Department of Landscape Architecture Graduate School of Design Harvard University

Landscape Representation III: Landform and Ecological Process Landscape Architecture 002241, Fall 2013 Lectures: Wednesdays, Gund Hall 111 (War Room), 10:00 – 11:30 am Labs: Fridays, Gund Hall 516 (Computer Lab), 9:00 - 10:30 (Section 1), 10:30-12:00 (Section 2) Instructors: Andrea Hansen (ahansen@gsd.harvard.edu, office hours Th 10 am – 12 pm, Gund 415) David Mah (david.mah@asensio-mah.com, office hours by appointment) Teaching Assistants: Mikaela Pearson (mpearson1@gsd.harvard.edu) Michele Richmond (srichmon@gsd.harvard.edu) Fred Thwainy (fthwainy@gsd.harvard.edu) Andy Wisniewski (awisniew@gsd.harvard.edu) Juan Pablo Ugarte Urzua (jugarte@gsd.harvard.edu)

c o u r s e D E S C R I P T I O N : Landscape Representation III seeks to examine the fundamental relationship between landform and the dynamic landscape processes it supports and engenders. Through in-depth study of the methods in which these processes are understood, conveyed, and graphically communicated, the course builds upon topics covered in Landscape Representation I and II by focusing on a diverse body of representational models, both past and present, that position landscape architecture as an expanded field involving science, art, architecture, urban design, and philosophy. To accompany precedent study, the course engages in advanced exploration of digital media, with an emphasis on responsive, performative, and indexical methodologies as well as fluid transitions between documentation and speculation, 2D and 3D, static and dynamic, and digital and analog media. Course topics are organized thematically and range from mapping ecological systems to illustrating time-based processes, from manipulating and extracting topographical datasets to generating intelligent terrain models, from synthesizing geological, ecological, and hydrological processes to depicting the flows, flux, and ephemera of floral and faunal communities. Through simulation, conjecture, and graphic extraction, these physical and temporal landscape processes will be examined at multiple scales, with particular attention paid to the complexities of large-scale sites in order to complement core coursework in the MLA third term. Weekly lectures and lab exercises will provide the foundation for the group’s collective exploration, research, and discussion. Through a series of working labs, students will be exposed to an expanded set of digital and analog techniques for analyzing and expressing landform and process as a means of advancing both technical and conceptual ability. This format aims to establish fluency in conceptual, organizational, and formal expression as well as to provide a point of departure for an in-depth awareness of landscape precedents and representational techniques.

Kunkook Bae, Fall 2011

c o u r s e S T R U C T U R E : The course will be broken into three units that explore the relationships between landform and ecological processes. Lectures and lab sessions will be geared toward developing an understanding of terrain as a fluid medium that shapes ecological systems from the geological scale to the human scale. From hydrology and geology to floral, faunal, and urban networks, processes will be studied through a range of projections and media that emphasize spatial and temporal dynamism. Each Wednesday, topical lectures will be held presenting iconographic precedent drawings within the landscape architecture canon as well as from affiliated fields, with

examples ranging from scientific drawings to early landscape art to contemporary practice.

On Fridays, classes will break into two sections for hands-on labs focused on specific representational techniques for complex, large-scale sites, with an emphasis on developing fluid workflows between data manipulation and mapping in GIS, modeling in Rhino and Grasshopper, animation in 3D Studio Max and After Effects, and graphics and layout in the Adobe Suite. The labs are not meant to be prescriptive, rather, each week instructors will present a range of methodologies, both digital and analog—students are expected to expand upon these techniques, both in the term assignments and in their time at the GSD.

Unit 1_Ecological Processes (4 weeks) will examine the interrelationship between territorial scale landform operations (both natural and constructed) and ecological processes. The processes studied will include hydrology, planting, migration patterns, and other flows, networks, and systems, each of which will be viewed with an emphasis on a broad range of timescales—from diurnal to seasonal, annual, historical, and geological.

Unit 2_(Land)form as Embedded Information (4 weeks) will view landform at the scale of operation and intervention. Lectures and labs will examine a variety of 2D and 3D projections, notations, and surface analogs that frame topography as a

performative surface and a fluid medium that is constantly in flux.

