ment, the steep decline in nomadic populationsand the reliance on artificial water sources aresome of the factors reducing such friction.

On the other hand, clashes between pastoralistsand farmers are more frequent in environmentswhere both pastoralism and agriculture aredependent on rainfall and water is primarilydrawn from naturally occurring point sources.The critical factor is therefore rainfall. Extremefluctuations in precipitation regimes, characteris-tic of arid and semi-arid regions, render farmersbut particularly pastoralists highly vulnerable to


water scarcity, as their entire livestock herds areat risk of being wiped out. The aim of pastoral-ism is to adapt to this non-equilibrium ecologythrough mobility. It is particularly during peri-ods of drought that the relationship between pas-toralists and farmers begins to strain and risksfalling apart. In the past, environmental stressand social tensions could be alleviated as land wasrelatively plentiful and pastoralists could migrateto new areas. With artificial borders restrictingnomadic movement, large increases in humanand livestock populations and the expansion ofmechanized agriculture on marginal lands,mobility options have significantly diminished,increasing the likelihood of conflict between pas-toralists and farmers.

The abovementioned scenario is prevalent in thesub-Saharan limits of the Arab world, namely inSomalia and Sudan. Specifically it is in the Saheland Savannah zones that this situation hasbecome most acute, due primarily to their suit-ability to both pastoralism and rain-fed agricul-ture. The most notorious example of a conflictoccurring in such context is the ongoing crisis inDarfur. Clearly, the war in Darfur can not besimply reduced to a resource conflict and itshighly political, economic and ethnic aspectsamong others need to be fully acknowledged. Atthe same time, in order to adequately understand

the nature of the conflict it is important to recog-nize that environmental conditions played animportant role in precipitating localised conflictsbetween black Arab pastoralists and Africanfarmers, which became increasingly frequentwith the onset of the prolonged drought of the1970s and reached new heights in the 1990s.Recent studies on conflict in Darfur reveal thatcompetition over grazing and water rightsaccounted for 30 of the 41 clashes recorded inthe period from 1930-2000.4

Simply described the Arab tribes (as well as non-Arab Zaghawa) attempted to escape prolongeddrought by seeking refuge in the lands of the Furand Masalit which are rich in water and pasture,such as in the highlands of Jebel Marra. Previousmutual agreements between pastoralists andfarmers began to unravel as the former began toturn up earlier than normal (before or duringharvest time) and would overstay for undeter-mined periods. Confrontation became inevitable.The violence escalated to such an extent thatcasualty figures rose to an estimated 200,000-500,000 deaths in addition to two million dis-placed. This environmental predicament is notunique to Darfur but shares many similaritieswith other conflicts between pastoralists andfarmers in dryland central Sudan, such as inSouthern Kordofan. Except that in SouthernKordofan, mechanized agriculture had a greaterrole than rainfall vagaries and drought in theinstigation of conflict. The horizontal expansionof mechanized agriculture on the clay plains inthe high rainfall savannah belt, the traditionalwinter grazing lands of Hawazma Baggara (cattleherders) and Shanabla camel nomads drove themdeeper into the Nuba Mountains in search ofwater and pasture for their livestock. Again,large-scale armed conflict broke out between pas-toralists and the indigenous Nuba farmers.Disorganized and poorly managed mechanizedrain-fed agriculture, covering an estimated 6.5million hectares of which 45-66 percent compris-es unauthorized holdings, continues to be amajor cause of violent clashes between pastoral-ists and farmers in central Sudan.

Another variant of the conflict between pastoral-ists and farmers sees both groups encroaching onforest and wildlife reserves due to scarcity in agri-cultural and grazing lands, such as in the DinderNational Park (DNP) that is the size of Lebanon,


CLIMATE CHANGE AND CONFLICTEnvironmental degradation is further aggravated by climatechange, which is essentially acting as the motor spinning thescarcity-degradation-conflict cycle ever faster. In Darfur, forexample, a major and long-term drop in precipitation, rang-ing from 16 to 34 percent in over 80 years, has been record-ed with obvious impacts on rangeland quality. Climatechange forecast models predict that compared to the 1961-1990 'baseline climate', areas fringing the Sahara such asNorthern Kordofan, are set to experience a 0.5 to 1.5°C risein average annual temperatures by 2030 and 2060 respec-tively, with an average rainfall decline of five percent. Theimpacts on agriculture are likely to be disastrous with an esti-mated 70 percent drop in crop yields. Due to declining rain-fall, the spread of the desert which has shifted southwards byan estimated 50 to 200 km since 1930 is expected to contin-ue. Clearly, climate change is a major stress factor that hasthe potential to create an overwhelming environmental crisisin the Sahel and accelerate the severity, scale and pace ofconflict dynamics.

and which is Sudan’s largest. In such cases, theconflict which often erupts into violence isbetween pastoralists and farmers on the one handand government officials on the other (forestrangers and game wardens who are part of theSudanese unified police force). As the DNPflanks Ethiopia, border forces have also occasion-ally been caught up in the fighting due to cross-border pastoral incursions from both sides.

Competition between pastoralists and farmers isfurther propelled into a negative spiral by envi-ronmental degradation. The two principal factorsare on the one hand overstocking and overgrazingdepleting rangelands, and on the other expansionof both traditional and mechanized agricultureinto marginal lands that often encroach on live-stock migration corridors and lead to extensivevegetation clearance and deforestation.Combined these pressures accentuate desertifica-tion, soil erosion and soil exhaustion. As the nat-ural resource base degrades and dwindles,demands on ever scarcer pastures and water con-tinue to rise due to the high human and livestockpopulation growth rates. For example Sudan,which has the second largest herd on the conti-nent, saw its livestock population increase morethan six-fold in less than fifty years; from 22 mil-lion in 1959 to 135 million in 2004.Concurrently at the national level, rangelandshave shrunk by an estimated 20 to 50 percent,largely due to conversion into mechanized rain-fed agriculture. Consequently, the strugglebetween pastoralists and farmers is gridlocked in aself-reinforcing vicious circle of growing scarcitythat ultimately increases the likelihood of violentconflict and reduces the chances of compromise.

In a similar light, an environmental scarcityanalysis provides deeper insight on the nature ofthe Arab-Israeli conflict. The delimitation of bor-ders in the region has at least in part beeninspired by the aim to secure command overhydrostrategic territory. For instance, the exten-sion of the boundaries of mandate Palestinenorthwards was partly motivated by the aim ofincorporating Lakes Tiberias and Huleh as wellas some of the Jordan headwaters.5 Securing con-trol over the Jordan River’s upper catchment isconsidered one of the key factors behind Israel’soccupation and annexation of the Syrian GolanHeights. Expansion of settlements and the courseof the Separation Wall have also been linked to

Israel’s interest to retain control over the WestBank’s strategic recharge zones and rich aquiferreserves.6 In Gaza, which relies predominantly onwells, the problem is that of seawater intrusionfrom over-pumping of groundwater. And finally,suspicion over Israeli intentions to tap the LitaniRiver in Lebanon is another source of con-tention.7 Although not necessarily the sole orprime impetus of war, water scarcity and gainingcommand over water producing areas is an inte-gral part of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

III. ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS OF CONFLICT

Scientific assessment of the environmental effectsof conflict are generally categorised as direct andindirect impacts. Direct impacts relate to thosewhose occurrence may be physically and lineallylinked to military action and which typically arisewithin the immediate short-term (up to sixmonths), whereas indirect impacts are those thatcan be reliably attributed to the conflict butwhich usually interact with a web of factors andonly become fully manifest in the medium tolonger run. Some examples of direct impactsinclude environmental contamination frombombing of industrial sites, deliberate naturalresource destruction, and military debris anddemolition waste from targeted infrastructure.Indirect impacts include the environmental foot-print of displaced populations, collapse of envi-ronmental governance and data vacuum, andlack of funding for environmental protection.This section provides a brief synthesis of the envi-ronmental fallout of conflict in three Arab coun-tries: Iraq, Sudan and Lebanon.

Iraq

Given the magnitude of military conflict in Iraq,it is no surprise that its environment has sus-tained greater war damage than any other coun-try in the Arab world and indeed perhaps world-wide. Over the past three decades the country hasleaped from one major war into another and thisfor the most part in a context of internal civilstrife and stern international sanctions.

The Arab world’s longest war in the 20th centu-ry was Iraq’s eight year war with Iran (1980-1988), whose hallmark of trench warfare and


chemical weapons recalls World War One. Theheaviest fighting took place in the area of theShatt al-Arab estuary and the Mesopotamianmarshlands (Al-Ahwar). At the same time, theentire ~1,500 km length of the Iran-Iraq border,which remains heavily mined to this day, was anactive front in which chemical weapons weredeployed by the Iraqi Government both againstIran and Iraqi citizens. Despite the lethality ofthe chemicals employed, their relatively shortenvironmental persistence (ranging from 30minutes for tabun to 2 years for mustard gas)means that any remaining residue represents alow risk today. Despite occasional raids oncities, the rest of the country was largely sparedfrom military action and hence direct environ-mental impacts. From space, the heavily scarredlandscape of the Iran-Iraq border, with itstrenches, bunkers, weapon pits, moats and minefields, is today reminiscent of a cratered lunarlandscape. The physical disturbance of the land-scape (wetland and semi-desert) by major earth-works has been so severe that old topographicmaps are simply no longer valid. The construc-tion of defensive works and military causewaysinside the marshlands contributed to their desic-cation, whose surface area had reduced by 20-25percent in 1990. The extensive date palm plan-tations fringing the Shatt al-Arab estuary weredevastated on both banks of the border, withmillions of trees destroyed by shelling, fire anddeliberate clearance. The marine environmentof the Gulf suffered considerable damage duringthe so-called “tanker war” in which over 500commercial vessels were destroyed and major oilinstallations targeted; the worst incident beingthe bombing of the Iranian Nowruz platformwhere almost 2 million barrels of oil werespilled. The conflict’s shipwreck legacy remainsan important problem to this day with poten-tially significant environmental implicationsthat need to be considered in future salvageoperations. Finally, the last stages of the war alsowitnessed the Anfal campaign, in which an esti-mated 4,000 Kurdish villages were destroyedwith evident environmental impacts rangingfrom large-scale population displacement anddestruction of orchards, cropland and pastures.At the end of the war, Iraq’s economy was bank-rupt and the work of the environment depart-ment, established in 1972 under the Ministry ofHealth, was now essentially limited to routinesampling of drinking water quality.

It is in this context that Iraq entered into anoth-er war with its invasion of Kuwait in 1990.Although the war lasted less than six weeks, theair campaign targeted all types of infrastructure,military and civil, including sewage and watersupply plants, power stations, bridges, oilrefineries, the manufacturing and petrochemicalindustries as well as nuclear, biological andchemical weapon facilities. Over 290 metrictons of depleted uranium projectiles were firedinto Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War (comparedto 9 tons in Kosovo and 3 tons in Bosnia andHerzegovina). It can be assumed that the envi-ronmental fallout of such a massive bombingcampaign is potentially significant although itwas never scientifically assessed. Immediatelythereafter Iraq was placed under strict UN sanc-tions and made to pay compensation for wardamages including environmental ones. At thesame time it was denied the right to restore keysocial services and infrastructure, includingimportation of spare parts to rehabilitate waste-water treatment plants such as that of Al-Rustamiyah in Baghdad which was releasing300,000 m3/day of untreated sewage into theTigris River with grave humanitarian and envi-ronmental consequences.

Meanwhile, the UN Compensation Commission(UNCC) required Iraq to pay US$ 243 millionto Kuwait, Iran, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Syriato assess environmental damages allegedly sus-tained. With more than 600 oil wells detonatedproducing up to 500,000 metric tonnes of pollu-tants per day, 25-50 million barrels released onland and the largest marine oil slick in history (6-8 million barrels), the devastation wrought onKuwait and the Gulf’s marine environment wascolossal. The most readily visible sign of environ-mental damage were the thick clouds of blacksmoke billowing from the burning well fires forover a month that blanketed the sun and affectedair quality in several countries. In the case ofKuwait alone, the damage was estimated at US$40 billion representing 16 percent of its total warclaims. Today, the volume of scientific environ-mental literature on the war’s impacts on Kuwaitand the other countries (excluding Iraq) is unri-valled when compared to other conflicts. Finally,the UN Special Commission (UNSCOM)charged with neutralizing Iraqi weapons elimi-nated hundreds of thousands of litres and overone thousand metric tonnes of chemical warfare


agents and munitions. Environmental contami-nation generated from such destruction has notbeen scientifically assessed.

Soon after the declaration of the 1991 ceasefire,Iraq was engulfed in a major popular uprisingthat was ultimately quelled by the government.Driven to punish their opponents who hadsought refuge in the Mesopotamian marshlands,the Iraqi Government launched a massive engi-neering campaign to drain the second largestwetland system in the Arab world (after the Suddin Sudan). Huge canals and earthworks wereconstructed to divert the waters of the Tigris andEuphrates around the marshes and into the Gulf.The net result was that 93 percent of the marsh-lands had vanished by 2002, shattering theindigenous Marsh Arabs’ millennial way of life.Although the destruction of the Mesopotamianmarshlands with its substantial biodiversitywealth represents the single largest ecosystem lossin the Arab world in recent times, it has notexpressed real concern over this major disasterdespite its wider regional ramifications.

Crippled by sanctions, Iraq was in a state of slug-gish atrophy when war broke out in March 2003.Although the bombardment was significantlygreater than that of the 1991 Gulf War, it wasmainly targeted at military facilities, and civilinfrastructure was largely spared. In fact, the

principal cause of environmental damageemanated from extensive looting and sabotage ofmilitary and industrial facilities as well as oilinstallations and pipelines. Of the five sites iden-tified by the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) as priority contaminated“hotspots”, four were looted and one was a mili-tary scrap yard. There is ongoing debate onwhether the looting was caused by poor planningor is the result of negligence in which case dam-age sustained should be classified under directenvironmental impacts. In any case, the failure tosecure such critical installations as the largestIraqi nuclear programme at Tuwaitha reveals theextent of carelessness and low priority attached tothe environment. The net result is that Iraq is lit-tered with thousands of contaminated sites whichare continuing to grow every day due to incessantsabotage and military operations. It will only bepossible to scientifically assess and quantify thefull environmental magnitude of this latest warwhen the security situation allows for scientificfieldwork to take place.

Several media reports as well as some scientistsinside Iraq have been linking depleted uranium(DU) with a reportedly growing incidence ofcancer and birth defects, which is grounded moreon anecdotal cases and rumour than scientificevidence. For such a connection to be made Iraqwould first need to establish national cancer andbirth defects registries that it presently lacks. Thisis not to say that the potential impacts from DUare insignificant but that such claims are unsub-stantiated and risk compromising the credibilityof future scientific studies. The total amount ofDU used in the 2003 war is unknown, but spec-ulative figures from various studies rangebetween 170 to 1,700 metric tons. The UnitedStates, while admitting to using DU, has not dis-closed how much and where it was used, whilethe United Kingdom has reported firing 1.9 tons.Limited studies conducted by the Iraqi RadiationProtection Centre in collaboration with UNEPin four selected areas indicate that radiation lev-els are within natural background levels and wellbelow threshold levels requiring remedial inter-vention. This would suggest that there appears tobe no special threat to the general population andthat such risks where they do exist are localised.Persons at greatest risk of radiation exposure arethose who may come into direct contact withDU munitions and DU contaminated equip-


ment, particularly those working in scrapingoperations. It is therefore important that DUcontaminated areas be identified and assessedand a monitoring programme for potentiallyaffected populations established.

At the same time, it is important to highlightsome of the positive environmental develop-ments that have taken place following the 2003war. These include the re-flooding of 60 percentof the marshlands mainly from actions taken bylocal communities which have been reinforced byinterventions from the Ministry of WaterResources and Irrigation. A fully-fledgedMinistry of Environment has been establishedand the country has finally opened up to thewider world enabling the transfer of environmen-tal knowledge and technology as well as allowingIraq to actively engage with international envi-ronmental agreements. Indeed Iraq’s first acces-sion to an environmental treaty was to theRamsar Convention on Wetlands in 2006 withthe designation of the eastern Mesopotamianmarshlands (Hawizeh) as its first protected site;this reflected a full turnaround from its previouspolicy to drain wetlands.

Sudan

The direct environmental impacts of Sudan’scivil war (1962-1972; 1983-2002), Africa’s andthe Arab world’s longest, have been relativelylimited. It is in reality a highly complex mosaic ofconflicts, the main one being the long-standingwar in South Sudan that over time evolved toencompass the Nuba Mountains, southern BlueNile, eastern Sudan and most recently Darfur,which is presently the only remaining activecombat zone. Geographically, armed conflict hasbeen confined to the aforementioned areas,meaning that up to 60 percent of the country,with the exception of the North and most of thecentre, has witnessed fighting at one time oranother. The main reason why the conflictdespite its duration has not had a major directimpact on the environment is because it wasessentially a guerrilla war fought with lightweapons such as the AK 47 rifle. Moreover, thecountry’s small industrial base, particularly in theunderdeveloped and marginalised areas wherefighting occurred, meant that there were few mil-itary or civil targets that could create significantphysical damage or generate a hazardous waste

stream. This is borne out by the fact that the sin-gle most significant “industrial” target in Sudan’sconflict to date is the Jonglei canal excavator sab-otaged at the inception of the second phase of thecivil war in 1983, the environmental impact ofwhich is negligible.

The greatest military legacy of the conflict is thatof landmines and other explosive remnants ofwar, affecting 32 percent of the country mainlyin southern Sudan. While landmines in and ofthemselves are generally of minor environmentalconcern, their main impact is to impede accessto land and natural resources such as pastures onwhich the rural population is highly dependent.In Sudan, some areas have been out of boundsfor decades, diminishing the population’sresource base and thereby potentially setting intrain a cycle of scarcity and environmental degra-dation. On the other hand, reduced access anddepopulation can have positive impacts such asin the Nuba Mountains where there has beenextensive regrowth of woodland. Similarly, theSudd wetlands became an impenetrable “bufferzone” during the conflict, providing refuge forwildlife from poachers. Recent surveys in 2007in the area of the Sudd have revealed the exis-tence of various wildlife species such as ele-phants, ostriches, lions, leopards, hippos, buffaloand large populations of migrating antelopespecies.8 Finally, in Darfur there have been con-sistent reports from local communities as well asby other observers that militias have been using“scorched earth” tactics destroying trees, cropsand pastures. Deliberate deforestation and vege-tation clearance could have important impactson the land, water and biotic regimes but it isnot possible to quantify the significance of suchdamage due to a lack of data. Such destructiveactions are also likely to strengthen the afore-mentioned feedback loop of environmentaldegradation, scarcity and conflict that is alreadyunderway in Darfur.

The prolonged length of the civil war has meantthat indirect secondary impacts of the conflict aresignificant. The most severe environmental con-sequences have been caused by the displacementof an estimated five million people, which is con-tinuing to rise due to the ongoing conflict inDarfur. Representing the largest displaced popu-lation worldwide, it has led to deforestation anddevegetation around camp areas, unsustainable


groundwater extraction in camps and the devel-opment of a relief economy that may exacerbatedemands on natural resources. Darfur, with some2.4 million displaced, may be the most environ-mentally significant displacement case in theworld today due to its fragile dryland conditions.Looting of natural resources in conflict zones byall sides was widespread, the most significantbeing the extraction of high value timber in thesouth and fuelwood for charcoal in the NubaMountains. Ivory poaching decimated elephantand rhinoceros populations in southern Sudanand bushmeat was hunted for food by the war-ring parties. Environmental governance collapsednot only in active conflict zones but nationwideand both the military as well as civilians tookadvantage of the opportunity to act with environ-mental impunity. The conflict also meant thatmost of the country was inaccessible for science-based data collection further limiting rationaldecision-making for resource management andconservation. Finally, the war economy created afunding crisis as provisions for sustainable envi-ronmental management practically did not figurein the government’s fiscal budget.

Lebanon

Lebanon has been the scene of both civil conflictand international proxy wars since the mid-1970sand remains the only active battlefront in theArab-Israeli conflict. In July 2006, a 34-day warbroke out between Israel and Lebanon causingwide-ranging damage to its civil infrastructure andsignificant environmental damage. One of themost enduring images of this conflict is the esti-mated 10,000 - 15,000 tonnes of oil released intothe Mediterranean from the bombing of the El-Jiyeh power plant. Affecting 150 km of the 220km Lebanese coastline and extending partly intoSyria, the oil spill severely impacted its sandybeaches and rocky headlands.9 Given the heavytype of oil contained in the storage tanks, a con-siderable proportion sank within the vicinity ofthe power plant, where it ”smothered biota andsignificantly impacted the seabed.”10 UNEP analy-sis of seawater quality, marine sediment and bio-logical indicators such as oysters revealed thathydrocarbon contamination levels are generallywithin background levels for the region. On thewhole, therefore, marine life appears to have large-ly escaped the worst of the disaster. Nevertheless,given the risk of the oil’s remobilization it is

important that a monitoring system be establishedto check pollutant concentrations. In the biggerpicture, the main threat to the quality of Lebanesecoastal waters continues to come from the 53wastewater outfalls dumping untreated sewageinto the sea (which can be partially attributed tothe lack of investment due to past conflicts).

The war’s main environmental impacts relate tothe substantial volumes of waste generated. Themost serious has to do with the vast amounts ofdemolition rubble generated from the destruc-tion and damage of 30,000 housing units as wellas other infrastructure such as bridges and manu-facturing facilities. There is generally a low risk ofcontamination from such inert debris and themain issue here is that of waste handling and dis-posal, particularly as it is overwhelming existingdump sites. The other principal challenge stemsfrom the disposal and treatment of the collectedwaste oil spill including contaminated soil, espe-cially as Lebanon lacks remediation facilities.Contamination from targeted industrial sites wasgenerally low and localized, but a handful ofthese require clean-up. Wide-spread damage toLebanon’s water supply and sewage networks alsooccurred amplifying the pre-conflict acute defi-ciency in wastewater treatment capacity, whichhad recently been undergoing comprehensiveupgrading and modernisation.

Despite unsubstantiated press reports that DUhad been used in the conflict, UNEP in collabo-ration with the Lebanese Government conductedan extensive field survey using state of the artequipment and found that there was no evidenceof their use. One of the major indirect impacts ofthe war stemmed from the legacy of up to onemillion unexploded cluster bombs dropped inSouth Lebanon. Agricultural land was hardest hitaccounting for 62 percent of the total clusterbomb contaminated area. This not only led tomajor losses in the 2006 harvest season, but effec-tively rendered a large swath of South Lebanonout of bounds for the local population. Again,the resulting scarcity in farmland from clusterbomb infestation has the potential to generate anew socioeconomic dynamic and set in train acycle of poverty and environmental degradation.Finally, the conflict led to the outbreak of firesand the loss of economically valuable tree speciesin southern Lebanon impairing the government’sfledgling reforestation programme.


IV. RESPONSES TOTHE ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS OF WAR

At the country level, national response has beenvariable but on the whole weak. It was rapid andeffective in Lebanon where a coordination cellwas established to deal with the oil spill andinternational support was successfully mobilisedfor the environment sector. While in Iraq andSudan the response has been slow and limiteddue to weak capacity, it is gradually developing.There has been no coordinated regional reactionand each country has essentially had to rely on itsown resources.

At the international level, the main response tothe environmental consequences of conflict hascome from the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP). The Gulf War of 1991 wasthe first time that UNEP examined the environ-mental risks of a conflict, producing a series ofdesk studies which, however, were curtailed bylack of empirical fieldwork. The defining mile-stone for UNEP came in 1999 with the publica-tion of its groundbreaking scientific assessmentof the Kosovo conflict, which also included forthe first time a detailed field-based evaluation ofDU contamination. Catalysed by its successfulexperience in the Balkans, UNEP institution-alised its work in this field by establishing a ded-icated Post Conflict and Disaster ManagementBranch in 2001 with a global mandate to addressthe environmental impacts of war.

UNEP’s scope of work on environment and con-flict is centred on supporting post-conflict coun-tries in four main areas: (i) scientific assessmentof environmental impacts; (ii) remediation ofcontaminated “hot spots”; (iii) building andstrengthening environmental governance capaci-ty; and (iv) integrating environmental considera-tions in post conflict reconstruction and develop-ment. Most recently, in early 2008, UNEPlaunched a new programme on the role of theenvironment in peacebuilding which aims toaddress the environmental causes of conflict. Itwill also entail an “environmental diplomacy”component that will actively seek to promoteinternal reconciliation within conflict affectedcountries, as well as catalysing re-engagementwith neighbours through dialogue and coopera-tion on shared ecosystems and resources.

Of UNEP’s twelve post-conflict assessments,slightly under half have been in the Arab worldincluding Iraq, Lebanon, the OccupiedPalestinian Territories, Somalia and Sudan.These flagship reports have by and large succeed-ed in raising the environment’s profile withinhigh-level political agendas, both nationally andinternationally. Presenting a synoptic overview ofthe key environmental challenges facing post-conflict countries, the assessments address theconcept of ‘environment’ in its broadest sense toinclude issues that may otherwise be classifiedunder energy, forestry, public health, agriculture,transport, education, etc. It also looks throughthe lens of time at the environmental history andchronic problems pre-dating the conflict.Furthermore, strategic and prioritised recom-mendations for remedial action are also provided.All the reports have been wholly or partly trans-lated into Arabic and published within a relative-ly rapid timeframe in both hardcopy and elec-tronic formats, ensuring wide dissemination. Forexample, the Lebanon report was published fivemonths following the end of hostilities, while forGaza it was completed within six months ofIsrael’s disengagement.

There is no standardised template for conductingthese studies as each assessment is tailored to thenature of the conflict, the priority thematic issuesunder consideration and the operational con-straints within the country concerned. For exam-ple, in Lebanon and Gaza the assessment heavilyrelied on detailed laboratory analysis, while giventhe size of Sudan it was based on rapid but exten-sive field visits, satellite image analysis and inten-sive consultations with a wide range of stakehold-


ers, including civil society. In the case of Iraq, asUNEP was unable to field its experts on theground due to security restrictions, it trainednational partners on sampling methodology andfield verification to backstop satellite imageanalysis. Samples were then taken to internation-al laboratories for independent analysis.

Overall, the common hallmark of UNEP’sreports is their timeliness, accessibility to thenon-environmental expert and their attractivevisual layout combining photographs, satelliteimages, maps and graphics. The assessments arealso distinguished by the rapidity with whichUNEP’s scientific team is deployed to the fieldworking under a military setting and the interna-tional credibility of its scientific findings whichare conducted in a transparent manner with thefull engagement of national partners. Finally,another practical benefit of these reports is theirproven track record in mobilising donor interestand funding to implement follow-up projectsand activities.

Drawing on the findings of its assessments,UNEP has designed and delivered environmentalclean-up and mitigation measures to reducedirect risks from conflict, such as in Iraq where itcollected and secured highly hazardous materials.In Lebanon, UNEP is in the process of strength-ening the government’s environmental monitor-ing system to track contamination levels that mayhave been generated by the conflict. In Darfurwork is underway to replant three million trees tohelp combat land degradation and alleviate fuelwood shortages around Internally DisplacedPersons camps as well as help create the necessaryconditions for an eventual return process.

Strengthening environmental governance hasbeen UNEP’s core activity in post-conflict coun-tries. This has involved capacity building pro-grammes covering a wide spectrum of topicsranging from law and policy development to lab-oratory training such as in Iraq and Sudan, aswell as targeted technical support on specificissues (e.g. hazardous waste) for Palestinian offi-cials. In view of the rapid economic growth ratesthat are characteristic of countries emerging fromconflict such as Sudan and Iraq, UNEP has beenproviding technical expertise both to the human-itarian community and national authorities tohelp ensure the environmental sustainability of

their interventions and reconstruction invest-ments. Finally, UNEP has brokered technicalcooperation between Iran and Iraq, Iraq and theRegional Organization for the Protection of theMarine Environment (Kuwait Action Plan), thePalestinian Authority and Israel, and betweenNorth and South Sudan.

Other international organisations have also beenextending their support to post-conflict countriesto include an environmental component, partic-ularly the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme and the World Bank. On the whole,however, these interventions have largely been ona case by case basis and are typically designedwith a specific thematic focus (e.g. solid waste,forestry); where the environment in its widersense is not the driving concern. Moreover, theseorganisations have a very large portfolio and sodo not carry the “environmental flag” in the sameway that UNEP does. Nevertheless, they dobring significant resources and expertise to thetable and their long-term in-country presenceadds continuity and sustainability to their efforts.In 2005, the UN established a PeacebuildingCommission which has begun to consider theenvironmental connection to conflict in its devel-opment of integrated recovery strategies.Environment as a sector has also been incorporat-ed in various coordination mechanisms set-up toconsolidate the work of international organiza-tions in post-conflict transition settings, such asthe UN Development Group and Inter-AgencyStanding Committee at the global level, and theUN Country Team at the country level.11

Both environmental and conflict-resolution non-governmental organisations have also beenresponding to the specific environmental needsof post-conflict countries and in some cases haveproven to be important sources of data andexpertise. Some of the key players include, GreenCross International, Greenpeace, InternationalUnion for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)and the World Wide Fund for Nature. Forinstance, Green Cross conducted scientific envi-ronmental analysis of the Gulf Wars, whileGreenpeace has been monitoring the depleteduranium issue and was the first to raise the alarmabout the environmental fallout from the ran-sacking of the nuclear facility in Tuwaitha.Greenpeace was also very quick to deploy assess-ment teams to Lebanon and Iraq immediately


following the conflict. Conservation organisa-tions such as IUCN and Birdlife Internationalhave supported biodiversity conservation work inKuwait following the 1991 war and more recent-ly in Iraq, while the Wildlife ConservationSociety has undertaken some pioneering wildlifesurveys in southern Sudan. At the same time,national NGOs have been actively engaged, forinstance by playing a lead role in the clean-up ofthe oil spill in Lebanon and in articulating thelinkages between conflict and environment inSudan. In Iraq, civil society has generally beenstruggling but a few environmental NGOs haveemerged after 2003. Finally the role of the mediain drawing public attention to the environmentalimpacts of conflict has also been growing. In theArab world, Environment and DevelopmentMagazine (Al Bi’a Wal Tanmia) has been system-atically covering the topic in Iraq, Lebanon,Palestine and Sudan.

V. WHAT SHOULD BE DONE?

The Arab world’s foremost conflict traps today –Iraq, Palestinian Territories, Somalia and Sudan– as well as the ‘swing states’ of Algeria andLebanon, represent the ultimate challenge to itsfuture. For their predicament will not be limitedwithin their borders but will also in a major waydefine and shape the prospective outlook of theentire region. The present status quo of thesewar-torn societies living in miserable conditionsis a harbinger of future problems for the wholeArab world. Along the same lines, the environ-mental fallout of conflict ranging from theimpacts of refugees to transboundary pollution,as epitomised in the Gulf Wars, will continue toinexorably worsen.

What should the Arab world do to protect itsenvironment from the furores of war? There aretwo possible entry points for intervention:addressing the environmental links to conflictand responding to post-conflict environmentalimpacts. More often than not under appropriatecircumstances, shared ecosystems and naturalresources are more likely to provide the potentialseeds of cooperation than conflict. This ispoignantly illustrated by the “Picnic TableTalks” over the allocation of Yarmuk watersbetween Israel and Jordan in the 1950s and bythe fact that “water, energy and environment”

was one of the key tracks in the negotiations cul-minating in their 1994 peace treaty.12 One of thefew areas where there continues to be regularcontact between Israeli and Palestinian experts ison water, which has also been included as a “coreissue” with the resumption of talks in early2008.13 This demonstrates the potential role ofthe environment as a neutral concept in provid-ing a platform for dialogue and confidence build-ing for some of the most complex crises facingthe world today.

Tackling the “resource curse” that characterizescountries such as Iraq and Sudan requires thedevelopment of novel policy and legal frame-works and instituting practical mechanisms formore robust and accountable oversight.Subscribing to international norms, such as thoseestablished under the Extractive IndustriesTransparency Initiative (EITI) and translatingthem into national laws, is a good starting pointfor oil producing Arab countries. Both the EITIand similar initiatives such as the KimberleyProcess have demonstrated that even very modeststeps can go a long way towards improving natu-ral resource governance.

Equally, environmental scarcity, degradation andlong-term change should not be taken to conveya message of hopelessness that environmentaldecline is inevitable. There are always numerousopportunities for contingency including riskreduction, preparedness and early warning.Indeed with the right policies and strategies,environmental scarcity could be a stimulant totechnological innovation and institutionalreform, as in the cases of Israel, Japan andSwitzerland. In places such as Darfur, resourcesare indeed scarce under prevailing socio-econom-ic circumstances. This, however, is not necessari-ly because there is an absolute shortage in arableland and water but rather due to ineffective poli-cies, mismanagement and development politicsthat have marginalised the region. AlthoughDarfur is a major headwater catchment for boththe Nile and Lake Chad basins, there is a majordata vacuum and underinvestment in tapping itsrelatively rich water resources. Clearly, develop-ment policies based on sound information,investment and maintenance of critical infra-structure and human ingenuity can go a long wayin reducing the likelihood of conflict in regionssuch as Darfur.


In responding to the environmental impacts ofconflict, the Arab world through the Council ofArab Ministers Responsible for the Environment(CAMRE) and regional environmental organisa-tions may consider pursuing a combination ofthe following practical measures:

(i) Funding for the environment

National budget allocations for the environmentin all Arab countries is without exception wellbelow one percent. In comparison, both as a shareof GDP and in per capita terms Arab countrieshave the highest military spending rates in theworld. Average defence expenditure standsaround 7-8 percent of GDP, well above the worldstandard of 2-2.5 percent.14 This imbalance inbudgetary spending needs to be redressed.

The abovementioned statistics illustrate that ris-ing military expenditure by Arab countries is notonly diverting funding from the environment,but also jeopardising the prospects for effectiveenvironmental management and protection. TheArab world needs to substantially raise budgetallocations for the environment to a minimumtarget of two to three percent. In this context,environmental management and protectionshould be considered as a conflict prevention andpeacebuilding tool. To minimize the risk ofrelapse into conflict, it is proposed that an Arabfund be launched to help countries in the regionaddress the environmental root causes of conflictas well as the most immediate impacts of war(e.g. oil spills, chemical contamination, etc.).

(ii) Improve environmental governance

Post-conflict countries tend to have some of thefastest growing economies. According to theInternational Monetary Fund, Sudan experi-enced a real GDP growth rate in 2007 of twelvepercent, making it the second fastest growingeconomy in the Arab world.15 As for Iraq, theIMF foresees its economy to grow by seven per-cent or even higher in 2008-2009.16 Rapid eco-nomic growth, dependent in these cases almostentirely on the oil boon, imposes great pressureson the environment unless adequate safeguardsare introduced. Post-conflict countries are espe-cially prone to overlooking environmental legalrequirements and standards given the immediateneeds of reconstruction, but this risks undercut-

ting sustainable development and the fragilepeace. Good environmental governance based ontested and credible methods such asEnvironmental Impact Assessment (EIA) andStrategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) canplay an important role in helping ensure thatreconstruction and development is economicallyand environmentally balanced. EIA’s and SEA’smulti-stakeholder consultative approach also car-ries a conflict resolution element as it seeks tomaximize transparency, public participation andequitable benefit sharing.

