Course 3 Learning Plan Architecture Physical and link layer Network layer Transport layer Application layer: DNS, RPC, NFS Application layer: Routing Wireless networks More secure protocols: DNSSEC, IPSEC, IPv6

Application-Level Attacks Name-space Protocols

DNS NIS NetBios (and friends)

Remote Procedure Calls RPC DCOM

Network File System (NFS) Routing Protocols

RIP BGP OSPF

Learning objectives Understand how name-to-IP (and reverse)

mapping issues can result in vulnerabilities Understand how SSL is useful Be aware of some general, high-level issues in

Remote procedure calls Network file systems

DNS Motivation: DNS Attacks make news

“Al Jazeera Web Site Faces Sustained DoS Attack and DNS Attacks” (2003)

Hillary2000.com (Hillary Clinton’s campaign) Nike (2000) Ricochet Networks (1999) AOL (1998)

Domain Hijacking: A step-by-step guide www.securiteam.com (10/2/2000)

What are DNS attacks, and how do we defend against them?

Outline Review of DNS Protocol vulnerabilities and exposures

Recon Cache poisoning Access control based on host names

Implementation vulnerabilities Review of vulnerabilities in BIND Code examples

Review of DNS Domain Name System

Well-known implementation: BIND Purpose: translate names that humans understand

to IP addresses e.g., www.cerias.purdue.edu => 128.10.252.9 Allows changing IP addresses of servers Information is stored in "RR"s: Resource Records

Many RFCs (complex) Distributed system

Not one server knows all the answers Recursive requests may be needed

Can use either TCP or UDP

Organization "Root" servers point to top level domain servers,

like .com, .org, .edu, etc... Those point to more specific servers. Eventually a server will know the answer “nslookup” is an interactive tool to explore the

dns hierarchy deprecated

Equivalent on some systems is “dig”, "host"

Example DNS Lookup % host www.google.com

www.google.com is an alias for www.google.akadns.net.www.google.akadns.net has address 64.233.167.104www.google.akadns.net has address 64.233.167.99

Note how a DNS name may resolve as several different IP addresses

DNS Is Not Bidirectionally Equivalent % host www.purdue.edu

www.purdue.edu has address 128.210.11.200% host 128.210.11.200200.11.210.128.in-addr.arpa domain name pointer mortar.cc.purdue.edu.

A different tree is used for IP to host name queries! Not as well-maintained (usually) Note the "IN-ADDR.ARPA" domain

Domain name for IP address lookup RFC 1035 Section 3.5

Note the IP address was reversed Who controls the data?

Zones and Domains DNS servers are organized by zones DNS name has domains: domain1.domain2.com

".com" is a "top-level domain" What is the relationship between zones and

domains? A zone may include subdomains

Fancy way to say that a server will authoritatively answer queries for specified subdomains as well

Who Controls Data in "IN-ADDR.ARPA"? Hierarchical distributed database

Data in different zones Example query to find out for 128.10.0.0:

"dig 0.0.10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA PTR IN" ";; ANSWER SECTION:

0.0.10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA. 86400 IN PTR purdue-cs-en.cs.purdue.edu."

";; AUTHORITY SECTION:10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA. 43269 IN NS harbor.ecn.purdue.edu.10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA. 43269 IN NS pendragon.cs.purdue.edu.10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA. 43269 IN NS ns.purdue.edu.10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA. 43269 IN NS moe.rice.edu.10.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA. 43269 IN NS ns2.purdue.edu."

Host Name Lookups From IP Conclusion:

The returned host name is under the control of the zone where the host with that IP address is located

Scenario: Name-based authentication mechanism (.rhosts, rlogin,

etc...) Attacker controls the remote zone

Says 128.10.242.11 is "innocent.victim.com" Victim's DNS trusts remote zone server

"innocent.victim.com" is within "victim.com" so access is allowed

Ref.: Bellovin 1995 "Using the Domain Name System for System Break-Ins"

Fix Attempt Do two lookups, using both trees, and refuse

access if names are inconsistent Example:

Let's say host "resources.benign.org" allows access from "*.benign.org"

Possible attack: It would be suspicious if "resources.benign.org"

received a request from 198.210.35.192, whose DNS records pointed to "www.benign.org" but no DNS entry for "www.benign.org" included 198.210.35.192

DNS API a.k.a. "resolver" OS support

Handles DNS transparently for application gethostbyname returns the IP address gethostbyaddr returns the host name

same names on Windows Same function names for PHP, .NET, etc... Handling of results is opportunity for buffer

overflows There could be a malicious (or compromised,

poisoned) DNS server in the chain

Resolver Attacks Host resolvers have caches for efficiency

e.g., "ns.purdue.edu. 6619 IN A 128.210.11.5" Caches may be poisoned First Attack:

UDP packets with spoofed source IP address, pretending to come from the authoritative server

Especially combined with a DoS attack on the server DNS uses query numbers to keep track of requests

DNS cache poisoning via BIND by predictable query IDs. CVE-1999-0024

Send UDP packet with the IP-domain pair you want the client or server to think is correct, with sniffed or guessed query ID

Additional Cache Poisoning Attacks With DNS replies:

Spurious (malicious) record returned in answer to another query

In addition to requested information Malicious record returned as a normal part some answer

Get Alice to query Malory's DNS server somehow (web bug, link, etc...)

With DNS queries: Malory sends a query that contains a spurious reply;

Alice’s server believes it and caches it No need to trick Alice Similar to ARP poisoning and gratuitous ARP replies

(replies without receiver having sent a request)

Conclusion You can't authenticate based on host names

You can't rely on DNS as per the original RFCs DNS is more vulnerable if hosted outside your

network Some attacks (IP spoofing) prevented by ingress filtering

Don't accept packets from outside, pretending to originate from inside the network

Except if DNS server is hosted outside the network! No defense then

DNS Masters and Slaves a.k.a. Primary and secondary servers Two kinds of DNS servers for:

Load sharing Redundancy

How do you keep slaves up-to-date?

Zone Transfers Get RRs (list of host-IP address pairs) for the zone Uses TCP for reliability Used by slaves to query master for information

Polling mechanism (e.g., every 15 minutes) Example:

"dig -t AXFR vulnerable.com > zone.txt"

Attacks on Zone Transfer• Lower protocol vulnerabilities can be exploited to

load desired information into secondary servers/slaves1. TCP session hijacking2. ARP poisoning (if on same network segment)3. VLAN attacks

• Desirable recon information (attacker requests zone transfer to own machine) Should restrict it with IP address restrictions

Not critical, but an exposure nonetheless This is blocked from outside Symantec or CERIAS

DNS Notify Notification to slaves/secondary servers when

zone changes occur RFC 1996 Uses UDP or TCP

All servers getting the notice: Acknowledge the notice Check with the server that the new zone version ("SOA

RR") is indeed more recent than theirs If so, initiate zone transfers

Attack on DNS Notify With a UDP packet, a notice can be sent

Other packet to tell slave the new version number ("SOA RR")

Zone transfer still uses TCP Lower protocol vulnerabilities can then be exploited

to load desired information into secondary servers/slaves TCP session hijacking ARP poisoning (if on same network segment) VLAN attacks

As previous attacks, but now the timing can be controlled by the attacker thanks to notify function

Other DNS Attacks Administrative attacks against registrar (see

Domain Hijacking: A step-by-step guide, akin to social engineering attacks)

SSL as a Defense Server has matched private and public keys Public key along with the domain name (e.g.,

cerias.purdue.edu) is signed by a certificate authority (Verisign, Thawte); this is the SSL certificate The signature is verified by using the CA's public key Every browser has the public keys for CAs

You know that you are talking to the correct web server, and that the DNS system was not corrupted, because only that server knows its own private key, and the server’s private key is necessary for the encryption.

Question Which access control rule is preferable?

a) allow from 128.10.240.0/20b) allow from cerias.purdue.educ) allow from all

Question Which access control rule is preferable?

a) allow from 128.10.240.0/20b) allow from cerias.purdue.educ) allow from all

Discussion Which DNS problems would you try to fix first?

a) Authentication of serversb) Complexity of the protocolc) Implementation errorsd) Integrity of the datae) Availability of the servers

Discussion Which DNS problems would you try to fix first? a) Authentication of servers

UDP allows IP spoofing and injection of malicious data b) Complexity of the protocol

c) Implementation errorsd) Integrity of the data Cryptographic mechanisms for integrity also provide

authenticity (e.g., signatures) e) Availability of the servers

• Important, which is why there is a redundant server architecture

Question Why should you consider SSL in your next client-

server program? a) it’s faster b) it replaces DNS c) it guarantees that you are talking to who you

should be d) it provides reliability and guarantees that the

DNS system hasn’t been corrupted

Question Why should you consider SSL in your next client-

server program? a) it’s faster b) it replaces DNS c) it guarantees that you are talking to who

you should be d) it provides reliability and guarantees that the

DNS system hasn’t been corrupted

Mini-Lab Explore DNS

Can you get a zone transfer? Do you understand the various types of records?

Hint: "IN" stands for "internet" DNS can store information about lots of things

How much information can you get? Are there exposures?

Why do some DNS names have dots at the end? e.g., "www.benign.com."

Hint: think about relative vs absolute paths Suggested time: 15-20 minutes

NIS (Network Information Services) SUN technology "NIS clients download the necessary username

and password data from the NIS server to verify each user login" How much can you trust the client?

Doesn't encrypt the username/password information sent to the clients with each login

All users have access to the encrypted passwords stored on the NIS server Crack at leisure

NIS+ Completely different from NIS More secure Domain namespace Credentials checked every time a NIS+ object is

accessed DES credentials must be generated by an administrator

for each "principal" A principal is a user or a machine (process with root

privilege) Client machines (processes) are authenticated

More difficult to manage

NetBIOS Network Basic Input/Output System

Session level protocol NetBIOS over TCP

For the purposes of this tutorial, we consider it at the same level as DNS

Used almost exclusively by Windows Major worm propagation vector

Three services: NetBIOS Name service NetBIOS Datagram service NetBIOS Session service

NetBIOS Name Service NetBIOS name identifies computer for file sharing

and domain authentications UDP port 137 Name resolution in a network segment Map NetBIOS names to IP addresses

NetBIOS Names Domain names Computer names User names Workgroup names Special

e.g., "\\–__MSBROWSE__" Types of names

Unique Group

Spoofing NetBIOS Names nbtdeputy

http://www.securityfriday.com Registers a NetBIOS computer name on the network Responds to NetBT name-query requests Resolves IP address from NetBIOS computer name Legitimate use:

Help access servers on different segments/networks Hacker use:

Impersonate trusted server (while server is under DoS) Collect usernames/passwords Distribute trojans

Other NetBIOS Issues "Browser elections"

A malicious machine can be elected as "Browse Master" Maintain list of "shares"

Shares (jargon) Anything "shared" over NetBIOS

Disks Printers Hidden

IPC$ (Inter-Process Communication) Malicious Browse Master could in theory:

Intercept confidential documents when they get printed Fake trusted file systems so people use trojans or save

their confidential documents there etc...

Access Control for Shares Active Directory can specify mechanism Authentication mechanisms

Kerberos (requires infrastructure support) LM (old, insecure) NTLM

drops back to LM in some occasions Cryptanalyzed, has exploitable weaknesses

Schneier and Mudge 1998 "Cryptanalysis of Microsoft's Point-to-PointTunneling Protocol (PPTP)"

Exploit by Urity (2004), securityfriday.com NULL sessions (no passwords)

Guests etc...

Listing Account Names Anonymous users (NULL sessions) can:

List domain user names Enumerate share names

Exposure Prevention

Set the registry RestrictAnonymous to 1 Still permits a remote anonymous logged in user to call

the function NetUserGetInfo Acquire detailed account information

Exploit: "GetAcct" (www.securityfriday.com) RestrictNullSessAccess to 2 Can be set through the LSA (Local Security Policy)

XP, 2000

Worms Exploiting "Weak Shares" "Share level access" for the File and Print Sharing

service (TCP port 139) Passwords in Windows 95/98/ME are easily retrieved

Normally, if a password has N characters, and each character has 64 possible values, then the password space is 64^N

Windows password characters can be guessed one at a time, so the space is 64*N instead

Because the server assumes that the length of the password sent from the client is correct

References Tereman (2000) securityfriday.com Microsoft Security Bulletin (MS00-072)

Recon Tools nbtdump.exe, winnbtdump.exe

dumps NetBIOS information from Windows NT, Windows 2000 and *NIX Samba servers such as shares, user accounts with comments, etc, and the password policy

Note that port 445 also provides direct access to NetBIOS Attacks against port 139 can also use port 445 Windows 2000 and later

References RFC 1001, 1002 Northrup 1998 "NetBIOS: Friend or Foe?"

http://www.windowsitlibrary.com/Content/386/10/1.html "NetBIOS is highly vulnerable but we must live with it

for some time"

Mini-Lab (20 minutes) Use the Nessus vulnerability scanner to find NetBIOS

issues on the class server Right-click the desktop

Under "vulnerability assessment", select "Nessus" That will start the Nessus daemon Note the user name and password

Login to the Nessus client window Tab for tests

Unselect all the tests (button) Select the Windows tests

Tab for machines to be scanned Enter the IP address of Windows server

Start the scan Click on the network icon and computer in the results

Discussion Can the server be compromised through

NetBIOS? By guessing the administrator password, Nessus can

access the registry remotely to scan for vulnerabilities Disable remote registry access Choose a good administrator password

Win 95/98/ME should disable NetBIOS or install a firewall What else could an attacker do? What would you do to secure the server?

Are the NetBIOS services needed?

Remote Procedure Calls Sun's rpc Microsoft's RPC 92 entries in ICAT ("rpc") as of May 2004 Example:

saned in sane-backends 1.0.7 and earlier does not check the IP address of the connecting host during the SANE_NET_INIT RPC call, which allows remote attackers to use that call even if they are restricted in saned.conf.

CAN-2003-0773 And we know how insecure IP-based restriction can be

anyway!

RPC Use Port 111 (TCP and UDP) "portmapper" to know

on which port services are provided (port 135 on Windows) NIS NFS mount sadmin etc...

Utility: rpcinfo Exposure if accessible from the internet Most of these services are not needed from the

internet and contain vulnerabilities and exposures

DCOM (Microsoft) Runs on top of Microsoft RPC

Allows writing distributed applications Remotely control software components with

account name and password e.g., Internet Explorer

Exploit: "IE'en" ("Soap" securityfriday.com) capture user ID and password in plain text, even on SSL

sites

NFS: Network File System Root on a client machine could be trusted as root

on the server! Remote user ID is trusted as correct use the root_squash option in exports

Replaces "root" with "nobody" On by default in RedHat 9+

Root on a client machine can assume the identity of any other user (su) and change that user's files Solution: Share ("export") only directories where

everything belongs to root (with the above squash option) other squash options available

Setuid programs: blocked by "nosuid" option

Additional Reference http://www2.educ.umu.se/~bjorn/linux/howto/

NFS-HOWTO-6.html

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