1.0 IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN CHILDREN

Children learn through play. According to one of the principles outlined by

UNICEF is playing an important element for stimulating the development of early

childhood social, emotional, cognitive and language. Thus, the role of encouraging

children to play should be played by people who are around children such as parents,

nanny, neighbors until beyond the entire ecological community. (bronfenbrenner). Play

can also improve motor development of children as infants aged 8 months and his legs

will move forward to take the game put in front of them. Lev Vygotsky believed that play

can encourage language and social development of a child. Through the play gives

children the opportunity to build relationships and learn how they interact and respect

other children. For example children aged 30 months will learn to share toys, take turns

in group activities planned by the nanny.

According to Rubin et.al. (1983) and Frost (1992) game has a number of factors

that can distinguish main disposition of conduct or other activity. That play is an

internally motivated, focused play activity is the activity itself and not the result or

activity, a game is an activity free from external rules is not a task force, the game

determines the active participation of individuals, the game always involves the effects

positive feelings such as joy and fun which is always accompanied by laughter and play

also has the characteristics of imagination, simulative, pretend or mock.

Importance of games activities for preschool children can be seen in the

emphasis on the teaching and learning of children at this stage are more stressed

approach Learn Through Play because it can affect the child's development of various

aspects of physical, cognitive, mental, language and socio-emotional. For this purpose,

the activities planned to give priority to all aspects of development as a platform to help

develop other aspects (Description National Preschool Curriculum, 2003) while at the

same time children will use surrounding objects as emblems or actual symbols

according to their observations of the environment (Liszkowski, Carpenter, Striano &

Tomasello, 2006; Tomasello & Haberl, 2003).

1

Games usually involve physical activity that is closely linked with the

development of children in terms of gross motor and fine motor skills as well as

awareness about their bodies. Children feel excited and happy when active use parts of

their body to exercise. This allows children to improve skills that will enable them to feel

more secure, more confident, and to be independent. In a society in which children cope

with stress, confidence and attitude to compete for success in all areas is needed (Berk,

1995; Fromberg, 2002; Holmes & Geiger, 2002; McCune & Zanes, 2001: Murata &

Maeda, 2002; Santrock, 2003).

One example of games that can benefit children in the aspect of physical is

gymnastics. Children’s participation in gymnastics activities or gymnastics class gives

them a variety of benefits to them and embracing the physical, cognitive and

physiogical. This benefit will have an impact on their lives until they died. Gymnastics

activities help children improve their physical skills. This will help them to conquer many

other games such as basketball, football, and others. In addition, gymnastics also

reduce muscle injury because emphasizing the flexibility of the body.

Aside from that, gymnastics also can improve children’s muscle strength through

tumbling, jumping, bending, and take the weight of the body with one of the members of

the body in various positions also help children’s to build a strong and vibrant body.

Their body muscles built well during training. Through gymnastics, children will be able

to build a solid body flesh and muscle, improving equilibrium and also improve your

posture.

Moreover, gymnastics also will help children to build healthy bones. Gymnastics

which involves the ability to support children’s own weight allow children to build strong

and healthy bones. This activity requires children to work against gravity, which means

that a child will need to use the hands, feet, or one foot to hold or support their own

weight.

2

By involve in the gymnastics activity, the children also will have a better body

flexibility. In short, this aspect involves the ability or capacity of children moves their

muscle to the maximum. This is so because gymnastics emphasizes the ability to

capture a variety of positions for each instrument performances. In everyday life, the

gymnasts can reduce stress, help improve coordination, and increase body awareness.

In the social life of children, playing is a trigger to formation and development of

social and emotional skills children. For example, children of various ages socialize, to

be generous in their respective cultures. Study (Rubin & Howe, 1986; Creasey, Jarvis,

& Berk, 1998)shows that playing with other individuals is an opportunity for children to

adjust their behavior with others and give opinions their own. Playing is said to be able

to provide children with a rich experience for improve social skills, have sensitivity

values and needs of others, emotional control, learn to control you and are able to share

power.

According to Ee Ah Meng in his book, playing brings the excitement and

entertainment that also stimulate individuals to learn something in a way that is active in

an informal situation. Playing also helps children to develop physical, mental and socio

emotion. Activities that involve physical activities will certainly increase strength and

agilityof children. Through playing, children can interact with each other. They will be

able to learn the values of positive social as tolerant, understanding, patience,

cooperation, cleanliness and so on.

Effect pleasure of playing will help speed up the learning process. After all, the

feedbacks given immediately weatherit is right or wrong will strengthen the formation of

a concept. The activity of playing allows the development of children according to their

progress. When playing, weak individuals will get help from your friends and do not feel

desperate when learning something. Playing can also improve fine motor skills and

gross motor. Activities such as cut paper allow children to acquire skills and eye-hand

coordination. The development of gross motor development can be achieved through

climbing, running, rolling and many more.

3

Studies have shown a positive relationship between playing and children (Kumar

& Harizuka, 1998: Lieberman, 1977). They have identified improvement in

concentration, readiness skills, and attitudes. This clearly shows that the process

learning that involves mental operations. There is much more interest for example in the

development of language playing. Regardless if the play date to be used as a tool and

not a tool to play learning will not leave a positive impact on teaching and children's

learning. Teachers should play an important role in giving proper guidance so that

through play can produce optimal learning to children.

Creative movement is also a type of playing that can highly benefit children in

term of cognitive skill. It is often accompanied by singingand musical instruments so

that it will be more attractive and increase interest of the children to do the movement.

With singing activities, it will help children improve speaking skills and phonological

skills. Most children are not able to pronounce the words properly but only mentions the

word ends but with the help of creative movement activity which is accompanied by the

singing it can help improve the child's speech.

Singing and combined with a variety of activities will be more attractive to

children and they will be more excited and happy. For children, they will consider

singing more to play and relax. Through their singing will be more entertained and is

relaxing the mind. To reinforce verbal children, this activity is helpful to achieve the goal

of improving children's pronunciation. This is because singing requires the correct

pronunciation and clear to the beat and rhythm and delivered stress, intonation and tone

specific. Indirect activities can help children improve their speech.

4

SUMMARY

Hence, they are three aspects of the importance of playing to children consists of

physical, emotional and social. Thus, the role of encouraging children to play should be

played by people who are around children such as parents, nanny, neighbors until

beyond the entire ecological community.

Importance of games activities for preschool children can be seen in the

emphasis on the teaching and learning of children at this stage are more stressed

approach Learn Through Play because it can affect the child's development of various

aspects of physical, cognitive, mental, language and socio-emotional. For this purpose,

the activities planned to give priority to all aspects of development as a platform to help

develop other aspects.

One example of games that can benefit children in the aspect of physical is

gymnastics. Children’s participation in gymnastics activities or gymnastics class gives

them a variety of benefits to them and embracing the physical, cognitive and

physiogical. This benefit will have an impact on their lives until they died. Gymnastics

activities help children improve their physical skills. This will help them to conquer many

other games such as basketball, football, and others.

In the social life of children, playing is a trigger to formation and development of

social and emotional skills children. For example, children of various ages socialize, to

be generous in their respective cultures. Study (Rubin & Howe, 1986; Creasey, Jarvis,

& Berk, 1998) shows that playing with other individuals is an opportunity for children to

adjust their behavior with others and give opinions their own.

Singing and combined with a variety of activities will be more attractive to

children and they will be more excited and happy. For children, they will consider

singing more to play and relax. Through their singing will be more entertained and is

relaxing the mind. To reinforce verbal children, this activity is helpful to achieve the goal

of improving children's pronunciation.

5

2.0 TEACHING MODEL

Information Processing Model

6

Meaning

Information processing refers to the way people handle stimuli from environment, organize data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems and employ verbal and non-verbal symbols.

Types

Information-Processing Model of MemoryGegne's Information Processing ModelExpository Teaching ModelInquiry Teaching Model

Focus

Develop inductive reasoningProcess of classifying things in groups

Limitation

It makes high demand on the students as well as teachers. All the students of the class may not be able to participate in the teaching-learning process Some students, on account of their shyness, fail to derive the requisite advantage of this model.

SUMMARY

The first teaching model that I have found is information processing model.

Firstly, this model means that Information processing refers to the way people handle

stimuli from environment, organize data, sense problems, generate concepts and

solutions to problems and employ verbal and non-verbal symbols.

Besides that, there are four types of information processing model. Firstly is

Information-Processing Model of Memory, secondly is Gagne’s Information-Processing

Model, next is Expository Teaching Model and the last one is Inquiry Teaching Model.

On the other hand, this model are focusing on two aspects. Firstly is develop

inductive reasoning and the second one is process of classifying things in a groups.

Finally, there are several limitations of this model. The first one is it makes high

demand on the students as well as teachers. Furthermore, all of the students in the

class may not be able to participate in the teaching learning process. In addition, some

students, on account of their shyness, fail to derive the requisite advantage of this

model.

7

Behavioral Model

8

Meaning

Stress on changing the external behaviour of the learners and describe them in them of visible behaviour rather than underlying behaviour.