(iii) Strengthen capacity and cooperation on environment and conflict

It is suggested that an Arab multi-disciplinaryexpert committee on environment and conflictbe established under the auspices of the League ofArab States to examine conflict-environmentlinkages and improve early warning and assess-ment capacity. In this undertaking, Arab govern-ments should capitalise on growing internationalexpertise in this field and actively engage withinternational organisations, particularly theUnited Nations, to draw on their scientific, tech-nological and financial resources in analysing andmitigating the environmental impacts of war.

Preferably the abovementioned courses of actionwill be considered before a new war breaks outand creates additional environmental damage.


Albert, Jeff., Magnus Bernhardsson, and Roger Kenna(eds.). Transformations of Middle East NaturalEnvironment Legacies and Lessons. New Haven: YaleUniversity, 1998.

Austin, Jay E., and Carl E. Bruch (eds.), TheEnvironmental Consequences of War Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Bashar, Z.M., Mechanisms for Peaceful Co-Existenceamong Tribal Groups in Darfur [MAThesis in Arabic].University of Khartoum, 2003.

CNN, “Israel, Palestinian leaders to talk borders,security, settlements”, 13 January 2008http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/01/13/mideast.conflict/index.html (accessed Feb. 28, 2008).

Collier, Paul, The Bottom Billion. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2007.

Dobkowski, Michael N., John K. Roth, and IsidorWallimann (eds.), On the Edge of Scarcity. New York:Syracuse Universtiy Press, 2002.

Haddadin, Munther J., “Negotiated Resolution of theJordan-Israel Water Conflict”, in InternationalNegotiation Volume 5, 2000. 263-288

Held, Colbert C., Middle East Patterns Peoples,Places, and Politics. Boulder: Westview Press,2000.

Homer-Dixon, Thomas F., Environment, Scarcityand Violence. Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 1999.

International Monetary Fund, IMF Executive BoardConcludes 2007 Article IV Consultation with Sudan,Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 07/121, 3 October 2007, http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2007/pn07121.htm (accessed March 15, 2008)

International Monetary Fund, Iraq Makes Progress onEconomic Front, 13 February 2008,http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2008/CAR021308B.htm (accessed March 18, 2008)

Moss, Angela Joy. Litani River and Israel-Lebanon,Trade and Environment Discussions, ICE Case Studies,Case Study 14. American University Washington D.C.http://american.edu/ted/ice/litani.htm (accessed April 28, 2008)

Stauffer, Thomas R., Water and War in the MiddleEast: The Hydraulic Parameters of Conflict. InformationPaper Number 5. Washington, DC: The Center forPolicy Analysis on Palestine, July 1996.

Suliman, Mohamed. (ed.), Ecology, Politics and ViolentConflict. London: Zed Books, 1999.

'Symposium on the International Responses to theEnvironmental Impacts of War', in The GeorgetownInternational Environmental Law Review Volume XVII,Issue 4, Summer 2005.

United Nations, Oil Slick on Lebanese Shores Reportof the Secretary General, 24 October 2007.

United Nations Environment Programme, Desk Studyon the Environment in Iraq. Geneva: UNEP, 2003.

United Nations Environment Programme, UNEPProgress Report Strengthening EnvironmentalGovernance in Iraq. Geneva: UNEP, 2005.

United Nations Environment Programme, Assessment of Environmental “Hot Spots” in Iraq.Geneva: UNEP, 2005.

United Nations Environment Programme, The State ofthe Environment in SomaliaA Desk Study. Geneva: UNEP, 2005.

United Nations Environment Programme, Iraqi Marshlands Observation System.Geneva: UNEP, 2006.

United Nations Environment Programme,Environmental Assessment of the Areas Disengagedby Israel in the Gaza Strip. Geneva: UNEP, 2006.

United Nations Environment Programme, LebanonPost-Conflict Environmental Assessment. Geneva:UNEP, 2007.

United Nations Environment Programme, Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment.Geneva: UNEP, 2007.

United Nations Environment Programme, TechnicalReport on the Assessment of Depleted Uranium atFour Selected Areas in South Iraq,(Unpublished draft report).

United States Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook,https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2034rank.html (accessed Feb. 18, 2008).

United States Energy Information Administration,World Proved Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimateshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html (accessed March 3, 2008).

Wadi, A. I (ed.). Perspectives on Tribal Conflicts in theSudan. University of Khartoum: IAAS, 1998.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Massive MigrationRevealed, June 2007http://www.wcs.org/353624/wcs_southernsudan(accessed Feb. 23, 2008).

1 The views expressed in this chapter do notnecessarily reflect the views of the organizationwhere the author works (UNEP).

2 United States Energy Information Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/oilreserves.html

3 This is the cyclical confrontation between the“desert” and the “town” as described by thefamous Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun, in his theoryof history and social conflict, (The Muqadimah).

4 Wadi, A.I. Perspectives on Tribal Conflicts in theSudan. (University of Khartoum: IAAS, 1998).Bashar, Z.M. Mechanisms for Peaceful Co-Existence among Tribal Groups in Darfur[MAThesis in Arabic]. (University of Khartoum: 2003)

5 Held, Colbert C., Middle East Patterns Peoples,Places, and Politics,(Boulder: Westview Press, 2000).

6 Albert, J., Bernhardsson, M. and Kenna R, (eds.).Transformations of Middle East NaturalEnvironment Legacies and Lessons(New Haven: Yale University, 1998).

7 Moss, A. J. http://american.edu/ted/ice/litani.htm8 Wildlife Conservation Society, Massive Migration

Revealed, June 2007http://www.wcs.org/353624/wcs_southernsudan

9 United Nations, Oil Slick on Lebanese ShoresReport of the Secretary General,24 October 2007.

10 United Nations Environment Programme, LebanonPost-Conflict Environmental Assessment(Geneva: UNEP, 2007).

11 This includes the incorporation of environmentalconcerns in Common Humanitarian Appeals, PostConflict Needs Assessment, Common CountryAssessment, UN Development AssistanceFramework and various operational guidelines and strategies.

12 Haddadin, M. J., 'Negotiated Resolution of theJordan-Israel Water Conflict1', in InternationalNegotiation Volume 5: 263-288, 2000.

13 CNN, 'Israel, Palestinian leaders to talk borders,security, settlements', 13 January 2008http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/01/13/mideast.conflict/index.html

14 United States Central Intelligence Agency, TheWorld Factbook,https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2034rank.html

15 International Monetary Fund,http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2007/pn07121.htm

16 International Monetary Fund,http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2008/CAR021308B.htm

REFERENCES NOTES


Environmental Legislation

173

MOHAMED ABDULAZIZ EL-GUNDY

CHAPTER 13

I. INTRODUCTION

Since the second half of the twentieth century,the environment has become a focus issue at theglobal level. This was largely an attempt to con-trol the unabated environmental degradationresulting from disorganized contemporary eco-nomic and social development, which producedecological imbalance. This interest in the envi-ronment has typically featured in successiveinternational conferences convened to deliberateon environmental issues. The first global confer-ence on Human Environment, which was held inStockholm in 1972, was followed by the creationof the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP). Many gatherings have taken place sincethen, culminating in the United NationsConference on Environment and Development,which convened in Rio De Janeiro in 1992,which became known as the Earth Summit. Thislandmark event saw the introduction of severalinternational environment-based conventions,including the adoption of Agenda 21.

Despite this apparent world interest in environ-mental issues, most of these issues still remaineffectively unresolved. Consequently, the inter-national community held a Third WorldConference on Environment and Developmentin Johannesburg, South Africa, ten years after theRio Conference. The international communityfelt that it was on the threshold of a drastic fate-determining crisis if the global environmental sit-uation was not addressed as promptly as neces-sary. A necessary provision was that the redressmust be conclusive to involve sustainable devel-opment, reconstruction, poverty reduction, pol-lution-combating, conservation of natural envi-ronmental resources and ecological balance.

The world realized that scientific and technolog-ical expediencies alone would provide the neces-sary protection neither for the environment norits resources, unless binding controls wereapplied to ensure the application of protection.Controls should also exist to obligate individualsand groups to steer clear of environmentallyharmful practices and show commitment to pro-tect environmental safety and resources.

For legislation to be become functional, it has tobe sufficiently flexible and dynamic to provecongruent with rapid development and keep

pace with new and advanced scientific and tech-nological innovations. These systems will other-wise remain ineffective and sluggish, creating arecipe for failure to accomplish environmentprotection and development goals. In addition,for legislation to be observed in a given society,its requirements must be in conformity with theneeds and unique character of the society inquestion. That is, the legal text must be seen asthe product of research, testing and experienceto cope with the social, economic and environ-mental circumstances of the society. In short, itmust be relevant.

In light of these considerations, and as the inter-national community has been perfectly aware ofthe importance of introducing legislative systemsas an essential component of environmental pro-tection, it took the lead to envisage internationallegislative tools (conventions, treaties, protocols)aimed at mobilizing international efforts toaddress environment issues of general nature.Arab countries, like others, participated in nego-tiations of such international instruments, andlater undertook the requisite efforts towardsacceding to, signing and ratifying procedures forthe majority of them. The next step was thenational implementation of legislation conform-ing and enacting these international agreements.

The Arab countries enacted and produced intime a set of legal texts partially addressing envi-ronmental issues within the framework of publiclaws. These public laws had been issued at an ear-lier stage without a central focus on envronmen-tal issues. As a reflection of this world interest,they also promulgated a battery of laws on envi-ronment protection; in this chapter, we will dealwith these in their different international andnational manifestations.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONCHAPTER 13174

After going through an overview of major interna-tional pieces of legislation, as well as national Arabpieces of environmental legislation, this chapterwill offer a critical analysis of the deficiencies ofenvironmental legislation in the Arab region, andwill propose means of improving on this situation.

II. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTALLEGISLATIVE INSTRUMENTS

The international community expressed its inter-est in the environment and the preservation ofenvironmental resources through the conclusionof a gamut of international conventions andtreaties covering principal environment issueswith a view to protecting human health, main-taining and developing environmental resourcesand mobilizing international efforts to helpachieve these goals. These international andregional conventions, treaties and protocolsexceeded 150 in number, the enumeration ofwhich goes beyond the scope of this chapter. Wewill exclusively deal with the most crucial envi-ronmental issues, such as the transboundarymovement of hazardous substances and waste,climate change, ozone layer protection, desertifi-cation and bio-diversity conservation.

In what follows, we provide a brief overview of anumber of important international conventionsin certain key fields. Most of the conventions arediscussed in more detail in the relevant chaptersof this report.

Transboundary Movement ofHazardous Substances and Wastes

• The Basel Convention was adopted in Basel in1989, with the purpose of the Control ofTransboundary Movements of HazardousWastes, scaling down the volume and poisonouseffects of generated waste and exercising effectivecontrol on transport processes across borders,especially to developing countries, while at thesame time minimizing these processes. TheConvention entered into force in 1992. Anamendment was introduced but never enteredinto force to the effect of prohibiting all haz-ardous waste export processes for eventual dis-posal in developing countries. The BaselConvention was amended on 22 September1995 and re-amended in on 10 December 1999.

• The Rotterdam Convention was adopted on10 September 1998 with interest centred onbio-safety especially in the field of internation-al trade and development. Prior approval pro-cedures relating to some hazardous chemicalsubstances and pesticides in international com-merce (PIC) were endorsed in December 1998.This Convention was designed to ensure theprotection of human health by encouraging co-responsibility and cooperative efforts by mem-ber parties regarding trafficking in specific haz-ardous chemical substances while contributingto the environmentally sound use of some ofthese substances through the facilitation ofrelated information exchange and streamliningof decision-making in terms of their import orexport at the national level.

• The Stockholm Convention on PersistentOrganic Pollutants was adopted in Stockholmon 22 May 2001 and entered into force on 17May 2004. It aimed to provide protection ofhuman health and environment against persist-ent organic pollutants, take measures to preventtheir injurious effects in all stages of their lifecy-cle, underlie the principle of defrayal of pollu-tion cost by the party responsible for causing it,and highlighting the importance of developingand utilizing alternative environmentally soundchemical processes and materials.

Ozone Protection

• The Vienna Convention on the Protection ofthe Ozone Layer was adopted in Vienna on 22March 1985 as a framework of internationalcooperation to salvage the ozone layer. Itemphasized the necessity of taking effectivesteps towards preventing emission of ozone-depleting substances, reducing and defininghuman activities involving relevant adverseeffects and necessarily extending technicalassistance to developing countries to enablethem to use alternative materials and technolo-gies, with the ultimate aim of protectinghuman health and the environment againstnegative implications of ozone-related changes.

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer was adopted inMontreal on 16 September 1987 and enteredinto force on 1 January 1989. The Protocolwas tailored to spur the world’s commitment


towards taking preventive measures to curtailthe aggregate volume of emissions of ozone-depleting substances, with the eventual objec-tive of their elimination.

Several amendments were made to the MontrealProtocol:

• The first was the London Amendment of1990, targeting the promotion and expansionof control procedures set forth in the MontrealProtocol to include new materials and establishrespective financial mechanisms.

• There was also the Copenhagen Amendmentof 1992, with the aim of endorsing changesand reductions in the production and con-sumption of matter subject to control as pro-vided for in the Montreal Protocol appendices.

• This was followed by the MontrealAmendment (1997), whereby each party wascommitted to establish and operate a licens-ing system with regard to the import andexport of materials cited in the Protocol’sappendices, by 1 January 2000. Further, itobligated each party to take legislative andadministrative measures including labelling ofproducts, equipment, components and tech-nologies. Parties were also to assist in prevent-ing illegal trade in banned and illicit materi-als, equipment, and machines through con-trol and licensing applications based on dou-ble checking of data by exporting and import-ing countries.

• The fourth amendment of the Protocol was theBeijing Amendment, on 30 December 1999.

Climate Change

• The UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC) was adopted in New Yorkon 9 May 1992. It was devised to ensure keep-ing heat-retaining gas concentrations in thetroposphere at acceptable levels, thus hoping tolimit climate change and allow adaptation. TheConvention calls for national and regional pro-grams providing for measures to mitigate cli-mate change impacts. It also calls on Parties tocollaborate to develop, apply and disseminatetechnologies likely to reduce or preventhuman-caused emissions.

• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto(Japan) on 11 December 1997 and enteredinto force on 16 February 2004. Its aim wasthe fulfilment of the final goal of the UNFCC.Annexed to this Protocol were two supple-ments, one about heat-retaining gases as well assectors, sources and sink categories; the secondpertinent to the commitments of 39 countriesto reduce emissions in their territories. Thesewere developed countries and others with in-transition economies. Those countries hadundertaken to work on curbing global warm-ing gases by around 55% during the periodfrom 2008-2012, compared to their recordedgas emissions in 1990.

UN Convention onCombating Desertificationin Countries SufferingSevere Drought or DesertificationEspecially in Africa

• This Convention was adopted in Paris on 17June 1994 and entered into force on 10October 1997. It was drafted with the goal ofcombating desertification and managingdrought impacts in worst-hit countries espe-cially in Africa, through taking effective meas-ures at all levels and to promote internationalcooperation within the framework of an inte-grated approach attuned with the agenda 21,with a view to achieving sustainable develop-ment in affected regions.

Biodiversity Conventions

• The Convention on Wetlands of InternationalImportance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat,concluded in Ramsar, Iran, was aimed at (i)halting trespasses and invasions on wetlands;(ii) the acknowledgment of basic bio-environ-mental functions of wetlands and their eco-nomic, cultural, scientific and promotionalvalue; and (iii) ensuring maintenance of wetlands including plants and animals by way ofcombining national policy and harmonizedinternational action.

• The Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES), was adopted in Washington on 3March 1973 and entered into force on 1 July1975 with amendments introduced in Bonn


on 22 June 1979 and on 30 April 1982. It waschiefly designed to provide protection to cer-tain animal and plant species threatened withextinction due to excessive exploitationthrough international trade by enforcing animport-export licensing system and takingappropriate measures.

• The Convention on Biological Diversity,which was adopted in Rio De Janeiro on 6May 1992 and entered into force on 29December 1993, had the aim of preservingand maintaining bio-diversity and employ-ing its elements in a sustainable way. Otherobjectives of the Convention are the fairsharing of benefits accrued from the use ofgenetic resources among countries of originand state beneficiaries and the transfer ofappropriate technologies through provid-ing adequate financing, alongside obser-vance of all rights of accessing substancesand technologies.

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB),which was adopted in Montreal on 29 January2000, was intended to guarantee protection inthe domain of transporting and using bannedorganisms developed by bio-technology.

The above conventions and protocols addressthe most critical environmental issues at theworld level, each comprising commitmentsundertaken by states in the bid to advanceenforcement of their provisions. Included aspart of these commitments were the goals offulfilling legislative and administrative proce-dures to meet implementation requirementsand translate their provisions into national leg-islative instruments.

It is noteworthy to indicate that such environ-ment-based international conventions andinstruments – once acceded to, signed and rat-ified by states and published as legally-estab-lished conditions in conformity with the con-stitutions of most Arab countries – attain theforce of national law. An example of this isArticle 151 of the Constitution of the ArabRepublic of Egypt, citing that treaties conclud-ed by the President of the Republic andreferred to the People’s Assembly, shall, upontheir conclusion, ratification and publication,have the force of law.

III. ARAB ENVIRONMENTAL LAWSAND INSTITUTIONS

Against the backdrop of a heightened worldinterest in the environment, world conferenceson related issues, and international and regionalconventions, treaties and protocols concluded toredress these issues, it was imperative that stateparties have parallel interests in these internation-al instruments on the environment. This parallelinterest could be achieved by undertaking thelegislative and administrative procedures for thetranslation of the provisions of these instrumentsinto national legal systems.

The Arab countries were not detached from thisprocess, and undertook necessary administrativeand legislative procedures and placed environ-mental concerns on their agendas. This wasreflected in the establishment of cabinet portfo-lios for the environment and instituting relevantadministrative authorities and competent coun-cils. These eventually issued a set of legal instru-ments partially addressing environmental issueswithin the framework of public laws passed at anearlier. With this growing interest in the environ-ment issue and the importance of preserving it,developing its resources and honouring interna-tional commitments resulting from accession tointernational environment conventions andagreements, the Arab countries also promulgateda series of laws on environmental protection andresource management.

Thus we have two types of legislation concerningthe environment:

• Legislation involving environmental issues andconcerns, including several laws with provi-sions addressing matters of environmentaldimension without explicitly stating that envi-ronmental protection is the underlying pur-pose for their promulgation.

• Laws enacted specifically for the protection ofthe environment.

Legislation addressing environmental concerns

These laws contain provisions addressing envi-ronment-related matters without the environ-ment being the main purpose for their issuance.


A case in point is the Traffic Law which, in fact,governs issuing licenses for vehicles and othermeans of transport, driving, security and otherconditions related to traffic regulation. However,it includes provisions preventing the operation ofvehicles emitting smoke, spilling fuel or produc-ing noise, as well as provisions regulating the useof horns and sirens. In addition to provisionsgoverning buildings and public shops, types,license procedures, and duly observed architec-tural and sanitary requirements, there are otherprovisions relating to ventilation and height topreserve urban and health environment for resi-dents and surrounding habitats.

In what follows, a number of examples will begiven from three Arab countries.

Egypt

Since the first half of the twentieth century,Egyptian legislators have come to realize theimportance of preserving the environment andmaintaining its resources. Environmentaldimensions were included in penal codes. TheEgyptian Penal Code issued in 1883 stipulatedin Article 23 a punishment of a 3 months to 3years prison sentence for whoever kills or poi-sons animals or livestock or fish in rivers, canals,small streams or swamps. Moreover, Law no58/1937 contains provisions that entail punish-ment for whoever proves careless about cleaningor repairing fire-using chimneys, furnaces andlaboratories. It also stipulated punishing whoev-er is responsible for noise that discomforts peo-ple at night or who places on the roof or walls ofhis residence compound substances, whetherresidues or farm yard manure or others whichprove harmful to sanitation.

A number of laws have also been issued on clean-liness, the latest of which was Law no 38 of 1967regulating garbage collection, hazardous wastetransfer, treatment and disposal. Other lawsinclude Law no 93/1962 on liquid wastedrainage; Law no 45/1949 regulating the use ofmicrophones; Law no 59/1960 regulating ion-ized radiation performances; Law no 52/1981 onpreventive measures against smoking risks; Lawno 57/ 1978 on pond and swamp filling and dig-ging prevention; Law no 116/1983 on the invio-lability of agricultural land and preservation of itsfertility, forbidding soil scraping of cultivable

land or directing it for non-agricultural uses andbanning deliberate erosion of arable land orbuilding thereon.

Bahrain

A number of environmental laws have beenpromulgated in Bahrain, some of which are:

- Law no 3/1975 on Sanitation;- Law no 112/1967 modified by Law no

12/1980 on Regulation of UndergroundWater Uses;

- Law no 13/1977 modified by Decreed Lawno. 15/1993 on Building Regulation ;

- Law no 5/1981 on Fishing Regulation;- Law no 20/1983 on Palm Protection;- Law no 11/1989 on Pesticides ;- Law no 11/1991 on Regulation of Sanitary

Wastewater and Surface Water Drainage;- Law no 2/1995 on Protection of wildlife.

Algeria

Several laws of environmental purport wereenacted, including:

- Order no. 75-4, 76-4 in September 1975relating to laws applicable to security againstfire risks and the establishment of commit-tees on safeguards and civil protection;

- Law no. 82-10 / 1982 on Fishing;- Law no. 83- 16-17 July 1983 on Water;- Law no. 84 -12/1984 on Forestry Order; - Law no. 88- 8-1988 on Veterinary Medicine

Activities and Protection of Animal Health;- Law no 1-19 /12/2001 on Waste Movement,

Control and Disposal;- Law no. 2- 2 – 5/2/2007 on Coast

Protection and Development.

Arab Legislation on Environment Protection

In addition, a number of laws promulgated inthe Arab region concerned specifically with theenvironment. These laws contained provisionsstipulating a full-fledged legal system of envi-ronment protection. Concurrently, differentArab countries were prompt in setting up cabi-net portfolios for environmental affairs, inaddition to their realm of activities includingissues like water, electricity, agriculture and


health. A case in point was the experience ofsome Arab countries assigning the environmen-tal responsibility to ministries of water, electric-ity, agriculture and health. Not only portfolioswere established but also other bodies, councilsand institutional entities concerned with theenvironment either pursuant to independentdecisions or by providing for their establish-ment within the context of environment pro-tection codes.

As part of this legislative interest in environmentaffairs in the Arab world, a broad-based spectrumof laws was enacted, including:

- Law no. 4/1994 on Environment Protectionin Egypt;

- Law no. 26/1995 on EnvironmentProtection in Yemen;

- Law no. 3/1997 on Environment Protectionin Iraq;

- Law no. 24/1999 on EnvironmentProtection and Development in the UnitedArab Emirates;

- Law no. 21/1995 modified by Law no.16/1996 on Environment Protection inKuwait;

- Law no. 21/1996 on EnvironmentProtection in Bahrain;

- Law no. 114/2001 on EnvironmentProtection in Oman;

- Republican Decree no.34 on 28/7/1422 Hijon the Environment System in Saudi Arabia;

- Law no. 30/ 2002 on EnvironmentManagement in Qatar;

- Law no 50/ 2002 on EnvironmentProtection in Syria;

- Law no. 444/2002 on 29/7/2002 onEnvironment Protection in Lebanon;

- Law no. 15/2003 on EnvironmentProtection and Improvement in Libya;

- Law no. 52/2006 on EnvironmentProtection in Jordan;

- Law no. 11-3 relating to EnvironmentProtection and Reclamation issued by RoyalDecree no. 50-3-1 on 15 Rabei Awal 1424Hij corresponding to 12 May 2003 inMorocco;

- Law no. 3/10 on Environment ProtectionWithin the Framework of SustainableDevelopment in Algeria;

- Law no. 7/1999 on Environment Protectionin Palestine;

- Law no. 91/1988 on Establishment of a


National Agency for EnvironmentProtection in Tunisia, modified by two Lawsno. 115/1992 and 14/2001 and further lawspertinent to different components of theenvironment.

In addition to passing legislation on environ-ment protection in general, Arab countries werewell-disposed to enact other environment-drivenlaws relevant to different environment issues,mainly laws on natural reservations. In Egypt,Law no 102/1983 on natural reserves was issued;Qatar passed Law no 19/2004 on natural lifeand its characteristics; in Bahrain Law no 2/1995on wildlife protection was promulgated as well asdecreed Law no. 12/2000 on the Establishmentof the National Agency for Natural LifeProtection; Oman passed Law no 6/2003 onNatural Reservations and Maintenance ofNatural Life; while in Jordan Law no 29/2005on Natural Reservations and NationalRecreational Places was issued. Legislation alsoexists in a number of Arab countries on the pro-tection of water resources and the protection ofcoastal regions.

Though each of the above laws has its ownspecificity, Arab laws mostly share commongrounds. The most relevant of these features areset out below.

IV. MAJOR FEATURES OF ARAB LAWS ON ENVIRONMENT

The following are general features of Arab coun-tries’ national environmental legislation.

(i) Arab environment laws, in their preambles,lay out definitions of environment-related phras-es, terminologies and concepts. They do so bydesignating a chapter to explain what thesephrases, terminologies and concepts imply withthe aim of unifying the meaning of each termaccording to universally-acknowledged connota-tions, and in conjunction with internationalenvironment conventions.

(ii) Arab environment laws, in large part, tend todevote a preliminary chapter to general principlesunderlying legislation relevant to the environ-ment. The primary assertion is the right ofhumans to live in a healthy, clean and balanced

environment. This chapter also provides for theresponsibility of the official state authorities,public and private institutions and individualsfor keeping the environment safe, safeguardingits natural resources, fighting pollution and pro-tecting land and marine life. This chapter alsoincludes a definition of objectives that the rele-vant legislation attempts to achieve and a state-ment of fundamentals whereby competentauthorities are assigned to carry out tasks entrust-ed to them in this respect.

Among these, the following goals can be singledout: protection of the national environmentagainst the negative impact of activities conduct-ed beyond the borders and waters of the nationalregion, and implementation of commitments vis-à-vis global environment protection such as bio-diversity, ozone protection, climate change, com-bating desertification, and others. Furthermore,obligations are placed on state authorities, espe-cially those charged with developing plans of eco-nomic development, to take into account envi-ronment considerations in all stages of economicdevelopment and at all levels of planning. This isto ensure that development planning embracesenvironmental concerns as part of overall plan-ning, be it industrial, agricultural, urban, ortourist. This principle can best be illustrated inArticles 3 and 4 of Law no 26/1995 onEnvironment Protection in Yemen.

(iii) Arab legislation on environment is an inte-grated legislative system ensuring environmentprotection through integrated regulations pro-viding for the establishment of public organiza-tions, councils or institutions for environmentprotection. These are affiliated to cabinets orenvironment ministries, with tasks delegated tothem in a manner securing the development ofenvironmental policies and plans, and setting ofpollutant standards and rates while monitoringand following up compliance. Accordingly, thislegislation attempts to streamline these bodies’interaction with planning and sectoral institu-tions, centrally and regionally, by way of openingregional field offices in governorates (orprovinces) and coordinating with other relevantentities. The formation of such organizations,councils or institutions in Arab countries differs,though they mostly depend on an administrativecomposition of ministries and executive authori-ties concerned to ensure synergy.


(iv) Concerning development-environment link-age, Arab legislation is based on mandatingassessment of the environmental impact of proj-ects that need to be licensed as a precondition fortheir approval. It conditionally underlines thatthis assessment covers all negative implicationslikely to ensue in connection with the projectconcerned and how to get rid of or reduce themto environmentally permissible bounds. Some ofthese laws may also refer to the positive effects ofthe given project, such as evaluating the environ-mental impact of the built-in monitoring systemof the facility, as well as methods and dates ofsample-taking to oversee compliance of existingestablishments with regard to the implementa-tion of projects and in accordance with legallyestablished standards and norms. These laws fur-ther mandate that a copy of this evaluation besent either to the relevant Agency or Council.

Arab legislation on the environment obligatesfacilities subject to such an environmentalimpact assessment procedure to register theiremissions and whether or not they comply withpermissible standards and rates, and to reportany deviations or breaches in this respect. Itallows environment protection agencies toinspect these facilities to ensure conformity withdata recorded in the register and take legal actionagainst violating facilities.

(v) Most of the Arab laws on environmentinclude provisions ensuring protection of watersources – be they wells, rivers, or surface water –against pollution and regulating the usage ofthese waters in a manner that guarantees theirpreservation and protection against contamina-tion or depletion. These laws are also concernedwith protecting soil from desertification or pollu-tion, bearing in mind the protection of planta-tions, forests, trees and pastures and guardingagainst arable land erosion or turning it intowaste land.

Arab legislation, in its entirety, focuses on pro-tecting natural life and bio-diversity as well as liv-ing organisms threatened with extinction,migrant birds within the framework of obliga-tions of international environment-related con-ventions on bio-diversity and to Cartage Protocolon biosafety. The Libyan Environment Lawoffers a useful example by virtue of its regulationsin relation to the latter.

(vi) Environment-based laws, in separate chap-ters, tackle air pollution, thereby obligating facil-ities to ensure that established air pollution stan-dards and rates are not exceeded and that closedpublic places are well ventilated and protectedagainst noise, smoking, unpleasant odours andexhausts. These laws regulate pesticide sprayingand circulation and the use of hazardous chemicalsubstances, as well as the circulation of hazardouswaste and the transfer and disposal of solid waste.

It should be noted that in this field most, if notall, of the Arab laws are perceptive to pollutionscales on the basis of concentrations rather thanenvironmental pollutant loads, notwithstandingthe significance of these specific loads in curbingand reducing pollution being associated with thequantity, volume and weight of pollutants.

(vii) Relevant Arab laws also focus on the protec-tion of marine environments against pollutioncaused by maritime sources such as vessels, oilplatforms, and other maritime facilities as well asland-based sources erected along or nearby coastswhich discharge their effluents into the marineenvironment. Protection in this area has beenextended to cover regional waters and specialexclusive economic zones. These laws further


PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN EGYPTIANENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONEgyptian environmental legislation no 4/1994 adopted theprinciple of popular participation in designing environmentalplans and policies and decision-making with regard to envi-ronment issues by providing a three-member representation inthe Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency’s (EEAA) Board ofDirectors of non-governmental organizations interested in theenvironment, in addition to three other members representingthe business sector and two representing the scientific centresand institutes concerned with environment affairs and twoenvironment experts who not necessarily civil servants. Thiscomposition of the board ensures that half the board mem-bers are non-state employees, guaranteeing the concept ofpublic participation in the management of environment affairsand decision-making. Individuals and civil societies mayreport crimes committed in breach of environmental laws andalso have the right of recourse to administrative and judicialauthorities to have these provisions complied with. This is intandem with the stipulation set out in the Egyptian Constitutionstating that environment preservation and protection is ashared responsibility of state authorities and individuals.

specify timely pollution-eliminating procedures,name authorities concerned with maritime envi-ronment protection and regulate the integratedmanagement of coastal regions in response torequirements cited in international environmentconventions on seas protection.

(viii) Arab legislation on environment on thewhole tends to disregard the use of economictools as an expedient to ensure environmentalcompliance, with only a few laws making refer-ence to the utilization of financial incentives. It isworth mentioning that Tunisian laws on theenvironment are responsible for making Tunisiathe first Arab country to accord the environmen-tal label on its products to indicate highest-levelquality in terms of environment preservation,bringing to light well-perceived efforts towardsthe employment of clean technology whichinvolve, when necessary, optimal sustainabilityprospects. It should also be noted in this respectthat the environment public order in SaudiArabia mandated compliance with environmentprotection systems and measurements as a pre-requisite for project-loaning.

V. COMPLIANCE WITH AND ABIDANCE BY ARAB ENVIRONMENT LAWS

Factors affecting environmental compliance varysubstantially from one country to another, andeven from one part of a country to another.These differences are the result of economic con-ditions of target facilities in terms of environ-mental control or the prevailing individualbehavioural traditions in the society and how farthe importance of environment protection andpollution reduction is assimilated.

In a study taking stock of the adequacy of legisla-tion on the environment and the promotion of itsimplementation mechanisms in the ESCWAregion in 1999, it was shown that the industrialsector in Egypt, Syria and Jordan had experiencedradical transformations coupled with relativeimprovement of the environmental conditions ofindustrial facilities. Despite the fact that majorindustrial zones had undergone positive develop-ments in this concern, the majority of these zonesstill sustain degrading environmental conditionsbecause of insufficient handling of hazardous

waste treatment, deficient attempts of curbingpolluting gas emissions and due to dischargingindustrial effluents into public networks and cen-tral treatment stations sourced by some facilitiesthat are not subject to control or which fail tocomply, given their dire economic conditions.

However, the study underlined that industrialmanagement in these countries is positivelydirected towards environmental compliance,including adoption of the environmental aspectsof industrial management, with the view of mod-ernizing means of production as a precautionarymeasure, and to scale down pollution at sourceinstead of focusing exclusively on end-of-tubeapproach. Some of these industries are well-dis-posed to voluntary compliance and to the estab-lishment of pollution-reducing or production-promoting units to curtail the loss.

VI. IMPEDIMENTS TO THE ENFORCEMENT OFENVIRONMENT LEGISLATION

A World Bank study in 1996, conducted in col-laboration with environment agencies in sixmajor developing countries, namely Brazil,China, India, Indonesia, Mexico and thePhilippines, revealed that environment-basedpolicies in these countries had been centred onlegislation as a means of environment protection.The study also revealed that experience in thesecountries showed the laws on environment asbeing ineffective and that manifold problemswere barring the operation of environment agen-cies and offices concerned in these countries.According to the study, these problems could besummed up as follows:

• The difficulty of sorting out and recordingdata and information on emissions producedby plants;

• Bureaucracy involved in contacting any of theissuing authorities with regard to recordinginformation about air or water quality main-tained at environment field offices;

• Lack of efficiency and know-how at the level ofenvironment offices and agencies with regardto information on optional program benefits,employment of results to envisage priorities ofdistributing rare substances and fewer well-trained inspectors in this field;


• Lack of political support for serious implemen-tation of environment programs, which areoften politically objected to and turned downand even resisted and abandoned. Under thesecircumstances, it is difficult to control pollu-tion and accordingly to raise funds to coverpollution-fighting costs and burdens.

