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Coupled-cluster theory and the discovery of astronomical molecules: A pragmatic perspective. Identification of molecules in space. Radio astronomical detection. Very sensitive technique that can allow for unambiguous detection of molecular species. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Coupled-cluster theory and the discovery of astronomical molecules:
A pragmatic perspective
Identification of molecules in space
Radio astronomical detection
Very sensitive technique that can allow for unambiguous detection of molecular species
Searches are usually based on rotational Hamiltoniansbased on laboratory data
Sensitivity goes with square of the molecular dipole moment
First radio detection: OH in 1963; NH3, H2O, H2CO beforeend of decade (first polyatomics); HCO+ in 1970 (first positiveion); C6H- in 2006 (first negative ion)
Strength: Observation of several lines at expected frequencies provides excellent evidence for the existence of particular species in space
Weakness: Inherent bias towards polar molecules. Questions regarding the existence of fundamental molecules like benzene, C60, etc. will never be answered by radio astronomy.
Infrared detection
Allows for the observation of non-polar polyatomic moleculesand condensed phases (ice, for example)
Can (in principle) detect near-IR electronic spectra of radicalsand metastables with low-lying excited states
Some molecules have extremely intense vibrational transitions
A few molecules detected this way: H2CO, HF (recent), ice,OH, benzene (?), C3, C5
First detection: CO (1979, Kuiper Airborne Observatory - Lockheed C141 flying at ca. 12 km); first new molecule:C2H4 (1983), then SiH4 (1984), C2H2 and CO2(1989), CH4 (1991), others.
Strength: Observation of several lines at expected frequencies provides excellent evidence for the existence of particular species in space
Weakness: Atmosphere largely opaque to long-wavelength radiation, satellites required for good data. Ultimately a less precise (more uncertain) means of molecular identification than radio astronomy. Identification often based on one (1) line!
ISO satellite (European Space Agency)Operating range: 2.5 - 240 µm (42-4000 cm-1)
The evidence for benzene in the interstellar medium
Optical detection
Historically the first technique used: CH discovered in spacein 1937. CN and CH+ discovered during WWII. CO and H2 seen optically in 1970, N2 in 2004.
Can (in principle) detect any molecule; selection rules are not asrestrictive; e.g. H2 and N2 are IR and MW-inactive species.
Some molecules have extremely intense electronic transitions
Strength: Less difficult to obtain data than for IR. Ground-based measurements with CCDcameras now yield now yield high quality spectra.
Weakness: Laboratory data for complex molecules not easy to acquire, some moleculesdo not have intense electronic transitions; dissociative excited states lead to broad features
ISO satellite (European Space Agency)Operating range: 2.5 - 240 µm (42-4000 cm-1)
The general process of identifying new molecules
Obtain precise linepositions and molecularconstants in the laboratory.
Determine or predict potentialcandidate line positions
Conduct astronomical searchfor lines, usually choosing thestrongest lines, or those that are in an accessible region of the spectrum.
Quality (robustness) of identificationdepends on:
PRECISION of observed line positions
AGREEMENT with laboratory lines
NUMBER of lines used in identification
What can a quantum chemist do to help?
A different sort of synthetic chemistry
Obtain precise linepositions and molecularconstants in the laboratory.
Determine or predict potentialcandidate line positions
Conduct astronomical searchfor lines, usually choosing thestrongest lines, or those that are in an accessible region of the spectrum.
C2H2, C4H2
Benzene,Toluene
SiH4, H2S, S vapor
N2
C6H6 + 2000 volts
and (unquestionably) many, many, many more: both known and unknown species….
The challenge to quantum chemists:
Guide the laboratory searches for particular compounds
The laboratory data is then used in turn to guide the astronomical search.
Theoretical predictions Laboratory identification
Astronomical search
Astronomy and astrochemistry:
Models of interstellar chemistryAbundance, isotopic studies
Chemical physics:
Molecular properties (geometries)Studies of dynamics (S4), etc.