Unit 3_Temporal Processes (4 weeks) will look at topographic and ecological flows in terms of their macro and micro timespans: geological, ecological seasonal, and diurnal. Time will be framed as a critical driver of landscapes, urban systems, and ecology, and emphasis will be placed on both static media (notated, layered drawings) and dynamic media (animations).

c o u r s e R E Q U I R E M E N T S : Assignments: The three course assignments correspond to the three units described above, and work cumulatively to explore the complexities of

large-scale landscapes through abstract and concrete representational techniques, 2D and 3D projection, and static and dynamic media. The assignments are focused on eight eco-regions across the continental United States in order to gain experience working with real conditions and data sets; these existing terrains will in turn be the jumping-off points for manipulation and speculative projection. For each assignment, students should upload requested deliverables to the course iSite by 11:59 pm on Thursdays before the Friday deadlines. Specific details on submission requirements will be provided at the beginning of each unit.

Assignment 1_ Territorial Landform Typologies + 4 Phenomena Mappings (due Friday, October 11th)

Assignment 2_(Land)form Process Model + Diagram (due Friday, November 8th)

Assignment 3_Temporal Notation + Animation (due at Final Pinup)

Final Pinup: The last class meeting will be a pinup, scheduled during final exam period (date/time TBD) with instructors and invited jurors, during which the three assignments produced during the semester will be reviewed. Based on comments received during the semester and in the small group pinup scheduled the week of 12/4, students should revise Assignments 1 and 2 to express a coherent narrative that illustrates process as well as an individual representational agenda. Representation Blog: To foster discussion on topics of interest and importance to the class, students should upload images to the Representation Blog on the course iSite. Blog entries need not be restricted to built landscape projects, rather, students may draw from a range of contemporary and historic precedents spanning scientific visualization, landscape, architecture, graphic design, infographics, media, blogs, etc. At least two (2) times over the semester, upload images, credits, and a description/thoughts by 11:59 pm Monday before Wednesday’s class. Grading: Class Attendance/Participation (including representation blog): 30% Assignment 1: 20% Assignment 2: 20% Assignment 3/Final Submission: 30%

c o u r s e S C H E D U L E : _0.1 week 1 INTRODUCTION 09/04 Lecture – Course Introduction (AH + DM) 09/06 Lab – Territorial Topographies (AH) ** INTRODUCE ASSIGNMENT 1** (ArcGIS, SketchUp, Rhino, RhinoTerrain, Photoshop, Illustrator, Grasshopper)

Readings: • Corner, James. “Representation and Landscape” in Theory in Landscape Architecture: A Reader, ed. Simon

Swaffield. reprint of James Corner, “Representation and Landscape: Drawing and Making in the Landscape Medium,” Word & Image. Vol 8 no 3. pp 243-275.

• Bowring, Jacky and Simon Swaffield. “Diagrams in Landscape Architecture” in AD Reader: The Diagrams of Architecture, ed. Mark Garcia. Wiley, 2010.  

09/12 Studio 1211 Phase 2 Review _1.2 week 2 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 1 09/11 Lecture – Geological Flows: Soils, Hydrology, Watersheds and Erosion (AH) 09/13 Lab – Simulating and Modeling Hydrology, Streamlines and Fluid Dynamics (AH) (Aquaveo, 3dsmax particle systems, Rhino)

Readings: • “Coastline” and “Estuary” in Mathur, Anuradha and Dilip da Cunha: Soak: Mumbai in an Estuary. Rupa, 2009. • “Simulation, Particles and Soft Bodies” in Cantrell, Bradley: Modeling the Environment: Techniques and

Tools for the 3D Illustration of Dynamic Landscapes. John Wiley and Sons, 2012.

_1.3 week 3 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 2 09/18 Lecture – Biotic Flows: Vegetal Networks (AH) 09/20 Lab – Illustrating Dynamic Plant Communities (AH) (ArcGIS, Rhino, Grasshopper, Illustrator)

Readings: • Allen, Stan. “Field Conditions,” in Points and Lines: Diagrams and Projects For The City. New York :

Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. • Rekittke, Jorg & Paar, Philip. “Digital Botany,” in Journal of Landscape Architecture. February 2006.