The situation in Arab countries today is notmuch different from that in the six countries sub-ject of the World Bank study in 1996. Otherproblems are also faced in the process of imple-menting environmental legislation in most Arabcountries, of which the following particularlydeserve to be highlighted:

• Environmental standards provided for in rele-vant laws have been set in conformity witheffective standards in developed industrializedcountries. Accordingly, they are inconsistentwith the environmental conditions as well asthe technical and economic potential in Arabcountries. This tends to render it difficult,from the economic perspective, to abide bythese standards or make them functional.

• In their definitions of liquid waste and gasemission standards, laws in most Arab coun-tries developed more interest in pollutant con-centrations rather than in pollution loads anddischarge quantities. This overburdens theenvironment system and adversely affects itspollution-absorbing capacity.

• In many cases, these laws set uniform standardsthat apply to both production and serviceactivities, regardless of pollution-combatingcosts and techniques. Existing businesses arenot different from their equivalents in newestablishments in the sense that the latter mayhave their own standards or need to be subject-ed to stricter standards.

• Absence of qualified cadres and expertise tohelp enforce environment-related legislationand take on responsibilities entrusted pursuantto relevant laws to environment protectionagencies and their affiliates in different gover-norates. These laws generally stipulate that suchagencies be supported by environment special-ists, experts, administrative personnel, andtechnical equipment to meet the pressing needof putting these laws into action. There is

always the need for holding training courses forthese cadres to upgrade their abilities and skillsand provide advanced experience in technicaland administrative domains. Related to thisissue is the absence of laws governing the envi-ronmental business in most Arab countries inthe same way as other technical professionssuch as the fields of medicine, engineering andlaw. This actually allowed non-specialists to runenvironmental affairs, for example by conduct-ing environmental impact assessment, as well asenvironmental reviews and plans of projectswhich require special skills. Egypt sought toregulate this aspect in amendments made toLaw no 4/1994 on Environment Protection.

• The multiplicity of authorities in charge of exe-cuting laws and lack of coordination con-tribute to hindering compliance. Thisdemands working out some kind of a synergyamong ministries, existing associations andinstitutions concerned while assigning compe-tence in a manner that narrows issues of over-lapping and conflict.

• Dwindling environment-driven awareness at thelevel of managers of industrial or service facilitiesand projects and those assigned to effect envi-ronment laws and their inadequate backgroundknowledge of the provisions of these laws andthe powers vested in them. The staff working inthese facilities are often not well-informed interms of the environment and exposure to healthrisks resulting from failure to comply with estab-lished environmental standards.

• Most Arab laws on environment do notencourage making operational clean technolo-gies and techniques and pursuing the utiliza-tion of economic tools and incentives as effec-tive means of achieving compliance with andabidance by environmental legislation.

• Apprehension regarding the social ramifica-tions of implementing punitive provisions stat-ed in environment laws, and concern over theinterests of staff in major industrial facilitiesoften prevent the imposition of penalties stipu-lated in environmental laws on these facilities.This applies especially with regard to shuttingdown the facility or suspending its pollutingactivity, for fear that its staff will be threatenedwith unemployment or their wages not paid.



A BRIEF ON THE TYPICAL LEGISLATIVE MANUAL

The Secretariat of the Council of Arab MinistersResponsible for the Environment (CAMRE), the UnitedNations Environment Programmme, Regional Officefor West Asia (UNEP-ROWA) and the IslamicEducation, Sciences and Culture Organization(ISESCO), jointly carried out a study on environmentlaws and codes in 17 Arab states to find out to whatextent they are commensurate with multi-lateral inter-national environment conventions and modern envi-ronment concepts. This study included a model leg-islative manual elaborated as an Arab environmentroadmap, to be used as guidance for Arab countriesin enacting environmental laws in accordance withtheir unique environmental systems, priorities andresources as well as their economic, financial andadministrative capabilities and political and legislativecircumstances. A preliminary part contains a numberof chapters, with the first chapter designated to anupdated environment-based classification with a viewto unifying connotations and meanings of terminolo-gy, phrases and concepts according to those univer-sally-acknowledged in multilateral international con-ventions on environment. This is to enable officialsapplying these laws to more easily abide by their pro-visions and those in charge of enforcing them toensure compliance.

The second chapter of the preliminary part deals withgeneral principles of legislation in the area of environ-ment, notably asserting the human right to live in aclean and balanced healthy environment, and allow-ing for human dignity as well as health, physical,mental and intellectual growth. In addition, this is tobe achieved in concert with the responsibility of offi-cial authorities, public and private institutions andindividuals with regard to preserving the environment,safeguarding its natural resources, combating pollu-tion and protecting land and marine life.

This chapter also makes reference to the goals of thelegislation including setting the foundations on whichcompetent authorities are to deliver relevant services.

The third chapter is devoted to the alignment of envi-ronment management according to the form of theState and its political, administrative and legislativesystem. This highlights the need for an environmentaffairs portfolio or the assignment of related responsi-

bilities to the ministry of health or population or agri-culture or housing, as appropriate. It also provides forthe establishment of an agency, council or organiza-tion for environment protection and relevant compe-tency and constitutive regulations. Legislation on envi-ronment also regulates the scope of political partner-ship in environment management, environmental pol-icy designing and decision-making through theengagement of civil society representatives in theboard of directors of these agencies, councils ororganizations. This chapter further provides outlinesof environmental management of projects, facilitiesand institutions where relevant legislation mandatesthis kind of in-house environment management offacilities and institutions subject of environmentalimpact assessment. Part of the tasks authorized tothese departments rests with overseeing the environ-mental self-control of given facilities or institutions,fulfilling environment compliance as per establishedstandards, rates and specific loads, and dealing withenvironment inspection organs and recording envi-ronment register data of the said facility or institution.

The manual contains chapters addressing the follow-ing disciplines:• Regulated business management in environment

fields;• Use of economic tools in drawing up environment

policies and their implementation plans;• Environment control;• Environment assessment of facilities and projects;• Protection of terrestrial ecosystem and natural life;• Maintenance of bio-diversity and biosafety• Natural reservations or protected areas;• Protection of air environment against pollution;• Protection of aquatic environment against pollution;• Administrative and judicial procedures;• Penalties;• Role of civil society in environment institutions and

law-making:- Role of civil societies in protecting the environ-

ment, its institutions and laws;- Role of universities and research centres in envi-

ronment institutions and law-making;- Role of industry and businessmen in environment

protection;- Role of municipal and local councils in environ-

ment protection.


• No specialized police ensuring environmentalprotection is available in most Arab countriesto cooperate with environment protectionagencies for the enforcement of environmentlaws and detection of violations in this regard.

• Media shortcomings on environment withregard to reaching out to public related issues,laws and citizens’ rights, and raising awarenessvis-à-vis health hazards resulting from andrisks involved in environmental pollution dueto non-compliance with adequate environ-mental requirements and provisions of envi-ronmental laws.

• Deficiency of capacities of most Arab non-gov-ernmental organizations operating in the fieldof environment protection.

VII. HOW FAR ENVIRONMENTALLAWS IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES ARE CONSISTENT

Looking into the major features of Arab environ-mental laws reveals common characteristics inmost parts, with only few differences in assessingpriorities with regard to environment conditionsand resources. These laws also vary with regard tolegislative redresses. While some countries haveexclusively issued all-embracing legislation forenvironment protection, others enacted several

environment laws aimed to protect individualenvironment elements such as natural reserves,marine environment, hazardous waste and sub-stances, forests, water, etc.

Laws also vary in terms of their compatibility withinternational environmental conventions, regard-ing both accession and ratification as well asresponse to their implementation requirements.

Within the context of a study conducted by theLeague of Arab States (Environment, Housingand Sustainable Development Department) incollaboration with the UN EnvironmentProgram, a typical legislative manual has beenprepared. This has been designed as an Arabroadmap for environment protection for Arabcountries to apply in charting a new pattern ofenvironmental legislation or amending existinglaws according to the indicators cited in thismanual. This manual was adopted by represen-tatives of Arab states as well as the Arab League’sJoint Committee on Environment andDevelopment. It was also adopted at theMeeting of the Council of Arab MinistersResponsible for the Environment (CAMRE) inNovember 2007, and will be distributed to allArab states, with training courses organized forits initiation. It can thus be safely predicted that,guided by this manual, an accord unifying envi-ronment laws in the Arab world is more thanlikely to materialize.

All of the following references are in Arabic.

El Gundy, Mohammad Abdulaziz. Arab ModelLegislation Guidelines for Environment Protection –League of Arab States, not published yet.

El Gundy, Mohammad Abdulaziz, El Beshri alShourbagi, and Sahar Hafez. Study on ArabEnvironment Legislation and its Concurrence withInternational Environment Conventions and ModernEnvironmental Concepts. Analytic Study. League of Arab States, not published yet.

El Gundy, Mohammad Abdulaziz. “LegislativeEnvironment Protection Framework.” Legislation-Based Confrontation of Environment Crimes, 2001.

El Gundy, Mohammad Abdulaziz. “Main Features ofArab Environmental Legislation and its EnforcementImpediments,” Al Bi’a Wal Tanmiya (Environment andDevelopment), Issue no 76, July 2004.

Hafez, Sahar. Encyclopedia of Environment andDevelopment Legislation on the Red Sea - Part 1- Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency(E.E.A.A.), 1998.

REFERENCES


The Environment in Arab Media

187

NAJIB SAAB

CHAPTER 14

I. INTRODUCTION

It is difficult to talk about a special identity ofArab environmental media in the same way asone may talk, for example, about an identity rel-evant to Arab political, cultural, economic, orsports media. An information identity requiressome fundamental conditions to be consideredautonomous and genuine. One such condition isthe existence of professional patterns concerningvarieties of news collection, presentation andanalysis based on a particular theoretical frame-work pertaining to environmental issues.Another condition is the existence of a nucleus ofmedia professionals who are well-trained anddedicated to the environment, and capable ofinfluencing public orientations. A further condi-tion has to do with continuity as contrasted tosparse news and irregular comments. Indeed, allthese conditions are absent in the case of mostArab media when they deal with environmentaltopics. The problem of Arab environmentalinformation may be related to a larger problemconcerning Arab science journalism, which is stillmarginal in Arab media.

In 1987, the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) presented a plan for Arabenvironmental information to the Arab LeagueEducational, Cultural, and ScientificOrganization (ALECSO) and the Council ofArab Ministers Responsible for the Environment(CAMRE).1 If we were today, two decades later,to formulate a new plan, we would come out withthe same recommendations. Much has changedduring the last 20 years, with the entire face of theworld becoming different, a new outlook towardsenvironment and development having emerged,and environmental issues forcing their way ontogovernmental agendas. While the environmentwas barely alluded to in the Arab media and wehad to coin terms for writing about subjects notyet raised, we find today that some Arab newspa-pers have dedicated sections for the environmentand have exhibited concern in treating the prob-lems of environment and sustainable develop-ment. Moreover, the environment has found itsway to Arab radio and television stations, whetherin news bulletins, reports, and debates, usuallyexhibiting reactions to international events.However, the Arab media treatment of environ-mental issues lacks follow-ups, and is character-ized by immediate descriptive content rather than

analysis and even accurate information. Such aquality of information does not help much inpropagating environmental awareness.

Although the occurrence of the term “environ-ment” and its derivatives has increased thousandsof times in Arab media during the last decade,the tackling of environmental issues has, in mostcases, been limited to mere news and instanta-neous reactions to world events, mainly catastro-phes. Major international conferences on envi-ronment and development, since the EarthSummit in 1992 with the participation of Arabcountries in it and their signing of almost all theensuing treaties of international character, havecontributed towards motivating the Arab mediato discuss environmental issues at length.However, this interest has been mostly exhibitedin quoting bits and pieces of news exactly astransmitted by foreign news agencies. It isobserved that most Arab media are satisfied inconveying addresses, often too general in charac-ter, of government officials during the opening ofconferences and meetings on the environment,while they neglect what is offered by experts,which, alas, is at the heart of the matter.2

A study concerning media coverage of environ-mental issues in Bahrain found that, despite theappearance in the six dailies of the country dur-ing 2004 of over 2000 articles on local environ-ment issues, most of them constituted mere newsand interviews, while only 4 percent belonged toreports, news analyses, and comments.3

What this study of Bahrain has concluded appliesto all the Arab countries covered by a survey ofthe leading Arab environmental monthly Al Bi’aWal Tanmiya (Environment and Development),which has come out with the following remarks:4

1. Less than 10 percent of the Arab press has afull-time editor specialized in issues concern-ing environment and sustainable develop-ment. A similar percentage of this press des-ignates a weekly page or a regular corner forenvironmental issues.

2. Even publications which assign a page forenvironmental topics withdraw this underthe pressure of political or economic eventsor increasing advertising bookings. Such awithdrawal might be permanent or limited

THE ENVIRONMENT IN ARAB MEDIACHAPTER 14188

to months or even years, a measure never tobe seen in political, economic, athletic, orsocial pages of the same publication.

3. Many environment pages in the Arab pressreceive financial support from governmentorganizations, like ministries of environ-ment, a practice depriving this press of itsneutrality and rendering it practically inca-pable of criticizing these organizations. Theenvironment page of Al-Ahram, the leadingEgyptian daily, dedicated in its issue of 1June 2008 four reports featuring theMinister of Environment, out of five.

4. With the exception of Al Bi’a Wal Tanmiya,published in Beirut since 1996, no otherpan-Arab magazine which is specialized inthe subject of the environment could achievethe status of a mainstream publication, dis-tributed on a large scale throughout the Arabworld, and which can be bought from news-stands that sell common interest publica-tions.

5. Reliable sources of information on the envi-ronment are still weak or non-existent on thelocal level. This explains why some articleson the environment in the Arab press lackthe strength of information, which is thebasis of modern journalism.

6. The percentage of environmental issues inreports, interviews, and debates on Arab tel-evision channels is under 1 percent, while

they reach 10 percent on channels in manyEuropean countries.

7. A boom has been witnessed during the lastfive years in the number of Arab environ-mental websites, although it is still incompa-rable with what exists in developed countriesand even in most third world countries. Thecontent of these sites is still trivial; and theinformation that they offer is mostly old,non-documented, and inappropriate for ref-erential use even when these sites are run bygovernments. We have noticed that the con-tent of most Arab websites on the environ-ment is published as raw material, lackingscrutiny and editing. While some of thesesites are serious and open to improvement,the major deficiency of all the Arab environ-mental sites is their lack of interaction withthe public and the paucity of users reflectedin the scantiness of comments, and failure toattract ‘chatters’.

8. Environmental titles that have gained primalconcern in Arab media are related to generaltopics like nature, wildlife, solid wastes, envi-ronmental health, marine pollution, and dis-asters. Industrial pollution and desertifica-tion have acquired priority in Algerianmedia, whereas the subject of water has beenbrought to the fore in Oman and Jordan.What is highly remarkable is the quasi-absence of topics like air pollution (except incatastrophic cases), efficient use of energyand land, and town-planning.


9. The simultaneity between the fourth report ofthe Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) and the occurrence of naturalcalamities and extreme weather conditions inseveral Arab regions raised the preoccupationof Arab media in 2007 with the issue of cli-mate change. This concern was augmentedafter hurricane Gonu hit Oman by the middleof that year, followed by floods in Mauritania,and the hurricane in Yemen in 2008.

Blame cannot be put only on the media for fail-ing to produce the sort of information which caneffectively tackle the problems of environmentand sustainable development. Three interrelatedelements are at play here: (1) official developmentplans and environmental programmes; (2) a baseof environmental scientific studies; and (3) a largepublic comprising millions of citizens who needto know about the environment and get involvedin environmental and developmental action.5

Environmental information ties these elementstogether. Besides supplying news on them, it par-ticipates in supporting sound environmentalmeasures. Furthermore, far from being anautonomous variety of information open to ama-teurship, environmental information is a profes-sional brand sharing the precise characteristics ofinformation in general.

Modern information takes its starting point fromthe public that it addresses. It depends for conti-nuity on its success in drawing the attention ofthis public and obtaining its support. Failing toachieve this is equivalent to putting oneself atonce outside the market. Arab information onthe environment is still a newcomer to the scene.Undoubtedly, it has recognized the significanceof the environmental element for development;and its interest in environmental issues has beenclearly and increasingly reflected in the media.What is still lacking, however, is to transform theheadlines into serious articles and convert theenvironmental press towards professionalism.

II. ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA IN ARAB COUNTRIES

In this section we are going to survey the state ofenvironmental information in the Arab printedmedia, with a special reference to programmes

dedicated to the environment at the nationallevel on radio and television stations. We intendto describe the situation objectively in 15 Arabcountries where we were able to observe how themedia approach environmental issues in dailynewspapers with widespread distribution, in peri-odicals with lesser readership, as well as in theaudio-visual media.

In the United Arab Emirates, the environment isan almost daily preoccupation in the media,although most of the treated subjects are relatedto occasions and activities held by various envi-ronmental groups. Undoubtedly, the concernabout environment and nature in the UAE mediabears the indelible mark of the late head of state,Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nayhan, whoadmired nature and possessed a sophisticatedoutlook on the relation between environmentand development. Thanks to his personal inter-est, the environment occupied, in many cases,the cover pages of the country’s media. The lead-ing dailies of the Emirates publish environmentalnews in their local sections. Among them,Alkhalij is the only one that dedicates a weeklypage for the environment. Despite the daily pres-ence of environmental topics in the UAE media,the material is generally presented in the form ofnews and announcements concerning activitiesand plans, remaining poor in analytic commen-taries, especially about the environmental impactthat some huge construction projects generate.There are six magazines and periodicals withenvironmental titles, issued by various bodies,mostly newsletters with limited circulation.6

In the Saudi media, there are two remarkable sec-tions on the environment run in two dailies, oneof them appearing weekly in Aliqtisadiyya, and theother appearing daily in Okaz. In addition, thereare two quarterly reviews dealing with issues con-cerning environment and nature and published bygovernment organizations. Radio and televisionchannels lack special environmental programmes,except for the ordinary coverage of world environ-mental news, besides official Saudi activities andpress releases, taken generally from the SaudiNews Agency. The scope of coverage becomeswider during conferences and meetings on issuesconcerning environment and development.7

In Kuwait, the environment has occupied aprominent place in the media since the mid-


nineties, with the emerging interest in the persist-ent environmental effects brought about by theIraqi military invasion and the ensuing war. First,the media concentrated on air pollution as aresult of well fires, and marine contamination byoil leakages. The problem of radiation pollutionwith depleted uranium had been unnoticed bythe Kuwaiti media even after the year 2000,when talk about radiation dangers in the Balkans,especially in the vicinity of destroyed armouredmachinery, became widespread. Almost all thenews of environmental character in the country’smedia revolves around wastes and marine,coastal, and industrial pollution. Alqabas dailynewspaper publishes a weekly supplement enti-tled “Our Environment Is Our Life,” whereas thedaily Alanba’ runs an intermittent environmentalpage. With the exception of these two publica-tions, the environment is virtually absent in theprinted media. The audio-visual media, on theother hand, have no regular programmes on theenvironment. However, Kuwait News Agency(KUNA) runs a section under the title “Healthand Environment,” with regularly updated news.Almost six magazines and publications with envi-ronmental titles are issued by official organiza-tions and other Kuwaiti institutions, but with alimited circulation. The monthly series “Worldof Knowledge,” run by the government, publish-es, inter alia, some important books on the envi-ronment, especially translations of UN reportson environment and development.8

In Bahrain, only one of the six daily newspapersdevotes a weekly section to the environment.However, the papers of Bahrain constantly pub-lish environmental articles and news, borrowedmainly from the regional office of UNEP in thecapital Manama. A Master’s thesis, presented bythe researcher Maha Mahmud Sabbagh to theEnvironment Management Programme at theArab Gulf University in 2005 under the title“Priorities of Local Environmental Issues inBahraini media,” is probably the first document-ed study to deal, in detail and with scientificanalysis, with environmental trends in the Arabprinted media. In 2004, the six dailies of Bahrainpublished 2014 articles related to the local envi-ronment.9 The emphasis, however, remains moreon news – especially receptions, official visits andcelebrations – than on in-depth reports, com-ments, editorials, and analytical essays. RadioBahrain broadcasts two weekly episodes on the

environment under the titles “Environment andSociety” and “Native Life in Bahrain.”

Coming to Oman, we find that the environmentoccupies a prominent place in the media. Thisreflects a truthful concern on the part of the gov-ernment and the citizens. While one of the sixdaily newspapers in the country allocates a week-ly page for the environment, environmentalissues, both local and international, are stronglypresent in the contents of the remaining dailiesand periodicals. Oman, the first official newspa-per to appear in the sultanate, publishes, with thecollaboration of the Ministry of RegionalMunicipalities, Environment, and WaterResources, a weekly page on environmentalissues. The Omani television presents a weeklyprogramme entitled “Together for Protecting theEnvironment,” jointly with the same ministry.Oman radio broadcasts a weekly programmecalled “Environment and Life.”10

In Qatar, with the exception of the weekly pro-gramme “You and the Environment” on thenational radio station, the media are almostdevoid of pages or sections dealing with environ-mental topics. This radio programme is preparedby the Higher Council for the Environment andNatural Reserves. It revolves around the newsand activities of the Council, besides interviews,reports on key environmental issues, and cover-ing of related occasions. In 1996, Alsharq dailystarted a page on the environment which wasshort-lived. But the paper continued to publishenvironmental topics and reports within theframework of exchange that it has with Albi’aWal Tanmia magazine. Between 1999 and 2005,the daily Alraya of Qatar ran a weekly page onthe environment.

In Lebanon, Alnahar is probably the first Arabdaily to have devoted, since 1997, a daily page forthe environment, though it is simultaneouslyconcerned with heritage issues. Historical andarchaeological subjects often outweigh environ-mental subjects on this page. Alnahar would havedone better to merge environment with develop-ment. In any case, this page is suspended duringpolitical upheavals to devote its space to topicswhich are considered more timely and urgent.Almustaqbal newspaper has assigned a weeklypage for the environment since it was first issuedin 1999. Alsafir has a weekly environmental page


characterized by continuity, and following themethod of analysis alongside news. The officialLebanese channel Télé Liban presented – during1997-1999 a weekly programme prepared by Al-Bia wal-Tanmia under the title “TheEnvironment Club,” in the form of a televisedmagazine consisting of various sections. Thischannel has ever since aired the programme timeand again.11 At the beginning of 2008, the newchannel Future News started a weekly environ-mental programme entitled “Blue, Green.” Oneof the outstanding radio programmes specializedin environmental education is “TheEnvironment Is Your Home” presented weekly,since 1997, by Alnour station. Another privateradio station, Voice of Lebanon (VDL), has beenbroadcasting, since 2004, a weekly live pro-gramme receiving citizens’ complaints on the airand seeking immediate answers from specialists,then referring them to officials to find solutions.The programme is prepared by “EnvironmentOnline,” the hotline service of Al-Bia wal-Tanmia. While this magazine addresses a pan-Arab audience, being issued in Beirut where itsmain offices are located has contributed towardsinducing a broad environmental awakening inLebanese schools. The magazine is distributed toall school libraries in Lebanon, and students par-ticipate in the contests that Al-Bia wal-Tanmia

organizes. In many official examinations, texts onthe environment have been chosen from thisreview for tests in civics and Arabic literature forthe high school certificate.

In Syria, interest in environmental informationhas been witnessing a big evolution since 2004,especially in the domains of printed and electron-ic media. A short period of only two years wit-nessed the issuing of three licensed environmen-tal magazines belonging to the private sector, fol-lowed in 2007 by a quarterly of the Ministry ofLocal Administration and Environment. The dis-tribution of these publications is still limited, andthey lack professionalism. Electronic media inSyria has appeared, at its best, in a web site called“Environment News,” a private initiative whichlater disintegrated. The Syrian Althawra is prob-ably the only daily in the Arab world to havepublished, during a certain interval, a series ofenvironmental editorials on its first page, writtenby Najib Saab. All Syrian dailies actually run aweekly or bimonthly environmental page super-vised by a specialized editor. The Syrian newsagency (SANA) is characterized by earmarking aspecial entry about the environment on its website, although its content is not renewed regular-ly. The Syrian television broadcasts a weekly pro-gramme entitled “Environment and Man.”12


In Jordan, information on the environment indaily newspapers appears usually in the varioustraditional sections, with no dedicated page.During the past five years, Aldoustour and AlarabAlyawm have devoted pages for the environmentbefore closing them for one reason or another,among which are the conviction of the publishersthat such topics do not attract enough advertis-ers. The Jordanian television presented, until theend of 2003, a weekly programme on the envi-ronment, after which environmental issues madetheir comeback in diverse reports within localprogrammes and interviews with officials. Theradio station broadcasts a weekly environmentalprogramme with local content. Among the spe-cialized environmental periodicals in Jordan,Alrim quarterly, issued by the Royal Society forthe Protection of Nature, centres on nature andbiological diversity.13

Coming to Iraq, we remark that interest in theenvironment during the past two decades hasbeen more conspicuous in the opposition mediaoutside Iraq than in the local media domestical-ly. The environmental preoccupations of “emi-grant” Iraqi press were not restricted to disasterslike drainage of the lagoons or pollution bychemical weapons, the blame of which it put onthe bygone regime, but surpassed these to raiseissues like contamination by depleted uraniumduring the 1991 war. Iraq has experienced, since2003, a boom in the media, both printed andaudio-visual, exhibited nowadays in more than1,000 newspapers and magazines, besides severalradio and television satellite stations. Alsiyada,Almashreq, and Alsabah dailies all run weekly sec-tions on the environment. Prominent amongtheir concerns are subjects like water and air pol-lution, the degradation of health conditions relat-ed to the environment, wastes, and radiationcontamination. In 2006, the Iraqi Ministry ofEnvironment launched a monthly review calledAlbi’a Wal Hayat (Environment and Life), withworthwhile and varied content. Its main subjectsare, besides the news and activities of the min-istry, international projects and programmes.The review is distributed to civil servantsthroughout the country.14

In Yemen, environmental concern makes its spe-cial appearance in the printed media. The dailyAlthawra published a weekly environmental pagebetween 1994 and 2000, after which it was re-

named “Water and the Environment.” Anotherdaily, 14 October, runs a weekly page on the envi-ronment. Adam and Hawwa magazine has amonthly environmental section. At the officiallevel, the Yemen Environment ProtectionCouncil issues a quarterly under the name Albi’a(Environment). It has a general content, varyingbetween news, statements, reports, interviews,and studies.15

In Egypt, the media coverage of environmentaltopics is linked almost completely to the StateMinistry of Environmental Affairs which pro-vides the media with financial support and infor-mation. This explains why most of the publishedmaterial on the environment revolves around thenews and activities of the ministry and aroundthe conferences that it organizes or takes part in.Partly, this is a positive indicator since it has con-tributed towards circulating environment dia-logue in popular media. However, this is not suf-ficient since genuine information surpasses thecommunicating of mere news, and must includeoffering comments, analyses, and investigations.While all the Egyptian widespread dailies carryenvironmental news and articles, the environ-ment page in Alahram remains the most regular.Pages on the environment appear periodically inAljumhuriyya, Alakhbar, and Almasa’. In theirturn, weekly magazines publish environmentalreports, often descriptive, on diverse subjects.What catches the eye is that the oppositionmedia in Egypt may be the only ones to run ontheir front pages articles of environmental con-tent or interest. Usually, this occurs within theframework of unveiling what the oppositiondubs as “official scandals.” Foremost amongthese media is Alwafd newspaper, published bythe party bearing the same name.

The Egyptian television presents some generalenvironmental programmes based mainly oninterviews. One of them, “A CleanEnvironment,” is transmitted by Channel 2;another, “The Environmental Review,” is trans-mitted by Channel 3. Many Egyptian radio sta-tions broadcast environmental programmes withawareness content. Outstanding among theseaudio-visual programmes is “It Is One World,”which has been presented weekly by Dr.Umayma Kamel on Channel 2, in the period1992-2007. It offered surveys and analyses ofenvironmental issues, both at the local and inter-


national levels, while evading the type of publicrelations information. Foremost among the radioprogrammes, to the extent that it does not stop attransmitting news but treats fundamental envi-ronmental issues, is “For Life on Earth” present-ed by Ms May Al Shafi’i on the General EgyptianBroadcasting Corporation.16

Tunisian media have witnessed a considerablegrowth in the last years, especially as Tunisiabecame the first Arab country to incorporate thename “development” with the ministry of envi-ronment, to become “The Ministry ofEnvironment and Sustainable Development.”The press coverage of environmental subjectsreflects in general the activities and plans of theministry. Materials appear in the form of news,reports, and diversified topics. Alsahafa is theonly daily newspaper to single out a page for theenvironment, periodical but intermittent.Almost all the radio stations devote fixed week-ly programmes for the environment. TheTunisian Channel 7 presents a weekly scientificprogramme entitled “Secrets of Nature,” whileChannel 21 broadcasts once per week a generalenvironmental programme with the name“Always Green,” “green” being the most popu-lar epithet of the country. With the collabora-tion of the ministry, the Tunisian audio-visualmedia regularly broadcast short passages aimingat educating the public on particular environ-mental issues.17

In Algeria, the only daily paper with a weeklypage on the environment is Alsabah, newlyestablished and narrowly spread. Its environ-mental topics, which turn on local and interna-tional themes, are treated in a general way. Thispage concentrates on bits and pieces of informa-tion, aiming at environmental awakening.Alshouruq daily ran, for three years, a weeklyenvironmental page that has been terminateddespite its treatment of important issues startingwith domestic wastes, contaminated water, andassaults on green areas, and ending with uncov-ering some major environmental violations. Atthe audio level, two weekly programmes arebroadcast in Algeria.18

What is remarkable in Morocco is that most ofthe publications which devote weekly sections forthe environment prepared by specialized editorsare published in French. These are two daily

newspapers: L’Opinion and Le Matin du Sahara,and two weekly magazines: Tel Quel and LeJournal. The subjects of these specialized sectionsvary between local, regional, and internationalthemes, related to natural disasters, wastes, andpollution of air, water, and coasts. One distinc-tive feature of the Moroccan television is its‘clip’-type brief programme “A Drop of Water,”presented each evening since 2005. TheMoroccan radio runs a weekly programme called“Environmental Issues.”19

III. ARAB ENVIRONMENT IN REGIONAL MEDIA

Among the Arab media that address a regionalpan-Arab audience, as well as Arab-speaking res-idents in other countries, are three publicationswith outstanding experience in environmentalinformation: (1) Al-Bia wal-Tanmia monthlymagazine, (2) Al Hayat daily newspaper, and (3)Monte Carlo Doualiya Radio.

Al-Bia wal-Tanmia, published in Beirut since1996 with Arab and international content, is dis-tributed in all Arab countries by major distribu-tion companies, and to Arabic-speaking sub-scribers around the world. This is an independ-ent media enterprise, financed by its publisher,advertisers, and readers. It has a network of cor-respondents throughout the Arab world; it isaffiliated to its own research centre which pro-vides it with scientific content; and it is producedby a group of professional journalists. Thanks toits genuine independence far from governmentaland other organizations, it has been able to main-tain a wide scope of freedom and pose key issueswith courage, objectivity, and professionalism.Being the only Arab publication specialized inthe environment and edited, produced, and dis-tributed in accordance with the most rigorousprofessional media standards, it has occupied aleading place among the major political, econom-ic, and social publications. Its motto, “A special-ized title for all readers,” expresses its editorialpolicy based on simplifying environmental topicsin such a way as to address the general reader,without compromising scientific integrity.

Al Hayat daily, published in London and distrib-uted in the Arab countries and worldwide, runs,in collaboration with Al-Bia wal-Tanmia, a


monthly environmental page, besides periodicalreports on the environment. This page is charac-terized by a diversity of content, comprising newsanalyses, reports, interviews, and documentednews. An outstanding campaign launched jointlyby both publications about depleted uraniumstirred up many reactions and led to a series ofpractical measures. This campaign was a majorfactor that induced the Iraqi environment min-istry to attend seriously to the problem by meas-uring the radiation and publishing the results,then calling for corrective action. The campaignhad a big influence on awakening large sectors inthe Arab world, especially in the Gulf countries,to the problem of depleted uranium.

The Arabic section of Radio Monte Carlo,broadcasting in Arabic from Paris to the wholeArab world, presents a weekly environmentalprogramme entitled “The World Our Home,”which is prepared by Hassan Al Talili and pre-sented regularly since 2003. The programme isproduced in the form of an audible magazinewith news, interviews, reports, and comments.One of its distinctive characteristics is that, inmany cases, it broadcasts from the very site of theenvironmental event.

While Arab satellite television channels do notallocate programmes to the environment, someof them present serious environmental topics,albeit sporadically. Aljazeera station is leading inthis dimension. On its screen Mr Ahmad Mansurhas devoted, during the last three years, a fewepisodes of his renowned programme “WithoutLimits” to environmental subjects, most of whichwere prepared in collaboration with Al-Bia wal-Tanmia. Mansur was among the first to raise thequestion of depleted uranium on an Arab screen.Towards the end of 2006, Aljazeera launched anenvironmental programme, live and brief, pre-sented by Ms Rawan Al Damen.

Alarabiya television has presented varied reportson the environment, the most outstanding ofwhich were those prepared by Ms MaysunAzzam on depleted uranium. These reportsstand among the most comprehensive and accu-rate about the subject.20

In November 2006, a satellite channel, Beeaty(My Environment), commenced experimentalbroadcasting from Cairo under the supervision of

its sponsor, the Environment Authority in SaudiArabia. During its brief life, this channel lackedprogramming, while most of its sections consist-ed of pictorial scenes of nature and wildlife, usu-ally of amateurish character and transmitted withno comment or voice-over. Unsurprisingly, thechannel was off the air before it could celebrateits first birthday.

IV. ARAB ENVIRONMENTON THE INTERNET

Some Arab countries exert big efforts to join theera of information technology. Yet the modes ofinternet exploitation in the Arab world are moredriven by consumer habits rather than the desireto generate, accumulate, and propagate knowl-edge. Reports on the state of Arab human devel-opment prepared by UNDP reveal a lot ofalarming and disquieting truths. Besides point-ing to the fact that the rate of internet users inthe Arab countries is still among the lowest inthe world, UN reports indicate that Arab poli-cies which attempt to fill the information gapconcentrate on the infrastructure at the expenseof the content. Most of the content available onthe internet is written in English, proficiency inwhich is restricted to a minority of the popula-tion, while the Arabic content is so scanty that itfalls short of satisfying the needs of the majorityfor useful information.

A survey carried out by the Study Centre ofQuantitative Economics (Madar) has shown thenumber of internet users in the Arab world at theend of 2005 to be about 26 million, comprising8.5 percent of the Arab population compared to14 percent worldwide. The survey also showedthat while the rate of internet users in the Gulfcountries, especially UAE, witnessed an increase,it is still lower than 6 percent in 12 Arab states.21

Undoubtedly, these rates reflect a big stride com-pared to less than one percent, the rate recordedby the Human Development report for 2002.