Types

Direct Instruction ModelMastery LearningProgrammed Instruction Model

9

Direct Instruction Model

A teaching technique involves the use of a teacher’s skill to demonstrate and perform a certain activity in the class.Teacher has a strong control over what is learnt in the classroom, provides feedback, monitoring students, grading work and strict classroom rules & regulations. (Teacher-centered)

Mastery Learning

Refers to a theory & practice of using remedial teaching based on feedback of pupil’s performance to assist them to achieve the learning objectives

Programmed Instruction Model

Computer Assisted Instruction (CIA)The application of technology & computer system in teaching. Pupils follow designed learning materials in software without teacher’s help. –Teacher has to facilitate the pupils to have interest in manipulating computer.

SUMMARY

The second model that I have found before is behavioral model. This model

means that stress on changing the external behavior rather than underlying behavior.

There are three types of this model which is consists of Direct Instruction Model,

Mastery Learning and Programmed Instruction Model.

Actually, direct instruction model is a teaching technique involves the use of a

teacher’s skill to demonstrate and perform a certain activity in the class. Moreover, the

teacher also has a strong control over what is learnt in the classroom, provides

feedback, monitoring students, grading work and strict classroom rules and regulations.

(Teacher-centered).

Meanwhile, mastery learning refers to a theory and practice of using remedial

teaching based on feedback of pupil’s performance to assist them to achieve the

learning objectives.

The last type of behavioral model is programmed instruction model. It is based

on Computer Assisted Instruction (CIA). It is also the application of technology and

computer system in teaching.

10

Social Model

11

Meaning

The model of teaching of this category emphasizes the important of social relationship of the person and are based on the assumption that social relation is the vehicle of education

Types

Model of Group Teaching and Co-operative LearningSimulation Model

Elements

Face-to-face interactionPositive interdependenceIndividual and group accountabilityGroup processingInterpersonal and small- group skills

Importance

Emphasize the worth of cooperative learningIncorporate the collective energy of the groupPromote social skills including self-dicipline, negotiation, democracy and etc.

SUMMARY

The third model is called Social Model. The model of teaching is emphasize the

important of social relationship of the person and are based on the assumption that

social relation is the vehicle of education.

This model contains two aspects which are model of group teaching and Co-

operative Learning and Simulation Model.

There are several elements contains in this model such as Face-to-face

interaction, Positive interdependence, individual and group accountability, group

processing, and interpersonal and small group skills.

For this model, there are also a few importances that we have identified before.

Firstly is emphasizing the worth of cooperative learning. Next, it is also can incorporate

the collective energy of the group. Besides that, this model promote social skills

including self-discipline, negotiation, democracy and etc.

12

Personal Model

13

Meaning

Personal development models assist the individual in the development of selfhood, they focus on the emotional life an individual

Types

Individual's Thinking Skill ModelProject Model

Focus

On those outcomes held in high regard by humanistic educators:High self-concept and self-esteem. Positive self-direction and independence.Creativity and curiosity.The development of affect and emotions.Most of the methods used are associated with open education.

Importance of Project Model

Students able to relate their previous experiences to what they are studying.Able to understand objectives of the projects before and after lesson.Fun activities that attract students’ interests in learning more & apply what they have learnt.Moral values are applied.Theories, facts & hypotheses are brought into practices (I do, I remember & understand).Co-operations among students.Direct experiences & additional knowledge.

SUMMARY

The last model that I have found is personal model. Actually, this model means

that personal development models assist individual in the development of selfhood, they

focus on the emotional life an individual.

There are two types of this model consisted of Individual’s Thinking Skill Model

and Project Model.

This model is focusing on those outcomes held in high regard by humanistic

educators. It is also related to high self-concept and self-esteem. On the other hand,

this model focused on positive self-direction and independence. Creativity and curiosity

also are part of this model. This model also develops affect and emotions. In addition,

most of the methods used are associated with open education.

Hence, the importance of this project model have been identified which is

contains the students able to relate their previous experiences to what they are

studying. They are also able to understand objectives of the projects before and after

lesson. Next, fun activities that attract students’ interests in learning more and apply

what they have learnt during the class. On the other hand, moral values also can be

applied through this project model. Meanwhile, theories, facts and hypotheses are

brought into practices (I do, I remember and understand). Finally, students can

cooperate well between each other in the class and can gain direct experiences and

additional knowledge indeed.

14

3.0 APPLICATION OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivist learning is based on students' active participation in problem-

solving and critical thinking regarding a learning activity which they find relevant and

engaging. They are "constructing" their own knowledge by testing ideas and

approaches based on their prior knowledge and experience, applying these to a new

situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual

constructs.

In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the

students. The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours

knowledge into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the

constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process

of learning. In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of

knowledge as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to

successfully stretch and explore that view - not as inert factoids to be memorized.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use

inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to

find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and,

as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads

to more questions.

There is a great deal of overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist

classroom, with the exception of the greater emphasis placed on learning through social

interaction, and the value placed on cultural background. For Vygotsky, culture gives

the child the cognitive tools needed for development. Adults in the learner’s

environment are conduits for the tools of the culture, which include language, cultural

history, social context, and more recently, electronic forms of information access.

15

In social constructivist classrooms collaborative learning is a process of peer

interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted

by the presentation of specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by

means of effectively directed questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts

and information, and references to previously learned material.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity

is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies,

students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives

them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom

environment, the students learn how to learn.

You might look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their

experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they

develop increasingly strong abilities to integrate new information. One of the teacher's

main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process. For example,

Groups of students in a science class are discussing a problem in physics. Though the

teacher knows the "answer" to the problem, she focuses on helping students restate

their questions in useful ways. She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his

or her current knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the relevant

concept, the teacher seizes upon it, and indicates to the group that this might be a

fruitful avenue for them to explore. They design and perform relevant experiments.

Afterward, the students and teacher talk about what they have learned, and how their

observations and experiments helped (or did not help) them to better understand the

concept.

16

Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators,

constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert

knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help students to

construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist

teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities

with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences,

and pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment.

Constructivism transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an

active participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students

construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge

from the teacher or the textbook.

Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels

students to "reinvent the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the

student's innate curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent

the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions. They become

engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience, learning to

hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their

findings. 

The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it

means in your classroom is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others

about it, and trying it yourself. As you progress through each segment of this workshop,

keep in mind questions or ideas to share with your colleagues. 

Constructivism has important implications for teaching. First, teaching cannot be

viewed as the transmission of knowledge from enlightened to unenlightened;

constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Rather, teachers

act as "guides on the side" who provide students with opportunities to test the adequacy

of their current understandings.

17

Second, if learning is based on prior knowledge, then teachers must note that

knowledge and provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between

learners' current understandings and the new experiences before them. This challenges

teachers; for they cannot assume that all children understand something in the same

way. Further, children may need different experiences to advance to different levels of

understanding.

Third, if students must apply their current understandings in new situations in

order to build new knowledge, then teachers must engage students in learning, bringing

students' current understandings to the forefront. Teachers can ensure that learning

experiences incorporate problems that are important to students, not those that are

primarily important to teachers and the educational system. Teachers can also

encourage group interaction, where the interplay among participants helps individual

students become explicit about their own understanding by comparing it to that of their

peers.

Fourth, if new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build it. Ample

time facilitates student reflection about new experiences, how those experiences line up

against current understandings, and how a different understanding might provide

students with an improved (not "correct") view of the world.

Since constructivism is first and foremost a theory of learning, questions arise

about what genuinely constructivist instruction looks like in the classroom. It could be

argued that Joyce Tate, Kimberly Bissell, and other teachers who use similar methods

are practicing constructivists - whether they would give themselves that label or not. We

compared several of their instructional methods with the five principles of constructivist

learning delineated in Jacqueline Grennon Brooks and Martin G. Brooks' study, In

Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms.

18

1. Posing problems of emerging relevance to learners

Start with what students know and help them build increasingly sophisticated

understandings by making the material and subject matter relevant to them; this is a

cornerstone of constructivist education. Constructivist teachers frame instruction so their

students can understand the relevance of new knowledge. Relevance need not preexist

in students; when it doesn't, constructivist teachers nudge students to gradually realize

the relevance of their emerging knowledge by encouraging them to explore new

materials and solve problems.

One way Joyce Tate shows her elementary pupils that science is relevant to their

everyday lives is by talking about their parents' professions. If a student's parent works

in a fast-food restaurant, the class discusses boiling point, heat intensity, and the

importance of estimation, prediction, and accurate measurement in that job. During a

unit on small machines, parents who are mechanics come to Tate's lab to talk about the

workings of levers and gears. Tate's students also bring backyard soil samples and

other items from home for lab sessions.

"The children get real excited. They feel as though they have some kind of

connection with science," Tate says. "A lot of students feel as if they aren't prepared for

science or the math that we're going to do. But they find out we're talking about and

using materials and items that are readily and easily available to them at home, right out

of their kitchens, and they don't seem to be intimidated. They want to try, they want to

do because they feel as though we're always going to begin with something they're

comfortable and familiar with, and build on that."

2. Seeking and valuing students' points of view

Constructivist teachers see the viewpoints of their students as "windows into their

reasoning." But to see through those windows, teachers must talk with and listen to their

students - and allow students to come up with their own answers. Erroneous answers

can reveal student viewpoints; in fact, they can give constructivist teachers a way to

reach students and encourage the growth of new skills and more accurate

understandings.