09/24 Studio 1211 Phase 3 Review _1.4 week 4 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 3 09/25 Lecture – Occupational Flows: Connectivity, Infrastructure, and Altered Landscapes (AH) 09/27 Lab – Mapping Human and Animal Systems: Networks & Impacts (AH) (Adobe Illustrator, Rhino, Grasshopper, Kangaroo)

Readings: • Cosgrove, Denis. “Carto-City” in Else/Where: Mapping New Cartographies of Networks and Territories, ed.

Janet Abrams and Peter Hall. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Design Institute, 2006. 148-157 • Schouten, Ben and Yuri Engelhardt. “Network Nations” in Else/Where: Mapping New Cartographies of

Networks and Territories, ed. Janet Abrams and Peter Hall. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Design Institute, 2006. 64-67

• Dietz, Steve. “Mapping the Homunculus” in Else/Where: Mapping, ed. Janet Abrams and Peter Hall. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Design Institute, 2006. 200-205

_1.1 week 5 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 4 10/02 Lecture – Field Ecology: Landform, Performance and Process (AH) 10/04 Lab: Synthesizing Composite Processes (AH) (Rhino, Grasshopper, ArcGIS, Ecotect, Illustrator)

Readings: • Dramstad, W., J. D. Olson, and R. T. T. Forman. Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and

Land-Use Planning. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996. pp 9-55 • McHarg, Ian L. “An Ecological Method for Landscape Architecture.” Landscape Architecture. Vol 57 no 2,

January 1967. pp 105-108 • McHarg, Ian L. “Where Should Highways Go?” Landscape Architecture. Vol 57 no 3, April 1967. pp. 179-181

10/03 Studio 1211 Phase 4 (Workshop) Review

_2.1 week 6 (LAND)FORM AS EMBEDDED INFORMATION 1 - DRAWING, MODELING, NOTATION AND THE

DESIGN PROCESS (DM) 10/09 Lecture – The generative role of drawing and notation within the design process (DM)

10/11 Lab – An introduction to the use of geometry and modeling as a generative tool (DM) ** ASSIGNMENT 1 DUE, INTRODUCE ASSIGNMENT 2**

(Rhino, Grasshopper) Readings: • Evans, R. (1997) ‘Translations from Drawing to Building’ in Evans, R. Translations from Drawing to Building

and Other Essays, London, Architectural Association Press, pp 153 - 193 • Allen, S. (2000) ‘Mapping the Unmappable, On Notation’ in Allen, S. Practice: Architecture, Technique and

Representation (Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Culture), London, Routledge, pp ?? • Weiss, A. (1995) ‘Vaux-le-Vicomte: Anamorphosis Abscondita’, in Weiss, A. Mirrors of Infinity, New York,

Princeton Architectural Press pp 33-51

_2.2 week 7 (LAND)FORM AS EMBEDDED INFORMATION 2 - GEO-MORPHOGENESIS 10/16 Lecture – Representing landform types, their morphologies and the processes that shape them.

Approaches towards modeling constructed and natural landforms (DM) 10/18 Lab – An introduction to associative geometry and its application in the construction of

landform models. – Associative morphologies. (DM) (Rhino, Grasshopper)

Readings: • Petschek, P. (2008), Grading for Landscape Architects and Architects, Basel, Boston, Berlin, Birkhauser • Bell, S. (1999 ) ‘Landform Patterns and Processes’, in Bell, S. Landscape, Pattern, Perception and Process,

London, Routledge, pp 143 – 179 • Allen, S. (2011) ‘Matters of Surface’, in ed Allen, S. & McQuade, M. Landform Building, Baden, Lars Muller

Publishers, pp 363 – 371 • Zaera Polo, A. (2013) ‘Rollercoaster Construction’ in Zaera Polo, A. The Sniper’s Log. Architectural

Chronicles of Generation X, Barcelona, Actar, pp 333 -346

_2.3 week 8 (LAND)FORM AS EMBEDDED INFORMATION 3 – EMBEDDED PERFORMANCE 10/23 Lecture – Modeling and diagrammatic techniques for describing and embedding performance

within landscapes (DM) 10/25 Lab – An introduction to associative geometry and its application in the construction of

landform models – Diagramming and integrating performance (DM) (Rhino, Grasshopper)