The fact remains that the size of useful environ-mental information is meagre. Most websitesbelonging to Arab official, private, and civil soci-ety bodies are in English. For the most part, theirpromotional and advertising content outweighstheir scientific information content. It may besafely said that most Arab websites concerned


with the environment are promotional sites aim-ing at attracting foreign granting institutions.Even at this level, they are weak as public relationssites, besides their deficiency in information.22

In general, it is possible to get some informationon the Arab environment from the internet. Butthis requires a big effort, with the necessity to befamiliar with the international websites contain-ing the required information, taking into con-sideration that most of these sites are in English.The persisting problem is the scarcity of noveland credible statistical reports, which are eitheroriginally non-existent, or there is no organiza-tion which assumes the responsibility, beforepresenting them on the internet, of compilingthem in a way relevant to evaluate and compare.Arabic websites have to move away from a men-tality of laudation and promotion towards amentality of amassing reliable information, crit-ical analysis, and founding platforms for interac-tion and dialogue.

V. CONCLUSION

Arab environmental information seems to be anexpression of Arab environmental action as itstands in need to define its concepts, frame-works, and goals. As an integral part of a gener-al environmental policy rather than a means toproclaim a ready-made policy, environmentalinformation aims at developing environmentalawareness inside the various social sectors, thusenabling them to participate effectively in devel-oping, supervising, and revising environmentalpolicies and preparing the public to engage pos-itively in supporting the achievement of suchpolicies and measures. Among the major preoc-cupations of environmental information is toeffect a behavioural change in people’s attitudestowards the environment, and to act upon thenatural resources as if they were objects whichhave value and price tags rather than as gratu-itous gifts.

While information is a main instrument forachieving environmental policy, it cannot beeffective if it is not viewed as complementarywith other measures like laws, rules, and finan-cial measures, be they incentives or deterrents.Being conscious of a certain problem does notalways dispose the knower to participate in solv-

ing it, taking into consideration all the restraintsthat such a solution might entail. Information isliable to facilitate the endeavour to convincepeople through laws and regulations. In theirturn, laws may incite people to accept the call-ing of the environment. Financial incentives anddeterrents contribute towards a better accept-ance and observance of the laws. Environmentalinformation aims primarily at motivating thepublic to engage effectively in attending to theenvironment by means of encouraging them toembark upon personal action and to involvethemselves in dialogue and convey their opin-ions forcibly to officials in such a way that infor-mation becomes an element in decision making.This requires opening channels of dialoguethrough which the opinions of citizens candirectly influence the officials, while the officialspass to the citizens clarifications about the stepstaken by government and official bodies for theprotection of the environment.

Environmental information urges the public toengage in the process of planning and decisionmaking. The participation of the public in envi-ronmental dialogue leads to the propagation ofpublic awareness for safeguarding naturalresources. It also provides the officials with a cleardescription of public concerns.

National policies concerning environmentalinformation approach the subject from the fol-lowing perspectives:

1. Information is a means to pass to the pub-lic credible facts about the environment,and a channel through which the public cantransmit their opinions to the officials andhave a dialogue with them. Informationhere is an open means for dialogue andpartnership in decision.

2. Information is a means to communicate tothe public official policies and explain envi-ronmental plans and measures as an expres-sion of granting the citizens their naturalright to a free access to information and tosecure the transparency of official action.

3. Information is a means to produce a changein people’s behaviour and establish affinitywith the environment, either within theframework of personal, voluntary conduct or


within the framework of securing support forofficial environmental policies and laws.

4. Information is a means for public relations,as official environmental policies cannot suc-ceed in the absence of a system of relationsbetween the persons in charge of these poli-cies on the one hand (usually ministries ofenvironment) and the civil society, industri-alists, merchants, professionals, educators,consumers, and the rest of official and publicbodies on the other.23

Almost all Arab media stand in need of special-ized editors, except for the traditional sections likelocal news, world news, culture, economics,sports, and reports. In most cases, the same editoris asked to work for more than one section.

Reports on local environmental issues usuallyconcentrate on subjects which attract the sight,like wastes in the streets, or on disasters like oilleakages or oil-well fires, while they overlookother issues of magnitude, like the impact ofindustry on the environment, the depletion ofnatural resources, the pollution of water, thedestruction of coastal lines, and the uncontrolledurban expansion. The Arab media often attend tosuch momentous environmental issues only whenthey receive ready-made materials on them frominternational organizations or news agencies.

While a journalist is not expected to be a scientistwith expertise on the environment, it is indispen-sable that he should be sufficiently acquainted withhis subject in such a way that he is able to locatethe credible sources of information; then, havingcollected the basic information, to present andanalyse it. This shows the importance of coopera-tion between the media on the one hand and envi-ronmental experts and organizations at the Arab,regional, and international levels on the other.Another matter of priority is to establish channelsof communication between environmental writersand news providers, whether they are individualexperts, official bodies, or organizations. One mainobstacle remains scarcity of data, and restrictionson access to what might be available.

While governments, besides regional and inter-national organizations, have a major role toassume in supporting Arab environmental media,the biggest responsibility falls upon the media,whether they are individual journalists or institu-tions. But the persisting question is whether envi-ronmental information is to be practised as anend in itself or as part of an environmental pre-occupation encompassing all sectors of society-scientific, economic, political, and NGOs. Arethe media to forge an environmental state ofaffairs, or to deal with one which is already inexistence? Media can indeed be part of environ-mental change, through spreading awareness andinstigating action, but only as an integral part ofa wider environmental drive mobilizing varioussectors of the society.

Ultimately, quality environmental informationrequires professional approach to both environ-ment and media. Unfortunately, environment inArab media is overwhelmingly controlled bymedia and environment amateurs.


All the literature referred to in the following notes,whether in book form, articles, or reports, is in Arabic.

1 “Arab Information and the Environment,” a paperpresented by Najib Saab in 1987 to a conferenceheld in Tunisia and organized by the Arab Leagueeducation, Culture, and Science Organization(ALECSO) under the auspices of UNEP. See thefull version in Najib Saab, Environmental Issues,Beirut: Technical Publications, 1997.

2 Najib Saab, “The Public and the Sources ofInformation,” in Environmental Issues,pp. 23-24.

3 Maha Mahmud Sabbagh, “Priorities of LocalEnvironmental Issues in Bahraini Media,” MAthesis, Environmental Management Programme,Arab Gulf University, Bahrain, 2005.

4 The surveys were carried out by thecorrespondents of Al-Bia wal-Tanmia in 15 Arabcountries, and based on reviewing the content oflocal media between November 2005 andSeptember 2006. Data have been collectedexclusively for this study by the followingcorrespondents: Imad Saad (UAE), Ali Al Anzi(KSA), Ghada Farhat (Kuwait), Zakaria Khanji(Bahrain), Mahad Bin Ahmad Ma’sheni (Oman),Ahmad Hussain Abdul Rahman (Qatar), Nisrin Ajab(Lebanon), Abdul Hadi Alnajjar (Syria), BaterWardam (Jordan), Kazem Maqdadi and FadelBadrani (Iraq), Sadeq Al Assimi (Yemen), WajdiRiyad and Khaled Ghanem (Egypt), FathiAlhamrouni (Tunisia), Fatiha Alshar’ and YounesFassih (Algeria), Muhammad Altefrawi (Morocco).

5 Jamal Muhammad Ghitas, “Arab ScientificInformation and the Problems of Development,” apaper presented at a conference organized by AlArabi review on scientific information, Kuwait,December 2005.

6 Interview with Shaikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan,given to Najib Saab exclusively for Al-Bia wal-Tanmia, number 9, November 1997, pp. 14-19.

7 From a report on “Saudi EnvironmentalInformation,” prepared by Ali Al Anzi (Riyadh2006) exclusively for this study.

8 From a report on “Kuwaiti EnvironmentalInformation,” prepared by Ghada Farhat (Kuwait,2006), exclusively for this study.

9 See note 3 above.10 Mehad Bin Ahmad Al Mesheni, “History of Omani

Press and the Current State of EnvironmentalInformation,” an unpublished report preparedexclusively for this study, Muscat (Oman), 2006.

11 “The Little Environmentalists,” supplement of Al-Bia wal-Tanmia, number 15, November 1998.Complete episodes of this programme areavailable on video cassettes published by Al-Biawal-Tanmia, 1999-2000.

12 From a report on “Environmental Information inSyria,” prepared by Abdul Hadi Alnajjar (2006)exclusively for this study.

13 From a report on “Environment in Jordan,”prepared by Bater W.M. Wardam (2006)exclusively for this study.

14 Dr Fadel Albadrani, “EnvironmentalPreoccupations of the Iraqi Press in Exile,” anunpublished report prepared exclusively for thisstudy, 2006.

15 Sadeq Yahya Assimi, Environmental Information:Concept and Significance, Sanaa (Yemen): AbadiCentre for Studies and Publications, 2004.

16 Dr Khaled Ghanem, “Environmental Information inEgypt,” an unpublished report prepared exclusivelyfor this study, 2006.

17 From an unpublished report on “EnvironmentalInformation in Tunisia” prepared by FathiAlhamrouni exclusively for this study, 2006.

18 Fatiha Alshar’, “Environmental Information inAlgeria,” an unpublished report preparedexclusively for this study, 2006.

19 Muhammad Altefrawi, “Environmental Informationin Morocco,” an unpublished report preparedexclusively for this study, 2006.

20 Kazem Almaqdadi, “Death by ExhaustedUranium,” Al-Bia wal-Tanmia, number 103,October 2006, pp. 52-54.

21 Arab Human Development 2002, UNDP report,2002; and Muhammad Maghrebi, Alhayat,“Science and Technology” section, 24 September 2006.

22 Bater Wardam, “Arab Environmental Web Sites,”Al-Bia wal-Tanmia, number 66, September 2003,pp. 20-26.

23 Najib Saab, “Environmental Information: A Plan ofAction for Lebanon,” in Environmental Issues,pp. 34-35.

NOTES


Environmental Education

199

RIYAD Y. HAMZAH

CHAPTER 15

I. INTRODUCTION

Arab countries have begun individual processesfor educational reform. Environmental educationis naturally a part of the larger educational reformprocess that is taking place in many parts of theArab world. This has coincided with internation-al awareness, treaties, actions, and initiativestowards the environment and, in particular,towards environmental education and researchon environmental issues.

Since the Tbilisi Declaration of 1977, the coun-tries of the Arab world have reacted positivelytowards the increasing concern over environmen-tal issues. This chapter will review some of theendeavours undertaken by different countries ofthe Arab world to introduce environmental con-cepts and education into their basic educationalsystems, higher education, and research institutes,in addition to pan Arab cooperation for environ-mental education and research.

It discusses the international initiatives to promoteenvironmental education through the declarationsand directives of international organizations, andArab endeavours to participate in and benefit fromthese initiatives in dealing with their national andregional environmental concerns.

This chapter also includes initiatives in the Arabworld that promote national and regional environ-mental education and learning such as teachertraining programmes for the environment and sci-entific publications on environmental issues.

Because the study of environmental education hasyet to be institutionalized in the Arab world,numerous factors contribute to the lack of accessi-bility to data and current information on the envi-ronment. In many areas of the region, consistentenvironmental monitoring and data collection isabsent and there has been little attempt to standard-ize data formats and reporting. The reports that aremade are kept in numerous different government orprivate sector locations, which often results induplication of information or gaps in data. Thesefactors make a comprehensive study more difficultand impede the development of a formal environ-mental policy and its implementation.

The interest in environmental education hasbeen witnessed at both the basic level and the

level of higher education, where an increasingnumber of universities have introducedEnvironmental Studies as a major at theBachelor’s, Master’s, and Ph.D. levels. Data andstatistics are not easily available, as environmen-tal education has yet to be institutionalizedthroughout the Arab world. In regard to highereducation, the access to information is essentialto its accountability and continual development,as information is the primary fuel for improvingaccuracy and availability.

Basic education has not yet developed specificcourses for environmental studies, although issuesof environmental concern have been incorporatedinto other required courses, such as numerous sci-ence classes. There are, however, several universi-ties in which specialized programmes and degreesin various fields of environmental education havebeen developed. There are also a number researchcentres that have tackled environmental issues ofconcern to the Arab world.

In the Arab world, education information sys-tems tend to still be largely inaccessible. Thereare many gaps in basic educational data availableto the public and the information is often outdat-ed and overly broad. Without standard informa-tion on education inputs and outputs, there areno avenues of verification, analysis, and correc-tion. Additionally, if accurate, credible, regularlyupdated, and detailed information systems donot exist, it will remain challenging to effectivelyuse incentives to improve educational outcomesor to ensure public accountability.

II. ENVIRONMENT IN EDUCATIONTHROUGH THE DECLARATIONS ANDDIRECTIVES OF INTERNATIONALORGANIZATIONS

In December of 2002, in UNGA Resolution57/254, the UN General Assembly declared theyears 2005-2014 to be the “Decade of Educationfor Sustainable Development” (UNDESD). In thedeclaration, the role of education was recognizedas being essential for achieving sustainable devel-opment, in accordance with international recom-mendations from sources such as the EarthSummit of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro and the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) inJohannesburg in 2002 (Hopkins and McKeown,

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONCHAPTER 15200

2002; Johannesburg Declaration). The aim of thedeclaration of the UNDESD was to encourage theworldwide incorporation of the values, principles,and practices of sustainable development into alllevels of basic and higher education.

At the 59th session of the UN General Assembly inOctober 2004, and again at the 171st and 172nd ses-sions of the UNESCO Executive Board in Apriland September 2005, the United NationsEducational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) presented a framework for its world-wide International Implementation Scheme (ILS),developed through consultations with various UNagencies, national governments, nongovernmentalorganizations, and specialists in various fields(UNESCO 2002, 2006). The ILS discussed thekey role of partnerships and how these partner-ships could contribute to the achievement of theobjectives of the UNDESD on the local, national,regional, and international levels.

With the launch of the UNDESD in March 2005,the United Nations Environmental Programme(UNEP) assumed a leading role in the develop-ment of programmes and various projects designedto achieve the UNDESD objectives. It relied uponcollaboration with UNESCO and the develop-ment of an Environmental Education andTraining (EET) strategy for the decade to promoteenvironmentally ethical behaviour through valuesthat enable people to become informed citizensactively participating in sustainable environmentaldevelopment.

The First International Conference onEnvironmental Education (ICEE) organized byUNEP was held in Tbilisi, Georgia in 1977. TheFourth ICEE was held in Ahmedabad, India in2007 with the objective of understanding thechanges and developments that have taken place inEnvironmental Education (EE) since the 1977conference and the role of EnvironmentalEducation in Education for SustainableDevelopment (ESD).

Given that ESD should be a lifelong strategy inwhich education takes place in both formal andinformal settings, the conference provided anumber of recommendations to be adopted inorder to achieve education for sustainable devel-opment. These recommendations called forchanges in formal educational approaches and for

further informal education through the work-place, local civic societies and other community-based organizations.

In order to promote and implement ESD duringthe Decade of Education for SustainableDevelopment, seven interlinking strategies wereproposed incorporating advocacy and vision build-ing, consultation and ownership, partnership andnetworks, capacity building and training, researchand innovation, information and communicationtechnologies, and monitoring and evaluation.

III. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES INEDUCATION IN THE ARAB WORLD

In view of the general crisis of education in theArab world, it is not surprising that its level ofenvironmental education and awareness is fairlylow in comparison to international levels in otherareas of the world. However, efforts are continuingto be made to combat this problem.

Environmental Issues in Basic Education

The objectives of environmental education at thislevel are to establish a relationship between theindividual and his or her natural and social envi-ronment, aiming for children and youth to gainskills, direction, and values that are related to theenvironmental problems and responsibilities thatface the individual, and to align behaviour in apositive and interactive way towards his environ-ment. No one discipline can or should claimownership of ESD. In fact, ESD poses such


broad and encompassing challenges that itrequires contributions from many disciplines.For example, consider these inter-disciplinarycontributions to ESD (UNESCO 2006):• Mathematics helps students understand

extremely small numbers (e.g., parts per hun-

dred, thousand, or million), which allows themto interpret pollution data.

• Language Arts, especially media literacy, cre-ates knowledgeable consumers who can analyzethe messages of corporate advertisers and seebeyond “green wash.”


DEGREES OFFERED IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN DIFFERENT ARAB UNIVERSITIESTABLE 1

Country University Field Degree WebsiteBahrain Bahrain University Environment and Master's http://www.uob.edu.bh/scientific-

Sustainable Development research/unesco/ENV/project.html

Egypt Alexandria General Degree in Bachelor's http://www.alex.edu.eg/University Biochemistry &

Environmental ScienceSpecial Degree in Bachelor's http://www.alex.edu.eg/Environmental SciencesGeneral Degree in Bachelor's http://www.alex.edu.eg/Environmental Sciences& ChemistryGeneral Degree in Bachelor's http://www.alex.edu.eg/Environmental Sciences& BiochemistryEnvironmental Sciences Master's http://www.alex.edu.eg/Environmental Sciences PhD http://www.alex.edu.eg/

American University Environmental Science Bachelor's http://catalog.aucegypt.edu/preview_in Cairo Minor program.php?catoid=4&poid=323

Environmental Engineering Master's http://catalog.aucegypt.edu/preview(M.S.) program.php?\catoid=4&poid=369Environmental Systems Master's http://catalog.aucegypt.edu/previewDesign (M.Eng.) program.php?catoid=4&poid=370

Mansoura University Environmental Management, Master's http://mudb.mans.edu.eg/Engineering and Technology envmed/intro.swf

Mansoura University Environmental Sciences Bachelor's http://www.mans.edu.eg/facscid/english/(Damietta Faculty Envir/Environmanetal.htmof Science)

Jordan Al al-Bayt University Applied Geology and Bachelor's http://www.aabu.edu.jo/earth/bs.htmEnvironmental SciencesWater Resources Master's http://www.aabu.edu.jo/earth/ms.htmand Environment

Al-Hussein Bin Environmental Engineering Bachelor's http://www.ahu.edu.jo/index.php?Talal University mod=department&id=26Hashemite Land Management Bachelor's http://www.hu.edu.jo/fac/dept/University and Environment undergraduate_Programs.aspx

Water Management Bachelor's http://www.hu.edu.jo/fac/dept/and Environment undergraduate_Programs.aspxGeology and Environmental Bachelor's http://www.hu.edu.jo/fac/dept/Sciences undergraduate_Programs.aspx

Yarmouk Environmental Sciences Master's http://portal.yu.edu.jo/Default.aspx?University tabid=231

• History teaches the concept of global change,while helping students to recognize that changehas occurred for centuries.

• Reading develops the ability to distinguishbetween fact and opinion and helps stu-dents become critical readers of political

campaign literature.• Social Studies helps students to understand

ethnocentrism, racism, and gender inequity aswell as to recognize how these are expressed inthe surrounding community and nationsworldwide.


CONTINUEDTABLE 1

Country University Field Degree WebsiteKuwait Kuwait University Environmental Geology Bachelor's http://www.science.kuniv.edu.kw/

Courses.xphp? Language=En&UnitID=U046000

Lebanon American University Environmental Health Bachelor's http://fhs-lb.aub.edu.lb/degree_programs/undergraduate_studies.html#eh

Environmental Sciences Master's http://fhs-lb.aub.edu.lb/degree_programs/master_science.html

Aquatic and Environmental Diploma http://wwwlb.aub.edu.lb/~webbiol/Sciences programs.htmEnvironmental and Water Master's http://webfea-lb.fea.aub.edu.lb/fea/cee/Resource Engineering programs/ewre_general.aspxEnvironmental and PhD http://webfea-lb.fea.aub.edu.lb/fea/cee/Water Resource Engineering programs/phd_general.aspxEnvironmental Technology Master's http://webfea-lb.fea.aub.edu.lb/fea/cee/

programs/et_general.aspxBeirut Arab Biological and Bachelor's http://www.bau.edu.lb/science.htmUniversity Environmental ScienceBeirut University Environmental Studies Master's http://www.buonline.edu.lb/bu/Online envstudies.htm#offerUniversity of Environmental Science Bachelor's http://www.balamand.edu.lb/english/Balamand Sciences.asp?id=1437&fid=164Notre Dame Environmental Science Bachelor's http://www.science.nd.edu/science_University undergrad/bios/bios_ES_major.htm

Libya Academy of Environmental Science Bachelor's http://www.alacademia.org/Graduate Studies and Engineering english/Eng1.htm#

Mauritania University - - http://www.univ-nkc.mr/of Nouakchott

Morocco Al Akhawayn - - http://www.aui.ma/UniversityInternational Institute - - http://www.iihem.ac.ma/fr/src/home.phpfor Higher Educationin MoroccoUniversité - - http://www.uh1.ac.ma/uh1/Hassan ler - Settat

Oman Nizwa University Environmental Engineering Diploma, http://www.unizwa.edu.om/e-index.phpBachelor's


CONTINUEDTABLE 1

Country University Field Degree WebsitePalestine Al-Quds University Applied Earth and Bachelor's http://www.alquds.edu/faculties/

(The Arab University Environmental Sciences science/index.php?page=aeesin Jerusalem) Environmental Studies Master's http://www.alquds.edu/faculties/

science/index.php?page=aees_mscBirzeit University Water and Environmental Master's http://www.birzeit.edu/institutes/

Engineering water_std/Water and Environmental Master's http://www.birzeit.edu/institutes/Sciences water_std/

Qatar Qatar University Biological Sciences Bachelor's http://www.qu.edu.qa/qu/colleges/arts_sciences/cas_bio_intro.html

Agricultural Sciences Bachelor's http://www.qu.edu.qa/qu/colleges/arts_sciences/cas_bio_intro.html

College of the North Environmental Diploma http://www.cna-qatar.com/cnaqatar/Atlantic, Qatar Health Technology futurestudents/Programdetailsnew.asp?eht

Saudi King Saud Environmental Sciences Master's http://www.ksu.edu.sa/sites/Colleges/Arabia University CollegeofScinces/MSCPES/Pages/

default.aspxKing Fahd Environmental Sciences Master's http://www.kfupm.edu.sa/cs/University of Petroleumand minerals

Sudan University Public and Master's http://www.uofk.edu/index.php?id=279of Khartoum Environmental Health

Environmental Studies Diploma http://www.uofk.edu/index.php?id=164Environmental Studies Master's http://www.uofk.edu/index.php?id=164Environmental Studies PhD http://www.uofk.edu/index.php?id=164

Sudan University Water and Environmental Bachelor's http://www.sustech.edu/of Science and EngineeringTechnology

UAE UAE University Environmental Science Master's http://www.fsc.uaeu.ac.ae/Postgraduate_Prog.htm

University of Sharjah Environmental Bachelor's https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/Health Technology English/Academics/Colleges/Health

Sciences/DepartmentsPrograms/EnvironmentalHealth/Pages/default.aspx

American University Environmental Sciences Bachelor's http://www.aus.edu/cas/env/index.phpof SharjahHigher Colleges Environmental Diploma http://www.hct.ac.ae/catalogue07_08/of Technology Health Program aspx/cms_program_offerings.aspxThe British University Sustainable Design of Master's http://www.buid.ac.ae/buid/html/in Dubai the Built Environment article.asp?cid=273

Yemen Hadhramout Environmental Sciences Master's http://www.hust.edu.ye/prochure.pdfUniversity ofScience andTechnology

The Arab world has witnessed remarkable andlaudable efforts in creating awareness, spreadinginformation, teaching concepts, developinghabits and skills, and encouraging values withregards to environmental issues, all of which havebeen embedded in its curricular and extracurric-ular activities.

The following summarizes the methodologiesby which environmental initiatives have beenimplemented:

• The development of extracurricular activities forenvironmental education and awareness. Theseactivities are usually designed according to theage range of the students. However, the objec-tives of all are towards the concepts of protectingthe environment, preserving our naturalresources, and tying them into the environmen-tal issues that concern the world. These activitiesare usually conducted in an interactive, prob-lem-solving manner and with the use of materi-als and resources that are of low cost and can beeasily obtained by the students. Such activitiesinclude recycling of glass, paper, plastics and alu-minium, beach clean-ups and trash disposal,active participation in water and electricity con-servation, reforestation and the planting of newtrees, etc. A comprehensive manual for extracur-ricular environmental activities in schools, TheEnvironmental Activities Guide, has been pro-duced by Al Bi’a Wal Tanmiya (Environment &Development) magazine in 1999, and is beingused in thousands of schools across the region,with special editions developed for Lebanon, theUAE and Syria (Al Bi’a Wal Tanmiya, 1999).Training courses for teachers were carried out invarious countries based on the manual, and con-sequently hundreds of school environment clubswere established.

• Trying to introduce environmental concepts,information, and issues within the differentcourses whenever appropriate. Such informa-tion is often introduced within the scope of theindividual courses, such as the study of climatechange within courses on geography and chem-istry, biodiversity within courses on biology,alternative energy within the study of physics,etc. Reading selections concerning environmen-tal information are also introduced in languagecourses involving reading comprehension inArabic and English. One main source for envi-

ronmental contents in textbooks in many coun-tries has been Al Bi’a Wal Tanmiya magazine,and the magazine itself has been widely used inschools as extra reading material. It is interestingto note that 5 times between 2001-2007, textstaken from Najib Saab’s editorials in this maga-zine were the subject of high school official finalexams in Lebanon, 4 times in civics and onetime in Arabic literature (Al Bi’a Wal Tanmiya,2007). The magazine has been organizing annu-al competitions on environmental themesamong Arab students since 1997, attractingover one hundred thousand entries.

• School libraries are being strengthened andenriched with the addition of environmentalreference materials, books, and magazines.

• Schools organize activities in celebration of theinternationally proclaimed environmentalawareness days established by UNEP, such asEarth Day.

Jordan and Egypt have witnessed various remark-able educational reforms that have led to theintroduction of environmental concepts in theirnational education systems, as well as in extracur-ricular activities within the schools. These activi-ties are carried out usually via different interna-tional programmes working with local institutes.The Global Green Communication andEducation Programme (GreenCom), consisting ofvarious educational packages, was produced andadopted by Ministries of Education in the Arabworld. The Arab media were also encouraged tohighlight environmental issues. Pages or cornersdedicated to environmental awareness appeared inthe national press and regular television pro-grammes addressed environmental issues.

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES INHIGHER EDUCATION

The earliest programme of study of environmen-tal issues in higher education in the Arab worldwas launched at Alexandria University in Egyptin 1983. The first such programme in theArabian Gulf region was launched at the UnitedArab Emirates University in 1991.

As early as the 1980s, the Arabian GulfUniversity, a regional university situated in


Bahrain and serving the Gulf region, launched anIntegrated Water Management Programme aswell as a Desert and Arid Land Programme. In1987, the university established a BiotechnologyProgramme wherein an EnvironmentalBiotechnology track was introduced. Research bystaff and students covers such areas as bioremedi-ation of toxic pollutants and biodesulfurizationof crude oil and its derivatives. The Arabian GulfUniversity also launched the first academic post-graduate programme awarding a graduate degreein Environmental Management in 2004. Thisprogramme is delivered through the modular sys-tem to suit the work commitments of theenrolled practicing managers, and uses the casestudy method.

Table 1 demonstrates that most of the degreespertaining to environmental studies offered byuniversities in the Arab world are at theBachelor’s level, with fewer at the Master’s leveland even fewer offering a PhD. These statisticsreflect the current deficiencies found in providinghigher education in environmental issues.However, this finding is to be expected asresearch for higher level degrees requires addition-al funding which is already scarce at all levels andfor all educational fields.

Examining the titles of the degrees offered, onecan note the need for additional specializations inenvironmental education such as environmentallegislation, environmental management, andenvironmental risk management. Current degreeprogrammes should be expanded to cover all thenecessary aspects of environmental education.

Enhancement of these programmes in terms ofqualification and accreditation is also required.These programmes should satisfy quality assur-ance requirements and accreditation. Attemptsshould also be made to establish stronger linksto other stakeholders, such as government agen-cies and industries in the private sector having astake in future developments in fields relevant totheir industry.

Quality education is a prerequisite for educationfor sustainable development. Quality education,first and foremost, views each individual as alearner capable of having an impact upon thedevelopment of society. The role of quality edu-cation is to provide the individual with the tools

necessary to transform society into a more sus-tainable society, taking into consideration thesocial, economic, cultural, and environmental ele-ments of the place, as well as its history and tradi-tions. Quality education takes these various fac-tors into account and develops a programme orcurriculum that reflects the local conditions, isrelevant to the present, and prepares the individ-ual for the future.

Education for sustainable development has fourmajor thrusts: promoting and improving basiceducation; reorienting existing education pro-grammes at all levels to address sustainable devel-opment; developing public awareness and under-standing of sustainability; and providing training.

A trend in current educational systems has beento incorporate environmental concepts into theteaching of other subjects, allowing environmen-tal awareness and education to infiltrate the edu-cational process even when specific courses arenot offered. It may, in fact, complement othercourses or stress the concepts to be communicat-ed. In addition, numerous universities that donot offer specific degrees in environmental sci-ences often offer individual environmental cours-es within other specialties. Many of the universi-ties, increasingly in recent years, and sometimesin association with international bodies such asUNEP, provide training courses which cannot beoverlooked or neglected, as they help the capabil-ity-building of specialists and professionals inthese fields.

Since the late 1980s, there has also been anincrease in the number of regional research cen-tres in the Arab world dedicated to environmen-tal issues such as marine sciences, energy andwater resources. Table 2 lists some of theseregional research centres. These centres are pri-marily funded nationally by each individualcountry, often with additional internationalpartnerships and alliances for some of their pro-grammes. However, the funding does not by farmeet the minimal requirements of fundingavailability, levels of funding that are available tomost international research centres outside theArab world.

Contributions for research from the private sec-tor from such sources as oil companies and otherindustries in the Arab world are still relatively


minor. However, there are indications that this isbeginning to change, such as the laudable exam-ple of ARAMCO funding research in oil pollu-tion and bioremediation in collaboration withKing Fahd University for Petroleum andMinerals in Saudi Arabia.

Universities and research centres are continuing tocollaborate with regional and international envi-ronmental organizations to carry out researchseminars and workshops, which provide an outletfor staff members and researchers to interact,attending conferences and meetings, encouragingparticipants to remain up-to-date and aware ofcurrent trends and new developments.

V. REGIONAL INITIATIVES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE ARAB WORLD

The Arab Network for EnvironmentalEducation and Learning (ANEEL)

Environmentalists, scientists, and educators ofthe Arab region initiated the Arab Network forEnvironmental Education and Learning(ANEEL). This network will work in conjunc-tion with the Commission on Education andCommunication (CEC) and will be linked to theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN). Established in 2007, ANEEL is a non-governmental organization dedicated to provid-ing leadership in areas of environmental educa-tion and learning in the Arab world.

The mission of this network is to use education asa form of promoting a deeper knowledge andunderstanding of environmental issues and con-cerns, aiming to ultimately reach a sustainablemeans of living with the conservation of the plan-et. By means of sharing, exchanging and dissemi-nating innovative educational events, programmesand curriculum development, the network intendsto raise awareness, support problem-solving ofcurrent environmental issues, and to build thecapacity of professionals to meet conservation andsustainable development goals in the Arab world.

ANEEL will distribute information on relevantevents (conferences, workshops, forums, etc.)and educational programmes available in theregion, initiate change through academic dia-logue regarding environmental issues, and createopportunities to exchange visits, promote schol-arships and grants, provide links with other net-works, and share success stories.

IWRM E-Learning Graduate Programme at the Arabian Gulf University

A regional centre for the Arab region was estab-lished in 2007 at the Arabian Gulf University(AGU) offering a distance-based post graduatediploma in Integrated Water ResourcesManagement (IWRM) under the UnitedNations Water Virtual Learning Centre (UN-WVLC) Project in collaboration with the UnitedNations University (UNU) InternationalNetwork on Water, Environment and Health(INWEH) in Canada (AGU – IWRM).


Academic Chairs for Environmental Issues

Academic chairs devoted to environmental con-cerns have been established at some universities tofurther environmental research. One such exampleis the academic chair carrying the name of the latePresident of the United Arab Emirates, ShaikhZayed bin Sultan Al-Nahayan, in EnvironmentalStudies established at the Arabian Gulf Universityin 1994. Another example is the academic chair atBahrain University sponsored by the UNESCO –Cousteau Ecotechnie Programmeme, an interna-tional initiative designed to promote interdiscipli-nary education, research and policy-making in thefield of the environment and development(UNESCO – UCEP).

Participation of Some Arab Countries in InternationalInitiatives for Environmental Education

There are many international programmes ofwhich some Arab countries are taking advantageto assist in environmental education and trainingprofessionals throughout the Arab world.

UNEP has a vast depository of knowledgeproducts emanating from its work in environ-mental assessment, policy development andimplementation, support to environmentalconventions, and technology industry and eco-nomics. The Environmental Education andTraining Unit at UNEP has taken the lead inproducing learning support and resource mate-


NATIONAL AND REGIONAL RESEARCH CENTRES IN THE ARAB WORLD FOR DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND RESEARCH

TABLE 2

Country National Research Centers DivisionBahrain Environmental Research Center (Bahrain University)

Egypt Soil, Water and Environment Research InstituteInstitute of Environmental Studies and Research, Minufia University, Sadat branchInstitute of Environmental Studies and Research, Ain Shams UniversityAgricultural Research Center (ARC)Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA)Mubarak City for Science and Technology Agriculture Research and

Development Institute (ARADI)National Water Research Center (NWRC)Desert Research Center (DRC)Desert Development Center (DDC)

Jordan Environmental Research CenterWater and Environment Research and Study CenterAl Urdun Al Jadid Research Center (UJRC) Jordan Environmental WatchBadia Research and Development Center

Kuwait Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) Environment and Urban DevelopmentMarine Science Center (Kuwait University)Environment Public Authority (EPA)

Lebanon Water Energy and Environment Research Center

Libya Marine Biology Research Centre (MBRC)

Oman Center for Environmental Studies and Research (Sultan Qaboos University)

rials for environmental education that include:training manuals, resource kits, starter packs,theme packs, posters, curriculum manuals,training modules, and newsletters.

The following are examples of such projects inwhich numerous countries in the Arab worldare participating:

Global Environment Outlook (GEO)

The Global Environment Outlook (GEO)project is the implementation of UNEP’s man-date to keep the global environment underreview. Initiated at the request of the UNEPGoverning Council in 1995, GEO is both aprocess and a series of reports, analyzing envi-

ronmental change, causes, impacts, and policyresponses (GEO; UNEP, 1997). It providesinformation for decision making, supports earlywarning and builds capacity at the global andsub-global levels. GEO is also a communicationprocess that aims at raising awareness on envi-ronmental issues and providing options foraction. Several Arab universities are contribu-tors to this project.

Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE)

The Global Learning and Observations to Benefitthe Environment (GLOBE) is “a worldwidehands-on primary and secondary school-based sci-ence and education programme. GLOBE’s vision


CONTINUEDTABLE 2

Country National Research Centers DivisionPalestine Palestine Energy and Environment Research Center

The Water and Soil Environmental Research Unit (WSERU) (Bethlehem University)Palestinian Environmental Authority (PEnA)House of Water and Environment

Saudi Arabia Prince Sultan Research Center for Environment, Water and DesertKing Abdullah University for Science and Resources, Energy Technology (KAUST) and EnvironmentKing Abdul Aziz City for Science and Technology Natural Resources and

Environment Institute

Sudan Sudanese Environment Conservation Society (SECS)Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum

Syria Marine Research CenterInternational Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)

UAE Terrestrial Environment Research Center (TERC)The Environment Agency , Abu Dhabi (EAD)Marine Environment Research Center (MERC)Federal Environmental Agency (FEA)Gulf Research Center (GRC) (Dubai)

Yemen Water and Environment Center (Sana'a University)

promotes and supports students, teachers and sci-entists to collaborate on inquiry-based investiga-tions of the environment and the earth system,working in close partnership with NASA and NSFEarth System Science Projects (ESSPs) in studyand research about the dynamics of Earth’s envi-ronment” (GLOBE website).

Its mission is to promote the study of scienceand scientific discovery with scientists and cit-izens, teachers and students, all workingtogether at local, regional, and internationallevels to achieve a better understanding of theenvironment. Assistance from parents as wellas other members of the community is encour-aged in collecting data and learning moreabout the Earth and how to sustain its envi-ronments and habitats.

Having been announced in 1994, GLOBE cele-brated Earth Day 1995 with the launch of itsoperations. Bilateral agreements between thegovernment of the United States and govern-ments of other nations enable the GLOBE pro-grammes to be implemented internationally.

More than a decade after its launch, the GLOBEnetwork boasts 110 countries participating,including eleven countries from the Arab world.Table 3 indicates the Arab countries that havesigned the GLOBE agreements, the year eachsigned, and the number of schools participatingin each country.

Egypt Environmental Education and Outreach Programme

The Egypt Environmental Education andOutreach Programme (E3OP) is a programmedesigned to promote environmental education inprimary and preparatory schools in Egypt, work-ing in conjunction with local schools and com-munities as well as the government and the pri-vate sector to increase awareness and skills per-taining to environmental education in fourEgyptian governorates (E3OP website). The two-year initiative, awarded under the Assistance toBasic Education/Basic Education (ABE/BE)Indefinite Quantity Contract, in support of theUnited States Agency for InternationalDevelopment, is being implemented by theEducation Development Center, Inc. in collabo-

ration with the Academy for EducationalDevelopment, RTI International, and WadiEnvironmental Science Centre.

The E3OP trains teachers to lead their studentsin various environmental projects and to workwith the government, media, and private sectorto encourage their communities to participate insuch activities. The programme also aids in theassessment of existing environmental educationmaterials, develops new materials as needed, anddistributes these materials directly to schoolsand communities or through an outreachresource centre.

VI. PUBLICATIONS AND THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTALRESEARCH JOURNALS ANDPUBLISHED ENVIRONMENTALLITERATURE

Several publications have tackled the question ofthe recent scientific contributions of the Arabworld in comparison with those of other nationsand regions. Scientific and environmental con-tributions of the Arab world to global knowl-edge were found to be very low in comparisonwith other nations and regions. This is hardlysurprising due to the desperate need of universi-ties and research centres for further funding andthe need to develop more international alliancesand partnerships.

Currently, there are no specialized refereed sci-entific journals published in the Arab worldthat are specifically dedicated to issues relatingto the environment, whether environmentaleducation, management, or sciences, whilethere exists a strong need for such journals.Currently, publications dedicated to theseissues are sprinkled among various other scien-tific journals. As there is this need for a numberof prestigious, internationally recognized jour-nals in the Arab region, each individually dedi-cated to a separate field such as environmentalsciences, environmental management, environ-mental management legislation, and environ-mental education and learning, collaborativeefforts are needed to bring about the birth ofsuch journals of high standard, with a regionaland international scope in terms of both pres-tige and quality.


However, the Arab world has relatively recentlywitnessed the emergence of several non-academicmagazines and newsletters that are dedicated toenvironmental issues and concepts. These maga-zines and newsletters, in addition to their role astools for raising the public awareness in environ-ment, serve as resource material for educationalpurposes at the basic educational level. It is fair tosay that the only professional environmental Arabperiodical which could achieve wide circulation allover the region and affect tangible change is AlBi’a Wal Tanmiya (www.mectat.com.lb)

There is also a great need for the publication oftextbooks dealing with environmental issues inthe Arab world. Numerous conferences andtheir proceedings have been produced but haveyet to be published in book form, renderingthem not easily accessible to other researchers.Attempts should be made to produce and dis-seminate this information in the more easilyaccessible book form, and budgets should be setaside within the context of the conference forproducing such a text. Such texts would thenmake the information more readily available,forming a foundation for accumulative knowl-edge and decreasing the duplication of researchand data gathering.

VII. CONCLUSION

The nations of the Arab world have reacted pos-itively towards the increasing concern over envi-ronmental issues since the 1977 TbilisiDeclaration. The educational reforms being wit-nessed in the Arab world have included a reviewof the need to further include and promote envi-ronmental education. Incorporating environ-mental education in basic and higher educationshould benefit from the international directions,initiatives, and treaties set forth by the interna-tional community in this regard. Although thereis an increase in the number of institutes of high-er education in the Arab world that provide dif-ferent academic degrees and training for gradu-ates to participate in the environmental sectorfor sustainable development of the Arab coun-tries, this survey of such higher educational insti-tutes demonstrates the need for an increase ofsuch degrees and programmes covering a greaternumber of disciplines within the sphere of envi-ronmental education.

Because the study of environmental educationhas yet to be institutionalized in the Arabworld, numerous factors contribute to the lackof accessibility of data and current informationon the environment. In many areas of theregion, consistent environmental monitoringand data collection is absent and there hasbeen little attempt to standardize data formatsand reporting. The reports that are made arekept in various different government or privatesector locations, which often results in duplica-tion of information or gaps in data. These fac-tors make a comprehensive study more diffi-cult and impede the development of a formalenvironmental education policy and its imple-mentation.

The positive initiatives witnessed in the Arabworld and earlier discussed for basic educationneed to be maintained, promoted and strength-ened. Funding of research for environmentalissues and challenges should be addressed by dif-ferent institutions on the national level and on apan-Arab level. Integration of data for environ-mental research and assessment should beexpanded in order to allow users and researchersto profit from data collection at all levels.

It is hoped that future reports will contain fur-ther outstanding examples that reflect the ongo-ing and continuous commitment, efforts andinitiatives made by the Arab countries to theworld environment and their own national sus-tainable development.


ARAB COUNTRIES THAT HAVE SIGNED THE GLOBE AGREEMENTS

TABLE 3

Arab Country Year of Joining Number of SchoolsBahrain 2001 31Egypt 1995 13Jordan 1996 30Kuwait 1999 5Lebanon 1998 15Mauritania 2004 1Morocco 1996 2Qatar 2000 26Saudi Arabia 2002 44Tunisia 1995 4United Arab Emirates 1999 1Total 172

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Global Learning and Observations to Benefit theEnvironment (GLOBE) (http://www.globe.gov )(accessed Feb. 29, 2008).

Hopkins, Charles, and Rosalyn McKeown. “Educationfor Sustainable Development: An InternationalPerspective” in Environmental Education forSustainability: Responding to the Global Challenge, Eds.D. Tilbury, R B Stevenson, J. Fein, and D. Schreuder.Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCNCommission on Education and Communication, 2002

Johannesburg Declaration on SustainableDevelopment http://www.uh.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POI_PD.htm(accessed February 28, 2008).

Plan of Implementation of the World Summit onSustainable Development. Johannesburg, SouthAfrica, September 2002.(www.johannesburgsummit.org)

The Environment Activities Guide, Beirut: Al-Bia Wal-Tanmia and Technical Publications, 1999.

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UNESCO. “Teaching and Learning for a SustainableFuture.” www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/ (accessedMarch 4, 2008).

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REFERENCES


Environmental Scientific Research

213

AHMAD GABER

CHAPTER 16

I. INTRODUCTION

This chapter is intended to study the currentstate of affairs of scientific research in the envi-ronmental field in the Arab region. The issue isimportant for a number of reasons:

• Arab countries are facing extreme challengesregarding the conservation of naturalresources and protecting the environmentfrom pollution.

• Addressing those challenges necessitatesrecourse of all scientific research tools to iden-tify ideal solutions to each problem.

• Documented world experience has proventhat the application of scientific researchapproaches and tools has achieved satisfactorysuccess in solving complex environmentalproblems extending across spatial and tempo-ral dimensions.

In this chapter, we try to assess the current situa-tion of scientific research in the Arab region inthe field of the environment, based on the firstreading of available output of research institu-tions and researchers concerned with environ-mental anxiety in Arab world.

II. FRAMEWORKAND APPROACH

Environmental research has certain distinguishingfeatures that set it apart from other types ofresearch. The most important of these features are:

• Environmental research is carried out in mostof the scientific faculties of universities andresearch centres. These faculties do not neces-sarily carry a name that refers to a dedicatedfocus on environmental questions and prob-lems. As such, while environmental researchappears at first glance to be a secondary con-cern at the scientific level, it is the main con-cern for a number of specialized researchers inthese faculties.

• Most environmental research takes a practicalapproach, aimed at solving real life problems.For this reason we can refer to such research as“applied research” in most cases. In general,scientific research tools are used that were mostlikely developed to solve problems not directlyrelated to environmental problems.

• Researchers concerned with environmentalissues deal with their research subjects fromtheir particular scientific background andhence use their own tools and linguistic vocab-ulary. As examples, soil pollution with heavymetals is a research subject that drawsresearchers from the fields of botany, soil, agri-culture, irrigation, public health, economy,and law; and the scarcity of water resources is asubject that attracts researchers from the fieldsof climate, modelling, water resources, agricul-ture, economy, and law.

If some of these researchers were to be broughttogether around a specific environmental issue,their cumulative research could be transformedinto a type of compound research subjected tomultidisciplinary perspectives.

This chapter attempts to observe the current sta-tus of scientific research in the several environ-mental areas in Arab world. It is important toaffirm, from the beginning, that the major deter-minant in this “observation” process is the avail-ability of information. With the same impor-tance, we confess that the available information iscertainly not enough to achieve a definitivejudgement, apart from recognizing their insuffi-ciency to achieve any of the scientific assessmentlevels that adhere to the sober-minded assessmentapproaches of published scientific research.

From another point of view, scientific research inthe environment field cannot be considered a dis-crete field whose situation can be studied in iso-lation from the condition of scientific research inArab countries in general. This in turn consists oflooking at the sum of several fields, ranging fromengineering and fundamental sciences to those inthe economic and social arenas. Therefore, thischapter tries to demonstrate the state of scientif-ic research in Arab countries in general, out ofpublished studies, in order to present the readerwith a general overview of scientific research inArab countries compared to other world areas.Subsequently, this chapter will try to recognize –through the “survey” method – the state of scien-tific research in the environment field in particu-lar. For its data about environmental scientificresearch, this chapter relied mainly on informa-tion available on the internet, and on a sample ofthe Arab countries including Egypt, SaudiArabia, Syria, and Tunisia.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHCHAPTER 16214

Definition and Classificationof Environmental Research

Scientific research on the environment is, asmentioned earlier, a multifaceted activity inwhich researchers from different backgroundscollectively participate. That is why environ-mental research and studies are difficult to bedefined and classified. In this chapter, theEuropean approach, prepared by EuropeanOffice for Statistics (EUROSTAT) on environ-mental pressure indicators (Figure 1), was fol-lowed. It classifies the environmental problemsinto the ten groups (policy fields) shown in thefigure, each of which is considered an inde-pendent environmental challenge of differentdimensions. The European approach tries topresent obvious definitions and frameworks foreach group to facilitate the classificationprocess. This is the reason why the Europeanapproach is more concentrated than approachesfollowed in other countries. In case of researchthat may be classified in more than one group,classification was made according to the pri-mary trend of the research and neglecting sec-ondary trends, which is an estimation process inthe first place.

The second reason for selecting this approach toclassify environmental research is the easiness oflinking environmental problems of higher prior-ity to priorities of scientific research. This makesevaluation of the research activity – according toits response to most hazardous environmentalchallenges – more clear. Using this approach, andthe different pressure indicators, in the future,may help to put an integrated system for measur-ing the state of the environment, identifying sci-entific research priorities, and achieving an opti-mal distribution of human and physical resourcesin each of the countries; such that resource man-agement can become more effective and its goalsbetter realized.

It is worth highlighting that in the Europeanexample mentioned above, the main objectiveof classifying and setting indicators for envi-ronmental pressures is to link the state of theenvironment to European sustainable develop-ment indicators in order to enable decision-makers and beneficiaries to more clearly seeand appreciate their environmental and devel-opment options.

Research Samplesand Data Accuracy Margins

In its observation of the general state of scientificresearch in the Arab world, this chapter choosesto present the results obtained by someresearchers who studied the sources of produc-tion (IDRC, 2003) and national research systemsin the Arab world (Gaillard et al, 2008) in adetailed manner.

As for the environmental research fields, thisresearch considered the sample of Arab countrieschosen as being representative of the general Arabregion. In fact, there was no other choice due toa lack of information released to the internet andan absolute absence of information in certaincases. This raises questions about the extent towhich Arab research institutes move towards“numeralization” of their databases to facilitatetheir availability, accessibility, and, consequently,their usage.

Care was taken in selecting the samples to repre-sent (as much as possible) the economic, social,and geographical diversity of the Arab worldwhile taking into consideration problems ofinformation availability and political circum-stances. Iraq, for instance, is a good example of


ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS INEUROPEAN CLASSIFICATION AND THEIROVERLAPS AND LINKAGES

FIGURE 1

OzoneLayer

Depletion ClimateChange

ResourceDepletion

AirPollution

UrbanEnvironmental

Problems

Dispersionof

HazardousSubstances

Loss ofBiodiversity

WastesWater

Resourcesand WaterPollution

EnvironmentMarine and

Coastal Zones

an Arab country that owns oil resources in addi-tion to having an advanced industrial andresearch infrastructure; however, the occupationconditions and unavailability of online informa-tion excluded it from being included in theresearch sample.

The four selected Arab countries are SaudiArabia, that represents the economic develop-ment model which depends on a high endow-ment of oil and mining resources in a desertenvironment suffering from water shortage;Egypt, with the largest population, which isconcentrated in the Nile wadi and Delta (creat-ing more acute pressures on the environment);Syria, as an Arab example of a controlled econ-omy built on agriculture and industry; and,finally, Tunisia, as an example of an ArabMaghreb sub-region that has a diverse economywhich depends on a combination of agriculture(one third of the population), tourism, and min-ing resources. The four countries, with theircombined population of 132 million representabout 44% of the Arab world’s total population,and contain a large part of its differentresources. The primary remark at the regionalArab level is the multiplicity of principalresearch languages (multilingualism): French isused in Tunisia, English in Egypt, and Arabic inSyria. From one point of view, such a degree ofexternal openness facilitates knowledge transfer,but on the other hand, multilingualism makespan-Arab collaboration in environmentalresearch a more difficult task.

Research Questions

This chapter attempts to answer the followingquestions:

• What is the current situation of scientificresearch in general in the Arab world? What arethe major deficiencies, and how could these becorrected?

• What are the environmental fields focused onby scientific research in the Arab world? Whichfields get less concern?

• Are researchers of specific scientific back-grounds interested in some fields more thanothers?

• What is the extent of inter-disciplinary cooper-ation? Does it satisfy scientific research needs?

• What are the items of consideration in devel-

oping the scientific research system in its exist-ing configuration, and what are the possibili-ties of this system to play an effective role inachieving sustainable development and envi-ronment conservation?

• Has any research network been established atthe local or regional level in any field of envi-ronmental research?

III. THE GENERAL STATE OF SCIENTIFICRESEARCH IN THE ARAB WORLD

In this section, the general state of scientificresearch in the Arab world will be presented. Theproduction process of scientific research is basi-cally a transformative process that has inputs(human and financial resources) which are trans-formed (through managerial and financing sys-tems and educational and research institutes)into outputs (research, studies and patents).Similar to any other transformation process, theproductivity of scientific research can be meas-ured by measuring the efficiency of transforminginputs into outputs.

Inputs of Scientific Research

In general, the two basic indicators of scientificresearch inputs are the number of researchers(absolutely, or as a percentage of population) andrate of expenditure (as an absolute rate, or a per-centage of domestic national product).Regarding the first, the number of researchers inthe Arab world approximated the number in therest of the world’s regions in 1998; however, as apercentage of population, it is relatively lower,although the difference is small (UNESCO,1998). According to the same study, the numberof researchers in Arab world increased at anannual rate of 6-7% from 1994 to 1998, which isdouble the population growth rate.

As for the rate of expenditure on scientificresearch as a percentage of domestic nationalproduct (Gross Expenditure on R&D, GERD),the performance of Arab world is almost shame-ful, standing at 0.2% compared to the worldaverage of 1.4%. This regional rate is the least inthe whole world, even when compared to thesouthern desert areas in Africa (UNESCO,1998). The comparison is especially strikingwhen comparing the expenditure on scientific


research in the Arab world, with its 300 millionhabitants, to those in Israel, with a population ofsix million.

Looking at these figures holistically, we candeduct that scientists in Arab world are many andtheir number is increasing, but they suffer ashortage of resources. This, in fact, is a problemfaced by nearly all Arab scientists.

It is worth mentioning here two major phenom-ena. The first is an Arab scientific diversity thatcalls for integration. For example, Egypt bringstogether the biggest research base, and SaudiArabia has the largest domestic national productwith a much smaller research base. What ismeant here is that Arab integration has estab-lished bases in the field of scientific research, andArab scientific cooperation will yield positivereturns for all participants, if only the existingpotential were to be utilized. As such, it is notonly an emotional invitation out of place intoday’s world, as some critics counter.

The second phenomenon is the “brain drain.” Itdeserves precise research and serious discussion.Although we cannot devote much attention tothis issue, we shall only mention that in the year2000, the number of Egyptian researchers work-ing in the United States alone reached 12,500(half of them were specialized in basic and engi-neering sciences). The number of Lebaneseresearchers was 11,500. Most other Arab coun-tries suffer a similar situation (Gaillard et al,2008). Of course this phenomenon cannot beisolated from the financing crisis mentionedbefore, as well as many other factors.

Outputs and Productivityof Scientific Research

There are two basic world indicators for scientif-ic research outputs: the number of studies andthe number of patents. While the Arab world’sshare of the former is low, its contribution in thelatter is entirely negligible, which may refer to acomplete absence of any relationship betweenscientific research and the actual production ofan economy. This in turn may be interpreted asindicating that the main motivation of scientificresearch is job promotion, and as such it is anindividual effort that is not institutionalized(IDRC, 2003; Gaillard et al, 2008).

As for productivity indicators, one of the fewsurprises is that the Arab world beats even NorthAmerica in the ratio of the amount of publishedresearch to the rate of expenditure on scientificresearch. However, with respect to the ratio ofthe amount of published research to the numberof researchers, the productivity of the Arabworld is the least of all regions, even when com-pared to the southern desert area in Africa(UNESCO, 1998).

IV. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHIN ENVIRONMENTAL FIELDS

This section presents results of the modest surveyresearch made by us as an attempt to explore andassess the state of scientific research in environ-ment fields. A presentation of the results in thoseArab countries selected within the research isshown in this section.

Saudi Arabia

Information was collected mainly from SaudiResearch Database (Qabas) of King Abdel AzizCity for Science and Technology. Mostresearch and studies were prepared by the uni-versities of King Saud, King Abdel Aziz, andKing Fahd for Petroleum and Minerals. Lessercontributions were made by King FaysalUniversity, Girls Faculty of Education, KingAbdel Aziz City for Science and Technology,and King Khaled University.

The number of research studies observed since2000 to date reached 87. It was noticed that


there is no definite link between most of the dif-ferent research either in one field or in differentfields, except in the case of repeated studies.There is no common research between differentdepartments, which points to few inter-discipli-nary studies.

Saudi research classification (Figure 2) points toa small share of worldwide problems (i.e. that donot affect one specific geographic area alone) outof the scientific research: 2% only were on cli-mate change, 1% each on ozone layer depletionand resource depletion, while 18% of the scien-tific studies were devoted to studying the loss ofbiodiversity. Research on water resources andwater pollution, and wastes represented 50%from the total published research.

Viewed from the perspective of the contribu-tion of different disciplines towards environ-mental research, it seems that researchers con-cerned with botany and civil engineering havethe most interest in environmental research(Figure 3); especially in the two fields of bio-diversity, for the first, and water resources andwater pollution, for the second. They are fol-lowed by research in chemical engineering(Wastes), environmental design (Urban envi-ronmental problems), chemistry (Wastes and

dispersion of hazardous substances), meteorol-ogy (Water resources and water pollution),and geology.

Saudi Arabia has recently established a group ofresearch centres of excellence (in 2007), some ofwhich have a tight and direct relationship withthe environment such as the Renewable EnergyResearch Center of Excellence of King FahdUniversity for Petroleum and Minerals and theEnvironmental Studies Center of Excellence ofKing Abdel Aziz University. The latter has anambitious plan that focuses on certain researchareas in participation with experts of differentdisciplines. It also plays a coordination rolebetween various agencies that participate in itsactivities. Although due to the juvenility of thecentre, it is difficult to assess its actual role so far,its vision and plan are promising.

In order to give the reader a closer idea aboutSaudi research subjects, here are some researchtitles in the different areas:

• Air Pollution – Studies of air polluters and theireffects on the environment and public healthin Yanbu industrial city.

• Climate Change – Clean production of hydro-gen via laser-induced methane conversion.

• Loss of Biodiversity – The application of molec-ular genetics to the conservation of Arabiangazelles.

• Marine Environment and Coastal Zones – Studyof environmental pollution in Tarout Gulf areausing remote sensing technology and geo-graphic information systems (GIS).

• Ozone Layer Depletion – Thermodynamicstudy of the formation, decomposition, andoxidation of methane in the soil atmosphere.

• Depletion of Resources – Use of dates in the pro-duction of degradable biopolymers.

• Dispersion of Hazardous Substances –Bioremediation of some heavy metals fromcontaminated regions by Actinomycetes.

• Urban Environment Problems – Drawing urbangrowth boundaries and their implications onthe Saudi cities.

• Wastes – Treatment of liquid industrial wastesusing green algae.

• Water Resources and Water Pollution –Assessing groundwater capabilities in Asfanvalley with respect to quantity and saltinessunder draught and rain conditions.


SAUDI ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCHIN THE PERIOD FROM 1998 TO 2007 CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FIELDS

FIGURE 2

Water resources andwater pollution33%

Wastes14%

Depletionof resources 1%

Urban environmentalproblems 7%

Dispersion of hazardoussubstances11%

Climatechange

2%

Ozone layer depletion1%

Marine environmentand coastal zones

6%

Air pollution7%

Loss ofbiodiversity18%

Source: Saudi Research Database "Qabas" of King Abdel Aziz City for Scienceand Technology in 2007

Syria

In the case of Syria, information was collectedfrom scientific periodicals dealing with engineer-ing and science subjects and published by themain Syrian universities. The biggest share wasfor the Damascus, El-Baath, and Tishreen uni-versities; and a small ratio for Halab University.The number of observed research studies fromthe year 2000 until now reached 75. As above,the remark about the absence of links betweendifferent research undertakings, and the scarcityof inter-disciplinary researches, is repeated.

Few differences exist vis-à-vis the Saudi example,and almost the same remarks are repeated(Figure 4): activities of more world-wide charac-ter which are not related to one geographic sitehave only 1% share; these areas are climatechange, depletion of resources, and ozone layerdepletion. It increases to 12% in the area of bio-diversity loss. And through the same sequencethe ratios of wastes, and water resources andwater pollution areas reach 55% of the totalamount of research. The largest differencebetween Syrian and Saudi environmentalresearch lies in that of urban environmentalresearch: in Syria these are fewer than in SaudiArabia; the difference, however, is little.

The following are some titles of Syrian researchstudies in different environmental fields:

• Air pollution – Study of distribution and dis-persion of gaseous pollutants in Damascus.

• Climate Change – Study of emissions producedfrom gas burning in vehicles.


SYRIAN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH STUDIESIN THE PERIOD FROM 1998 TO 2007AND CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FIELDS

FIGURE 4

Wastes25%

Urbanenvironmental

problems1% Dispersion of hazardous substances 13%

Ozone layer depletion 1%

Depletion of resources 1%

Marine environmentand coastal zones 8%

Loss ofbiodiversity 12%

Climate change 1%Water resources andwater pollution30%

Air Pollution 8%

Source: Scientific Periodicals of Damascus, El-Baath, Tishreen, and Halab Universities

CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES IN SAUDI ENVIRONMENTALRESEARCH IN THE PERIOD FROM 1998 TO 2007

FIGURE 3M

eteo

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gy

Civ

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Geo

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Phys

ics

Bota

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Che

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181614121086420

Number of Research Studies

Source: Saudi Research Database "Qabas" of King Abdel Aziz City for Science and Technology in 2007

• Loss of Biodiversity – Contribution in studyingbiodiversity of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetesin Barada basin.

• Marine Environment and Coastal Zones –Contribution in the study about distributionof perfume hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sedimen-taries and water of Banias city shores.

• Ozone Layer Depletion – Study into destroyinggases that are environmentally harmful to catalysts(Hexafluoride Ethane and Tetrafluoride Methane).

• Depletion of Resources – Selecting building andplastering materials through their environmen-tal specifications.

• Dispersion of Hazardous Substances – Study ofsoil pollution with Cadmium in Qatena area,and treating the soil.

• Urban Environmental Problems – Environmentalmanagement in small and medium enterprises:case study in the old city in Halab.

• Wastes – Absorption of pollutants in the dis-persed phase (experimental and mathematicalquestionnaire).

• Water Resources and Water Pollution – Usingbacterial flora as an indicator for water pollu-tion in the South Kabeer river.

Egypt

Survey research in Egypt is confined to theFaculty of Engineering at Cairo University whichis considered the largest and oldest engineeringcollege in the Arab world for many reasons. Thefirst is the multiplicity (in addition to the diversi-ty) of Egyptian environmental research authori-ties; unfortunately, this makes the collection (oreven survey) of their research a more difficulttask. The second reason is the important role ofengineering research in the environmental field(which is of more applied nature). Therefore, thedata drawn upon was taken from the Periodical ofthe Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University.

Before presenting the research results of theFaculty of Engineering at Cairo University, it isworth attempting to present in brief some otherEgyptian research authorities and their role inconducting environmental research, in order toprovide a more comprehensive overview of theenvironmental scientific research system in Egypt.We try to select authorities of administrativenature and diverse research specializations to clar-ify the extent of multiplicity of Egyptian researchauthorities working in environment field.

The National Research CentreThe National Research Centre is one of the biggestand oldest research centres in the Arab world. Itcomprises about 4,000 researchers, 1,000 of themholding doctorate degrees and working in 52 labo-ratories within 13 sections, including one sectionspecialized in environmental sciences research.This centre consequently possesses the infrastruc-ture and human resources necessary to produceinter-disciplinary environmental research.However, a proper evaluation of its functioningrequires more independent research.

Water Research CentreThis centre consists of 12 specialized research insti-tutes working in numerous fields and aiming toachieve the focal objective of the centre which isrealizing the optimal use of water through maxi-mizing water supply and minimizing water losses.Although all Water Research Centre branches takeinto consideration the environment and its conser-vation in producing their studies and research,some of these institutes are more directly con-cerned with environmental research in particular,such as: the Environment and Climate ResearchInstitute which concerns itself with climate changeat the local and regional levels and its impacts onwater resources; the River Nile Research Institute;the Water Management Research Institute; theDrainage Research Institute which focuses onwater recycling and re-use in irrigation; the CoastalResearch Institute; and the Groundwater ResearchInstitute which works towards the management ofgroundwater reservoirs and making use of them.

Desert Research CentreThis centre aims to provide adequate informa-tion to decision makers regarding desert landreclamation plans (as deserts represent more than95% of Egyptian lands) and making use of desertresources. The administrative structure of thecentre consists of four main sections: waterresources and desert soil, cultivating dry lands,breeding of cattle and poultry, and economic andsocial studies.

Institute of Environmental Researchand Studies, Ain Shams UniversityThis institute is considered a school for graduatestudies in environmental fields, hence it focuseson the preparation of scientific cadres in the envi-ronmental field. This institute adopts a compre-hensive approach based on systemic thinking for


environmental research. The centre’s seven sec-tions comprise different and numerous aspects ofenvironmental fields: environmental human sci-ences, educational sciences and environmentalinformation; environmental economic, legal, andadministrative sciences; and environmental fun-damental, medical, engineering, and agriculturalsciences. The institute accepts graduates of differ-ent scientific backgrounds, thus providing a rarechance for researchers to familiarize themselveswith numerous and different perspectives ontheir research topics.

Agricultural Research CentreAlthough the activities of this centre are notexplicitly concerned with environmental scientif-ic research, due to the nature of agriculturalactivities, environmental concerns are an integralpart of its research. The centre clearly recognizesthis fact; therefore it established a soil, water, andenvironment research institute to be one of the16 institutes affiliated to this centre. The activi-ties of this institute comprise many fields such as:environmental impact assessment of agriculturalprojects, production of fertilizers and environ-mentally safe bio-disinfectants, and assessmentand monitoring of the impact of urban expansionon agricultural lands.

Faculty of Engineering, Cairo UniversityAs previously mentioned, the Faculty ofEngineering at Cairo University is considered themain scientific research centre in Egypt. The num-ber of research studies undertaken reached 127since 2000 until the present. Our earlier remarksabout an absence of links between independentresearch studies and an absence of inter-discipli-nary research are repeated here. Figure 5 presentsthe environmental research studies conducted bythe Faculty of Engineering at Cairo Universityclassified according to environmental field withinthe period from 2000 to 2004. Analyzing the datashown in Figure 5 reveals that the shares of mostenvironmental fields are similar to those we out-lined earlier, except some differences that may beattributed to the applied nature of the Faculty ofEngineering; such as the following:• Scarcity of research on the loss of biodiversity

(1%).• Increased amount of research concerned with

urban environmental problems (20%).• Decreased amount of research on the depletion

of resources (6%).

As for the contribution of different specializations(sections) to environmental research studies, thefollowing sections occupy the leading positions:

• Public Works Section (mainly for waterresources and water pollution).

• Architectural engineering (urban environmen-tal problems, and marine environment andcoastal zones).

• Chemical engineering (distributed over differ-ent fields).

The lowest sections in producing environmentalresearch studies are: mechanical engineering(power, production, and other mechanical spe-cializations), while the computer and communi-cation sections have no contributions to environ-mental research at all.

Figure 6 presents the sectoral contribution of theFaculty of Engineering at Cairo University toenvironmental research within the period from2000 to 2004.

Below are some titles of research studies conduct-ed by the Faculty of Engineering at CairoUniversity in different environmental fields:• Air pollution – A study of air pollution inside

road tunnels.• Marine Environment and Coastal Zones –

Integrated coastal zone management – Anapproach to the protection and development ofthe coastal environment in Egypt.


ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CONDUCTED BYFACULTY OF ENGINEERING IN THE PERIOD FROM2000 TO 2004 CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FIELD

FIGURE 5


Wastes13%

Urbanenvironmentalproblems 20%

Depletionof resources6%

Dispersion ofhazardous substances7%

Marine environmentand coastal zones 7%

Loss of biodiversity 1%

Air pollution 4%

Source: Cairo Engineering College Scientific Magazine

• Resources Depletion – Assessment of rapeseedoil as an alternative fuel for diesel engines.

• Dispersion of Hazardous Substances –Degradation of pesticides wastewater usingnew surfactants.

• Urban Environmental Problems – Industrialzoning and urbanization contribution toEgypt’s urban planning.

• Wastes – Modelling and simulation of a fixedbed absorber for the removal of phenol fromindustrial effluents.

• Water Resources and Water Pollution – Waterresources development in the Blue Nile basinin Ethiopia and its impacts on Egypt.

Tunisia

The number of research studies observed inTunisia reached 58 since 2000 until the present(IRSIT, Université de 7 Novembre; Sécheresse).The two fields of ozone layer depletion andresources depletion were given more importancecompared to other countries; while the two fieldsof water resources and water pollution, andwastes were given the same share (combined

these occupy 48% of the total amount ofresearch). The share of the climate change fieldwas slightly higher at the expense of urban envi-ronmental problems. Positively, 25% of environ-mental research conducted in Tunisia was inter-disciplinary; this indicates the existence of a high-er degree of coordination between researchers ofdiverse scientific backgrounds.

Figure 7 presents Tunisian researches conductedwithin the period 2000-2007 classified accordingto environmental field.

Below are some titles of Tunisian research stud-ies in different environmental fields:

• Air Pollution – De-pollution of atmosphericemissions of wood pyrolysis furnaces.

• Climate Change – Variabilité climatique rapidelors du dernier Interglaciaire enregistrée dansles sédiments littoraux du Sud-Est Tunisien.

• Loss of Biodiversity – Biodiversité et évolution desplathelminthes parasites des Elasmobranches.

• Marine Environment and Coastal Zones –Contribution à l’étude des poissons pélagiquesdes eaux Tunisiennes.

• Ozone Layer Depletion – Variability of aerosoloptical thickness and atmospheric turbidity inTunisia.

• Depletion of Resources – Analysis by simulationof a solar still integrated in a greenhouse roof.

• Dispersion of Hazardous Substances –Degradation photocatalytique de colorantsdans l’eau.

• Urban Environmental Problems – Loisir etEspaces vertes.

• Wastes – A study on treatment and reuse of tex-tile wastewater.

• Water Resources and Water Pollution – The roleof membrane technologies in supplying drink-ing and industrial water in Tunisia.

V. RECOMMENDATIONS

The remainder of this chapter attempts to putforth some recommendations and suggestionswhich may contribute to finding the remedy ofthose aspects found to be deficient and to achiev-ing an optimal utilization of available capabili-ties. These recommendations represent a groupof ideas brought up for discussion and can beused as a basis for setting a plan for improving


CONTRIBUTION OF FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,CAIRO UNIVERSITY SECTIONSTO ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCHIN THE PERIOD FROM 2000 TO 2004

FIGURE 6

Number of research studies35

30

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Source: Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University Scientific Magazine

environmental scientific research conditions inArab countries according to the individual condi-tions faced by each country.

Setting a Strategy forEnvironmental Scientific Research

Despite the existence of strategies for scientificresearch in most Arab countries, no strategies areavailable for environmental scientific research.The importance of setting such strategies refers tothe nature of environmental concerns and worries,as there is a big diversity of theoretical and appliedsciences related to environmental field, and conse-quently the required resources (human or physi-cal) are scattered among different and diverseinstitutions and faculties. The current sum total ofthe research undertaken by these institutions isnot adequate to achieve the objectives of effectiveenvironmental action; if these resources are man-aged in a more planned and integrated manner,their synergy will achieve a level of productionlarger in quantity and better in quality. Besides,setting clear strategies for environmental scientificresearch shall contribute to determining clear pri-orities for research and rectifying any defaults orshortcomings in some research fields, especiallythose related to international long-range sustain-ability such as climate change, ozone layer deple-tion, and natural resources depletion which werepreviously mentioned.