19

Tate applies this strategy when she encourages students to think of themselves

as scientists who can make significant discoveries in the laboratory. "We find that

science is changing daily and some of the things that we considered to be science

gospel or the Facts have changed, and there may be other ways of looking at them. I try

to encourage this in the science lab," Tate explains. "When we first started, I noticed

that a lot of the students would write their hypothesis and, if something didn't happen

the way they thought it should have, they would change it. They would erase the

hypothesis, saying, 'Oh no! This is wrong! And I don't want anyone to see it!'"

Now, after an experiment or lesson, Tate asks her students if they found an

unexpected result or if an aberrant sequence of events occurred.

"I've finally gotten them to see that this may be a new discovery," Tate says. "If your

hypothesis isn't proven, then let's go back, replicate the experiment, and see why is it

different. Maybe you're onto something new here. If so, document it, sign it, and make

sure that I'm one of the corecipients of this discovery." She laughs. "In that sense, I've

gotten them to feel confident to the point that they're almost anxiously waiting: 'Oh boy, I

hope I find out something different! I hope this doesn't work!' Now they'll tell you very

arrogantly, 'Hey, I'm onto something new here!'"

3. Structuring learning around primary concepts

To better engage their students, constructivist teachers often present curriculum

holistically, organizing materials in conceptual clusters or, as some constructivists put it,

"big ideas." According to Brooks and Brooks, this instructional approach entices

students to build meaningful knowledge "by breaking up the wholes into parts that they

can understand" and work with. The emphasis on primary ideas instead of sets of

discrete facts also naturally leads to cross-curricular teaching and learning.

Bissell conscientiously works with big ideas. She wants students to leave her

music laboratory with not only a high degree of musical understanding but the

realization that the materials they study in different subjects are interrelated. Like other

J. S. Clark faculty, Bissell coordinates her lessons with other teachers' in a vivid

demonstration of cross-curricular learning. During African-American History Month,

20

Bissell has students study the history of jazz or other African-American music. If the rain

forest is the topic in social studies and science, part of music class is spent examining

maps and studying the rain forest's terrain and the music of its peoples. The mix of

subject matter expands students' understanding of the rain forest while helping them

explore how geography affects human communication, including music. "We will really

go into depth," Bissell adds. "We really would like students to realize that learning is of a

global nature."

Tate's unit Science in Louisiana epitomizes big ideas and conceptual clusters.

Tapping into information about the state of Louisiana helps her prompt students into

thinking as scientists while helping them build their analytical and observational skills

and knowledge. Students explore their state and local communities and compare them

to others they've seen. They research and discuss Louisiana agriculture. They study

Louisiana biomes and ecosystems. They investigate Louisiana's native wildlife and

conduct documented studies of animals from the school zoo, which range from a

speckled king snake to the microscopic denizens of local waterways.

They read children's literature that has scientific content and adapt the material to

provide a Louisiana twist. If these children's books are by Louisiana authors, so much

the better; the writers should expect to receive letters from Tate's students during the

coming school year.

"We want to know what science background the authors have and what was

instrumental in their writing the books. Where do they live, and what can they tell us

about their community, so we can make comparisons to ours," Tate says. Literary

pursuits in the science lab also help build students' content reading skills, Tate points

out, while encouraging children to explore scientific ideas and principles.

21

4. Adapting curriculum to address students' suppositions

If constructivist learning begins with what students already know and helps them build

on that knowledge, then teachers must realize what their students know and think at the

beginning of a lesson. Thus, teachers should first determine the degree of their pupils'

prior knowledge of a subject. This can help teachers alter the curriculum so study units

can open with students' expressing their current assumptions; teachers design

subsequent lessons to help students form a more accurate understanding of the subject

matter by working with primary materials and raw data. Some constructivist teachers

also modify a curriculum to cater to students' distinctive learning styles.

The zoo in J. S. Clark's science lab is a case in point. At the school year's

beginning, Tate leads her students to the row of cages and aquariums where the

children see birds, fish, amphibians, and small mammals. When asked, they say all the

cages and tanks contain living things - except for one tank containing pond water.

"There's nothing alive in there," the children say, giving Tate an opportunity to introduce

the concept of microorganisms and begin lessons in the use of microscopes.

Bissell designs music lessons that have aural, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic elements.

"I believe that if you don't have all four, you're going to leave someone out who is a

kinesthetic learner or a tactile learner or an aural or visual learner," she says.

She didn't always teach that way. "When I started teaching, I was following the

little curriculum guide," Bissell continues. "And I had a really good music series which

told you, 'Here's what you do next.' At the end of the year, there was a little paper-and-

pencil quiz that you gave to the kids and you saw how much they'd remember, which

wasn't a whole lot.

"Now my kids are not only able to read music by the time they hit fifth and sixth grade,

they can write their own compositions, they can discuss stylistic elements, they can

incorporate instruments and talk about the different timbres they would make," she

says. "But more than that, they can experience and share music, which is what the goal

of music education, should be."

22

5. Assessing student learning in the context of teaching

In traditional education, teachers assess students by grading assignments, from

worksheets to examinations, and rating student work on the number of right and wrong

answers. In contrast, constructivist teachers assess student learning while they teach to

gain insight into students' understanding as well as the level of their cognitive

development. Right and wrong answers are important to constructivist teachers - but so

are opportunities to gain insight into their students' current understanding and the

chance to enhance that understanding.

Bissell and Tate are of two minds about assessment. As public school teachers

who are expected to measure their students' performance, they administer tests and

quizzes. Tate believes her students should know how to take tests successfully - so

much so that she works this skill into her lessons. But Bissell and Tate also use select

alternative assessment techniques in class to continuously obtain clear pictures of

student learning.

Bissell's students go beyond quiz-writing to assessing some of their classmates'

assignments; a strategy she picked up in SCIMAST training helps keep the grading fair.

When beginning a lesson, Bissell uses rubrics, or sets of scaled, written criteria for an

assignment, which she posts on the blackboard. She lists the tasks students must

complete to earn each grade, with the C list the shortest and the A+ list the most

extensive. The rubric guides students as they work by providing clearly defined sets of

tasks to achieve. And when the class discusses which grade to award to individual

assignments, they refer to the rubric and match the assignment to the criteria for each

letter grade. Bissell finds this instructional approach motivates some students to redo

assignments to improve their grades.

"They want to learn; they want to do well," Bissell says. "And if they think they're

controlling it, they have a much better chance of success than if I'm handing out paper

and pencils and saying, 'This is my test of your ability.'"

23

SUMMARY

Constructivist learning is based on students' active participation in problem-

solving and critical thinking regarding a learning activity which they find relevant and

engaging. They are "constructing" their own knowledge by testing ideas and

approaches based on their prior knowledge and experience, applying these to a new

situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual

constructs.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use

inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to

find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and,

as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads

to more questions.

. Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels

students to "reinvent the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the

student's innate curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent

the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions. They become

engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience, learning to

hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their

findings.

Since constructivism is first and foremost a theory of learning, questions arise

about what genuinely constructivist instruction looks like in the classroom. It could be

argued that Joyce Tate, Kimberly Bissell, and other teachers who use similar methods

are practicing constructivists - whether they would give themselves that label or not.

Thus, that is the application of constructivism of teaching students indeed.

24

4.0 REFLECTION

Alhamdulillah and thanks to god for allowing me to complete this project task for

Learner and Learning Environment (EDU3103) subject. This task is revolving around

theories of learning and model of teaching. Teaching models prescribe tested steps and

procedures to effectively generate desired outcomes. In general, models can be

classified along a continuum from instructor-directed, to student-instructor negotiated, to

student-directed. Meanwhile, learning theories refer to the general learning principles

which have been derived from research by education psychologists. This knowledge is

important to ensure us as future teacher to prepare ourselves to teach various types of

students.

This project has been divided into four subtask which cover different topics based

on the two themes. The first task is on the importance of playing, the second task is on

the teaching models, the third task is on the application of constructivism in the

Malaysian’s education system and the last task is to write a reflection for this whole

task. I have spent a lot of time to finish this task. It is because there are lots of research

needs to be done. I have used many sources to do my research for this task. Among

the sources that I used is books, journal, article from newspaper, and of course the

internet. However, there is still some problem regarding the source that is the internet. It

is quite hard to choose the reliable source from the internet. That is because there are

some web pages that can be edited randomly by any viewer. There is also some

information that was posted by unknown sources. That’s why I need to choose carefully

all the information from the internet because not all information is corrects.

There are lots of things that I learnt after I complete this coursework. I also

manage to do revision for my final exam with this coursework because it is in the

syllable. First of all is the first task which is the importance of playing to children from

the aspect of physical, emotion and social.

From what I got, playing hasthe elements of voluntariness, intrinsic motivation,

involving the participation of an active and physical movement as well as the quality

involving imagination (Pellegrini, 1995). Playing also has three concepts: free play,

25

control play, and influence play (Azizi Jaafar, 2009). According Noriati, Boon, Sharifah

Fakhriah (2009), playing is symbolic, meaningful, fun, voluntary and intrinsically

motivated, regulatory and episodic nature (Fromberg, 1987).

As future teachers, have we ever thought that children need to play for the

development of cognitive, psychomotor and affective? According to Choong (2008),

playing refers to an intrinsically motivated activity and fun to the person concerned.

Webster's Dictionary in Choong (2008) also stated the concept play as a movement and

changing speeds, for example, a child pretending to be a fighter jet, racing cars. The

second concept states play a role is a character, for example a child pretending to be a

teacher, mother, and so on. Playing as well as the design of a child creates their

creativity by playing stacks blocks. Play also conceptualized as an exercise for example

play ting-ting, konda-kondi and others. It creates excitement or playfulness like hide and

seeks game, run game tie legs, and so on.

The importance of playing in the education of children, especially in preschoolers

needs an adult as the person responsible for the children learning life. One of the

important roles is to create an environment loving and stimulates the mind as well as

the child's physical. Therefore, it is important for us to use the skills that can help

children to fulfill our responsibilities better.

A child begins to absorb information since he was born (MaryMontessori). This

information is largely derived from the parents.Therefore, parents are fully responsible

in the early children learning, and their role as a teacher is crucial. Parental involvement

in children's play activities can be linked to intellectual development and emotional

children (Singer, 1973; Dun and Wooding, 1977). A small-scale study (Manaf, Norimah,

Sharifah, Wong, 2007), which was done by a group of students Masters in Early

Childhood Education under the supervision of the authors have proved that the positive

involvement of parents, to improve the minds of children creativity. Similarly, in the

study by Swadener and Hohnson (1989) who has shown the same opinion.

26

The second task is about the teaching models. This task requires me to research

about the teaching models and then organize them in the form of mind map or graphic

organizer. It is quite difficult I am not a person that frequently use mind mapping. From

here I learn how to organize my data accordingly. After much effort I manage to finish it

and of course by doing this task I manage to sharpened my ability in organizing data in

the form of mind map or graphic organizer.

From this second task I also managed to acquire information about teaching

models. Based on the information I now know all four types of teaching models which is

information processing model, behavioral model, social model, and personal model.

Now, I also know about the concept of teaching models. Teaching requires the

knowledge of subject content, method, techniques and teaching aids to be used for

making teaching interesting and effective. This is the main objective of education. For

this purpose, the teachers need a variety of approaches. Several models of teaching

have been developed. They described model of teaching as a plan or pattern that can

be used to shape the curriculum (long-term courses of studies), to design instructional

materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings. This means

models of teaching have been developed to help a teacher to improve his capacity to

reach more children and create a richer and more diverse environment for them. Model

of teaching consists of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments.

It is meant for creating suitable learning environments. In other words, “Models of

Teaching” describe teaching, as it ought to be.

The third task which is the most crucial is about the application of constructivism

in the Malaysian’s education system. I considered this task to be crucial because I not

only need to research about constructivism but I also need to research the implement of

this theory. This is very hard because in Malaysia, teacher usually only used the method

of teaching which they find suit with them and their students without the help of any

theories. That’s why many Malaysian’s teacher actually used this constructivism theory

without they even know that they actually using the constructivism theory in their

teaching method.

27

From this task I can make conclusion that constructivism is a philosophy of

learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our

own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and

“mental models,” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore,

is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

As conclusion, I can make a hypothesis that is by improving and understanding

my own optimal personal learning environment, I will be able to help create the

conditions for improving the personal learning environments of my students in the

school and beyond. My belief is that education does not stop with graduation. Our

educational mission continues on past graduation and so we must provide reach back

capability to support our student’s lifelong learning.

28

5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1990). Huraian Kurikulum Prasekolah

Kebangsaan, Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum Kementerian Pendidikan

Malaysia 2003.

Bandura, A (1971). Analysis of modeling processes.Psychological Modelling?

Chichago. Alsine-Asherton

Koehler, M & kravets, D. (1977). Social psychology:understanding human

interactions (Edisi 2). Boston

Salmah Ayub. (1992). Pergerakan kreatif dan pendidikan.KualaLumpur Flo Enterprise.

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1998). Sukatan PelajaranPendidikan

Jasmani. Kuala Lumpur : Pusat PerkembanganKurikulum.

Ryder, M (2009) Instructional Design Models. Achieve

fromhttp://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html  on 1 Sept 2012)

29

6.0 APPENDIXES

Bermain galak perkembangan kanak-kanak16/09/2012 - 10:48:57 AM Oleh Fatin Hafizah Mohd ShaharCetakEmel Kawan

 

BERIKAN saja apa juga jenis mainan atau alat. Asalkan berwarna-warni dan berbentuk menarik, kanak-kanak pastinya leka mengerjakan barang itu.Ada saja yang dilakukan mereka, ada yang digigit, diketuk malah ditarik hingga kadang-kadang terbelah dua barang yang dibawa main. 

Keadaan ini menyebabkan ada ibu bapa yang tidak lagi mahu membeli mainan untuk anak.Tidak mahu membazir atau rumah bersepah sering dijadikan alasan.Namun, tahukah anda hakikatnya pemusnahan dilakukan si kecil sebenarnya adalah tanda permulaan yang menunjukkan sikap ingin tahu terhadap sesuatu yang baru dicapai mereka sebelum memulakan detik lebih mencabar minda dan pergerakan mereka. Sejak seawal usia bayi lagi, kanak-kanak sebenarnya sudah mula menanamkan sifat ingin tahu mengenai setiap perkara di sekeliling mereka. Mereka akan cuba mencapai apa saja yang dilihat menarik bagi `dibedah’ untuk mencari penemuan baru. 

Dalam erti kata ringkas, kanak-kanak sememangnya tidak boleh dipisahkan daripada permainan mereka kerana bermain boleh memberi kegembiraan dan kepuasan kepada mereka.Bagi si cilik, bermain adalah satu pekerjaan buat mereka walaupun bukan untuk mendapatkan sesuatu hasil atau mencapai tujuan tertentu. 

Penulis Kurikulum dan Modul PERMATA Negara, Dr Azizah Lebai Nordin menjelaskan bermain adalah keinginan semula jadi yang lahir bersama kanak-kanak dan ia bukanlah satu tugasan paksaan. 

Melalui bermain, kanak-kanak mampu meningkatkan pelbagai sudut perkembangan diri selain menjadikannya saat yang paling berharga. 

“Seawal usia dua tahun, kanak-kanak sudah mula melahirkan rasa ingin tahu dan tempoh waktu itu adalah saat terbaik bagi memberi galakan kepada perkembangan anak-anak. Ketika itu, perkembangan motor kasar sudah bermula begitu juga perkembangan deria rasa mereka. “Melalui bermain, si kecil terdedah dengan bahan atau peralatan yang berbeza bentuk permukaannya, begitu juga dengan rasa atau bau dihasilkan bahan itu. Secara tidak langsung ia merangsang penggunaan deria mereka sekali gus membolehkan menemui perkara baru sepanjang bermain,” katanya ketika dihubungi, baru-baru ini. 

Kanak-kanak didedahkan dengan satu pembelajaran dan penemuan baru ketika bermain.Kanak-kanak belajar mengenai warna dan bentuk berbeza. Ini menggalakkan

30

mereka menggunakan psikomotor sekali gus memperkembangkan kemahiran motor kasar dan halus. 

Bermain juga memberikan penekanan kepada tumpuan si kecil dalam menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah sekali gus mengawal kemarahan mereka apabila menemui jalan buntu apatah lagi melahirkan kreativiti dalam melakukan sesuatu tugas. 

Azizah menjelaskan bermain turut memberikan peluang untuk kanak-kanak meluahkan perasaan selain mencerminkan sikap dan menggambarkan perkembangan sosio serta emosi mereka. 

Katanya, kanak-kanak berkecenderungan untuk bersikap ego dan tidak ingin berkongsi di awal usia mereka. Apa yang dimiliki mereka menjadi hak mutlak. Namun, apabila usia semakin meningkat, sikap ingin berkongsi mula ditunjukkan. 

“Egosentrik si kecil sangat tinggi di awal usia mereka.Namun, lama kelamaan sikap itu semakin pudar.Perubahan boleh dilihat dari sikap mereka yang bermain permainan masing-masing namun secara berdekatan, kemudian berubah kepada perkongsian. 

“Ini membuktikan, menerusi bermain kanak-kanak mula belajar untuk berkongsi dan kemahiran berkomunikasi juga tercabar di sini.Mereka juga tidak terkecuali terdedah kepada pendedahan menyelesaikan masalah secara bersama dan menerusi perbincangan bagi yang lebih dewasa,” katanya. 

Malah, kata Azizah, ahli psikologi perkembangan kanak-kanak, Lev Vygotsky memberi penekanan kepada kepentingan bermain dalam meningkatkan perkembangan bahasa dan sosial kanak-kanak. 

Permainan yang bagus untuk perkembangan kanak-kanak kata Azizah, bukan sekadar pada warna dan bentuknya yang menaik, malah kesesuaiannya mengikut usia dan bahan yang digunakan dalam pembuatannya. 

Bahan yang digunakan perlu selamat untuk kanak-kanak dan mainan itu juga tidak sepatutnya mudah patah atau pecah jika terjatuh. 

Ketika disoal mengenai permainan difikirkan sesuai untuk menggalakkan perkembangan kanak-kanak sekali gus menarik minat mereka, Azizah menjelaskan pelbagai strategi bermain boleh diamalkan sejak di awal usia mereka antaranya bongkah kayu, lego, kad imbas selain permainan tradisional seperti ting-ting dan congkak. 

Ting-ting umpamanya, kata Azizah, adalah antara permainan yang mampu mencabar kemampuan kanak-kanak dalam menghadapi masalah.Ia mengaitkan pelbagai deria selain ketangkasan kanak-kanak sendiri. 

31

“Bermain banyak faedahnya kepada anak-anak.Oleh itu, mereka perlu diberikan kebebasan untuk bermain.Bagaimanapun, permainan yang berkesan adalah dengan adanya pembabitan orang dewasa bagi memantau perkembangan dicapai kanak-kanak selain membuatkan mereka rasa disayangi dan dihargai dalam setiap dilakukan,” katanya sebelum menamatkan perbualan.

KEPENTINGAN AKTIVITI BERMAIN DI DALAM PENDIDIKAN PRASEKOLAH

Fauziah Md.Jaafar

Bidang Pendidikan , Kolej Sastera dan Sains,

Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak: Kajian ini dijalankan untuk memperolehi maklumat tentang kekerapan aktiviti

bermain di kalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah bagi daerah Kubang Pasu,Kedah. Kajian

ini juga ingin mengenal pasti perbezaan antara pelaksanaan aktiviti main antara

prasekolah dan KEMAS.Kaedah soal selidik digunakan untuk mengumpul data. Kajian

ini melibatkan 80 orang sampel yang terdiri 33 dari guru prasekolah Kementerian

Pelajaran Malaysia dan 47 orang dari guru tabika Kemas. Data yang diperolehi

dianalisis dengan menggunakan statistik deskriptif dan T-test.Dapatan kajian

menunjukkan bahawa guru prasekolah dan Kemas ada menjalankan aktiviti bermain

berdasarkan min keseluruhan bagi setiap jenis permainan yang dijalankan.Dari

perbandingan di antara Prasekolah dan KEMAS didapati pelaksanaan aktiviti bermain

di prasekolah lebih tinggi sedikit minnya dari KEMAS untuk semua jenis main kecuali

permainan kumpulan.Ini selari dengan dapatan kajian Hamzah Dadu (1994)

menyatakan aktiviti main di prasekolah dijalankan dengan baik kerana faktor

kelengkapan alat permainan di sesebuah prasekolah itu. Namun begitu aktiviti

permainan kumpulan kalau dilihat tidak memerlukan peralatan lengkap sebagaimana

permainan lain. Oleh itu aktiviti permainan kumpulan bagi Tabika KEMAS minnya lebih

tinggi dari prasekolah.

Kata kunci : aktiviti bermain, pendidikan prasekolah, permainan kumpulan.

32

PENGENALAN

Bermain adalah satu aktiviti semulajadi dan keperluan bagi setiap kanak-kanak.Mereka

belajar dan meneroka melalui aktiviti bermain kerana imaginasi mereka yang tinggi

(Morrison, 2000; & Spodek, 1973) dan sejak bayi lagi mereka sudah cenderung untuk

memanipulasikan anggota badan mereka sendiri, (Piaget, 1962). Bermain adalah satu

aktiviti yang simbolik dan memberi makna kepada kanak-kanak, aktif serta bebas untuk

meneroka dan menjelajah persekitarannya, mendapat keseronokan dan segala

undang-undang permainan kanak-kanak yang tentukan sendiri sesuai dengan aktiviti

yang mereka main.(Isenberg and Jolongo, 1997).

Bermain merupakan hak yang seharusnya diberikan kepada kanak-kanak.Ibu bapa,

guru, pengusaha tadika atau taska dan juga masyarakat perlu memainkan peranan

penting dalam usaha agar kanak-kanak ini mendapatkan hak tersebut. Bagi tujuan ini

Huraian Kurikulum Pendidikan Prasekolah Kebangsaan (2003) telah memberi

penekanan tentang pendekatan belajar melalui bermain dalam proses pengajaran dan

pembelajaran di prasekolah. Aktiviti bermain merupakan satu aktiviti yang menjadi fitrah

bagi kanak-kanak. Mereka akan meneroka, menjelajah, inkuiri penemuan dan

pembinaan melalui pengalaman langsung secara semula jadi.

Pernyataan Masalah

Dalam kajian Asmah (2001), Play in Brunei Preschool classrooms mendapati bahawa

guru prasekolah di Brunei lebih memfokoskan pengajaran mereka pada konsep

membaca, menulis dan mengira berbanding kaedah bermain kerana permintaan ibu

bapa. Begitu juga dengan kajian Hussin (1996), menunjukkan pengajaran di prasekolah

Malaysia lebih kepada pendekatan formal. Hasil kajian Hamzah Dadu (1994) juga

menunjukkan senario yang sama. Oleh itu, pengkaji akan mengkaji sejauhmanakah

33

pelaksanaan aktiviti bermain di prasekolah dijalankan setelah semakan huraian

kurikulum prasekolah ini dibuat.

Objektif Kajian

Pada umumnya objektif bagi kajian ini ialah seperti berikut:

1. Mengkaji jenis dan tahap kekerapan aktiviti bermain di kalangan kanak-kanak

prasekolah.

2. Mengenal pasti perbezaan antara pelaksanaan aktiviti main antara

prasekolah dan KEMAS.

Soalan Kajian

1. Apakah jenis aktiviti permainan di kalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah?

2. Adakah terdapat perbezaan min yang signifikan di antara KEMAS dan

Prasekolah?

Apakah contoh-contoh permainan yang cenderung dilaksanakan oleh guru prasekolah?

Menurut Rubin et.al.(1983) dan Frost (1992) permainan mempunyai beberapa faktor

disposisi yang boleh membezakan main dengan tingkah laku atau aktiviti yang lain. Iaitu

main merupakan suatu yang dimotivasikan secara dalaman,fokus aktiviti main adalah

proses aktiviti itu sendiri dan bukan hasil atau aktiviti tersebut, permainan adalah satu

aktiviti bebas dari peraturan luaran bukanlah satu tugas yang dipaksa, permainan

menentukan penglibatan diri individu secara aktif , permainan selalu melibatkan kesan

perasaan positif seperti gembira dan seronok yang selalu disertai dengan gelak ketawa

dan main juga mempunyai ciri-ciri imaginasi, simulatif, pura-pura atau olak-olak.

34

Kepentingan aktiviti –aktiviti permainan bagi kanak-kanak prasekolah dapat dilihat

berdasarkan penekanan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kanak-kanak pada

peringkat ini yang lebih menekankan pendekatan Belajar Melalui Bermain kerana ia

boleh mempengaruhi perkembangan kanak-kanak dari berbagai aspek iaitu fizikal,

kognitif, mental, bahasa dan sosio emosi. Bagi tujuan ini, aktiviti-aktiviti yang dirancang

perlu memberi keutamaan kepada semua aspek perkembangan sebagai landasan bagi

membantu mengembangkan aspek-aspek yang lainnya (Huraian Kurikulum Prasekolah

Kebangsaan, 2003) di samping dalam masa yang sama kanak-kanak akan

menggunakan objek di sekitarnya sebagai lambang atau simbol sebenar mengikut

pemerhatian mereka terhadap persekitaran ( Liszkowski, Carpenter, Striano &

Tomasello, 2006; Tomasello& Haberl, 2003).

Terdapat beberapa kelompok atau jenis permainan yang sering dijalankan di

prasekolah berdasarkan pengkaji-pengkaji sebelum ini iaitu permainan imaginatif

dikenali juga dengan simbolik atau dramatik. Permainan ini adalah bergantung pada

objek atau material yang disediakan dan objek ini akan digunakan sebagai simbol bagi

objek sebenar(Marjanovic-Umek & Lesnik- Musek,2001; Abu Bakar & Rohaty, 1998)

dan membantu memperkembangkan kreativiti, kecerdasan menunjukkan aksi dan

kemahiran sosial kanak-kanak (Smilansky & Shefatya,1990; Smilansky,1979) di

samping penguasaan bahasanya (Sophie L.Lovinger 1974).

Manakala permainan bebas menurut Abu Bakar & Rohaty (1998), kanak-kanak

dibenarkan memilih aktiviti tertentu untuk bermain dan ini tidak bermaksud guru hanya

pemerhati dan tanpa merancang bahan-bahan yang boleh digunakan dalam permainan

atau yang boleh mereka pelajari daripada bahan tersebut.Morrison (2000) pula

menjelaskan bahawa permainan bebas adalah aktiviti bermain secara informal dan

spontan yang boleh wujud dalam situasi di mana-mana sudut dalam kelas. Bagi

permainan kreatif, ia memberi peluang pada kanak-kanak dalam melahirkan perasaan

mereka ketika bermain (Stevens,2003; Johnson,1999). Permainan Fizikal pula

melibatkan motor kasar sama ada di luar atau dalam kelas prasekolah (Johnson, 1999).

Permainan Kumpulan pula merupakan salah satu sub kategori permainan sosial iaitu

permainan kooperative yang mana melibatkan permainan kumpulan (Parten, 1932) dan

35

terancang (Rubin, 1978). Bagi permainan berstruktur merujuk kepada permainan yang

berperaturan dan terdapat undang-undang cara-cara bermain (Frost, 1992).

Parten (1932) mengkategorikan permainan kepada beberapa kategori iaitu

“Unoccupied”(kanak-kanak tidak bermain dengan sesiapa dan juga sebarang

permainan), “Solitary” (kanak-kanak bermain seorang diri tanpa melibatkan kanak-

kanak lain), “observer”( kanak-kanak memerhati dan melihat permainan kanak-kanak

lain,fokus diberikan kepada permainan lain), “parallel”( kanak-kanak bermain

bersendirian tetapi dengan cara yang sama dengan kanak-kanak lain atau

menggunakan alat permainan yang serupa) , “associative”( kanak-kanak hanya

berinteraksi di antara satu sama lain, menggunakan alatan yang sama tetapi mereka

tidak berkongsi) dan permainan Koperatif (Melibatkan permainan yang agak komplek,

berkongsi alat,wujudnya interaksi dan terlibat secara aktif).

Hamzah Dadu ( 1994) dalam kajian beliau telah mengelompokkan aktiviti-aktiviti

permainan kepada enam kumpulan dalam kajian beliau iaitu permainan berkumpulan,

permainan fizikal permainan kreatif, permainan dramatik, permainan berstruktur dan

permainan bebas.

Berdasarkan pengelasan permainan yang disyorkan oleh Parten (1932), kajian Hamzah

Dadu (1994) yang dan aktiviti main yang disenaraikan oleh pihak Kementerian

Pendidikan Malaysia (1990) dalam buku panduan aktiviti prasekolah, pengkaji telah

mengelompokkan aktiviti-aktiviti permainan kepada beberapa kategori iaitu

berstruktur,fizikal,kreatif, kumpulan, imaginatif dan bebas.

METODOLOGI

Kajian ini melibatkan 80 orang guru

prasekolah iaitu 33 orang guru

prasekolah dan 47 orang guru tabika

KEMAS di daerah Kubang Pasu.

Bagi meninjau kekerapan aktiviti

permainan di kalangan kanak-kanak

Cronbach’s Alpha (_) Bilangan Item

36

prasekolah satu set soal selidik telah

digunakan dan diubahsuai

berdasarkan pengelasan permainan

yang disyorkan oleh Parten (1932),

Hamzah Dadu (1994) dan juga

merujuk kepada aktiviti permainan

yang telah disenaraikan oleh pihak

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia

(1990) dalam buku panduan aktiviti

prasekolah. Data yang diperolehi

dianalisis dengan menggunakan

statistik deskriptif (min, peratusan

dan frekuensi) dan t-test. Kajian

rintis telah dikendalikan di kalangan

35 orang guru prasekolah di daerah

Kulim Bandar Baharu. Nilai alpha

yang diperolehi adalah seperti dalam

jadual di bawah. Jenis Permainan

Kumpulan 0.711 7

Kreatif 0.774 9

Bebas 0.738 3

Imaginasi 0.779 6

Berstruktur 0.790 3

Fizikal 0.807 11

37

Constructivism in Education:

An overview of contributions to the literature

and to the JPACTe annotated bibliography

Margaret Richardson, Ed. D., SUNY Cortland

Abstract

Constructivism in education has evolved over the past century due to the contributions

of many individuals in the U. S. and abroad. This article provides an overview of the

contributions of theorists, researchers, and educators most closely associated with its

rise in the field of education. The article also provides an outline and guide to the

annotated bibliography on constructivism in education on the JPACTe website.

Introduction

This article provides an overview of the development of constructivist theory in

education. It traces the roots of constructivism in the areas of educational philosophy,

cognitive theory, research on teaching, the “social curriculum,” professional

development and brain research. The article also provides an annotated bibliography

aligned with these topics.

Defining Constructivism in Education

Constructivism allows us as, as educators, the conceptual tools with which to view our

students and how they learn in a way that is congruent with best practice. Until recently,

“best practice” has been defined by traditional behaviorist definitions focused on student

academic outcomes; constructivist “best” practice is a relatively new focus of research.

38

“Constructivist best practice” in the past has been defined by practitioners and those

observing them: by teacher anecdotal evidence, clinical observation, the success of

affective and social teaching, and, increasingly, the positive relationship of constructivist

teaching and academic success (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004).

Constructivism requires that we understand that “(M)eaning is not given to us in our

encounters, but it is given by us, constructed by us, each in our own way, according to

how our understanding is currently organized.” (Duckworth, 1987, p. 112) (emphasis

1

added). “Constructivism” refers to the process by which human beings actively make

sense out of the world around them-- to “understand” (Wiske, 1998). “Understanding” in

a constructivist universe is an individual’s learning process and goal, and it is always

contextualized. “Knowledge,” as facts or items to be remembered, plays a secondary

role to the understanding that is the heart of the constructivist teaching and learning

endeavor (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998).

Constructivism requires that we reflect on all aspects of the teaching in which we

engage; as educators, we are learners ourselves. We must examine our planning, our

use of external standards, the materials we use, the environment in our classroom, our

own attitudes and expectations, and especially, the needs of our students, whether they

be children or teachers (Sparks, 1994).

A Graphic Organizer for Constructivist Theory in Education

The development of constructivism in field of education can be visualized with the

graphic organizer found in Figure 1. It was designed by a team of three researchers at

the 2005 Annual Constructivist Design Conference held at St. Lawrence University in

Canton, NY. (Ahad, Brockhuis, & Richardson, 2005)

2

Figure 1,

A Graphic Organizer for Constructivism in Education

39

(Ahad, Brockhuis, & Richardson, 2005)

The contributions of various theorists, researchers, and educators to the development of

constructivism are presented below, aligned with the graphic organizer in Figure 1. In

each case, references to their works are aligned with the Annotated Bibliography that

appears as a companion piece to this article. Brain Research & Constructivism

Constructivist Professional Development Constructivist Discipline &The Social

Curriculum Teachers & Teaching Strategies Cognitive Theory & Research Philosophy &

John Dewey Constructivism

3

Constructivist Philosophy – the Contributions of John Dewey

While constructivist research is still evolving and has yet to be completely accepted by

educators and the public alike, constructivist theory has a rich history, most famously

initiated by John Dewey (Dewey, 1916, 1933, 1938) in his progressive model for

teaching and learning. At the beginning of the 20 th century, Dewey created defensible

theory for progressive (ie. learning-centered) education based on pragmatic philosophy,

on the writings of Rousseau, and on the best psychological knowledge of the time. He

saw the need for public schools to be communities and to teach the skills for community

in an increasingly industrial, urban, disaffected society. He also had insight into how

children learn “best” derived from his own experience as an educator, and from his

interactions with outstanding teachers of the day. Best teaching, for Dewey, included

physical activity as a necessary but not sufficient part of learning. “Internal freedom” and

self-control were his goals to be aided by “external freedom.” Dewey did not step away

from acknowledging the ethical nature of public schooling. The following quote from

Butchart & McEwan (1998) might well illustrate a current interpretation of Dewey’s

allegiance to the ethical and democratic mandate of the public schools:

The question is never, “What works?” – all manner of barbarity works, if the end is

orderliness alone. The question is, what works to assure the sorts of civility and dignity

that is essential in the short term for effective learning, and vital in the long run for

democratic life? (page 3)

40

Dewey identified human learning as a process identical with the scientific process, thus

requiring teachers and students to view education as an active learning process, in a

“minds-on” sense as well as a ”hands-on” sense. In this scientific approach to learning,

he supported rigorous academic pursuit. While Dewey promoted a kind of schooling that

included emotional and social elements, it is of utmost importance to us today, to heed

Dewey’s argument for progressive (and constructivist) educators, to pursue academic

excellence as avidly as did the traditionalists of his day (Dewey, 1938). Dewey saw

teachers as experts in subject matter, and, as the most experienced person

4

in a classroom, deeply committed to designing authentic tasks to promote meaningful

learning. For Dewey, and for us, best teaching must support student engagement, and

promote students’ increasing complexity and integration of subject matter at the same

time as it promotes their growth in respect for self and others, in self-control, and in

responsibility. Particularly in our age of accountability, if constructivism is to

demonstrate its quality, we must not lose sight of cognition and academic growth as

integral parts of constructivism itself.

Cognitive Theory and Constructivism

Compared to constructivist theory, constructivist research has posed unique challenges

to those who would study the finer points of human cognitive, social and emotional life.

In the early 20th century, science supported what was then part of the “progressive”

development of “objective” and normative tests in order to measure each child’s

intelligence and aptitudes. While originally worthy attempts to pay attention to the

individual learner, these tests led to the development of standardized tests designed by

experts in the disciplines. The test format also shaped much of the research on human

activities in the 20th century fueling empirical, positivist science embraced by behavioral

psychologists, and thus, by educators.

Although Piaget and Vygotsky were well known in the latter part of the 20 th century, the

empiricist/behaviorist paradigm for the study of human beings held on in the U.S. far

longer than in Europe. The result was that along with the reification of standardized

41

tests, the early studies of teacher behavior were predictably designed to determine what

teacher behaviors could be linked to student success on standard measures. This

research identified effective teaching as teacher-centered and authoritarian (Brophy &

Good, 1986).

Cognition was the first aspect of active meaning-making to be studied rigorously, most

famously by Jean Piaget, in experiments that identified malleable and developmental

5

aspects of human thought processes. Later research on cognition focused on the

structural development of the growing brain of childhood, and became associated with

information-processing models, or conceptual schema, and how children’s learning in

different disciplines occurs.

During the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, a new understanding of the nature of scientific

inquiry caused a radical paradigm shift within the academy. First, this shift was

recognized in the reconceptualization of the structures of the disciplines (Kuhn, 1962).

The heretofore unquestioned scientific process was challenged, and the very nature of

positivist inquiry questioned.

Researchers in mathematics and science education sought to identify problems

learners had in understanding their content, and in doing so, came to acknowledge

diversity in the ways in which humans create knowledge. Difficulties in understanding

were no longer seen as incorrect as much as they were understood to be incomplete

and incorrect knowledge that worked for the learner in his or her everyday world.

Educators were then in the position not of traditional pedagogues but of academics

interested in learning how to present knowledge in ways students could understand and

learn meaningfully. Although early work on cognitive learning came from the sciences,

the fields related to English/Language Arts also became radically re-focused during the

1970s and 80s on individual meaning-making in reading, speaking, and writing through

Whole Language. Social Studies also became increasingly focused on learner

engagement with primary documents, and curriculum designed around meaningful

learning.

42

Motivation, interest, engagement, deeper understanding of fewer examples, increased

ownership of knowledge, acceptance of students’ prior knowledge, and the sharing of

knowledge all came to be understood as structures that support construction of

meaningful learning. Rote learning, recitation, and memorization were subsumed under

6

the overarching process of meaning-making; they were not forgotten or eliminated, but

rather subsumed in service to the greater educational purpose within each discipline

and for each learner.

The following researchers and theorists, each of whom has made significant

contributions to the development of constructivist theory, are referenced in the

bibliography section on Cognitive Theory and Research:

• Albert Bandura

• Frederic Bartlett

• Jerome Bruner

• William Clancey

• Eliot Eisner

• Kenneth Gergen

• Barbara Jowarski

• Maria Montessori

• Joseph Novak and D.Bob Gowan

• Jean Piaget

• Barbara Rogoff

• Lev Vygotsky

43

• William Widmaier

The bibliography contains annotations and related writing about each of these authors.

Constructivist Research on Teachers

In the 1950s and 1960s, specialists and educational leaders believed that once

accurate academic curriculum had been written by experts in the discipline, there

should be no problem with implementation. Since they had little to go on as far as

evidence to the contrary, and since many of the curricula were specifically designed to

be “teacher-proof,” implementation of an innovative curriculum seemed foolproof.

Jerome Bruner, in his Process of Education (1960), argued that the structure of the

7

disciplines themselves was enough to guide K-12 education, and that is what should be

taught to teachers, and designed into curricula to guide teachers. Fortunately, or

unfortunately, many innovations were not teacher proof. Hord and Hall (1987) identify a

typical event:

We really thought the new elementary math curriculum was top notch! It was carefully

designed to meet the needs of our students. The materials were delivered to teachers

last August, and they were provided 3 days of pre-school in-service focused on the new

program. Here we are in April, and the math coordinator reports that teachers don’t

seem to be using the program the way it was intended. How can that be? It’s been in

their classrooms for nearly a whole school year! (page 61)

What to do? In this scenario, it is clear that the authors believe the teachers must be at

fault in some way. However, that insight led nowhere as a guide to better practice. The

next question to be asked was: “What has to be done to make teachers do it right?”

Than answer was that more teacher-proofing might solve the problem. This option is still

being found to be inadequate today (Hall, 1981; personal communication) as variations

44

in implementation continue to be identified even as implementers assume they are

satisfactorily implementing the same innovation.

Making teachers “do it right” seemingly could not be accomplished through curricular

prescription, even in conjunction with strong research support and administrative

admonition. What did teachers need to do it right? Note that we have shifted here to

take notice of teachers’ needs, although there is the continuing assumption that the

innovation is presumed to be right. However, this little shift in perspective led to a huge

shift in understanding, as teachers became important (not yet valued) participants in

change. Jerome Bruner followed his Process of Education with The Process of

Education Revisited (1971). He identifies the many ways in which the earlier

presumptions about teaching and learning were lacking and inadequate.

8

In the 1970s and 1980s, educational researchers were forced to reconceptualize their

task from the study of “effective” strategies as defined by classroom control and

academic success. Their research questions and methodologies had to be redesigned

to include a paradigm that acknowledged that subject matter is a changing

phenomenon, that students’ vary in skills and understanding, that teachers are potential

(expert) allies, and that the importance of information technology has grown

dramatically. More in-depth study of excellence in teaching needed to be undertaken,

and, finally, the thoughts and feelings teachers came to be included as part of their

classroom expertise. The transition to more constructivist study and more qualitative

methodologies was a difficult one since science was founded on the “objective”

endeavor, concerning itself with what could be observed and quantified.

A new paradigm in the study of education examined the question “Why?” as opposed to

the “Who?,” What?,” “Where?,” or even “How?” of positivist research. Traditional

research needed demonstrable facts and behaviors, and the subtleties of meaning

making – thought and feeling, and the complexities of social interactions – were

overlooked or trivialized by the juggernaut of numerical “truth.” The study of human

beings – and therefore the educational endeavor of teaching and learning – required a

45

new paradigm in scientific thinking, and new strategies to record the more qualitative

aspects of learning. Educational research needed to be contextualized - to include

information about researcher, those being studied, and the context (the classroom, the

community, the school, etc., in educational research). Strategies such as narrative,

script analysis, interview, and document or artifact analysis became the research tools

of a constructivist research paradigm focused on meaningful knowledge acquisition.

New strategies for instruction and assessment of student learning grew out of the

change in paradigm for teaching based on constructivism. The annotated bibliography

incorporates the following sections:

• The Study of Teachers

9

• Learning Centered Teaching Strategies

• Collaborative Learning and Teaching

• Constructivist Assessment Strategies

• Constructivist Strategies for Specific Academic Disciplines

Each section contains annotations about the work of many authors who have made

significant contributions to the development of constructivist theory in the past 50 years.

Constructivism and the “Social Curriculum” of Classrooms

To return to our first definition of “constructivism”:

Constructivism” refers to the process by which human beings actively make sense out

of the world around them- to “understand. (Wiske, 1998).

46

and therefore:

Constructivism requires that we reflect on all aspects of the teaching in which we

engage; as educators, we are learners ourselves. We must examine our planning, our

use of external standards, the materials we use, the environment in our classroom, our

own attitudes and expectations, and especially, the needs of our students, whether they

be children or teachers. (Sparks, 1994).

If a teacher accepts a constructivist academic learning model for her students, there is

one insight that might naturally follow. As a lifelong learner, the teacher would realize

the necessity of self-reflective practice as key to professional growth, the logical

necessity for her too teach her students to become reflective learners with regard to the

academic disciplines. However, there is a commonly found reality that teachers who

may be well-versed and highly adept at constructivist teaching within the academic

curriculum often resort to traditional, passive learning models for their social curriculum.

If a teacher is familiar with the work of Vygotsky (1934, 1978) however, consideration of

the social curriculum in one’s classroom would dictate that teachers consider the social

10

aspects of the lives of his/her students in their classrooms. In identifying the social

nature of human learning, Vygotsky made it clear to educators that a classroom focused

on academic organization by itself will not assure a safe and caring environment for all

children. Academic learning is constructed within the social environment of a classroom

and school.

The social nature of human learning means that every classroom already has a “social”

curriculum that needs to be identified. Constructivist theory would require that the social

curriculum deserves to be taught and learned (especially for children with absent or

poor role models at home) in the same (constructivist; active) manner as the academic

curricula. In order to make sure beliefs about social interactions in the classroom and

practice coincide, teachers need to reflect upon their own “hidden” affective and social

curriculum as well as their already explicit structures. On-going reflection on personal

beliefs about the teaching and learning of affective, social “subject matter” allows

47

classroom interactions to be guided by a teacher alert to the needs, learning styles, and

socialization of her students.

In one profound aspect, the subject matter of the social curriculum varies from

academic content. The social curriculum can make no pretence of objectivity. In

examining a social curriculum, we come face to face not with some theoretical “social”

content alone (let us learn the Golden Rule), but with the whole realm of moral and

ethical behavior (are we practicing the Golden Rule?). Once teachers recognize the

dynamics of the social curriculum, and accept the need for the active teaching and

learning of that social curriculum, they will also see that the classroom is a venue rife

with ethical and moral implications. They will find themselves face to face with the

necessity of examining the social curriculum of their classroom with regard to its quality

as reflected in student understanding and internalization of ethical and virtuous attitudes

and actions.

11

As a result of taking constructivist theory seriously educators are obliged to ask: “What

is quality in social learning?” and “How do we integrate this quality into our less than

perfect classrooms?” The first answer must come from the best models we have

available: in a democracy, civic participation in service to a democratic ideal might

provide a worthy goal in a classroom. The second question regarding “how to?’ is much

harder to answer, but answers may be initiated within a constructivist learning model as

a teacher moves from a more teacher-centered to a more student-centered classroom

with the creation of self-control in students, and the teacher’s sharing and passing on of

responsibility to students. The work that goes into this complex development cannot

occur without teachers seeing themselves as constructivist learners who are reflective

and flexible as well as well-informed about subject-matter, their students, and

appropriate pedagogy. Without careful analysis of the social curriculum and critical

reflection upon performance, teachers may end their thinking about discipline with (only)

“what works to bring order” (Butchart, cited in Butchart & McEwan, 1998; Charney,

2002).

48

It is the educator’s role to “define the kind of society we have in mind” (Dewey, 1916, p.

6 ) leading us to reflection on the meaning of “discipline,” “order,” and “control,”

“democracy,” “ethics,” “self-control,” “caring,” “appreciation of diversity,” “responsibility,”

and “self-esteem based on effort rather than on rewards and punishments.” In reflecting

on them, we must then, bring these concepts to the center of teacher thought,

classroom dialogue, and finally, student action. The very discussion stretches the

purposes of schooling to include self-knowledge, sharing of self, and relationship of self

to the community. The discussion and ensuing actions empower teachers and students.

The recent literature on democratic and constructivist teaching and learning practices

supports an increasingly sophisticated vision for children to grow in democratic, ethical,

and caring ways with a “a critical constructivist approach to classroom relationships…”

that will create “a curriculum of democratic civility.” (Buchart, 1998, 4) Discussion of the

12

relationship between democracy and constructivist teaching and learning has created a

larger educational vision within which constructivist social curriculum finds a natural

home (Apple & Beane, 1995; Hoover & Kindsvatter,1997; Noddings, 2002; Lickona,

2004; Charney, 2002).

The bibliography on the social curriculum contains two sections:

• Constructivism and the Social Curriculum – Theory

• Constructivism and the Social Curriculum – Practice

Each section contains annotations about the work of many authors who have made

significant contributions regarding the social curriculum in the past 50 years.

Constructivism in Modern Professional Development for Teachers

As a direct outgrowth of the constructivist research on teaching, K-12 professional

development programs for teachers today are often grounded in constructivist

49

epistemology with one purpose being the educating of teachers to teach in constructivist

ways. Constructivist research and practice on teaching, augmented more recently by

brain research, provides a foundation on which much of current professional

development has flourished, where teachers themselves are at the heart of meaningful

change. In particular, scholarship and the publication of journals and texts supported by

ASCD and NSDC have successfully addressed the human aspects of professional

development, often modeling constructivist theory and practice without necessarily

identifying the constructivist roots of their research and practical suggestions.

Much of effective professional development today is distinctly constructivist in nature,

supporting engagement, ownership, and assessment of teacher-learners with attention

paid to developmental levels, teaching skills, feelings/concerns of individual teacher-

learners, and including reflection as part of the learning process. Study groups, action

research, becoming a teacher-leader, curriculum development, and peer coaching all

require active engagement and reflection by staff developers, teacher leaders, and

13

mentors, as well as by teacher learners. On-going support for integration of new

teaching strategies, formative assessment, personal goal-setting, mentoring,

conference attendance, in-service days, may also serve to support meaningful teacher

growth.

According to Sparks (1994) and Guskey (1997), perhaps the most successful

constructivist method of encouraging teacher participation in change is procedurally

embedded professional development. Embedded professional development is

characterized as occurring within the professional context, and requires that educators

share what they have learned from their teaching experiences by “reflecting on the

experience, and then generating and sharing new insights” (Wood & McQuarrie, 1999).

This kind of activity is valued because of its context; it engenders shared learning

experiences and creative thought focused on what is known to be of most importance

within that context. Embedded professional development is highly regarded as being

efficacious in ensuring meaningful integration of knowledge and skills.

50

The bibliography contains annotations about the work of many authors who have made

significant contributions to the professional development of teachers regarding

constructivism in the past 50 years.

Constructivism and Brain Research

Ironically, but necessarily, the most persuasive support for constructivist teaching and

learning finally comes from deep within the traditional scientific paradigm. Recent brain

research (clearly still in its infancy), seems to be validating constructivist beliefs about

how learning occurs. Increasingly sophisticated neurological technologies have allowed

study of brain structure and processes. The physiological evidence for increased or

decreased molecular, electrical, and neuronal activity in different parts of the brain may

be observed as the brain responds to different kinds of mental and emotional activity.

Pictures of brain activity from PET and MRI scans of the physiological activities

occurring in the brain during learning indicate that there is increased meaningful,

14

remembered learning when learners are actively and interactively engaged, when they

are comfortable socially and emotionally, when they are intellectually challenged, and

when they are in enriched learning environments.

From this research educators may extrapolate that best practices might include teacher

design of environments that not only challenge students intellectually, but also involve

learners in their own learning, require reflection, support and promote positive social

growth, and require the development and use of positive emotional skills (Caine &

Caine, 1994). These best teaching practices can already be found operating in the

classrooms of some outstanding teachers who teach for understanding, as well as

social and emotional growth. These educators are also often found in

self-study/research including action research, collaborative study groups, peer

coaching, mentoring activities, and staff developer.

51

The bibliography contains annotations about the work of many authors who have made

significant contributions regarding brain research and its relationship to constructivist

theory in the past 50 years.

Conclusion and links to an Annotated Bibliography

This article has sought to describe the components of constructivist theory in education

and its applications, offering information to underscore its basic goal – to establish that

constructivism is the predominant theory active in education today. An understanding of

constructivist teaching and learning and the theory that supports it can help teachers to

defend those important aspects of classroom life not directly affected by the state tests.

Because the theory of constructivism is being supported in many ways by research in

laboratory and practical situations, it is incumbent on educators, researchers, and

theorists to embrace its constructs and put them into practice throughout the field of

education. The annotated bibliography represents a useful tool to assist them in doing

so.

15

References Cited

Editor’s Note: The annotated bibliography that is the subject of this article is available as

a separate link on the JPACTe website menu. All references cited in this article are

listed in the annotated bibliography on the JPACTe website, with the exception of the

following:

Ahad, S., Blokhuis, J., & Richardson, M. (2005) Codifying Constructivist

Literature.Unpublished powerpoint document. Niagara Falls, NY: Niagara University

College of Education.

16

52

Constructivist Foundations (CF) is an international peer-reviewed academic e-journal dedicated to constructivist issues raised by philosophy as well as the natural, human, and applied sciences. The journal publishes original scholarly work in all areas of constructivist approaches, especially radical constructivism, enaction and enactive cognitive science, second order cybernetics, biology of cognition and the theory of autopoietic systems, non-dualizing philosophy , and first-person research, among others. The readers of the journal will be kept up-to-date with the central issues and problems of contemporary constructivist approaches.

Constructivist Foundations appears three times a year and is available for free to its subscribers. Papers are published in an attractive format ready to be printed by the reader. Their physical appearance is permanently fixed (“permanent links”) to allow for reliable citations in terms of volume, number, and page.

Number of subscribers (as of 12 July 2012): 5056

Indexing

Constructivist Foundations is listed in Thomson Reuters’s Science Citation Index (Arts & Humanities Citation Index and the Current Contents/Arts & Humanities ) • in European Reference Index for the Humanities (ERIH), Philosophy • The Philosopher’s Index • PhilPapers • Scopus • Google Scholar • EBSCO’s Education Research Complete . ISSN: 1782-348X.

53

Aims and Scope

> See also the Editorial of the Initial Issue (PDF) and What are constructivist approaches?

Constructivist approaches support the idea that mental structures such as cognition and perception are actively built by one’s mind rather than passively acquired. However, constructivist approaches vary in function of how much influence they attribute to constructions.

Many assume a dualistic relationship between reality and constructed elements. They maintain that constructed mental structures gradually adapt to the structures of the real world (e.g., Piaget ). In this view perception is the pickup of information controlled by the mental structure that is constructed from earlier perceptions (e.g.,Neisser ). This leads to the claim that mental structures are about learning sensorimotor contingencies (e.g.,O’Regan ).

Others seek to avoid the dualistic position. Either they skeptically reject that the structures of the real world can be compared with mental ones, independently of the senses through which the mental structures were constructed in the first place (e.g., von Glasersfeld ), or they embrace a phenomenological perspective that considers perception as the grouping of experiential complexes (e.g., Mach ).

All these approaches emphasize the primacy of the cognitive system (e.g., Llinás ) and its organizational closure (e.g., von Foerster, Maturana ). Hence, perceived patterns and regularities may be regarded as invariants of inborn cognitive operators (e.g., Diettrich ).

Constructivist approaches can be said to differ also with respect to whether constructs are considered to populate the rational-linguistic (e.g., von Glasersfeld , Schmidt ), the biological-bodily (“enactivist/embodied” theories, e.g., Varela ), or the social realm (social constructivism, e.g., Latour ).

54