Readings: • Rieder, Kirt. “Modeling, Physical and Virtual” in Representing Landscape Architecture, ed. Marc Treib. • Halprin, L. (1969) The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment, New York, G. Braziller • Latour, B. & Yaneva, A. (2008) ‘Donnez-moi un fusil et je ferai bouger tous les bâtiments. Le point de vue

d'une fourmi sur l'architecture’ (Give Me a Gun and I Will Make All Buildings Move, An Ant’s View of Architecture) in Geiser, R. (ed), Explorations in Architecture: Teaching, Design, Research, Basel, Birkhauser pp 80 -89

10/17 Studio 1211 Phase 5 Review _2.4 week 9 (LAND)FORM AS EMBEDDED INFORMATION 4 - COLONIZATION

10/29 Lecture – Landform and the representation of its organizational, social and polit ical effects (DM) 11/01 Lab – An introduction to associative geometry and its application in the construction of

landform models. – Diagramming qualit ies, opportunities and effects (DM) (Rhino, Grasshopper)

Readings: • Gali-Izard, T. (2005) Los Mismos Paisajes, Ideas e interpretaciones – The Same Landscapes, Ideas and

Interpretations, Barcelona, Editorial Gustavo Gili • Weizman, E. (2007) ‘Settlements: Optical Urbanism’ in Hollow Land, London, New York, Verso, pp 111 – 136 • Schaber, I. & Stollmann, J. ‘Perimeter Wondering’ in Ruby, I. & Ruby, A. Architectural Design, Vol 74, No 4,

July/August, The Challenge of Suburbia, London, John Wiley and Sons

_3.1 week 10 TEMPORAL PROCESSES 1 11/06 Lecture – The Animated Landscape: Static vs. Dynamic Media (AH + DM)

11/08 Lab – Introduction to Animation: From Static to Dynamic Landscape Simulations (AH + DM) ** ASSIGNMENT 2 DUE, INTRODUCE ASSIGNMENT 3**

(After Effects, 3ds max) Readings: • Treib, Marc. “Photographic Landscapes: Time Stilled, Place Transposed” in Representing Landscape

Architecture, ed. Marc Treib. London: Taylor & Francis, 2008.

11/05 Studio 1211 Phase 6 Review

_3.2 week 11 TEMPORAL PROCESSES 2 11/13 Lecture – Notation: Revealing Sensory, Textural, and Temporal Information (AH + DM) 11/15 Lab – Intermediate Animation: Workflows and Analog Media (TBD) (Illustrator, Photoshop, After Effects, 3ds max)

Readings: • Appleyard, Donald, Kevin Lynch, and John R. Myer. The View from the Road. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1964. • Halprin, Lawrence. The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment. NYC: G. Brazilier, 1970.

_3.3 week 12 TEMPORAL PROCESSES 3 11/20 Lecture – Representational Horizons: Landscape and New Media 11/22 Lab – Composite Workflows, Temporal and Static Interactions (BC + XW/MKS) (After Effects, 3ds max)

Readings: • Girot, Christophe. “Vision in Motion: Representing Landscape in Time” in The Landscape Urbanism Reader,

ed. Charles Waldheim. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006. 11/19 Studio 1211 Phase 7 Interim Review _3.4 week 13 NO LECTURE OR LAB (Thanksgiving)

11/27-12/1 Thanksgiving Recess – no classes _3.5 week 14 TEMPORAL PROCESSES 4 12/04 Small Group Pinup (to review Assignments 1,2, and 3 before final pinup) 12/11 Studio 1211 Final Review 12/14-19 ASSIGNMENT #3 DUE (GSD2241 FINAL PINUP, DATE TBC)

c o m p u t i n g R E Q U I R E M E N T S : We will be using several software platforms and covering a number of digital representation topics in the weekly labs. In order to cover all course material, it is crit ical that you have your personal computer configured to the below requirements by the time class meets on Friday, September 6th, as labs will require you to bring your personal laptop to each class (no laptops in Wednesday lectures). Students are responsible for installing and purchasing software on their own. Generally, with the exception of the Adobe Creative Suite and Adobe After Effects (which are installed on lab machines), the software we will be using in the course is available either on the GSD Software server (goliath.design.harvard.edu\Software) or is free online. For installation instructions, please refer to the GSD Readme files on Goliath or the software download instructions on product websites listed below. _computer and OS requirements:

• Laptop computer (PC, or Mac capable of running Windows) with at least 2GB ram (4GB+ preferred) • Windows XP or later • Mouse (ArcGIS and Rhino are severely hindered without an external mouse with scroll wheel)

_software: graphics and layout: • Adobe Creative Suite 6 (Photoshop, Illustrator, InDesign). Adobe Creative Suite 6 Standard is available from Harvard

Technology Services for $199. • Adobe Acrobat Pro (or equivalent PDF printer such as CutePDF)

_software: Rhino and plugins: • Rhinoceros 5 (available on goliath.design.harvard.edu\Software\Rhino)

1 . You MUST make sure to have the latest service release (SR 9) installed, or RhinoTerrain and Grasshopper will not run. 2 . Rhino does not run on wireless unless you have VPN access. To work around this issue, you must start Rhino

BEFORE CLASS while connected to a wall jack. It will continue to run when you disconnect your Ethernet cable. 3 . To install the following plugins, you must first install the 2005 Visual C++ Runtime Package Service Pack 1

(vcredist_x86.exe). To download: www.microsoft.com/download/en/details.aspx?id=5638 • RhinoTerrain (available on Goliath but only works on GSD-licensed versions of Rhino, 15-day free trial available from

http://www.rhinoterrain.com/) • Grasshopper: generative/parametric process-driven modeler for Rhino (available for free from www.grasshopper3d.com/) • Kangaroo: a Live Physics engine for interactive simulation, optimization and form-finding directly within Grasshopper

(available for free at http://www.food4rhino.com/project/kangaroo) Installation Instructions: In Grasshopper, choose File > Special Folders > Components folder. Save the gha file there. Right-click the file > Properties > make sure that it is not 'blocked' Restart Rhino and Grasshopper

• Autodesk Ecotect : evaluative environmental performance software. (available at goliath.design.harvard.edu\Software\Ecotect 2011)

_software: animation: • Adobe After Effects Note: CS6 Standard does not include Adobe AfterEffects, but a 30-day free trial is available at adobe.com • Autodesk 3D Studio Max (available on goliath.design.harvard.edu\Software\3D StudioMax 32-bit or 64-bit)

_software: GIS, mapping, and data extraction: • ArcGIS 10 (available on goliath.design.harvard.edu\Software\ArcGIS) • Google Earth (available for free at http://www.google.com/earth/download/ge/) • Google Sketchup Pro (available on goliath.design.harvard.edu\Software\ Sketchup)

_other programs (OPTIONAL, covered in advanced demos):

• Aquaveo SMS: Hydrological modeling plugin for GIS (free trial at http://www.aquaveo.com/downloads?tab=2#TabbedPanels) • Community Viz Scenario 360: A plugin for ArcGIS that analyzes multiple data layers and outputs a suitability map. (a small

number of licenses are on the lab machines, free 30-day trial available at http://placeways.com/communityviz/)

• Paneling Tools: A Rhino plugin that panelizes and creates geometric patterns on NURBS surfaces (available for free from http://wiki.mcneel.com/labs/panelingtools)

• PointSet Reconstruction: A free Rhino plugin that performs similarly to RhinoTerrain (available for free from http://wiki.mcneel.com/labs/pointsetreconstruction)

• SectionTools: A Rhino plugin that creates intelligent, dynamic sections. (available for free from http://wiki.mcneel.com/labs/sectiontools)

• For more Rhino tools and plugins, see http://www.rhino3d.com/resources/ or www.food4rhino.com

c o u r s e R E F E R E N C E S :

_representation: graphic techniques

Mertens, Elke. Visualizing Landscape Architecture. Basel: Birkhauser, 2009.

Sullivan, Chip. Drawing the Landscape. Wiley, 2004.

Steenbergen, Clemens. Composing Landscapes: Analysis, Typology, and Experiments for Design. Basel: Birkhauser, 2008.