A key question now remains to be answered: whois responsible for setting these strategies? Theanswer to this question is all, because environ-mental concerns are the responsibility of thewhole community: citizens and governments, sci-entists and religious figures, state authorities, civilcommunity, and the private sector. As all of thesehave the right to participate in setting objectivesand priorities, they should also participate insharing the costs of achieving these objectives.

The first step for setting the strategy – once pri-orities and objectives have been identified – isto ascertain the available resources to enabletheir optimal management and utilization. Forexample, research authorities and entitiesshould be surveyed. The same applies for theircapabilities such as: the number, specialization,and level of researchers; laboratories and devicesand their condition; and financial resourcesallocated for research (for example, in Egypt the

largest portion of the allocated budget goes tosalaries and the small remaining portion is spenton actual research).

We recommend planning applicable researchthrough a centralized mechanism to ensure thatthe research is more related to the reality and pri-orities of plans for environmental action; in somecases, researchers devote themselves to solvingproblems which are not given priority as regardsplans for environmental action at all, or such plansdo not even exist. This planning certainly does notmean the suppression of the innovative spirit ofresearchers. Consequently the strategies should bedynamic and open for discussion in order to beable to adapt themselves to any scientific or eco-nomic changes while leaving a reasonable marginof freedom in determining research points. Fromthe administrative point of view, it is recommend-ed to set a management system linking researchfinance with clear set of standards that make theassessment of proposed research points a straight-forward process that is not overly consuming ofeither time or effort, in order not to add furtherbureaucratic burdens to the scientific researchauthorities.

Centres of Excellence

The idea of centres of excellence is essentially oneof a pooling of available resources regarding a toppriority field or crucial problem into one centre,


TUNISIAN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCHCONDUCTED IN THE PERIOD 2000-2007 CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FIELD

FIGURE 7


Wastes16%

Dispersionof hazardoussubstances5%

Depletionof resources14%

Ozone layer depletion5%

Marineenvironment andcoastal zones7%

Loss of biodiversity 10%

Climate change 3%

Air pollution 5%

Urbanenvironmental

problems3%

Source: Scientific Institute for Scientific Research and Technology, Tunisia

which is thus responsible for coordinating effortsand managing the resources to achieve a set of spe-cific and ambitious objectives. As a clear example,many authorities participate in the research ofalternative energy sources. These authorities pos-sess several resources which, if combined togetherin a single centre of excellence, would be able todirectly cooperate without the need for a mediator.

Research Networks

Research networks are also one of the ways forachieving strategic objectives via gatheringresearchers of different scientific backgrounds inone research network which focuses on a specifictopic or issue. Thus inter-disciplinary researchstudies are able to inclusively cover differentaspects of the researched issue in a holistic man-ner. In this manner research will yield biggerreturns and possess more capabilities for develop-ing solutions and satisfying knowledge gaps.

An example of such a research network in theenvironmental field is the Collaborative MercuryResearch Network (COMERN) in Canada whichaims at monitoring and understanding theexchange and sedimentation of mercury in envi-ronmental systems to enable interpretation ofincreased mercury levels in Canadian lagoons.Researchers from all scientific fields related to thistopic participate in this research network. Theseresearchers represent 14 universities, 3 researchcentres, 3 governmental authorities, 12 civil com-munity organizations, and 7 industrial partners(companies). The network sets, within its plan,

specific research proposals and suggestions whichare considered a “way map” to achieve the net-work’s objectives. The network plan includes alldetails related to the research: starting fromadministrative frameworks and communicationsystems, until organizing intellectual property(copyright) and publication methods.

Regarding the Arab countries covered by ourresearch, there currently exists no model forresearch networks (according to the availableinformation), despite the existence of severalenvironmental concerns and fields that need tobe addressed in a comprehensive and inter-disci-plinary manner. A famous example of such envi-ronmental worries or fields is the black cloud inCairo with its diverse scientific, social, and eco-nomic dimensions.

Financing Problems andthe Industrial Sector

Although the research delivered in this chapterdoes not include clear information on the defi-ciency of scientific research finance in Arab coun-tries, there is no doubt that the Arab countriesneed to develop their financial resources in orderto be able to conduct and produce high levelresearch. Most scientific research finance in Arabcountries currently comes from the governmentand international donations.

As for governments, there is a wide consensus onthe necessity of increasing the general budgetshare for scientific research if there is any desire


to embark upon a path of sustainable develop-ment. Many experts have written on this topic,but it is one in which concrete action depends onthe prevailing notions of political interest. As forinternational donations, although they currentlyplay an important role, they cannot be consid-ered a sustainable and reliable resource to dependon, given their relevancy in political matters andtheir role in political negotiations.

At the same time, the industrial sector in Arabcountries has largely been shunning and disclaim-ing its responsibility towards scientific research,even as regards corporate social responsibilitywhich is currently limited to supporting footballclubs and congratulating chiefs on national feasts.Although this disregard is disapproved in the caseof scientific research in general, it is considered acrime in the case of environmental research whentaking into account the role of the industrial sec-tor in environment pollution.

The question now is how to motivate the indus-trial sector to assume its role in financing envi-ronmental research. The simple answer is provid-ing obvious economic incentives. If environmen-tal pollution penalties become more costly thanproviding scientific research finance (whileassuming the ability of research corporations toprovide economic alternatives for pollutionsources), and if taxes imposed on corporationsparticipating in scientific research finance werereduced, we would surely observe a great changein investors’ priorities and choices.

Some concerned stakeholders may see thatincreasing the value of penalties imposed on pol-lutants shall negatively affect Arab competitive-ness in attracting foreign investment. The onlyreply to this idea is that the mission of maintain-ing natural resources and the environment easilyprevails when compared to unsustainable levelsof national economic growth. The principle“who pollutes pays” is almost irrefutable, espe-cially as it captures the often-ignored environ-mental externalities of economic activities.

Although the industrial sector largely neglectsfinancing environmental scientific research, itshould not be considered to be solely responsiblefor this neglect. Environmental scientific researchinstitutions do not currently seek to adequatelymarket the results of their research and their rel-

evance and usefulness for the industrial sector(with the exception of the Egyptian and Saudipetroleum sectors which have relations withsome scientific research centres). Environmentalscientific research institutions also do not under-take adequate communication with the industri-al sector in order to ascertain the environmentalproblems it faces and provide tailored solutionsmatching its needs.

In some cases, it may be appropriate to establishcompanies that transform the results of researchor patents into income-generating economicprojects. Researchers and their corporationswould participate in these projects. These com-panies would increase the revenues of researchcorporations, in addition to providing additionalincentives to researchers who live off meagreincomes in most Arab countries. The idea ofestablishing companies for researchers andresearch corporations is not an unprecedentedinnovative idea, as it has already been widelyapplied all over the world.

Databases and Electronic Resources

The benefits of databases for environmentalresearch at the regional and Arab level are obvi-ous and diverse. Databases reduce the possibilityof the wasteful repetition of the same researchthrough different authorities. It also facilitatessearching for experts or professionals in any fieldin other research institutions or even in otherArab countries, to benefit from their experiences.Finally, for environmental policy and strategymakers, it facilitates effective decision making onsound knowledge bases.

Despite the existence of Arab research databasessuch as the Saudi Data Base (Qabas) and theEgyptian Bibliographic Database for Sciencesand Technology (STEB) which is under con-struction, the available information at these data-bases is classified according to colleges ratherthan according to research fields.

As regards electronic sites for research corpora-tions, a considerable number of these does notreach the required level, thus giving off a badimpression to any site visitor who may be apotential research or industry partner. Thereforethe development of these electronic sites shouldbe given top priority.


Albaath University Periodicals, available athttp://www.albaath-univ.edu.sy/

CIA – The World Fact Book.https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/(accessed December 17, 2007)

Collaborative Mercury Research Network website,COMERN, http://www.unites.uqam.ca/comern/

Damascus University Periodicals, available athttp://www.damasuniv.shern.net/arabic/index_ar.htm

Esty, Daniel C, Levy, Mark A., and Andrew Winston,“Environmental Sustainability in the Arab World”, inArab World Competitiveness Report 2002-2003. WEF,2002: 236-248.

IDRC, Research for Development in the Middle Eastand North Africa, Eglal Rached and Dina Craissati(eds.). IDRC, 2000.

Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique etTechnique website, http://www.irsit.rnrt.tn/inrst/

Gaillard, J., S. Hanafi, A. al Huzban, H. Khelfaoui, M.Kleiche, P. Larzilliere, “Draft Regional Report on ArabCountries: Study on National Research Systems,”Symposium on Comparative Analysis of NationalResearch Systems, January 2008.

Periodical of Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University.

Saudi Research Data Base (Qabas).http://www.srdb.org (accessed December 3, 2007)

Sécheresse. Informations et ressources scientifiquessur le développement des zones arides et semi-arides, websitehttp://www.secheresse.info/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=931

Statistical Office of the European Communities,“Towards Environmental Pressure Indicators for theEU”, 1999.

Tishreen University Periodicals, available athttp://www.tishreen.shern.net/

UNESCO, World Science Report, Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press, 1998.

Universite du 7 Novembre a Carthage website,www.univ7nc.rnu.tn

REFERENCES


Financing of Environment Programmes:Private-Public Partnership

227

HUSSEIN ABAZA

CHAPTER 17

I. INTRODUCTION

More than three-and-a-half decades have elapsedsince the Stockholm Conference on the HumanEnvironment and the establishment of the UnitedNations Environment Programme, and since thena series of multilateral environmental agreementshave been adopted by governments in the Arabregion. Nevertheless, the environment continuesto deteriorate and regional countries are not yet ona sustainable development path. These trends con-tinue in spite of the evidence that suggests that theunsustainable management of ecosystems was themain cause of the demise of old civilizations.There is therefore a compelling need for a seriousshift in mindsets that translates into concrete poli-cies a view of the environment not as a luxury ora constraint on economic growth, but as anopportunity and necessary requirement for sus-tainable development and human welfare.

II. THE REGIONAL CONTEXT

Several of the ancient civilisations originatedfrom the Middle East and evolved along the pros-perous Nile and the Euphrates rivers, and today,many of the modern Arab countries continue totake advantage of the region’s rich naturalresources. Most of the current environmentalproblems facing Arab countries can be attributedto a lack of awareness on the importance of theenvironment and the services it provides for eco-nomic growth and human welfare. This is reflect-ed in the lack of measures and approaches thatintegrate environmental considerations intonational development plans and policies. Thishas resulted in the unsustainable managementand use of natural and financial resources devot-ed to environmental projects and programmes.These factors, combined with changes in climat-ic conditions and high population growth ratesin the region, have compounded the complexenvironmental management challenges facing theArab world. Among the environmental problemsfacing the region are diminishing water resources,land degradation and desertification, limitedtreatment of municipal and industrial waste,coastal degradation, and uncontrolled waste andCO2 emissions from industry. Recent reportsshow that CO2 emissions in the Arab regionsoared to 1.2 trillion metric tons in 2003, an 81percent increase since 1990.1

Financing of Environment Programmes:National Responses

The economic cost of the unsustainable use ofnatural resources and environmental degrada-tion is substantially affecting the Arab regionand is negatively influencing efforts for socio-economic development and poverty reduction.World Bank estimates show that the annual costof environmental degradation ranges from 4 to9 percent of GDP for certain countries (Algeria,9.6 percent; Morocco, 8 percent; Syria, 7 per-cent; and Lebanon, 6 percent).2 Air pollutionalone costs Egypt an estimated 2.1 percent of itsGDP, which was equivalent to US$ 1.7 billionin 2003. The overall cost of environmentaldegradation for Egypt was estimated to be 5.4percent of its GDP.3 These ratios are higherthan those for Eastern Europe (5 percent) andsubstantially higher than those for OECD coun-tries (2-3 percent).

Though the cost of environmental degradation inthe region continues to rise, priority and financialresources allocated to address environmental con-cerns do not match the gravity of the problem.Not a single country in the region has allocatedeven close to 1 percent of its national budget forenvironmental purposes. The environment con-tinues to be given a low priority by sectoral min-istries, causing the environment and the goodsand services it provides to continue to deterio-rate. Moreover, the low budgets of ministries anddepartments concerned with the environment,which do exist in most Arab countries, accompa-nied by weak mandates, prevent these entitiesfrom having a real impact on the ground. Table1 shows the budgetary allocations on the envi-ronment from a sample of countries and Figure 1shows environmental expenditures as a percent-age of total budgets in these countries.

Another reason for the failure to halt environ-mental degradation is the general tendency tomake the ministry of environment the main bodyresponsible for addressing environmental issues.Considering the financial allocations providedfor environmental authorities, their institutionalcapacities, and the complexity of their mandates,it is likely that Arab countries will continue to failto achieve their environmental targets until themandates and roles of environmental authoritiesare redefined and a greater role is given to sectoral

FINANCING OF ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMMES: PRIVATE-PUBLIC PARTNERSHIPCHAPTER 17228

ministries to deal with environmental issues.Environmental degradation is a cause as well as aresult of a variety of factors, many of which fallunder the mandate of other ministries, such asagriculture, industry, urban planning, andmunicipal services.

The mandate of environmental authoritiesshould focus on environmental advocacy (mak-ing a case for the environment for ministries ofagriculture, industry, trade, social development,housing, urban planning and development, ener-gy, water, etc.) and the provision of technicalassistance and guidance to these ministries. Thisentails that sectoral and line ministries shouldtake the lead in ensuring the integration of envi-ronmental considerations in their activities, withenvironmental authorities providing advisoryand technical services and guidance to ministriesas well as setting aside money for pilot experi-ments in environmental management and incen-tives to achieve the targets required by nationallegislation. Another major responsibility of theenvironmental authorities should be the develop-

ment or amendment of environmental legislationand monitoring their implementation.

The complex environment-development-povertylinkages can only be addressed through inter-ministerial and cross-sectoral coordination.Confining the concept of environment to pollu-tion issues without acknowledging the linkbetween the environment and the services it pro-vides, and development and human welfare, willcontinue to present a major obstacle to the seri-ous consideration of the environment and itsintegration in the planning and decision makingprocesses in countries.

Financing the environment throughfunds and awards

To boost the meagre level of funding allocated tonational environmental programmes and activi-ties, many Arab countries have established finan-cial mechanisms for national, regional and inter-national development assistance through fundsand awards.


NATIONAL BUDGET ALLOCATIONS FOR THE ENVIRONMENTTABLE 1

Country Budget Allocation4

2004 2005 2006Bahrain (thousands Bahrain Dinars) - 7884.00 4745.0Lebanon (billions Lebanese Lira) 4.88 3.91 -Egypt (millions Egypt Pounds) - 877.10* 962.5**

*Figure for 2004-05, **Figure for 2005-2006Source: Compiled on the basis of official government budget documents

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPENDITURES AS A PERCENTAGEOF TOTAL BUDGETS IN BAHRAIN, EGYPT AND LEBANON

FIGURE 1

Source: Compiled on the basis of official government budget documents

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60%

Bahrain Egypt Lebanon

0.54% 0.54%

0.05%

0.30%

0.51%

0.04%

2005 2006

The Abu Dhabi Fund, Kuwait Fund, and SaudiFund are three such mechanisms. Definitive fig-ures are not available on the specific allocationsfor environmental projects for these three funds.However, using the water and sanitation sector asa proxy for the environment, the Kuwait Fundhas allocated 9.1 percent of its grants to Arabcountries (702.7 million Kuwaiti Dinars,approximately US$ 2.5 billion) for this sectorfrom its inception up until 2005.5 Between 1975and 2006, the Saudi Fund allocated 6.74 percent(1,794 million Saudi Riyals, approximately US$480 million) of its total funds to the sector,though it is unclear what portion of these fundsspecifically went to projects in the Arab region.6

The Zayed Prize, established by SheikhMohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Ruler ofDubai, offers the world’s highest environmentalaward, worth US$ 1 million every two years.During the first three rounds, four of the four-teen winners were from the Arab region.

To promote environmental awareness andencourage best practices, the city of Dubailaunched the Dubai International Award for BestPractices to Improve the Living Environment(DIABP) in 1996. Unfortunately, only three ofthe 46 winners of the US$ 400,000 award havebeen from the Arab region.

To encourage and finance research on waterissues, the Prince Sultan Bin AbdulazizInternational Prize for Water was launched in2002. The prize is an international award offeredevery two years to recognize distinguished scien-tists throughout the world. Three million SaudiRiyals are awarded to the recipient of this prize.

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has set upa GCC Environmental Award to encourage com-petitiveness, promote environmental awareness,sense of responsibility, and moral obligationtowards environmental preservation and resourceconservation and protection in the region. TheGCC award is divided into five categories: envi-ronmental awareness, environment personality,the best educational and research institution forthe environment, the best industrial establishmentin each member state that complies with environ-mental standards and specifications, and finally,the best research in the field of environment.

The Arab Gulf Programme for United NationsDevelopment Organizations (AGFUND) waslaunched in 1980 as a regional development ini-tiative. It has contributed more than US$ 235million to over 1,045 regional development proj-ects since its establishment and awards three US$300,000 prizes each year through the AGFUNDinternational prize for pioneering development


projects. Over the past seven years, three environ-mental projects on rationalizing water utilizationand its role in environment protection, the man-agement of water resources, and environmentalprotection through community-based activitiesreceived the award amounting to US$ 900,000.7

In addition to allocations through these nationaland regional funds, the Arab region has support-ed international environmental programmesthrough contributions to the Environment Fundof the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP). Kuwait was at one point one of the top20 donors to UNEP, and though it has sinceslipped to a lower position, it is still the largestArab contributor, providing US$ 200,000 annu-ally to the fund.8 The UAE provided a substantialUS$ 7.6 million donation to the fund in 2004,but ceased its contributions in 2006. Oman,Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Yemen have also maderecent contributions to the fund.9

Financing the environment throughthe private sector

Over the last few years, the Arab region has expe-rienced a rapid increase in the number of privateinitiatives that contribute to environmental pro-tection. An increasing number of companies havejoined the Global Compact Initiative (GCI),though many have been categorised as inactivecompanies due to non-compliance with report-ing requirements.

Nevertheless, there are several environmentallyresponsible private sector entities that provideencouraging examples for development and envi-ronmental protection. One example is theSEKEM Holding in Egypt, which has based itsoperational strategy on caring for the environmentthrough investments in organic agriculture andcommunity development. Other examples includea Jordanian-Russian joint venture in the field ofrenewable energy that was launched in June 2007with the aim of reducing energy consumptionfrom traditional sources. The venture has alreadyestablished ten patents in the fields of solar, wind,geothermal and biogas energy, and is currentlydeveloping a number of partnerships withJordanian universities for research and develop-ment. On the consumer product scale, Vodafonein Egypt is financing an initiative to encourage theuse of solar powered phone chargers.

In the United Arab Emirates, the Al Maha Resortis a world-class retreat where ecology has beenput to work for tourism. The British Gas (BGGroup) in Egypt is developing a BiodiversityAction Plan, which it plans to implement in closecollaboration with government agencies respon-sible for implementing the National BiodiversityStrategy and Action Plan. Egypt’s MansourManufacturing and Distribution Group, afterjoining the Global Compact, has invested inwater and energy efficiency and is converting itsfleet of over 900 vehicles to natural gas.

There has been a mixed response from the bank-ing sector. Out of the top 50 Arab banks, only 11have shown some form of commitment to socialresponsibility principles. An analysis of thebanks’ corporate social responsibility (CSR)frameworks show that only the National Bank ofDubai, Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, GulfBank, Banque Morocaine du CommerceExtérieur (BMCE), First Gulf Bank, NationalBank of Kuwait, Bank Muscat, and NationalBank of Bahrain have taken environmental con-cerns into account.

And lastly, the recent 4th Corporate SocialResponsibility Summit in Dubai brought topexecutives from 18 countries together to discussissues, challenges and trends in CSR. However,no financial commitments were made by Arabcompanies attending the summit.

Financing the environment throughnon-governmental organizations(NGOs)

The Arab region lacks a network of vibrant, effec-tive and organised civil society groupings that cansuccessfully raise the awareness and financialresources necessary to address key environmentalchallenges. A recent survey of the NGO sectorfound that “NGOs in the Arab region, in gener-al, are particularly lacking the skills of launchingcampaigns on particular topics of special impor-tance to the region, developing programmes andpreparing project proposals for funding by bilat-eral and multilateral agencies.”10 The ArabNGOs Network for Development (ANND),which was established in June 1996, has a mem-bership of only 45 NGOs from 12 Arab coun-tries. Out of these 45, very few have an environ-mental agenda or mandate. Additionally, only a


very limited number of Arab NGOs are knownoutside the Arab region. For example, DukeUniversity’s database of environmental NGOsincludes only four from the Arab region.

However, there are a few well-established NGOsthat have been successful in bringing externalresources to the region. The Arab Forum forEnvironment & Development (AFED) is onesuch example. AFED is playing a key role inbringing the public, private and NGO sectorstogether using funding resources from member-ship fees, contributions to AFED’s Trust Fund,sponsorship of programmes by corporate part-ners and organizations, and income from theForum’s activities and services. In partnershipwith the Environment Agency of Abu Dhabi,and in cooperation with UNEP and the WorldBusiness Council for Sustainable Development,it organised a successful Arab CorporateEnvironmental Responsibility Summit inNovember 2007 in Abu Dhabi attended byCEOs of a large number of Arab companies.

They committed themselves to reducing waterand energy uses in their companies by 20% in theyear 2020 from the base year 2000.

The Jordanian Network for EnvironmentallyFriendly Industries (JNEFI) and the EmiratesEnvironmental Group (EEG) are other suchinitiatives, which have been able to redirectexternal finances for environmental purposes inthe region.

Financing the environment throughregional cooperation

As a result of the growing concern over the envi-ronment, different institutions and financialmechanisms have been established at nationaland regional levels to address environmentalproblems. Lately, there has been an increase inaid from rich Arab countries to least developedArab countries. Saudi Arabia has been by far thelargest Arab donor to the region, followed byKuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).Between the years 2000-2003, GCC countriesprovided US$ 13.7 billion in development aid tothe region, with Saudi Arabia contributing 58percent of that total.11 Development projectsfinanced from these resources have been takingenvironmental considerations more seriouslythan before.

A number of institutions have been set up toaddress environmental issues; these included theCouncil of the Arab Ministers Responsible forthe Environment (CAMRE), its technicalSecretariat in the League of Arab States (LAS), aswell as the Sustainable Development Initiative inthe Arab Region and the Regional CapacityBuilding Programme on Trade and Environmentfor the Arab Region.

Other regional initiatives that provide fundingfor environmental projects in the Arab region are:the Regional Organisation for the Protection ofthe Marine Environment (ROPME), theRegional Organization for the Conservation ofthe Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden (PERSGA), The Mediterranean ActionPlan (for the five North African Arab countries aswell as Syria and Lebanon), the Arab Center forthe Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands(ACSAD), the International Center forAgricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICAR-

INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR AGRICULTURALRESEARCH IN THE DRY AREAS FINANCING

TABLE 2

2001 2002Total Disbursement 22,038,000 24,229,000(Figures in US$)

Source: ICARDA, Annual Report 2002 (2002), Appendix 7,http://www.icarda.org/publications/annualreport/2002/Financial.htm

TOTAL PROJECT DISBURSEMENTBY PERSGA FROM 1999 TILL 2002

FIGURE 2

Source: PERSGA, SAP Annual Report 2002 (2002), p. 36,http://www.persga.org/Publications/Technical/pdf/2%20SAP%20Annual%20Reports%2099-02/SAP%20Annual%20Report%202002%20(English).pdf

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

1999 2000 2001 2002

Million US$

684

2,023

4,447

2,238


DA), and the Center for Environment andDevelopment for the Arab Region and Europe(CEDARE). (For more on ROPME, PERSGA,and the MAP, see chapter 6.)

As shown in Figure 2, PERSGA disbursed US$9.3 million in project funds from 1999-2002,and ICARDA disbursed US$ 46 million from2001-2002 (Table 2). In both cases, the amountsthat were provided to each Arab country projectswere not specified.

In March 2006, the Arab Summit endorsed thecreation of an Arab Environment Facility (AEF),as a regional body structured along the lines of theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF). TheEconomic and Social Council of the League ofArab States (LAS) has approved the bylaws of theAEF in March 2008, with its transitory secretari-at hosted by the Lebanese Ministry ofEnvironment. The work plan is expected to besubmitted to the Council of Arab MinistersResponsible for the Environment (CAMRE) bythe end of 2008 for endorsement and referral toother LAS bodies. The plan envisages member-ship of the AEF Managing Board to include ArabGovernments and development funds. While aninitial budget of $30,000,000 is targeted, contri-butions will be on voluntary basis. AEF’s mandatecovers financing Arab projects in various environ-mental fields and facilitating private sector invest-ment in environment protection projects.

III. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION:BILATERAL AND GLOBAL LEVELS

International development assistance to the Arabregion fluctuates depending on the geopoliticalconditions of the region. Egypt received approx-imately 30 percent of the overall international aidto the region in 1999, but received 10 percent in2003; whereas Iraq received less than 2 percent in1999, but obtained more than 27 percent of theoverall aid to the region in 2003.12

The European Union (EU) and United States ofAmerica (USA) have been the major donors tothe region. Financial support by the EU has beenfairly consistent during the last three decades,whereas US support has been influenced by polit-ical and security considerations. Overall aid hasvaried widely over the past 30 years (Figure 3).

In 2005, aid to the least developed Arab countries(the Comoros Islands, Djibouti, Mauritania,Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen), which have thegreatest need for funding to address their environ-mental and poverty problems, was around US$2.5 billion (less than what it was in 1990), where-as overall aid to the Mashreq region (Egypt, Iraq,Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Syria) was aroundUS$28 billion (close to double what it was in1990 and almost five times that of 2000).

A not so bright picture emerges when we look atthe international aid targeted for environmentprogrammes and projects. USAID provided US$48.5 million in funding for the environment in2002.13 However, according to the 2004 USAIDEgypt Strategic Plan Update, the funding allocat-ed to the environmental component of the budg-et was discontinued and reallocated to othercomponents. In Jordan, the USAID funding forwater resource management was reduced fromUS$ 58 million in 2006 to US$ 45 million in2007. In Lebanon, USAID completely eliminat-ed funding for its programme on improved envi-ronmental policies and practices in 2007; in2004, it had provided US$ 12.4 million to theprogramme.14 The USAID Programmes forYemen and Iraq (2002-2005) do not include anyexplicit allocations for the environment.

The European Union committed more than € 3.4 billion under MEDA I (the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership financial instrument)for the period 1995-1999, and € 5.35 billionbetween 2000-2006 for MEDA II. However,only € 12 million per year was allocated by the

OVERALL AID TO THE ARAB REGIONFIGURE 3

Source: ESCWA: 2007, Economic Trends and Impacts: Foreign Aid and Development in the ArabRegion, Issue No 4. New York.

1977 2000 2004

Billions of US $

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

16

5.6

12


MEDA II budget for the promotion of the fullintegration of environmental concerns in thedevelopment process.15 To provide additionalfunding, the European Investment Bank (EIB)disbursed € 7.4 billion in loans for the Euro-Mediterranean area.16 The Facility for EuroMediterranean investment and Partnership(FEMIP), an EIB initiative that covers many ofthe Arab region countries, has supported envi-ronmental protection projects with more than € 2.5 billion in loans from 1995-2004, account-ing for 22 percent of its lending over that period.17

The World Bank (WB) funding for environmentin the MENA region was cut by almost 75 per-cent between 2000 and 2001, but returned to itsprevious levels by 2003, as seen in Figure 4.18 Inaddition to this funding, the WB was the leadinginstitution in developing and updating theMiddle East and North Africa RegionEnvironment Strategy. During the first five yearsof the strategy’s implementation (1995-2000),investments in environment-related projectstotalled US$ 3.4 billion, including US$ 2.3 bil-lion allocated to water-related projects.

The World Bank Institute (WBI) approved eightenvironmental projects in the Arab region forfunding in 2006, representing a total commit-ment of US$ 111.8 million.19 WBI has also pro-vided training workshops to the region. In 2006,

5 percent of the participants at the WBI work-shops came from the Middle East and NorthAfrica region, and 17 percent of the training daysfocused on the environment and sustainabledevelopment.20

The United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) spent US$ 430 million on its pro-grammes in the Arab region in 2006.21 Over 13Arab countries have so far received UNDP GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF) support in focal areasrelated to biodiversity, climate change, interna-tional waters, and national capacity self-assess-ment, including Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan,Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Palestinian Authority,Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen.22

UNEP is providing financial and technical sup-port to Arab countries for environment-relatedactivities. Areas being covered include early warn-ing and assessment, post-conflict assessment,management of drylands and natural resources,water resource management, compliance with theMontreal Protocol, and the interface betweentrade and environment. In partnership with theUnited Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Western Asia (ESCWA) andCAMRE, UNEP has developed a five-year region-al trade and environment capacity building pro-gramme for Arab countries, aimed at identifyingpriorities for capacity building activities and devel-

WORLD BANK FUNDING FOR THE MENA REGIONFIGURE 4

Environmental and Natural Resource Management

Source: The World Bank, Annual Report 2005, World Bank Lending in Middle East and North Africa (2005)

Millions US$

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

123.3

27.5

21.7

186

113.8

160.2

0 50 100 150 200


oping a long-term programme for the region. Thisprogramme sets the stage for collaborationbetween ministries of environment, planning andtrade in order to integrate environmental and sus-tainable development considerations in trade poli-cies as well as bilateral and multilateral trade nego-tiations. UNEP has supported two national proj-ects in Lebanon that analysed the effects of tradeliberalization on the agriculture sector. One proj-ect focused on the reduction of methyl bromide,and one examined the impact of the EU-LebanonAssociation Agreement on the olive oil sector.23

ESCWA is also providing assistance, mainly tothe Mashreq and Gulf regions, through its pro-grammes on sustainable development and pro-ductivity; globalization and regional integration;and emerging and conflict related issues. The sus-tainable development and productivity pro-gramme includes a special focus on energy, waterresources, sustainable environmental manage-ment and private sector and institutional devel-opment. In 2002 ESCWA allocated US$ 74,000from its trust fund for capacity building in sup-port of sustainable environmental economic pol-icy, and US$ 47,721 for preparations for theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development.24

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has alsoprovided targeted financial and capacity buildingsupport to the region to address challenges relatedto climate change. Lately, countries from the ArabRegion have reported to the GEF needs related tothe lack of capacity for the preparation of GHG(greenhouse gases) inventories, assessments ofimpacts and vulnerability to climate change, facil-itation of adaptation to the adverse effects of cli-mate change, and the identification and imple-mentation of measures for addressing climatechange.25 The region received a total of US$ 282million from the GEF between 1991-2005, whichis less than 5 percent of total GEF allocations. Asshown in Figure 5, Egypt received the largest per-centage of total funding, with 28 percent of theregional total, followed by Morocco, with 25 per-cent, and Tunisia, with 15 percent. Iraq, Kuwaitand Qatar did not receive any funding from GEFduring this period (Table 3).

The strong interest and political commitment inthe region to multilateral environmental agree-ments (MEAs) is reflected in the ratifications andaccessions to over 64 international and regional

environmental conventions and agreements.26

However, national policy and institutional failurecoupled with a lack of financial resources haveresulted in only partial success in terms of theachievement of their objectives at the nationallevel. As shown in Table 4, most countries in theArab region have signed major internationalenvironmental agreements, but policy and insti-tutional failures have hindered progress on theirimplementation. Moreover, a recent report onthe Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)shows that the Arab region has not made signifi-cant progress on any of the indicators to measureprogress towards achieving MDG 7 (EnsuringEnvironmental Sustainability).

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS

A more holistic approach to policy developmentis essential for effective environmental protectionpolicies. Mainstreaming environment intonational development policies, plans and budgetsshould be a key priority. Arab countries shouldadopt an integrated approach for policy develop-ment and implementation, with a full under-standing and consideration of the relationshipand feedback loops between the three pillars of

DISTRIBUTION OF THE GEF FUNDING TO ARABCOUNTRIES (MILLIONS US$) (1991-2005)

FIGURE 5

Source: GEF Annual Report 2005

Djibouti1.47

Egypt79.95

Morocco69.88

Tunisia41.56

Eritrea8.54

Mauritania3.42

Jordan21.51

Lebanon7.33

Oman1.17

Libya0.48

Sudan4.57

Syria10.59

Saudi Arabia0.35

Yemen11.68

Comoros3.66

Alegria15.5


sustainable development: environmental, social,and economic. Sectoral line ministries should beencouraged to integrate environmental and socialconsiderations into their policies and pro-grammes. This will entail the promotion of inter-ministerial coordination and the involvement ofrelevant stakeholders in the design and imple-mentation of policies, plans, and programmes.

Environment should cease to be considered inisolation from macroeconomic policies. It shouldbe regarded as a necessary prerequisite for sus-tainable development and as an opportunityrather than as a constraint for development.Policies should be designed to utilize the environ-ment, its ecosystem and the services it provides asan opportunity to access markets and promotetrade, create jobs and advance development andhuman welfare. Viewed in this way, sectoral min-istries should be encouraged to take environmen-tal considerations into account. To support thisapproach, capacities of environmental authoritiesshould be strengthened to provide technical assis-tance on environmental issues to line and sectoralministries, and to increase their ability to addressenvironmental priorities. In addition to increasedeffectiveness in achieving environmental and sus-tainable development objectives, adopting suchan integrated approach will also reduce the finan-cial burden on ministries of environment.

Since aid flow is dependent on geopolitical cir-cumstances, countries in the region need to con-sider developing a permanent mechanism tofinance environmentally sustainable projects. Astrategy for gradually reducing dependence onexternal funding should be developed. There are

a number of existing funding mechanisms estab-lished by Arab countries; however, environmentis not a priority for many of them. These mecha-nisms should be encouraged to include environ-mental sustainability as a priority.

While the long-term strategy should be based onreducing reliance on external funding, regularroundtables on environment and economicgrowth between development assistance institu-tions and national entities should in the mean-time be organised at the national and regionallevels in order to ensure that the special needs ofcountries in the region, particularly least devel-oped countries, are taken into account. In addi-tion, Arab countries should adopt a proactiveapproach to enable themselves to effectively uti-lize funding opportunities provided throughexisting funding mechanisms such as the Aid forTrade and the integrated framework facilities inorder to promote sustainable trade, as well asenvironmental and development objectives.Another funding resource largely under-utilizedby Arab countries is the GEF. Capacities shouldbe built to enable Arab countries to developfunding proposals that could be financedthrough this mechanism.