What ab initio theory can provide to laboratory searches::
Rotational Spectroscopy: Molecular geometries (re) and associated moments of inertia. Centrifugal distortion constants, dipole moments. In principle: Observable rotational constants, but not really important in general for laboratory astrophysics.
``Adequate’’ levels of theory (i.e. CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ basis set))
Geometry optimization, harmonic force field calculation, perhaps larger basis set energy calculations.
Evaluation of anharmonic (cubic or quartic)molecular force field, followed by applicationof vibrational perturbation theory.
Ae, Be, Ce, CD constants
Dipole moment (e)
Ao, Bo, Co, CD constants
Dipole moment (o)
Increased treatmentof correlation
Basis setimprovement
Increases bond lengths
Ie Be
Decreases bond lengths
Ie Be
Basis set
STO-3G 6-31G* cc-pVDZ cc-pVTZ cc-pVQZ Exact
Lev
el o
f ca
lcul
atio
nFCI
CCSD(T)
MP2
CCSD
SCF
Be < Beexact
Be > Beexact
Be Beexact
Be =Beexact
In general, CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ overestimates bond lengths a bit:
Becalc < Be
expt
However, experiments do not measure Be, but rather Bv
Usually positive
Molecular vibration effects tend to extend the structure (rg > re) B0 < Be
Exact
In general, CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ overestimates bond lengths a bit:
Becalc < Be
expt
However, experiments do not measure Be, but rather Bv
Usually positive
Molecular vibration effects tend to extend the structure (rg > re) B0 < Be
Exact
CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ
In general, CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ overestimates bond lengths a bit:
Becalc < Be
expt
However, experiments do not measure Be, but rather Bv
Usually positive
Molecular vibration effects tend to extend the structure (rg > re) B0 < Be
Exact
CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ
An empirical observation: CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ Be constants usually within 1% of experimental B0 constants, and are in better agreement than the theoretical B0 values
Serve as a general-purpose guide To laboratory searches for new molecules
A more or less trivial application of quantum chemistry
An example: Isomers of C5H2
Theory:
An example: Isomers of C5H2
Theory:
``eiffelene’’
However … heroic calculations can act to support important new claims…
McCarthy, Gottlieb, Gupta and Thaddeus Ap. J. 652, L141 (2006).
First molecular anionfound in space(carrier of U1377 in IRC+10216)
Laboratory spectra of C4H- and C8H-
recently recorded (Gupta et al., preprint)
Vibrational Spectroscopy: With high quality atomic natural orbital basis sets, CCSD(T) and a good treatment of anharmonicity, it is now possible to predict fundamental and two-quantum level positions and intensities relatively accurately for rigid molecules (frequencies within 10 cm-1, intensities to a few percent). Laboratory spectra can be assigned by this means, a field that is well-ploughed and certainly not limited to laboratory astrophysics.
An example: Overtone spectrum of nitric acid from 4000-6000 cm-1
While nice, it remains a fact that infrared spectroscopy is not used as often as microwave spectroscopy as an analytical technique to detect new molecules in the astrochemistry community. Exceptions, however, exist: Maier, McMahon, others. Lack of precision in laboratory data (relative to MW) makes it less attractive.
These calculations require evaluation of:
the harmonic, cubic and quartic force fieldsthe first three derivatives of the dipole moment components
vibrational second-order perturbation theory for levels and intensities
A practical point and an advertisement:
Combined with CCSD(T) and VPT2, the ANO basis sets of Taylorand Almlöf work extremely well for vibrational level positions.
But, alas…
Electronic Spectroscopy: Precise prediction of band positions is extraordinarily difficult (impossible) here. Accuracy of 0.1 eV (800 cm-1) is in fact rare. Using calculated band positions to guide laboratory searches is a dubious proposition. Moreover, the number of observable vibronic features much less than that typical of a microwave spectrum.
And with regard to the relationship between astrophysics and quantum chemistry, things are largely inverted:
Molecular
identity
Laboratory
lines
Astronomical
linesMW
Elec
Electronic Spectroscopy: Precise prediction of band positions is extraordinarily difficult (impossible) here. Accuracy of 0.1 eV (800 cm-1) is in fact rare. Using calculated band positions to guide laboratory searches is a dubious proposition. Moreover, the number of observable vibronic features much less than that typical of a microwave spectrum.