Dee, Catherine. Form and Fabric in Landscape Architecture. London: Taylor & Francis, 2001.

Amoroso, Nadia. Representing Landscapes: A Visual Collection of Landscape Architectural Drawings. London: Routledge, 2012.

Amoroso, Nadia. Digital Landscape Architecture Now. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012.

Cantrell, Bradley and Wes Michaels. Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture: Contemporary Techniques and Tools for Digital Representation in Site Design. Wiley, 2010.

_representation: theory

Treib, Marc, ed. Representing Landscape Architecture. London: Taylor & Francis, 2008

Cook, Peter. Drawing: The Motive Force of Architecture. Wiley, 2008.

Garcia, Mark, ed. AD Reader: The Diagrams of Architecture. Wiley, 2010.

_representation: diagramming, mapping, and displaying information

Visualizing Systems (www.visualizingsystems.com)

Abrams, Janet and Peter Hall. Else/where: Mapping new cartographies of networks and territories. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Design Institute, 2006.

Bertin, Jacques. The Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams, Networks, Maps. ESRI Press, 2010.

Harmon, Katharine. You Are Here: Personal geographies and other maps of the imagination. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004.

Harmon, Katharine with essays by Gayle Clemans. The Map as Art: Contemporary artists explore cartography. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2009.

McCandless, David. The Visual Miscellaneum: A Colorful Guide to the World’s Most Inconsequential Trivia. Harper Design, 2009.

Mogel, Lize and Alexis Bhagat. An Atlas of Radical Cartography. Los Angeles: Journal of Aesthetics and Protest Press, 2007.

Klanten, Robert, ed. Data Flow: Visualizing Information in Graphic Design. Die Gestalten Verlag, 2008.

Klanten, Robert, ed. Data Flow 2: Visualizing Information in Graphic Design. Die Gestalten Verlag, 2010.

Lima, Manuel. Visual Complexity: Mapping patterns of information. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011.

Silver, Mike and Diana Balmori. Mapping in the Age of Digital Media: The Yale Symposium. London: Wiley-Academy, 2003.

Steele, Julia and Noah Ilinsky. Beautiful Visualization: Looking at Data Through the Eyes of Experts. O’Reilly Media, 2010.

Tufte, Edward R. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd Edition. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 2001.

Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1990.

Tufte, Edward R. Visual Explanations. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1997.

Tufte, Edward R. Beautiful Evidence. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 2006.

Yau, Nathan. Visualize This: The FlowingData Guide to Design, Visualization, and Statistics. Wiley, 2011.

_precedents and compilations

Allen, Stan and Marc McQuade. Landform Building: Architecture’s New Terrain. Baden, Lars Muller Publishers, 2011

Berger, Alan. Reclaiming the American West. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002.

Corner, James with Alex S. MacLean. Taking Measures Across the American Landscape. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Mathur, Anuradha and Dilip da Cunha. Mississippi Floods: Designing a Shifting Landscape. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

Mathur, Anuradha and Dilip da Cunha. Soak: Mumbai in an Estuary. Rupa, 2009.

Margolis, Liat and Alexander Robinson. Living Systems. Birkhauser Architecture, 2007

Reed, Peter with James Corner, Peter Latz, Martha Schwartz, Ken Smith, Peter Walker, and George Hargreaves. Groundswell. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2005.

Reeser, Amanda and Ashley Schafer, eds. Praxis: Journal of Writing and Building. Issue 4: Landscapes. Praxis-Cambridge, 2002.

_visualizing ecological process

Dramstad, W., J. D. Olson, and R. T. T. Forman. Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996.

McHarg, Ian. Design with Nature. New York: Wiley, 1995 (Originally Published Garden City, NY: Museum of Natural History, 1969).

_digital design and fabrication

Kolarevic, Branko. Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing. Routledge: 2005.

Meredith, Michael, ARUP AGU, Mutsuro Sasaki, P.ART (AKT), designtoproduction, Aranda/Lasch, et al. From Control to Design: Parametric/Algorithmic Architecture. Barcelona: Actar, 2008.

Iwamoto, Lisa. Digital Fabrications. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2009.

Foreign Office Architects. Phylogenesis: FOA’s Ark. Barcelona: Actar, 2004.