Regional cooperation is essential in order toaddress specific issues unique to the region.Improved regional cooperation will not onlyimprove environmental indicators but will alsocreate a greater prospect for trade between coun-tries of the region, exchange experience andknowledge and address priority environmentalproblems of common concern to the region.

Currently, resource allocations for research anddevelopment in the Arab region are meagre.Sufficient budgetary allocations need to be madeto finance research and development, includingtechnology development, data collection, institu-tional and technical capacity building of the pub-lic and private sector. Government capacities needto be enhanced to address environmental and sus-tainable development challenges, including theadoption of the right policies and the appropriatetechnologies to address these challenges. Sufficientand reliable data is essential to understand thelinkages between policies and environmentaldegradation and in the development of appropri-ate measures and approaches to achieve environ-mental and sustainable development objectives.

GEF FUNDING TO ARAB COUNTRIES(1991-2005)

TABLE 3

Country Mil US $ Country Mil US $Algeria 15.50 Mauritania 3.42Bahrain 0.34 Morocco 69.88Comoros 3.66 Oman 1.17Djibouti 1.47 Saudi Arabia 0.35Egypt 79.95 Sudan 4.57Eritrea 8.54 Syria 10.59Jordan 21.51 Tunisia 41.56Lebanon 7.33 Yemen 11.68Libya 0.48

Source: Calculated on the basis of Global Environment Facility Annual Reports


The current system of national accounts does notprovide a true indicator for sustainable develop-ment, as it does not reflect the depletion anddegradation of environmental resources. On thecontrary, it provides a flawed and distorted indi-cator for sustainable development; for example, itcategorizes the sale of natural assets and capital asan income and not as a cost. In other words, itdoes not treat natural capital the same way ittreats human-made capital. A system of integrat-ed environmental and economic accountingneeds to be introduced to provide a true indica-tor for sustainable development.

Market incentives should also be promoted as atool to internalize environmental and social costsand to alter production and consumption patternstowards more sustainable patterns. Internalizingcosts will promote efficiency, reduce waste, andencourage innovation, in addition to generatingrevenues for environmental projects. The use ofeconomic instruments to internalize environmen-tal costs will also help generate income for govern-ments to help finance environmental and sustain-able development activities.

Trade is a driving force for growth and develop-ment and provides an opportunity for businessthat must be fostered. However, it is essential thatthe impacts of trade and trade liberalization arefully assessed so that their consequences are

known and addressed in order to avoid or mitigatepotential negative implications. Such an assess-ment will help reduce potential environmentaldamage, lessen the associated remedial costsinvolved and enhance the net development gainsfrom trade. Moreover, a comprehensive integratedassessment of trade and trade liberalization poli-cies will enable countries to fully understand theconsequences of trade on sectors such as agricul-ture, industry, tourism, and the impact of sectorcontraction or expansion on the environment(natural resource depletion and degradation), theeconomy (GDP growth, per capita incomes), andsociety (employment, health, equity).

In order to capitalize on the opportunities tradeprovides, Arab countries and their business sec-tors need to adopt a more proactive approach,which includes their involvement in standardssetting, including environmental standards. Inaddition, Arab countries must acquire a clearunderstanding of local capacities in order toeffectively manage the extent to which their pub-lic and private sectors can respond and cope withenvironmental standards and hence enhancetheir market access opportunities.

The full potential of the private sector in theArab region to contribute to environmental andsustainable development objectives has not yetbeen utilized. The private sector can provide the

RATIFICATION OF MEAS BY ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 4

Country Montreal Basel Convention on Climate Change Stockholm CITESProtocol Convention/ Biodiversity/ Convention/ Convention

Basel Ban Cartagena Kyoto ProtocolProtocol

Bahrain X X / - X / - X / - - -Egypt X X / X X / X X / - X XJordan X X / X X / X X / X X XKuwait X X / - X / - X / - - XLebanon X X / - X / - X / - X -Mauritania X X / - X / - X / - - XOman X X / X X / X X / - X -Qatar X X / X X / - X / - X XSaudi Arabia X X / - - / - X / - - XSudan X - / - X / - X / X - XSyria X X / X X / X X / - - XUAE X X / - X / - X / - X XYemen X X / - X / - X / X X X

Source: Southern Agenda on Trade and Environment Phase II, Arab Region, Resource Paper (2005)


necessary human and financial resources andentrepreneurial skills to promote the environ-ment as a market and business opportunity.Conducting business through sustainable prac-tices can result in a more efficient use ofresources, reduce waste, and encourage innova-tion. Businesses should be encouraged to adoptthe principles of responsible investment, andinvest in activities that contribute to achievingsustainable development. Creating opportunitiesand encouraging investors to invest in greenstocks, a rapidly growing market, could also gen-erate funds for environmental projects. It istherefore essential to provide incentives for theprivate sector to engage in environmental andsustainable development activities at the nationaland regional level.

The financial sector should be encouraged tocomplement government efforts in implement-ing environmental and sustainable developmentprojects. This can take the form of providingmicro-finance to small farmers and small- andmedium-size enterprises, low interest rates andpreferential repayment of loans for projectsaimed at dealing with environmental issues, suchas conserving water, reducing energy consump-tion, or promoting sustainable agriculture.

Building capacity of the civil society can also beinstrumental in resource mobilization and insupporting environmental and sustainable devel-opment projects in countries in the region. Arabcountries should therefore promote and encour-age the creation of a vibrant and environmental-ly conscious civil society that can effectively sup-port government efforts in financing and imple-menting sustainable development projects.

There is a need to promote public-private part-nership in the region. There are already severalsuccessful examples of public-private partner-ships for financing environmental conservationin the Arab region. These models need to beencouraged and replicated. Examples include thepromotion of organic agriculture (SEKEMmodel in Egypt), development of eco-tourismparks (Al Maha Resort model in UAE), develop-ment of sector specific strategies for priority envi-ronmental issues (BG Group’s BiodiversityAction Plan for Egypt), green building designs(Toyota model), environmentally friendly hotels,and carbon neutral cities. Promoting eco-tourismcould also help reduce coastal degradation andgenerate additional revenues.

V. CONCLUSION

Though Arab countries in general have a greatdeal in common such as historical background,geographical proximity and cultural and socialbackground, they can be grouped along threemain groupings: Northern Africa,27 the GulfStates,28 and the conflict-stricken states.29 Each ofthese groups is characterized by unique geopoliti-cal, economic, and social circumstances and con-straints. Environmental and developmental prob-lems facing these groups of countries are to a largeextent attributed to the different geopolitical, eco-nomic and social circumstances these groups ofcountries experience. Policies and plans to addressthe environmental and development challenges inthe region should therefore be designed takinginto account the specific circumstances of coun-tries, including existing human, institutional andfinancial resources and capacities.


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REFERENCES


The World Bank (WB), Middle East and North AfricaRegion, Environment Strategy Update, 2001-2005.2001. p. 2,http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/mna/mena.nsf/Attachments/MNA+Environment+Strategy/$File/MNA+Env+Strategy+-+Dec+2001.doc (accessed March 5, 2008).

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The World Bank Institute (WBI), Projects & Operations,Project Portfolio Advanced Search: “Middle East andNorth Africa” and “Environment and Natural ResourcesManagement.” 2007.http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/0,,menuPK:51563~pagePK:95873~piPK:95910~theSitePK:40941,00.html (accessed March 15, 2008).

1 ESCWA, LAS, Arab Region State ofImplementation on Climate Change (2005),http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd14/escwaRIM_bp2.pdf.

2 The World Bank, Middle East and North AfricaRegion, Environment Strategy Update, 2001-2005(December 2001), p. 2,http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/mna/mena.nsf/Attachments/MNA+Environment+Strategy/$File/MNA+Env+Strategy+-+Dec+2001.doc.

3 Karim Makdisi and Carol Chouchani Cherfane,Southern Agenda on Trade and EnvironmentPhase II, Arab Region, Resource Paper (2005),p. 18.

4 Allocation for environmental authority/ministry inthe national budget

5 Kuwait Fund, 43rd Annual Report 2004-2005,Table A: Geographical and Sectorial Distribution ofTotal Fund Loans (2005), http://www.kuwait-fund.org/e/a2005.asp.

6 SFD, The SFD’s Activities during the Period 1975-2006, Sectoral Distribution of SFD Loans (Projectsand Programs) (2007),http://www.sfd.gov.sa/english/sec_dist.htm.

7 AGFUND website (2006), http://www.agfund.org.8 UNEP, UNEP 2005 Annual Report,

Funding Annex (2005),http://www.unep.org/AnnualReport/2005/Annual_Report18_Annexes.pdf.

9 UNEP, Report to the Committee of PermanentRepresentatives (CPR) (2007).

10 AFED, “Advanced Programming and LobbyingTechniques Workshop for Arab Civil SocietyOrganizations,” 14 November 2007,http://www.afedonline.org/en/inner.aspxcontentID=223.

11 UN, The Millennium Development Goals in theArab Region 2005, Summary (New York: UnitedNations, 2005).

12 Tarik Alami, ESCWA, “MDGs in the Arab Region2007: Progress and Challenges” (2007),http://www.un.org/ga/president/61/follow-up/doha/MDGs-Alami.ppt.

13 USAID, Budget Justification to the Congress,Fiscal Year 2007, Egypt Budget (2007),http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2007/ane/eg.html.

14 USAID, Budget Justification to the Congress,Fiscal Year 2007, Lebanon Budget (2007),http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2007/ane/lb.html.

15 EC EuropeAid Co-Operation Office, EU FundingOpportunities in the Mediterranean Region:Information Note (2003),http://www.delwbg.ec.europa.eu/ar/funding/EU_med_fund_opportunities.PDF.

16 Ziad Abdel Samad and Kinda Mohamadieh,Arab NGO Network for Development, “The Arab region: at the crossroad ofdevelopment security and human rights”(2006),http://www.socialwatch.org/en/informesTematicos/110.html.

17 EIB, FEMIP: Environment and SustainableDevelopment in the Mediterranean PartnerCountries (2005),http://www.eib.org/cms/htm/en/eib.org/attachments/country/femip_environment_en.pdf.

18 The World Bank, Annual Report 2005, World BankLending in Middle East and North Africa (2005),http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTANNREP/EXTANNREP2K5/0,,contentMDK:20638735~menuPK:1605583~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:1397343,00.html.

19 WBI, Projects & Operations, Project PortfolioAdvanced Search: “Middle East and North Africa”and “Environment and Natural ResourcesManagement” (2007).

20 WBI, 2006 Annual Report, Appendix 3: Thematicand Regional Distribution of Programs, FY04-FY06(2006),http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbiAR06-appendix3ThematicandRegionalDistPrograms.pdf.

21 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),UNDP in the Arab Region (2007),http://www.undp.org/arabstates/Docs/RBAS-Fact-Sheet.pdf.

22 UNDP, Arab States, Energy and Environment(2006),http://www.undp.org/arabstates/energy.shtml.

23 UNEP, Economics and Trade Branch Publications,http://www.unep.ch/etb/publications/index.php.

24 ESCWA, ESCWA 2002, The Annual Report (2003),http://www.escwa.org.lb/information/publications/edit/upload/oes-03-1.pdf.

25 Global Environment Facility (GEF), GEF AnnualReport 2005, Fertile Ground: Seeding NationalActions for the Global Environment (2005),http://www.gefweb.org/Outreach/outreach-PUblications/documents/2005_Annual_Report.pdf.

26 UNEP, UNEP in the Regions, West Asia (2002)http://www.unep.org/drc/documents/ROWAbookletEnglish.pdf.

27 Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Libya, Mauritania,Morocco, Tunisia.

28 Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, SaudiArabia, Syria, UAE, Yemen.

29 Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Somalia, Sudan.

NOTES


Response to International andRegional Agreements

241

IBRAHIM ABDEL GELIL

CHAPTER 18

I. INTRODUCTION:ARAB COUNTRIES’ RESPONSESTO MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTALAGREEMENTS (MEAS)

The ratification of MEAs by any country, includ-ing the Arab countries, has a multitude of bene-fits. The clearest benefits of any particular MEAusually relate to the specific goals of that MEA.For example, the Basel Convention seeks to pro-tect human health and the environment fromillegal transport and disposal of hazardous waste,thus protecting human health and the environ-ment specifically in developing countries wherecapacity to deal with such hazardous wastes isweak. In addition to these MEA-specific benefits,there are some general benefits of ratifying,implementing, complying with, and enforcingMEAs. Some of these benefits are:

Improving Natural Resources Governance

Many MEAs improve the governance and man-agement of natural resources. For example,MEAs often seek to avoid or limit resource-driv-en conflicts by promoting equitable arrange-ments, for instance regarding access to freshwater within an international watercourse basin.

International Political Commitment and Respect

Most MEAs address global environmental chal-lenges that are shared by many nations. It is there-fore necessary for the international community tounite to find a solution to those global challenges.Those countries that do not engage in a dialogueon the problem in good faith – or who engage,but do not undertake good faith efforts to ratify,implement, and enforce the MEA – risk interna-tional criticism. This criticism can undermine thecountry’s credibility and erode the willingness ofother countries to take action on other, unrelatedmatters such as trade, development, security, orsocial issues. That is, there are linkages betweeninternational cooperation on environmentalissues and cooperation in other areas.

Financial Assistance

Often, a country considers becoming party to anMEA in order to access funding through the MEA,

multilateral sources (such as the GEF), and certainbilateral sources. Except for the GCC countrieswhich are ineligible for aid, in most of the cases ofbilateral and multilateral funding of environmen-tal initiatives in the Arab countries, ratification ofsome MEAs were a prerequisite for funding.

Technical Assistance and Networking

In addition to financial assistance, MEAs oftenfacilitate technical assistance, for examplethrough technology transfer. Additionally, MEAsecretariats often help build capacity of govern-mental authorities to implement the MEA byfostering regional and global networks throughwhich members share experiences. A good exam-ple of this case is the Basel Convention RegionalCentre for Training and Technology Transfer forArab States in Egypt.

Long-term Economic Benefits

Analyses by the OECD, the World Bank, andothers indicates that in many instances it is eco-nomically more profitable to develop within thecontext of environmental management. Thus,while the priority of many countries may be ondevelopment, participation in MEAs canenhance the long-term sustainability of develop-ment initiatives. MEAs have been a drivingforce for many environmental initiatives in theArab countries.

Trade

In certain instances, it is necessary to be a Partyto an MEA (and to comply with and enforce thatMEA) in order to be able to engage in trade andto avoid trade sanctions. The Montreal Protocoland CITES are two such examples.

Facilitating Changes inDomestic Environmental Law

While environmental problems may be evident,governments or parliaments may not place thenecessary environmental laws and institutions intheir lists of priorities in order to address thoseproblems. Environmental concerns may beviewed as “secondary”, or the country might notwant to put domestic businesses at a competitivedisadvantage. In this context, an MEA can ele-vate the international importance of a particular

RESPONSE TO INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL AGREEMENTSCHAPTER 18242

environmental problem, providing additionalpolitical motivation domestically (as well as inter-nationally) to address the problem. Moreover,the specific provisions of the MEA can provide acommon, basic framework for the country to fol-low in developing measures to address the prob-lem. For instance, legal banning of trade in haz-ardous wastes in Arab countries has been mostlydriven by their ratification of the BaselConvention (UNEP, 2006).

Arab countries have developed a range of proce-dures for deciding whether and how to become aparty to MEAs. Information available aboutthose procedures is rare or even non-existent. Tosome extent, the various considerations set forthabove can factor into such decision makingprocesses, although it is often done on an infor-mal basis.

One example is the case of Egypt where an orga-nizational unit was created within the EgyptianEnvironmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) to coordi-nate such activity. When considering whether toratify or accede to an international agreement,the unit identifies the major stakeholders andseeks their inputs. This is usually done throughforming an ad hoc committee comprising repre-sentatives of those stakeholders from govern-ment, as well as non-governmental organizations.The committee then discusses the benefits andcosts to the country of becoming a party to a spe-cific convention, reviews the agreement’s articlesand finally develops a recommendation onwhether Egypt should be a party to the treaty inquestion. The recommendation is then deliberat-ed upon at a meeting of the Board of the EEAAbefore a final decision is taken. The board deci-sion is then sent to the Ministry of ForeignAffairs which is responsible for Egypt’s ratifica-tion of all international agreements. Differentdepartments within the Ministry usually reviewthe different aspects of the treaty before sendingtheir final recommendations to the Cabinet.Once the Cabinet takes a decision to ratify theconvention or agreement, it is sent to theParliament to endorse it.

At the national level, institutional arrangementsfor environmental governance in the Arab regionhave evolved over the last two decades and havebecome increasingly structured in their ability toaddress a variety of issues within the sustainable

development framework. However, while institu-tions have developed, political support, humancapacity, institutional coordination and financialresources remain limited. National environmen-tal laws have also facilitated the creation of insti-tutions responsible for coordinating, supervisingand monitoring environmental management inthe Arab countries. New institutions have beencreated and, sometimes, old ones rehabilitated.However, many of these institutions are experi-encing significant shortages of skilled personnel,inadequate funding and uneasy relations withother government institutions whose cooperationis essential in dealing with environmental issues.Some countries have environmental ministries(such as Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Qatar, Oman,


Morocco, Tunisia and Syria), others have gener-al directorates and/or environmental councils oragencies (such as in Bahrain, Kuwait, and SaudiArabia,), and few have both (such as Egypt,United Arab Emirates and Yemen).

Continuous changes in institutional structuresand responsibilities reflect the changing attitudeof states to developments in environmental man-agement (UNEP, 2000). In Arab states in partic-ular, environmental institutions tend to be polit-ically weak. UNEP attributes this weakness to anumber of main reasons: (a) relatively recentestablishment and restructuring; (b) power poli-tics; (c) limited institutional mandates; (d) com-paratively smaller roles as advisors or coordina-tors; (e) limited budgets; (f) limited capacity togenerate income; and (g) overlapping institution-al jurisdictions (UNEP, 2007).

Within this imperfect legislative and institution-al framework, the Arab countries have to imple-ment a large number of MEAs; this large numberhas in turn been a main obstacle to compliancewith such MEAs. This is primarily because gov-

ernment institutions have become overloadedwith the reporting requirements and meetingscalled for by the growing number of conventionsand protocols.

In addition to the weak institutional capacitiesstated earlier, several other challenges exist, name-ly inadequate financing; low public awareness;limited negotiation capacity; and marginalinvolvement of civil society and the private sector.This has limited the ability of some Arab states tomeet certain MEA commitments in the region.

Table 1 reveals that in many cases, Arab countriesonly joined the treaties after their entry into force(in 49% of the cases). This can be attributedmainly to two reasons: either they had not playedan active role in negotiating the MEAs, or theratification processes are slow in the respectivecountries. Further, it was found that the ViennaConvention, Kyoto Protocol, and CartagenaProtocol have the largest number of accessions byArab states among the MEAs. The same tableindicates that both Saudi Arabia and Qatar havethe largest number of accessions to MEAs.


RATIFICATIONS OF MEAS BY ARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 1

States POPs Biosafety UNCCD CBD UNFCCCAlgeria 09/22/2006 08/05/2004 05/22/1996 08/14/1995 06/09/1993Bahrain 01/31/2006 07/14/1997 (a) 12/28/1994Comoros 03/03/1998 09/29/1994 10/31/1994Djibouti 03/11/2004 04/08/2002 (a) 12/08/1997 (a) 09/01/1994 08/27/1995Egypt 05/02/2003 12/23/2003 07/07/1995 06/02/1994 12/5/1994IraqJordan 11/8/2004 11/11/2003 10/21/1996 11/12/1993 11/12/1993Kuwait 06/12/2006 06/27/1997 08/02/2002 12/28/1994 (a)Lebanon 01/3/2003 05/16/1996 12/15/1994 12/15/1994Libya 06/14/2005 (a) 06/14/2005 (a) 07/22/1996 07/12/2001 06/14/1999Mauritania 07/22/2005 (a) 08/07/1996 08/16/1996 01/20/1994Morocco 06/15/2004 11/07/1996 08/21/1995 12/28/1995Oman 01/19/2005 04/11/2003 (a) 07/23/1996 (a) 02/08/1995 02/08/1995PalestineQatar 12/10/2004(a) 12/06/2007 (a) 03/15/1999(a) 08/21/1996 04/18/1996(a)Saudi Arabia 07/11/2007 (a) 06/25/1997 (a) 10/03/2001 (a) 12/28/1994(a)Somalia 07/24/2002 (a)Sudan 08/29/2006 06/13/2005 (a) 11/24/1995 10/30/1995 11/19/1993Syria 08/05/2005 04/01/2004 (a) 06/10/1997 01/4/1996 01/04/1996(a)Tunisia 06/17/2004 01/22/2003 10/11/1995 07/15/1993 07/15/1993UAE 07/11/2002 10/21/1998(a) 02/10/2000 12/29/1995(a)Yemen 01/09/2004 12/01/2005 (a) 04/14/1997 (a) 02/21/1996 02/21/1996Sources: WTO, ESCWA, UNEP and MEA secretariat homepages(a) AccessionR: Ratified

As mentioned above, then, the implementationof MEAs has been largely slow, due to the reasonsmentioned. Other factors have also played a rolein impeding the swift implementation of MEAs,including: international commitments, politicalpressures and the limited availability of financialmechanisms for implementation. Among the var-ious MEAs, the Montreal Protocol has been mostsuccessfully implemented in the region, and thiscan be directly attributed to the financial andtechnical resources made available to countries ofthe region to achieve their commitments underthe Protocol. Research needs to be undertaken tostudy the effects of bilateral and multilateralfunding in meeting the commitments under dif-ferent MEAs in the Arab countries.

The implementation of most MEAs in theregion was focused on the setting of frameworks,priorities, development of strategies and actionplans, in addition to mobilizing funds. Themode of compliance with MEAs thus relied onthe development of legal and institutionalframeworks for addressing issues related toMEAs. As such, it can be said that progress has

been achieved since new environmental institu-tions have been created and many environmen-tal laws promulgated, which are prerequisites toimplementing provisions in many MEAs. TheUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) and the KyotoProtocol have witnessed the most involvementby Arab countries during both their negotiationand implementation stages. This is becausemost, if not all of the Arab countries are vulner-able to the potential environmental and eco-nomic impacts of climate change. On the otherhand, some conventions of primary interest tothe region have not achieved significant progressbecause of a lack of resources. This is most evi-dent in the case of the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD), which remained outside the fund-ing mandate of the Global Environment Facility(GEF) until very recently. Weak internationalinterests and limited external funding, com-bined with inadequate national and regionalresources, infrastructures and expertise, haveprevented a number of MEAs from being ade-quately implemented (ESCWA, 2002).


Kyoto Basel Kuwait Jeddah Vienna Barcelona16/02/2005 (a) 12/15/1998(a) 20/10/1992 (a) 16/02/1981(a)31/01/2006 (a) 10/15/1992 07/01/1979 27/04/1990 (a)

31/10/1994 (a)12/03/2002 (a) 05/31/2002(a) 30/07/1999 (a)12/01/2005 01/08/1993(a) 05/21/1990(a) 09/05/1988 R 30/05/1990 (a)

07/01/197917/01/2003 (a) 06/22/1989 11/09/1988 31/05/1989 (a)11/03/2003 (a) 10/11/1993 07/01/1979 23/11/1992 (a)13/11/2006 (a) 12/21/1994 30/03/1993 (a) 08/11/1977 (a)24/08/2006 (a) 07/12/2001(a) 11/07/1990 (a) 31/01/197922/07/2005 (a) 08/16/1996(a) 26/05/1994 (a)25/01/2002 (a) 12/28/1995(a) 28/12/1995 15/01/198019/01/2005 (a) 02/08/1995(a) 07/01/1979 30/06/1999 (a)

03/31/198211/01/2005 (a) 08/09/1995 07/01/1979 22/01/1996 (a)31/01/2005 (a) 03/07/1990 03/26/1982 03/22/1985 01/03/1993 (a)

03/01/1988 01/08/2001 (a)02/11/2004 (a) 01/09/2006(a) 06/01/1984 29/01/1993 (a)27/01/2006 (a) 01/22/1992 12/12/1989 (a) 26/12/1978 (a)22/01/2003 (a) 10/11/1995(a) 25/09/1989 (a) 30/07/197726/01/2005 (a) 11/17/1992 03/01/1980 22/12/1989 (a)15/09/2004 (a) 02/21/1996(a) 08/29/1982 21/02/1996 (a)

It is important to note that the degree ofimportance attributed to MEAs by Arab coun-tries varies both between countries andbetween the MEA in question. Among themost important MEAs are the UNCCD, theUnited Nations Convention on BiologicalDiversity (UNUNCBD), the UNFCCC, andthe Kyoto protocol. Other global conventionsof significant importance to the region are theVienna Convention on the Protection of theOzone Layer, the Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, andthe Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastesand their Disposal.

Table 1 clearly shows that apart from Iraq,Palestine, Somalia, and in some cases Lebanon,which have special political situations, the rest ofthe Arab countries have already ratified theseconventions. Exceptions are few and includeSaudi Arabia that has not yet ratified theStockholm Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants (POPs). In addition, the CartagenaProtocol on biosafety has not yet been ratified bya large number of Arab countries, for reasonswhich will be discussed below. These countriesinclude Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, and UAE.

Additionally, for the last two decades, MEAshave catalyzed regional coordination on commonenvironmental concerns through regional organ-izations. Sustainable development issues are nowaddressed through several Arab ministerialforums. The Council of Arab MinistersResponsible for the Environment (CAMRE) pro-vides a forum for environmental ministers in theregion. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC),Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), RegionalOrganization for the Conservation of theEnvironment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden(PERSGA) and the Regional Organization forthe Protection of the Marine Environment(ROPME) councils provide sub-regional forumsfor addressing global and regional environment,development and trade agreements. CAMRE, incollaboration with UNEP/ROWA andUNESCWA has been trying to coordinate activ-ities of the Arab countries related to some of theMEAs. Three standing committees were formed,one of which is responsible for the UNFCCCand the Kyoto Protocol, the second is responsiblefor chemical management, and the third one is

responsible for protection of the ozone layer. Thememberships of these committees include repre-sentatives of the Arab member countries, ArabLeague organizations, and some Arab experts.These committees meet regularly to discuss theagenda items of the respective MEAs with theaim of information and expertise exchange, andcoordination of the Arab countries’ positions.This does not mean that consensus on a specificissue within a certain MEA is reached in all cases.

In the following section, levels of implementa-tion by the Arab countries of different MEAs willbe discussed.

II. THE STATUS OF MEASIN THE ARAB COUNTRIES

Vienna Convention and MontrealProtocol for the protectionof the ozone layer

Under the auspices of the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP), the govern-ments of the world arrived at the ViennaConvention on the Protection of the OzoneLayer in 1985. Through this Convention, gov-ernments committed themselves to protect theozone layer and to cooperate with each other inscientific research to improve understanding ofatmospheric processes. Countries could not agreeon specific control measures, making the ViennaConvention a framework treaty for controlsdevelopment that also facilitated cooperation onresearch. It was on September 16, 1987, that theMontreal Protocol on Substances That Depletethe Ozone Layer was adopted and signed by 24countries. The Montreal Protocol committedparties to implement actual controls on the pro-duction and consumption of ozone-depletingsubstances. This included reducing the consump-tion of CFCs, by the late 1990s, to 50% of 1986levels. Also included was a 1992 freeze on theconsumption of halons at 1986 levels.Developing countries were given a grace periodof ten years. The Protocol is quite complex.However, it has the important feature of havinga provision which allows for the control of allozone-depleting substances (ODS), not justthose originally identified in the agreement.Amendments can be made as advancements aremade enhancing scientific and technological


understanding. Trade measures to build supportfor the Montreal Protocol were also unique.

Based on the report of the multilateral fund for theimplementation of the Montreal Protocol(Multilateral Fund for Implementation of theMontreal Protocol, 2007), and the Report of theImplementation Committee under the Non-com-pliance Procedure for the Montreal Protocol onthe work of its thirty-ninth meeting (UNEP,2007), it was found that the following Arab coun-tries have failed to meet their obligations regardingcontrol measures to reduce consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), as their consumptionlevels of some ODS were found to be above theirbaseline levels as per the Montreal Protocol. Thesecountries include Comoros, Egypt, Libya,Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and theUAE. Thus these countries are currently given thenon-compliance status by the implementationcommittee. Furthermore, Djibouti failed to meetsome of its reporting obligations under theProtocol and it is likewise seen as non-compliantby the implementation committee.

Basel Convention on the Controlof Trans-boundary Movementsof Hazardous Wastes

The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal, which is the most comprehensiveglobal environmental agreement on hazardousand other wastes, was drafted in 1989, and cameinto force in 1992. The Convention has 170Parties and aims to protect human health and theenvironment against the adverse effects resultingfrom the generation, management, trans-bound-ary movements and disposal of hazardous andother wastes. The main principles of the BaselConvention are:

• Trans-boundary movements of hazardouswastes should be reduced to a minimum con-sistent with their environmentally sound man-agement.

• Hazardous waste should be treated and dis-posed of as close as possible to their source ofgeneration.

• Hazardous waste generation should be reducedand minimized at source.

• Export of hazardous waste from developed todeveloping countries is banned.

In order to achieve these principles, theConvention aims to:

• Control all trans-boundary movements of haz-ardous and other wastes.

• Provide assistance regarding the implementa-tion of the Basel Convention.

• Provide assistance for the environmentallysound management of hazardous wastes.

• Monitor and prevent illegal traffic in hazardouswastes.

• Promote co-operation in this field between theParties to the Convention.

Inadequate hazardous waste management in theArabic countries generates considerable publichealth and environmental problems, includingcontamination of soil and water. It also preventsthe countries of the region from meeting theirobligations under the Basel Convention. Aregional centre was established in Cairo to assistArab countries in meeting their obligationsunder the Basel Convention. The centre wasestablished in response to the needs indicated byArab countries to the secretariat of the conven-tion, which were also identified by a needsassessment study as part of the feasibility ofestablishing the regional centre. These needs canbe summarized as follows:

• Guidance in setting up hazardous waste crite-ria;

• Advice on efficient means for drawing up haz-ardous waste generation inventories and inven-tories of existing hazardous wastes disposaloptions.

• Guidance in drafting legislation that transpos-es Basel Convention provisions into nationallaw, in terms of both waste management andshipment requirements;

• Assistance in developing documentation sys-tems for hazardous wastes generation, trans-port and disposal;

• Information exchange concerning best practicein managing various types of hazardous wastes;and

• Information exchange regarding waste mini-mization and cleaner production techniques.

The availability of data on hazardous waste andwaste producing activities in the Arab region,although very important to develop proper poli-cies and hazardous waste management plans, is


very scarce. This is reflected in the results of arecent survey done by the regional centre. Aquestionnaire was sent to the 22 Arab countries,but only five countries responded. Two countries(Bahrain and Morocco) out of the five respon-dents are considered to hold and maintain a haz-ardous waste inventory.

National legislation is one of the most powerfultools for controlling and limiting the impact ofhazardous waste problems. Many of the countriesof the region have included in their national leg-islation provisions to control hazardous wastemanagement. The enforcement of these laws hasbrought to light several weaknesses of the legisla-tion, and revision of the pieces of legislation isdeemed necessary. The regional centre will assistthe countries of the region to review their haz-ardous wastes national legislation towards moreefficient and sound management of hazardouswastes and to comply with the provisions and ful-fil national commitments under the BaselConvention (Basel Convention Regional Centerfor Training and Technology Transfer for ArabStates in Egypt, 2006).

Pursuant to Article 13, Parties must transmit,before the end of each calendar year, a report onthe previous calendar year containing informa-tion regarding trans-boundary movements ofhazardous wastes or other wastes in which theyhave been involved. Table 2 indicates that onlyMorocco and Qatar have regularly submittedtheir annual national reports from 1999 until2005, the latest reported year by the Secretariatof the Basel Convention. It is worth noting thatEgypt used to report regularly until 2003, andstopped afterwards. Bahrain has submitted itsannual reports since 2000 till 2005. Lebanon,Mauritania and Comoros have submitted theirnational reports only once. The following coun-tries, despite being parties to the convention,have never met their reporting commitments:Djibouti, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, theUAE, and Yemen.

The Stockholm Convention on POPs

The Stockholm Convention was adopted at aConference of Plenipotentiaries held on 22-23May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. Over 150countries signed the Convention and it entered

into force on 17 May 2004, 90 days after its rat-ification by the fiftieth country. The StockholmConvention focuses on eliminating or reducingreleases of 12 Persistent Organic Pollutants(POPs), the so-called “Dirty Dozen.” It set up asystem for tackling additional chemicals identi-fied as unacceptably hazardous. It recognizes thata special effort may sometimes be needed tophase out certain chemicals for certain uses andseeks to ensure that this effort is made. TheConvention also channels resources into thecleaning up of the existing stockpiles and dumpsof POPs that litter the world’s landscape. TheGlobal Environmental Facility (GEF) is the des-ignated interim financial mechanism for theStockholm Convention.

Pursuant to Article 7(b) of the StockholmConvention, parties are required to submitNational Implementation Plans. Arab countrieswhich failed to do so include Bahrain, Kuwait,Libya, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,the UAE, and Yemen.

United Nations Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC)and the Kyoto Protocol

The UNFCCC, adopted at the United NationsConference on Environment and Development(UNCED) in 1992, has at its ultimate objectivethe ”stabilization of greenhouse gas concentra-tions in the atmosphere at a level that would pre-vent dangerous anthropogenic interference withthe climate system.” Being a framework treaty,the UNFCCC contained only a non-binding rec-ommendation for industrialized countries toreturn to the 1990 emission levels of CO2 andother greenhouse gases (not controlled by theMontreal Protocol) by the year 2000.

The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, contains,for the first time, greenhouse gas reduction tar-gets for most industrialized countries. The tar-gets, however, range from an obligation to reduceemissions by 8 percent (for the European Unionand many Central European countries) to a per-mission to increase emissions by 10 percent(Iceland) and 8 percent (Australia). Overall,industrialized countries are required to reducetheir aggregate emissions to at least 5 percentbelow the 1990 level in the period 2008-12. TheKyoto Protocol entered into force on 16


February 2005, and has to date been ratified by182 parties. Because it will affect virtually allmajor sectors of the economy, the KyotoProtocol is considered to be the most far-reach-ing agreement on environment and sustainabledevelopment ever adopted (UNFCC website).

Nineteen Arab countries have ratified or accededto the UNFCCC, only Egypt has ratified theKyoto protocol, and seventeen other Arab coun-tries have acceded to it (Table 1). Amongst thosecountries that are parties to the UNFCCC, onlyComoros has not acceded to the protocol.

Articles 4 and 12 of the UNFCC require all sig-natories to the Convention to communicateinformation to the Conference of the Countries(COP). Article 12 specifies that each Party notincluded in Annex I to the Convention (non-Annex I Party) shall make its initial communica-tion within three years of the entry into force ofthe Convention for that Party, or of the availabil-ity of financial resources in accordance withArticle 4, paragraph 3. Countries that are LeastDeveloped Countries (LDCs) may make their

initial communication at their discretion.Currently, only 14 Arab counties have submittedtheir first national communication. Countriesthat have not submitted their first national com-munications include Iraq, Libya, Oman, Qatar,Somalia, Syria, and the UAE. To date, none ofthe Arab countries have submitted a secondnational communication.