And with regard to the relationship between astrophysics and quantum chemistry, things are largely inverted:
Molecular
identity
Laboratory
lines
Astronomical
linesMW
Elec
The diffuse interstellar bands (DIBS)
First published report of (two) DIBs in 1921
Found along lines of sight associated with reddened stars
Catalog of Herbig (1975): 39 bandsCatalog of Jenniskens and Desert (1994): >200 bands
Source(s) of DIBS remain(s) unknown in late 2006!
Some ideas from the past:
Molecular carriers first suspected (Struve, Russell, Saha,Swings)
ca. 1937-1944
… but population of polyatomics in typical interstellar clouds thought to be too small. Led to movement towards…
Solid-state carriers
lots of ideas: impurities in dust grains, solid oxygen, etc.
… but lack of characteristic solid-state absorption features (notably inhomogeneous broadening) led to movement towards
Molecules again!
An excellent review: G.H. Herbig Ann. Rev. Astrophys. 33, 19 (1995)
Bis-pyridyl magnesium tetrabenzoporphyrin
(in part)
Postulated to account for ALL diffuse interstellar bands when just 39 were known (1972)
Crashed and burned in the 1970’s: Occam’s razor, spectra not reproducible.
Some molecular ideas:
Molecular hydrogen, albeit not simply
}}}
Gaps between intermediate state and higherlevels fit many DIBs positions
BUT
Model required photon fluxes of ca. 1010 s-1
Flux in typical ISM cloud: ca. 1 year-1
… insufficient by 17 orders of magnitude!
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
ISO spectra of the Planet. Neb. NGC 7027 and the PDR region at the Orion Bar
Peeters et al., 2003
%3.1≥Δλλ
Orion Bar
NGC 7027
The Unidentified Infrared Bands (UIRs)
Wavelength (µ)
Flu
x D
ensi
ty (
10-1
3 W
/m2 /
µ)
C-H st
retch
C-C st
retch
C-H in
-plane
bendC-H
out-of-p
lane
bend
The unidentified infrared (UIR) features
4395
4435
Carrier of λ4429?
Corannulene, C20H10
Lovas et al., 2005
exp = 2.07(2)DB = 509.8MHz
However, there has not been a single unambiguousdetection of any PAH in space to date, despite considerablepublicity.
Nonpolarity is a problem, although two smallest polarPAH species have not been found
Apart from benzene, there is no evidence of anythingother than three-membered ring compounds in the ISM
No hard evidence supports PAH carriers of DIBs
Something quite remarkable transpired in 1998…
Tulej, Kirkwood, Pachkov and Maier , Ap.J.Lett. 506, 69 (1998)
Something quite remarkable transpired in 1998…
Tulej, Kirkwood, Pachkov and Maier , Ap.J.Lett. 506, 69 (1998)
C7- !?
Since this time, sobered experimentalists have not yet advanced another candidate
An interesting puzzle, though…
Molecule produced in a benzene discharge, also with toluene
No REMPI signal (suggests high IP - cation?)
Evidence from isotopic substitution studies:
Similar geometry in lower and upper states
Five hydrogen atoms, two pairs of symmetry equivalent hydrogens
What molecule is this? An interesting twist:
No longer are we trying to identify the carrier of a line in the ISM, butthe carrier of a line measured in a basement laboratory in Massachusetts
Has not proven to be easy - Quantum chemistry not the best approach (we’lldiscuss this shortly), only suggestion for carrier thus far seems a rather unlikelymolecule.
Still not solved definitively - moreover, carrier of λ4429 in the laboratory probablyis not carrier of astronomical line
Is my favorite molecule (NO3) a DIBs carrier?
6616
6235
6278
X B Absorption spectrum of NO3 (a very strong transition)
From DIBS catalog:
Lines at 6234.3, 6278.3 and 6613.8
v. 6235 6278 6616
What can quantum chemistry do to help?
Calculate line positions?
Most techniques have accuracies ca. 0.1-0.5 eV TDDFT CASPT, EOM-CCSD MR-CISD, EOM-CCSDT MR-AQCC
AccuracyApplicability
To be useful as a “screener’’ for DIBS candidates requires accuracy of ca. 100 cm-1
What can quantum chemistry do to help?
Calculate line positions?
Most techniques have accuracies ca. 0.1-0.5 eV TDDFT CASPT, EOM-CCSD MR-CISD, EOM-CCSDT MR-AQCC
AccuracyApplicability
To be useful as a “screener’’ for DIBS candidates requires accuracy of ca. 100 cm-1
Calculate absorption profiles?
Experimental spectrum
Calculated spectrum forcandidate molecule
Calculate absorption profiles?
Experimental spectrum
Calculated spectrum forcandidate molecule
Assignment
Calculate absorption profiles?
Experimental spectrum
Calculated spectrum forcandidate molecule
Assignment
This sort of assignment can often provide clear picture of the nature of vibronic states
What is required in the simulation of electronic spectra?
The simplest case: The Franck-Condon approximation
Applicable to most transitions from one “isolated” electronic state to another, particularlyin low-energy part of the spectrum.
Assumptions:(r,R) = (r;R) (R)
Vibronic Electronic Wavefunction Wavefunction
Vibrational Wavefunction[calculated from Veff(R)]
< ’’(r,R) | | ’(r,R) > = < ’’(r,R0) | | ’(r,R0) > “Mij”’
Dipole operator Reference geometry
Vibronic level positions
Electronic energy difference (adiabatic)
Vibronic level positions
Electronic energy difference - ZPE of ground state
Vibronic level positions
Electronic energy difference - ZPE of ground state + vibrational energy in final state
Vibronic level positions
Electronic energy difference + ZPE of ground state + vibrational energy in final state
Origin
Vibronic level positions
Electronic energy difference + ZPE of ground state + vibrational energy in final state
Origin
Intensities
Dipole approximation: Intensity |< ’’(r,R) | | ’(r,R)>|2
Mij2 Fk
Transition Franck-Condonmoment factor (FCF)
|< ’’(R)|’(R)>|2
Vibronic level positions
Electronic energy difference + ZPE of ground state + vibrational energy in final state
Origin
Intensities
Dipole approximation: Intensity |< ’’(r,R) | | ’(r,R)>|2
Mij2 Fk
Transition Franck-Condonmoment factor (FCF)
|< ’’(R)|’(R)>|2
Origin
…
Origin
Origin
…
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3
With several modes …
To do a Franck-Condon simulation, we need:
Quantum chemical calculation of ground state geometry and force field
“EASY” - CAN BE DONE WITH ANY METHOD
Quantum chemical calculation of excited state geometry and force field
MORE CARE REQUIRED WITH RESPECT TO CHOICE OF METHOD (CIS, RPA, CIS(D), MCSCF, CASPT2, EOM-CC, MRCI)
(balance is important here)
Quantum chemical calculation of transition dipole moment
NOT SO HARD - ACCURACY USUALLY NOT VERY IMPORTANT
Franck-Condon simulations account for:
Progressions in totally symmetric vibrations (provides a measure of the geometry change due to excitation)
Even-quantum transitions in nonsymmetric vibrations(shows up only if there is an appreciable force constant change)
… but do not account for:
Final states that are not totally symmetric(due to “vibronic” coupling)
Spectroscopic manifestations of non-adiabaticity (BO breakdown)(effects of conical intersections, avoided crossings etc.)
Low-lying states usually heavily affected by vibronic coupling!
Vibronic effects on potential energy surfaces
A model potential for a two coupled-mode, two state system
1 = 0.4 eV (323 cm-1) [symmetric]
2 = 0.1 eV (807 cm-1) [non-symmetric]
Parameters:
Δ - Vertical energy gap between the statesλ - Linear coupling constant between the two statesA - Slope of diabatic potential of state A along q1 at q1=q2=0B - Slope of diabatic potential of state A along q1 at q1=q2=0
Hamiltonian corresponding to model (in diabatic basis)
T1 0 A q1 + 1/2 [1 q12 + 2 q2
2] λ q2
H = ( ) + ( ) 0 T2 λ q2 Δ + Bq1 + 1/2 [1 q1
2 + 2 q22]
T + V
(Model due to Köppel, Domcke and Cederbaum)
Vibronic effects on potential energy surfaces
Diagonalization of potential energy (V) gives adiabatic potential energy surfaces*
*Note that the associated diagonal basis does not necessarily block-diagonalize the Hamiltonian
q2
λ = 0 eV
q2
λ = 0.05 eV
q2
λ = 0.10 eV
q2
λ = 0.15 eV
q2
λ = 0.20 eV
Vibronic effects on potential energy surfaces
Example: Δ = 0.5 eV; 1 = 0.2 eV; 2 = -0.2 eV; λ = variable
Diabatic surfaces
A state B state
Equivalent minima
Conical Intersection
Pseudorotation transition stateλ = 0.2 eVLowest adiabatic surface (what we calculate in quantumchemistry)
Lower adiabatic surface Upper adiabatic surface
Note that complicated (but realistic) adiabatic surfaces arise from an extremely simple model potential
Conical intersections
More visualization…
TOP VIEW PERSPECTIVE VIEW
Lowest adiabatic surface with different coupling strengths
kk
λ=0.05 eV
λ=0.25 eV λ=0.30eVλ=0.20 eV
λ=0.15 eVλ=0.10 eV
Lowest adiabatic surface with different coupling strengths
kk
λ=0.05 eV
λ=0.25 eV λ=0.30eVλ=0.20 eV
λ=0.15 eVλ=0.10 eV
“A state”
“B state”
In this case, both states areminima on the potential energysurface. But note that two differentelectronic states lie on the samepotential energy surface!!!
Far too infrequently thought aboutin quantum chemistry.
Real world example: 2A1 and 2B2 states of NO2
An astrophysical example: Propadienylidene
1A1
1A1
1A2
1B1
}
Coupled by modes of b2 symmetry
2A2 state (minimum)
2B1 state (minimum)
Conical intersection
Weak vibronic coupling between dark state and bright state
Lowest adiabatic potential sheet
Vibronic effects on “vibrational” energy levels
Diagonalization of complete Hamiltonian (T+V) gives vibronic energy levels
Model potential again: λ = 0.20 eV; Δ = 0.5 eV; 1 = 0.2 eV; 2 = -0.2 eV
Harmonic A state frequencies from diabatic potential:
806 cm-1 (s); 323 cm-1 (a)
Harmonic A state frequencies from adiabatic potential
806 cm-1 (a); 253 cm-1 (a)
Exact vibronic levels below 1050 cm-1
250 cm-1 (n), 500 cm-1 ( 2n), 752 cm-1 ( 3n), 802 cm -1 ( s),1004 cm-1 ( 4n), 1043 cm-1 ( s+n)
Vibronic effects on “vibrational” energy levels
Diagonalization of complete Hamiltonian (T+V) gives vibronic energy levels
Model potential again: λ = 0.20 eV; Δ = 0.5 eV; 1 = 0.2 eV; 2 = -0.2 eV
Harmonic A state frequencies from diabatic potential:
806 cm-1 (s); 323 cm-1 (a)
Harmonic A state frequencies from adiabatic potential
806 cm-1 (a); 107i cm-1 (a)
Exact vibronic levels below 1050 cm-1
0, 121, 327, 590, 720, 866, 888, 1046 (symmetric levels)19, 213, 453, 723, 736, 931, 1045 (nonsymmetric levels)
Vibronic effects on potential energy surfaces
Diagonalization of potential energy (V) gives adiabatic potential energy surfaces*
n 3ns2n
Add some slides here with wavefunctions, discussion of nodes, etc.
Wavefunctions and stationary state energies
Eigenstates of system obtained by diagonalizing Hamiltonian
Given by Vibrational basis functions
= A ci i + B ci i
Diabatic electronic states
Wavefunctions and stationary state energies
Eigenstates of system obtained by diagonalizing Hamiltonian
Given by Vibrational basis functions
= A ci i + B ci i
true only if λ=0
= A ci I or = B ci i
“Vibrational level of electronic state A” “Vibrational level of electronic state A”
Electronic states are coupled by the off-diagonal matrix element
“Breakdown of the Born-Oppenheimer Approximation”
Diabatic electronic states
Add more slides here with wavefunctions, densities, projection onto diabatic states, etc.
The Calculation of Electronic Spectra including Vibronic Coupling
|< ’’(r,R) | | ’(r,R)>|2
‘Relative intensities given by
Energies given by
Eigenvalues of model Hamiltonian
Ground state Final state
Model system: Adiabatic perspective
Corresponding Hamiltonian verycomplicated: Potential energy matrixis diagonal but not simple (discontinuities);kinetic energy matrix is clearly not diagonal;transition dipole moment very sensitive wrtgeometry
Green arrow - transition to “bright state”
Model system: Adiabatic perspective
Corresponding Hamiltonian verycomplicated: Potential energy matrixis diagonal but not simple (discontinuities);kinetic energy matrix is clearly not diagonal;transition dipole moment very sensitive wrtgeometry
Red arrow - transition to “dark state”
Green arrow - transition to “bright state”
Model system: Adiabatic perspective
Corresponding Hamiltonian verycomplicated: Potential energy matrixis diagonal but not simple (discontinuities);kinetic energy matrix is clearly not diagonal;transition dipole moment very sensitive wrtgeometry
An aside:
Traditional quantum chemistry assumes:
TA 0 VA 0 H = + 0 TB 0 VB
Vibrational energy levels calculated from the Schrödinger equations
(TA + VA) = Evib
(TB + VB) = Evib
and total (vibronic energies) given by:
Eev(A) = (VA)min + Evib
Eev(B) = (VB)min + Evib
))
) ) Adiabatic potentialenergy surfaces
T1 0 A q1 + 1/2 [1 q12 + 2 q2
2] λ q2
H = ( ) + ( ) 0 T2 λ q2 Δ + Bq1 + 1/2 [1 q1
2 + 2 q22]
Diabatic perspective (KDC Hamiltonian) conceptually (andcomputationally a much simpler approach
Treatment:
1. Assume initial state not coupled to final states (not necessary, but a simple place to start)
2. Assume transition moments between diabatic states are constant
3. Diagonalize Hamiltonian (Lanczos recursion is best choice)
’’ = 0 000…
<0| |A> = MA
<0| |B> = MB
’ = cA0 A 000…+ cB
0 B 000… + ’[ cAi A i + cB
i B i]i
T1 0 A q1 + 1/2 [1 q12 + 2 q2
2] λ q2
H = ( ) + ( ) 0 T2 λ q2 Δ + Bq1 + 1/2 [1 q1
2 + 2 q22]
4. Stick spectra given by
Basis set and symmetry considerations
Direct product basis
A 00, A 01, A 02 …
B 00, B 01, B 02 …
Symmetry of vibronic level
ve = v x e
[cA0 + cB
0 ]2 (E - )
T1 0 A q1 + 1/2 [1 q12 + 2 q2
2] λ q2
H = ( ) + ( ) 0 T2 λ q2 Δ + Bq1 + 1/2 [1 q1
2 + 2 q22]
4. Stick spectra given by
Basis set and symmetry considerations
Direct product basis
A 00, A 01, A 02 …
B 00, B 01, B 02 …
Symmetry of vibronic level
ve = v x e
[cA0 + cB
0 ]2 (E - )
Makes entire contribution to intensity -only ONE element of eigenvector matters
Appearance of eigenvectors - pictorial view
A
B
S
N
N
S
Franck-Condon Vibronic coupling
“vibronically allowed level”(weaker)
Appearance of eigenvectors - pictorial view
A
B
S
N
N
S
Franck-Condon Vibronic coupling
“vibronically allowed level”(stronger)
Franck-Condon
Vibronic coupling