NAPAs (national adaptation programmes ofaction) provide a process for LDCs to identifypriority activities that respond to their urgentand immediate needs with regard to adaptationto climate change. The rationale behind NAPAsis built on a recognition of the limited ability ofLDCs to adapt to the adverse effects of climatechange. In the NAPA process, prominence isgiven to community-level input as an importantsource of information, recognizing that grass-roots communities are the main stakeholders(UNFCC website). NAPA is requested from thesix Arab countries listed as least developed, name-ly Comoros, Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia,Sudan and Yemen. Both Somalia and Yemenhave not submitted their NAPA yet.


NATIONAL REPORTING TO THE BASEL CONVENTIONTABLE 2

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Algeria X X X X XBahrain X X X X X XComoros XDjibouti Egypt X X X X XIraqJordan X X XKuwait X XLebanon XLibyaMauritania XMorocco X X X X X X XOman X X XPalestinian AuthorityQatar X X X X X X XSaudi ArabiaSudanSomaliaSyriaTunisia X XUnited Arab EmiratesYemen

Source: http://www.basel.int/natreporting/index.html

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) isone of three flexibility mechanisms of the KyotoProtocol. Annex I countries that have ratified theKyoto Protocol can invest in projects that bothreduce GHGs and contribute to sustainabledevelopment in non-Annex I countries. A CDMproject provides certified emissions reductions(CERs) to Annex I countries, which they can useto meet their GHG reduction commitmentsunder the Kyoto Protocol. While many factorsinfluence the size and stability of the global car-bon market, facts indicate that this market wouldmove billions of dollars a year, increasing foreigninvestment capital flow in developing countries.In this context, the CDM projects offer manyopportunities for developing countries to pro-mote sustainable development through invest-ment, technology transfer, and capacity building.The Arab participation in this mechanism hasbeen very low; only four Arab countries have par-ticipated in the CDM since its inception in 2005.They are namely Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, andlately Qatar. The large CDM potential in theregion has not been fully utilized yet.

At the regional level, the Conference of ArabMinisters Responsible for the Environment(CAMRE) has been hosting two regional com-mittees on climate change aiming at following upon the climate change negotiations and coordi-nating Arab countries’ positions in the Kyotodeliberations. The first committee comprises gov-ernments’ representatives from the ArabMeteorological Institutions, and the second onerepresents oil experts from the Arab oil producingcountries (OAPEC). At its last meeting from 24-26 November 2007, the first committee called onthe Arab countries to develop their institutionalcapacities to make use of the opportunitiesoffered by the Clean Development Mechanism(CDM). Recommendations of both committeeshave to be endorsed by CAMRE. CAMRE is cur-rently developing an “Arab Action Plan onClimate Change” which is to be presented to theupcoming Arab Development Summit to be heldin Kuwait at the end of 2008 (LAS, 2007).

From the perspective of international trade, theKyoto Protocol is very important to the oil pro-ducing countries. Measures that parties of theKyoto protocol may take to meet their commit-ments could have significant trade implications.Arab countries, together with the G77 and China

have stressed the need for technology transfer,financial assistance and capacity building to copewith the potential adverse effects of climatechange. Most of the Arab countries, if not all, arevulnerable to the adverse impacts of climatechange ranging from sea level rise, to water short-age, desertification and widening the food gap inthe region, and so forth.

The GCC states, together with other oil produc-ing countries such as the OPEC group have beenplaying an active role in the Kyoto deliberations.This is mainly because of the potential econom-ic impacts resulting from the response measuresby developed countries to meet the Kyoto com-mitments. One study has shown that the lossesexperienced by the GCC region, whether inGDP or welfare terms, are higher than whencompared to an Annex B country like Japan, oreven when compared to other energy exportingregions such as Venezuela or North Africa.Thus, with the assumption that the internation-al price of oil will fall and that import prices ofenergy-intensive goods will rise in the GCCregion, the terms of trade will deteriorate nearly9% and 7%, respectively, in the GCC andNorth African regions (Babiker).

Convention on Biodiversity

One of the key agreements adopted at Rio in1992 was the UN Convention on BiologicalDiversity (UNCDB). It sets out commitmentsfor maintaining the world’s ecological underpin-nings as we pursue economic development. TheConvention establishes three main goals: theconservation of biological diversity, the sustain-able use of its components, and the fair and equi-table sharing of the benefits from the use ofgenetic resources (UNCBD website).

The UNCBD was opened for signature at theEarth Summit in Rio in 1992. It entered intoforce on 23 December, 1993. To date, the num-ber of parties to the convention has reached 191.

Article 6 of the Convention states that eachContracting Party shall, in accordance with itsparticular conditions and capabilities:

• Develop national strategies, plans or pro-grammes for the conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity or adapt for this pur-


pose existing strategies, plans or programmeswhich shall reflect, inter alia, the measures setout in this Convention relevant to theContracting Party concerned; and

• Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate,the conservation and sustainable use of biolog-ical diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sec-toral plans, programmes and policies.

Arab countries which have not preparedNational Biodiversity Strategies and ActionPlans are Bahrain, Kuwait, Libya, Saudi Arabia,and the UAE.

In addition, Article 26 of the Convention statesthat the objective of national reporting is to pro-vide information on measures taken for theimplementation of the Convention and the effec-tiveness of these measures. Until now, three peri-odic national reports have been submitted byparties to the UNCBD. Only Kuwait and Libyahave not submitted any national reports. Algeria,Bahrain and Yemen have submitted the firstnational reports. UAE has submitted only thethird national report. Jordan has submitted thefirst and third national reports. The rest of theArab countries have already submitted the threenational reports.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of theParties to the Convention on Biological Diversityadopted a supplementary agreement to theConvention known as the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety. The Protocol seeks to protect biologi-cal diversity from the potential risks posed by liv-ing modified organisms resulting from modernbiotechnology. It establishes an advanceinformed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensur-ing that countries are provided with the informa-tion necessary to make informed decisions beforeagreeing to the import of such organisms intotheir territory. The Protocol contains reference toa precautionary approach and reaffirms the pre-caution language in Principle 15 of the RioDeclaration on Environment and Development.The Protocol also establishes a BiosafetyClearing-House to facilitate the exchange ofinformation on living modified organisms and toassist countries in the implementation of theProtocol (UNCBD website).

In general, there have been limited capacities tomanage biosafety issues in the Arab region, inaddition to the problems of weak political willand a low level of public awareness. As in manydeveloping countries, the majority of Arab coun-tries have not yet developed operational biosafetysystems that regulate the release and trade inGenetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).Generally, information on the status of GMOs inthe Arab countries remains uncertain due to thelimited availability of reliable data. According tothe FAO, there only exists official informationabout Egypt – on the cultivation of geneticallyengineered (GE) tomatoes and the testing of nineGenetically Engineered crops (cotton, corn,groundnut, potato, soybean, squash, sugar cane,sweet potato, and wheat) – and Saudi Arabia,where genetically modified mushrooms are culti-vated (Makdisi and Choufani Cherfane, 2005).But with the increasing volume and trade ofGMOs, and the corresponding urgent need toformulate clear policies regarding the handlingand transfer of GMOs, many Arab signatories ofthe UNCBD have now ratified the CartegenaProtocol (Table 1). Accordingly, there have beenseveral initiatives on the national level to buildcapacity and develop new legislations or amendexisting ones in line with the Cartagena protocol.

It should be noted that the restrictions on tradein GMOs, as provided by the CartegenaProtocol, are in many ways at odds with the poli-cies of the World Trade Organization (WTO),and perhaps for this reason many Arab countrieshave not ratified the Cartegena Protocol.

Each Party is required, in accordance with Article33 of the Protocol, to monitor the implementa-tion of its obligations under the Protocol and toreport to the Conference of the ConventionParties serving as the meeting of the Parties to theProtocol (COP-MOP) on measures taken toimplement the Protocol. National reports are tobe submitted 12 months prior to COP-MOPmeetings at which they will be considered, with afrequency of every four years. The deadline forsubmission of the first regular national reportswas 11 September 2007. Only three Arab partieshave submitted their first national report, name-ly Qatar, Sudan, and Syria.

Further, in its Decision BS-I/9, the COP-MOPapproved a format for the interim national report


on implementation of the Protocol which is setout in its Annex. The deadline for submission ofthe interim national reports was 11 September2005. Only two Arab countries have met thisobligation, namely Algeria and Egypt.

United Nations Conventionto Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The question of how to tackle desertification wasa major concern for the United NationsConference on Environment and Development(UNCED), which was held in Rio de Janeiro in1992. The conference called on the UnitedNations General Assembly to establish anIntergovernmental Negotiating Committee(INC) to prepare, by June 1994, a Convention toCombat Desertification, particularly in Africa.The Convention was adopted in Paris on 17 June1994 and opened for signature there on 14-15October 1994. It entered into force on 26December 1996, 90 days after the fiftieth ratifi-cation was received (UNCCD website).

Article 10 of the convention states that the pur-pose of national action programmes is to iden-tify the factors contributing to desertificationand practical measures necessary to combatdesertification and mitigate the effects of

drought. National Action Programmes (NAP)are among the key instruments in the imple-mentation of the Convention. They spell outthe practical steps and measures to be taken tocombat desertification in specific ecosystems.In spite of the vital importance of combatingdesertification in the Arab region, only twelveArab countries have submitted their NAPs.They are: Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Morocco,Sudan, Tunisia, Lebanon, Oman, SaudiArabia, Syria, UAE, and Yemen. (For more ondesertification, see chapter 7.)

Pursuant to Article 26 of the convention, eachParty shall communicate to the Conference ofthe Parties for consideration reports on the meas-ures which it has taken for the implementation ofthe Convention. Twelve Arab countries havesubmitted three periodic reports each, Qatar andKuwait have submitted two reports, and Bahrainhas submitted only the first report in 2002.

III. REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTALAGREEMENTS

Regional conventions and agreements have gen-erally achieved a greater level of compliance bycountries of the region since they deal with issues


that directly interest certain Arab states. As such,it is easier for them to secure national politicalsupport. Key agreements include the regionalseas conventions, namely the MediterraneanAction Plan (MAP; Barcelona, 1976), RegionalOrganization for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment (ROPME; Kuwait, 1978),Protection of the Environment in the Red Seaand Gulf of Aden (PERSGA; Jeddah, 1982).These conventions have proven to be usefulinstruments for the protection and sustainableuse of regional marine and coastal resources(ESCWA 2002). Ratifications of those regionalagreements have reached 100% by the respectiveArab countries (table 1).

MAP Barcelona convention

In 1975, 16 Mediterranean countries and theEuropean Economic Community adopted theMediterranean Action Plan (MAP), the first-everRegional Seas Programme under UNEP’sumbrella. In 1976 these Parties adopted theConvention for the Protection of theMediterranean Sea against Pollution (BarcelonaConvention). Six Protocols addressing specificaspects of Mediterranean environmental conser-vation complete the MAP legal framework:

1. Dumping Protocol (from ships and aircraft); 2. Prevention and Emergency Protocol (pollu-

tion from ships and emergency situations); 3. Land-based Sources and Activities Protocol; 4. Specially Protected Areas and Biological

Diversity Protocol; 5. Offshore Protocol (pollution from explo-

ration and exploitation); 6. Hazardous Wastes Protocol.

The Contracting Parties also adopted an amend-ed version of the Barcelona Convention of 1976,renamed Convention for the Protection of theMarine Environment and the Coastal Region ofthe Mediterranean (UNEP MAP website).Parties to the Barcelona convention are thoseArab countries east and south of theMediterranean, namely Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria.

Table 3 indicates that all Arab Mediterraneancountries have ratified the Barcelona conven-tions and its six protocols except for theProtocol for the Protection of the

Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution Resultingfrom Exploration and Exploitation of theContinental Shelf and the Sea-bed and its Sub-soil adopted in Madrid in 1994. Only Tunisiahas signed this protocol in 1994.

ROPME(Kuwait convention)

In 1978 Kuwait recognized the importance ofthe regional approaches in protection of themarine environment by inviting the eight coun-tries surrounding the Gulf for a conference whichwas convened under the auspices of UNEP with-in its Regional Seas Programme. That conferenceadopted the following documents:

• Kuwait Action Plan for the Protection andDevelopment of the Marine Environment andthe Coastal Areas.

• Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperationon the Protection of the Marine Environmentfrom Pollution.

• Protocol concerning Regional Cooperation inCombating Pollution by oil and other HarmfulSubstances in Cases of Emergency.

An outcome of Kuwait Regional Convention forCo-Operation on the Protection of the MarineEnvironment From Pollution was the establish-ment of the Regional Organization for theProtection of the Marine Environment(ROPME) hosted in Kuwait. Since then,ROPME has been playing an essential role toharmonize the exerted efforts of the MemberStates towards protection of the marine environ-ment and to follow up the activities of eachMember States. In conformity with the provi-sions of the Protocol concerning RegionalCooperation in Combating Pollution by oil andother Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency, the Marine Emergency Mutual AidCentre (MEMAC) was established in Bahrainand started functioning in 1983. With a view ofstrengthening governance in the Region,ROPME has developed protocols addressing thecritical areas of environmental management.These protocols included – in addition to theabove Protocol:

• Protocol concerning Marine Pollution result-ing from Exploration and Exploitation of theContinental Shelf (1989)


• Protocol for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment against Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1990)

• Protocol on the Control of Marine Trans-boundary Movements and Disposal ofHazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (1998)

• Protocol concerning the conservation of bio-logical diversity and the establishment of pro-tected areas.

PERSGA (Jeddah convention)

PERSGA is a regional organization based inJeddah, Saudi Arabia, responsible for the devel-opment and implementation of regional pro-grammes for the protection and conservation ofthe marine environment of the Red Sea and Gulfof Aden, and was formally established inSeptember 1996. A major function of PERSGAincludes the implementation of the JeddahConvention. It has also been given responsibilityfor preparation and implementation of theStrategic Action Plan (SAP) and related activities.PERSGA has played an active role in promotingregional cooperation and has recently supportedregional workshops concerning environmentalassessment (EA), Marine Protected Areas, naviga-tion risks and living marine resources. In addi-tion, a series of national workshops have beensponsored by PERSGA to facilitate the develop-ment and review of Country Reports prepared aspart of the SAP process. A Regional MarineEmergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) is

being established in Hurghada, Egypt to coordi-nate activities in the event of oil spills. PERSGACouncil of Ministers approved a “Draft ActionPlan for the Development of National Systemsand Regional Mechanism for Preparedness andResponse to Major Marine Oil Spills in the RedSea and Gulf of Aden” in 2003. PERSGA con-tinues to work with its member countries to har-monize oil spill contingency plans and uses theMEMAC centre as a focus for those efforts(UNEP 2007). Parties of the Jeddah Conventionare: Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia,Somalia, Sudan and Yemen.

In accordance with Article III of the JeddahConvention, PERSGA formulated three addi-tional protocols: The Protocol Concerning theRegional Cooperation in Combating Pollutionby Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency (1982); the Protocol Concerning theConservation of Biological Diversity and theEstablishment of Network of Protected Areas inthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (2005); and theProtocol Concerning the Protection of theMarine Environment from Land-Based Activitiesin the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (2005). Thepresent Consolidated Jeddah Convention com-prises the Convention, its associated Protocolsand legal documents produced during1982–2006 (PERSGA, 2006).

For more information on MAP, PERSGA andROPME, see chapter 6 of this report.


RATIFICATION OF BARCELONA CONVENTION AND ITS PROTOCOLSTABLE 3

Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollutionProtocol for the prevention of pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and AircraftProtocol concerning cooperation in combating pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of EmergencyProtocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution from Land-Based SourcesProtocol concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected AreasProtocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf and the Sea-bed and its Sub-soilAC: Acception AP: Aproval R: Ratified S: SignedSources: WTO, ESCWA, UNEP and MEA secretariat homepages

Algeria Egypt 16.2.1981 (AC) 24.8.1978 (AP)

16.3.1981 (AC) 24.8.1978 (AP)

16.3.1981 (AC) 24.8.1978 (AP)

2.5.1983 (AC) 18.5.1983 (AC)

16.5.1985 (AC) 8.7.1983 (R)

IV. TRADE AND ENVIRONMENTIN THE ARAB REGION

The level of awareness in the Arab region for theissues of trade and environment has been verylow. Few trade and environment workinggroups or committees have been formed in somecountries such as Egypt and Tunisia. However,there has been no evidence that these commit-tees are effective. Recently, CAMRE recom-mended that Arab countries establish nationalcommittees on trade and environment to facili-tate inter-ministerial coordination and discus-sion with civil society on this topic. During thelast few years, the issues of trade and environ-ment have become clearer to most of Arab offi-cials, especially after the WTO meetings such asin Seattle and Doha, and the World Summit onSustainable Development (WSSD) inJohannesburg. It is noticeable that the ArabDeclaration To The World Summit OnSustainable Development failed to recognize therelationships between environment, trade, andsustainable development; rather, it stipulatedthat: “Negotiations at the WTO should worktowards the objectives it was established for, i.e.opening the markets for exports without allow-ing obstacles that would limit developing coun-tries ability to compete for these markets” (UNEconomic and Social Council, 2001). It is obvi-ous that until 2001, the priority issue for theArab countries within the WTO was only theissue of market access.

Recently, Kuwait, Morocco, Yemen, andLebanon established their committees on tradeand environment. Consequently, Arab countrieshave become more active in the WTOCommittee on Trade and Environment. It is alsoremarkable that the issue of trade and environ-ment appeared on the agenda of the 19th sessionof CAMRE held in Algeria in 19-20 December,2006. This was followed by an Expert GroupMeeting on Trade and Environment Priorities inthe Arab Region that was held in Cairo 11-13November, 2007. In this meeting, the League ofArab States (LAS) summarized the priorities ofthe Arab countries as follows (Al Mallah, 2007):

• Strengthening the Arab negotiating capacity intrade end environment issues.

• Improving Arab participation in theCommittee on Trade and Environment (CTE)within WTO.

• Enforcement of the MEAs and fighting illegaltrade.

• The liberalization of trade in wastes and usedgoods.

• Environmental goods and services.

There is little specific information on the Arabposition with respect to conflicts between WTOand the trade provisions of MEAs, despite theinclusions of these relationships as a subject fordiscussion within the Doha DevelopmentAgenda. This is supported by the fact that therewas only one submission by an Arab country –


Lebanon Libya Morocco Syria Tunisia 8.11.1977 (AC) 31.1.1979 (R) 15.1.1980 (R) 26.12.1978 (AC) 30.7.1977 (R)

8.11.1977 (AC) 31.1.1979 (R) 15.1.1980 (R) 26.12.1978 (AC) 30.7.1977 (R)

8.11.1977 (AC) 31.1.1979 (R) 15.1.1980 (R) 26.12.1978 (AC) 30.7.1977 (R)

27.12.1994 (AC) 6.6.1989 (AP) 9.2.1987 (R) 1.12.1993 (AC) 29.10.1981 (R)

27.12.1994 (AC) 6.6.1989 (AP) 22.6.1990 (R) 11.9.1992 (AC) 26.5.1983 (R)

14.10.1994 (S)

namely, a “non-paper” submitted by Egypt in1996 – in the CTE prior to the DohaDeclaration in 2001; and only one submissionthat refers to MEAs after Doha, by Saudi Arabia(Makdisi and Chouchani Cherfane, 2005).

Current concerns about trade and environmentissues in the Arab region are focused on pointsraised in the Doha Development Agenda, as wellas other measures that involve the implementationof trade-related MEAs and progress towards sus-tainable development in the region. The majorityof governments have addressed most of theirattention to the negative impact of environmentalrequirements on market access for Arab exports(particularly in OECD markets). The impact ofenergy subsidies in developed countries for oil-based economies is also of concern, as well as tosome degree the liberalization of environmentalgoods and services. Attention to trade-relatedMEAs currently focuses on the implications of theKyoto Protocol for the region. Sometimes mediaand NGOs started to focus on the issue of biosafe-ty, especially as related to GMOs. The BaselConvention and illegal trafficking of hazardouswastes also frequently received significant atten-tion, especially when some cases of illegal traffick-ing were made visible by NGOs or media. Theenforcement of Trade Related IntellectualProperty Rights (TRIPS) remains high on theagenda of many Arab countries and NGOs, manyof whom are very concerned about public-healthissues and access to affordable medicine. Egypt isa good example in this case.

The most recognized trade and environment issuein the Arab countries has been the issue of marketaccess and its effects on Arab exports. The DohaDevelopment Agenda calls for negotiations onthe reduction or elimination of all tariffs and non-tariff barriers on all non-agricultural products,particularly those of interest to developing coun-tries. Arab concerns were well spelled out in theofficial statements of the Arab countries deliveredduring the Doha Ministerial Conference in 2001and the Cancun Ministerial Conference in 2003.The second issue of concern to the Arab countriesis the issue of regulations as technical barriers totrade. Arab countries are also particularly con-cerned whether the application of the increasingnumber of environmental, health and safety stan-dards are protectionist in nature or legitimateaccording to free trade provisions. Another trade

and environment issue of concern to the Arabcountries has been the issue of subsidies and envi-ronmental taxes. Arab petroleum exporting coun-tries consider the environmental taxes imposed onoil products in many OECD countries to be anon-tariff barrier that harms their competitive-ness and the ability of consumers to choose theirpreferred source of energy. A submission by SaudiArabia to the Commission on Trade andEnvironment (CTE) states that both Europe andthe USA continue to tax oil under the environ-mental umbrella while heavily subsidizing highlypolluting coal-burning plants, which raises thequestion of double standards. On the other hand,another major policy issue for petroleum-export-ing countries in the Arab region is found in sub-sidizing petroleum products prices in domesticmarkets. It is believed that this has enabled someoil producing countries to use their naturalresources as a means to promote industrializationor attract investment in a manner that canstrengthen the development and the competitive-ness of their national industrial sector. Forinstance, aluminium and steel production areenergy intensive industries that are expanding inthe GCC region, particularly in Bahrain andSaudi Arabia. Expansion in the aluminium sectoris largely attributed to the low cost of energyinputs. This has been a contentious issue forSaudi Arabia in the accession negotiations, partic-ularly as Saudi Arabia pursues an aggressive eco-nomic diversification policy based on expandingmanufacturing and heavy industries.



Al Mallah, Fatma, Arab Priorities issues on trade andenvironment, Expert Group Meeting on Trade andEnvironment Priorities in the Arab Region, Cairo, 11-13 November, 2007.

Babiker, Mustafa, “Economic Impacts of ClimateChange Response Measures on GCC Countries”, Arab Planning Institute (API), unpublished paper.

Basel Convention Regional Centre for Training andTechnology Transfer for Arab States in Egypt,Progress Report 2006.

ESCWA. Assessment Report For The Escwa Region.E/ESCWA/ENR/2002/19, 2002.

ESCWA, World Summit On Sustainable Development

“Kyoto Protocol.” UNFCCC website.http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php(accessed February 22, 2008).

LAS, Climate Change Committee, 2007.

Makdisi, Karim, and Carol Chouchani Cherfane,Southern Agenda on Trade and EnvironmentPhase II: Arab Region, ICTSD-IISD-RING, resourcepaper, April 2005.

Multilateral Fund For The Implementation Of TheMontreal Protocol. Country Programme AndCompliance Summary Sheets. July 2007.http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/country-programme-and-compliance-sheets-july07.pdf(accessed March 4, 2008).

“National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs).”UNFCC website.http://unfccc.int/national_reports/napa/items/2719.php (accessed February 22, 2008).

PERSGA. Consolidated Jeddah Convention 1982-2006.http://www.persga.org/UI/English/ShowContent.aspx?ContentId=2&SubContentId=21 (accessed March 12, 2008).

Procedure for the Montreal Protocol on the work of itsthirty-ninth meeting. UNEP/OzL.Pro/ImpCom/39/7,November 2007.

UN Economic and Social Council, “Arab Declaration tothe World Summit on Sustainable Development.”E/CN.17/2002/PC.2/5/Add.3, December 2001.

UNCBD (Convention on Biological Diversity)website.http://www.cbd.int/convention/guide.shtml(accessed May 27, 2008).

UNCCD website.http://www.unccd.int/convention/menu.php (accessed March 5, 2008).

UNEP. GEO 2000. 2000.

UNEP MAP website.http://www.unepmap.org/index.php?module=content2&catid=001001004 (accessed March 5, 2008).

UNEP, Manual On Compliance With And EnforcementOf Multilateral Environmental Agreements, UNEP,2006.

UNEP. Report of the Implementation Committee underthe Non-compliance.

UNEP, South-South Cooperation In EnvironmentalManagement: The Arab Oil And Gas Sector. 2007.

REFERENCES

HUSSEIN ABAZAChief of UNEP’s Economics and Trade Branch in Geneva. He developed vari-ous programmes on Environment and Economics, and has various publicationson environmental and integrated assessment, the interface between trade andenvironment, valuation of environmental and natural resources, and the use ofeconomic instruments for environmental management.

DR. IBRAHIM ABDEL GELILAcademic Chair of Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan AI Nahayan, and Director of theEnvironmental Management Programme at the Arabian Gulf University inBahrain. He was the CEO of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA),and the chairman of the Egyptian Organization for Energy Planning (OEP).

DR. NEFISA ABOU-ELSEOUDProfessor at the Institute of National Planning in Egypt, and former Director ofthe Center of Environmental Studies and Management of Natural Resources.Consultant to the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) and expert onHazardous Waste at the Egyptian Ministry of Justice.

DR. ISAM BASHOURProfessor of soil science and plant nutrition at the Faculty of Agricultural and FoodSciences at the American University of Beirut. He has many publications on thesubject of fertilization of arid and semi-arid regions. His current research is main-ly related to conservation agriculture and improvement of production quality.

DR. MANAL EL-BATRANProfessor at the Housing and Building National Research Centre (HBRC),Egypt, specialized in environmentally sound urban planning, green architecture,community development, urbanization, urban land policy, and mechanisms ofhousing financing.

DR. FARID CHAABANProfessor of Electrical Engineering at the American University of Beirut andDean of the College of Engineering at Dhofar University, Oman. His researchinterests include electric machines and drives, and the environmental impacts ofenergy sectors, including air pollution.

DR. AHMAD GABERPresident of Chemonics Egypt, one of Egypt’s premier environmental engineer-ing and management consulting firms. Professor of Chemical Engineering atCairo University. A specialist on water, sanitation and environmental manage-ment, he is author or co-author of various publications and conference papers.


Contributors

MOHAMED ABDULAZIZ EL-GUNDYFormer Attorney General in Egypt. He occupied several judicial posts since 1950until appointed Attorney General in 1985-1988. He contributed to many piecesof legislation, including environmental laws, the Children's Code and the Law ofAssociations and Private Organizations, and developed the Arab LegislativeGuide on the Environment.

DR. RIYAD HAMZAH Professor of environmental biotechnology at the Arabian Gulf University and amember of the Council of Higher Education in the Kingdom of Bahrain. He wasinvolved in the establishment of the Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain, since itsinception in 1984 and established and directed numerous new programs in var-ious scientific and educational fields. He served as its vice president between1994 to 2005.

DR. MOHAMED KASSASProfessor Emeritus of Planticology at Cairo University. Pioneer in the field ofdrylands and combating desertification, and lead author of major global reportson sustainable development. Former President of the International Union for theConservation of Nature (IUCN). Honorary Founding Member of AFED.

DR. MAHMOUD MEDANYDeputy Director, Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate (CLAC) at theAgricultural Research Center, Cairo, Egypt. One of the Lead Authors of theIPCC Fourth Assessment Report (WGII, AR4, 2007) and expert reviewer ofgreenhouse gases inventory, 2006.

DR. MUSA NIMAHProfessor of Irrigation at the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences at theAmerican University of Beirut. His research focuses on water resources manage-ment and water saving and conservation, especially in the agricultural water usedomain. A major goal of these studies is to develop methods for water conserva-tion and sustainable irrigation.

HASSAN PARTOW Environmental Affairs Officer at UNEP’s Post-Conflict and DisasterManagement Branch in Geneva. He has wide experience conducting post-con-flict environmental assessments and undertaking capacity building activities inAfrica and the Middle East. He is of Iraqi origin.

NAJIB SAAB (EDITOR)Publisher and Editor-in-Chief of Al-Bia Wal-Tanmia (Environment & Development),the leading Arabic magazine on sustainable development, and Founding SecretaryGeneral of the Arab Forum for Environment & Development (AFED). Architect, uni-versity lecturer and writer, he is a 2003 laureate of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme’s Global 500 Award for environmental achievements.

DR. MAHMOUD KHAMIS EL SAYYED Professor of Marine Geology, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Egypt.He co-founded various academic institutions and held various managerial posi-tions, and served as Technical Advisor to various agencies, including UNEP,IOC, UNIDO, PERSGA, CEDARE and the League of Arab States.

CONTRIBUTORS260

DR. OSAMA EL-TAYEBProfessor Emeritus of Microbiology and Immunology and Director of theMicrobial Biotechnology Center at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University.He is the author of several monographs and articles on science policy and socio-economic dimensions of science and technology. He established the MicrobialBiotechnology Center at Cairo University as an R&D center.

DR. MOSTAFA KAMAL TOLBA (EDITOR)President of the Executive Committee of the Arab Forum for Environment andDevelopment (AFED). In 1972, he led Egypt's delegation to the StockholmConference on the Human Environment, thus starting a long-life commitmentto environmental issues. He was nominated, immediately after Stockholm, as theDeputy Executive Director of the newly-established United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP). Within two years, he became the ExecutiveDirector - a post he held until retiring at the end of 1992.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE(Members of AFED Board of Trustees)

Dr. Mostafa Kamal Tolba, former Executive Director of UNEP (Chairman)

Dr. Mohamed Kassas, Professor emeritus at Cairo University and formerPresident of IUCN (Chief Advisor)

Najib Saab, Secretary General of AFED and Editor-in-Chief of Environment &Development (Coordinator)

Dr. Adnan Badran, former Prime Minister of Jordan and President of PetraUniversity

Dr. Abdulrahman Al-Awadi, Executive Secretary of the Regional Organizationfor the Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME) and former Minister ofHealth in Kuwait

WILLIAM SAAB, COPY EDITOR

A graduate in Social and Political Sciences from Cambridge University, UK, he is currentlypursuing postgraduate studies in international relations at Johns Hopkins University, USA,focusing on environment policy, energy and international finance.


ABSP Agricultural Biotechnology Support Programme

ACSAD Arabic Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Drylands

AEPC African Environmental Protection Commission

AEPS Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy

AEWA African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement

AFED Arab Forum for Environment and Development

AGERI Agricultural Genetic Engineering Institute

AIA Advance Informed Agreement

AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment

AMU Arab Maghreb Union

AoA Agreement on Agriculture (WTO Uruguay Round)

AU African Union

BCH Biosafety Clearing House

BMP Best Management Practices

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

CAB Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences

CAN Competent National Authority

CAMP Coastal Area Management Project

CAMRE Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment

CBC Community-Based Conservation

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CBO Community-Based Organization

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CDRs Certified Emissions Reductions

CEIT Countries with Economies in Transition

CEDARE Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe

CERES Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economics

CFC Chloro-Fluoro-Carbon

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

CILSS Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

CLRTAP Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

CNA Competent National Authority

CNG Compressed Natural Gas

COP Conference of the Parties

CPB Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

CSD Commission on Sustainable Development

CZIMP Coastal Zone Integrated Management Plan

DESA Department of Economic and Social Affairs


Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS264

EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

EMS Environmental Management System

EPI Environment Performance Index

ESBM Ecosystem-Based Management

ESI Environment Sustainability Index

EU European Union

EVI Environmental Vulnerability Index

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FDI Foreign Direct Investment

G7 Group of Seven: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States

G8 Group of Eight: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, United States

GAPs Good Agricultural Practices

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GBIF Global Biodiversity Information Facility

GCC Gulf Cooperation Council

GCOS Global Climate Observing System

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEF Global Environment Facility

GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System

GEO Global Environment Outlook

GHGs Greenhouse Gases

GIWA Global International Waters Assessment

GLASOD Global Assessment of Soil Degradation

GM Genetically Modified

GMEF Global Ministerial Environment Forum

GMO Genetically Modified Organism

GNI Gross National Income

GNP Gross National Product

GRI Global Reporting Initiative

GRID Global Resource Information Database

GWP Global Water Partnership

HACCP Hazardous Analysis and Critical Control Points

HDI Human Development Index

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

ICAM Integrated Coastal Area Management

ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas

ICC International Chamber of Commerce

ICGEB International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology

ICM Integrated Coastal Management

ICT Information and Communication Technology

IFA International Fertilizer Industry Association

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

ILO International Labour Organization

IMF International Monetary Fund

IMO International Maritime Organization

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPF Intergovernmental Panel on Forests

IPM Integrated Pest Management


IPR Intellectual Property Rights

ISO International Organization for Standardization

IUCN World Conservation Union (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)

IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

IWMI International Water Management Institute

LADA Land Degradation Assessment of Drylands

LAS League of Arab States

LEED Leadership in Environmental Design

LDCs Least Developed Countries

LMG Like Minded Group

LMO Living Modified Organism

LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas

MAP Mediterranean Action Plan

MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement

MECTAT Middle East Centre for the Transfer of Appropriate Technology

MEMAC Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre

MPA Marine Protected Area

NBC National Biosafety Committee

NBF National Biosafety Framework

NEAP National Environmental Action Plan

NFP National Focal Point

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NPK Nitrogen, Phosphates and Potash

OAU Organization for African Unity

ODS Ozone-Depleting Substance

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PACD Plan of Action to Combat Desertification

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls

PERSGA Protection of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

PICs Pacific Island Countries

POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants

RA Risk Assessment

REMPEC Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean Sea

RM Risk Management

ROPME Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the sea area surrounded by Bahrain, I.R. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates

RSA Ropme Sea Area

RSGA Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

SCP Sustainable Consumption and Production

SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment

SLR Sea Level Rise

SoE State of the Environment

SRES Special Report on Emission Scenarios

TRAFFIC Trade Records Analysis for Flora and Fauna in International Commerce

TRI Toxics Release Inventory

TRIPs Trade-Related Aspects of International Property Rights

UN United Nations

UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (now UN-Habitat)

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNCOD United Nations Conference on Desertification

UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees

UNICE United Nations Children’s Fund

US United States

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

UV Ultraviolet (A and B)

WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

WCD World Commission on Dams

WCP World Climate Programme

WCS World Conservation Strategy

WEF World Economic Forum

WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organization

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WRI World Resources Institute

WSSCC Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council

WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development

WTO World Trade Organization

WWAP World Water Assessment Programme

WWC World Water Council

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS266