Country Profiles: Hungary

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Historical Trends of Cultural Diplomacy

3.1. First Trend

3.2. Second Trend

3.3. Third Trend

4. Examples of Hungarian Cultural Diplomacy

4.1. Cultural Diplomacy in the Public Sector

4.2. Cultural Diplomacy in the Private Sector

4.3. Cultural Diplomacy in Civil Society

5. Future Goals of Hungarian Cultural Diplomacy

6. Conclusion

7. References

1. Introduction Cultural diplomacy has a very long history. It is said to have originated hundreds of years ago when pioneers travelled the globe and, in essence, culturally represented their native countries in foreign lands. In more recent times the idea of cultural diplomacy has significantly changed. In the modern day, organisations as well as individuals in the public, private and civil sectors are seeking to foster better understanding between states through the growing field of cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is a form of soft power, and numerous sectors are employing it as a new form of negotiating and a means of achieving better political relations with countries all around the world. Now even smaller countries are organising exchanges or providing people with opportunities to interact through cultural diplomacy. This is true in the example of Hungary. Hungary is a relatively small nation within Europe. There are not many people in the world (only fifteen million) who speak the Hungarian language; therefore Hungary can o n l y reach a small circle of people with its native language. It seems that Hungary needs to make more of an effort to engage in cultural diplomacy since it is not a huge economic power. One can see that cultural diplomacy in Hungary is a recent concept. For the first time ever the government has dedicated a whole department to develop a cultural diplomacy strategy for the nation. Although this is a very recent development, there are now numerous H u n g a r i a n organisations, businesses and associations that are active in the field of cultural diplomacy either consciously or unconsciously. These active participants of cultural diplomacy are trying to spread Hungarian culture around the world. The projects aim to reach out to the Hungarians living outside of the present borders of Hungary and then to those interested in Hungarian culture. Often these groups are establishing contact with other similar groups in other countries, and through a common passion are fostering relations with each other. Since this has been going on, the Hungarian government has decided to take a step towards implementing cultural diplomacy through governmental initiatives in other fields such as politics and economics. Cultural diplomacy in Hungary is taking a new turn, from initially only being focused on the Hungarians living outside of Hungary, to a more international perspective in order to establish relations with other countries, while maintaining the present ones as well. Throughout the course of this paper, the methodology will be explained with definitions about cultural diplomacy and the various sectors. There will be an analysis of three major trends in cultural diplomacy and their historical background, followed by the presentation and analysis of the examples of cultural diplomacy within the three sectors. The final section will deal with looking at a concluding analysis of cultural diplomacy in Hungary and future goals of the country in this field.

2. Methodology This research is based on a specific country case study along with the definition of cultural

diplomacy. The case study is cultural diplomacy in Hungary within different aspects of society.

The definition of cultural diplomacy as presented by the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy is

‘the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of

culture, with the intention of fostering mutual understanding143’. This definition is

originally by Milton C. Cummings, a prominent political scientist from the United States.

Evidently there are numerous definitions of cultural diplomacy, since the term has many

different forms and applications, but it is deemed best to use this general one in order to be

able to analyse the varied applications of cultural diplomacy in Hungary.

Using specific examples within Hungarian society, it will be demonstrated as to how the

examples fit into the definition of cultural diplomacy mentioned above. This will be done in

relation to the public, private and civil sectors. The first section deals with the public sector

in general. Usually these organisations have a clear goal in mind to promote actively their

national culture in various forms144. The private sector includes those actors which are profit

generators, yet are fostering cultural diplomacy, whether it is in connection to their specific

business or not. Usually, investment in this area involves private entrepreneurs using their

profits to help provide the forum for cultural exchange, without necessarily promoting their

products or services. Civil society includes those actors which are citizen-initiated and non-

profit. Many civil societies operate upon networked connections in order to bring about

cultural exchange145. Although these three categories will be used throughout the paper,

some of examples mentioned can fit into more than one group. Therefore classification

entirely into one sole category also poses certain problems, but the examples in this report

tend to fall within the categories provided. With these three different categories, one is able

to see the different aspects, motivations and effectiveness of cultural diplomacy.

The following involves an in-depth analysis of each of the examples provided, such as how

they are representative of cultural diplomacy and further investigating their agents, agendas

and target audience. Using the idea of an agent is necessary in order to see who is initiating

the cultural diplomacy in question. In order to successfully explore the vehicle of cultural

diplomacy one must analyse what the actors are doing, or how this particular example of

cultural diplomacy is being conducted. The last aspect is looking at the intended audience,

or what group the actor is using to get through to in terms of cultural diplomacy. From

these characteristics, one should be able to clearly see how cultural diplomacy works in the

specific case studies and how this applies specifically to Hungary.

143 Institute for Cultural Diplomacy, "What is Cultural Diplomacy?." Accessed October 5, 2011.

http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/index.php?en_culturaldiplomacy.

144 Institute for Cultural Diplomacy, "What is Cultural Diplomacy?." Accessed October 5, 2011.

http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/index.php?en_culturaldiplomacy. 145

Institute for Cultural Diplomacy, "What is Cultural Diplomacy?." Accessed October 5, 2011. http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/index.php?en_culturaldiplomacy.

3. Historical Trends of Cultural Diplomacy 3.1 First Trend

Much of the current emphasis of domestic Hungarian cultural diplomacy is geared towards the

ethnic Hungarian minorities living in the countries around Hungary. In order to maintain close

cultural ties, there are many academic, cultural, sporting and other types of exchanges taking

place. These areas include, present day Serbia and its northern province of Vojvodina; Croatia,

Slovenia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Ukraine and Romania among others. The priority at

first is to preserve a sense of Hungarian culture abroad in these surrounding countries.

Historically, Central and Eastern Europe have always been more heterogeneous than Western

Europe. Therefore, as a state within Central Europe, the population of Hungary has included

many minority ethnicities living alongside ethnic Hungarians. From the time when the first

Hungarian (Magyar) tribes migrated to Europe from Asia around 500-800 CE146, they were in

the oldest sense of word, cultural diplomats, since they were coming to Europe from afar and

bringing and representing their own culture in the hopes of creating a new life in the new

surroundings. From this time ‘Hungarian-ness’ flourished in Europe, contributing to being one

of the oldest languages in Europe. In the year 1000 Hungary became a Christian nation under

King Stephen I147. From that time, until the formation of the Austria Empire, Hungary remained

mainly Hungarian and often served as a tough barrier against Ottoman rule. Even throughout

the Austrian Empire, under the Hapsburg rule, there were numerous ethnicities living together.

This trend continued until the Hungarians were officially acknowledged as the largest majority

living within the Austrian Empire, which became the Austro-Hungarian Empire. From this

historic tie, Hungary often relied on Germany and Austria for the translation and circulation of

Hungarian culture throughout the rest of Europe148. After the First World War, Hungary was

subjected to conditions of the Treaty of Trianon in 1920149, which separated Hungary from two

thirds of its territory at the time. Consequently this is the reason behind the very strong

Hungarian minority presence in all of the countries surrounding Hungary. After the Second

World War, Hungary came under Communist rule. In 1956, the Hungarian revolution took

place which granted Hungarians a temporary freedom, only to be quickly repressed by the

military force of the Soviet Union150. Since the collapse of Communism following the fall of the

Berlin Wall, there has been a regime change in Hungary in which democracy was finally able to

sprout151. Although there have been trying times, Hungary still continues to strive for a

corruption-free democracy. With the coming of democracy numerous cultural organisations

that had been previously banned also began to emerge. Before the regime change Hungarian

cultural diplomacy was mainly focused on Hungarians living outside the present borders of

Hungary. More recently, if one were to use Cumming’s definition in the most modern sense of

the word, cultural diplomacy in Hungary on an international scale arguably only began

following the fall of the Communist regime.

146 Molnár, xii.

147 Molnár, xii.

148 Sáringer, 4.

149 Molnár, xv.

150 Molnár, xvii.

151 Molnár, xviii.

Whenever Hungarian culture and Hungarian cultural diplomacy is discussed, there is special

attention given to Hungarians not living in Hungary. These Hungarians can further be divided

into two distinct categories; those Hungarians in the countries which are presently bordering

Hungary, and Hungarians in the countries around the world. Generally the focus of cultural

diplomacy is usually on those Hungarians living in the surrounding countries around Hungary.

3.2 Second Trend Hungary’s accession into the European Union has been seen as another potential market for Hungarian cultural diplomacy to help spread the Hungarian culture throughout Europe. Although Hungary has had a long history within Europe, the strong ties developed with certain countries have only been present since the last two hundred years. More recently, Hungary’s accession to the EU took place in 2004, along with nine other Central and Eastern European countries. Since then Hungary has also joined the Schengen area for the free movement of Europeans within Europe. These two accessions combined have opened the doors for Hungary, as well as the other member countries of the European Union, to more cultural diplomacy and cultural connections. Also, Hungary’s reliance on the German speaking world has been overtaken by the growing prominence of the English language. Therefore the future focus for Hungary will likely be more towards the Anglo-Saxon speaking world152.

Since these metaphorical doors have opened, Hungary can work on renewing its international image and culture within the European Union. More specifically there are seven main strategic points where Hungarian cultural diplomacy has been more widespread since joining the EU. The first is the expansion of the cultural programme which encourages the development of small historical towns within Hungary153. The second step includes having more cultural activities for children during childhood, in order to increase the awareness of culture from a young age154. The third step stresses a need to establish new cultural centres and to make them more accessible to the general public155. The fourth step includes setting up programmes to preserve culture within Hungary156. The fifth step is to make historical culture more accessible and known in Hungarian society157. The sixth step is to make known the abilities of Hungary within the country and abroad158. The seventh step is having a balance relationship of culture being both current and in the past; putting together the classical with the new159. The last strategic step is to also look upon Hungarian culture as a marketable product with an emphasis on having a competitive influence160. With these goals and tactics in mind, Hungary can again renew its culture throughout Europe and subsequently around the world.

152 Sáringer, 4.

153 Sáringer, 2.

154 Sáringer, 2.

155 Sáringer, 2.

156 Sáringer, 4

Moreover, in 2006, a professor from the Corvinus University of Budapest named Bozóki

András wrote in depth about Hungarian cultural diplomacy, which became quite popular

throughout Hungary. This document is called A szabadság kultúrája Magyar kulturális

stratégia 2006 ” 2020 (The Culture of Freedom, Hungarian Cultural Strategy 2006-2020).

This document outlines the strategies, priorities, and actions of Hungarian cultural diplomacy.

It strongly advocates the need for the government and all sectors of society to keep up with

the changing situation of Hungary’s culture161, as well as stressing equal opportunity and

access to culture for everyone, regardless of social standing162. What is also important to add

to these priorities is the fact of not only sharing culture but going one step further and

creating partnerships, common projects and cultural organisations163. Futhermore, discussing

and further elaborating on culture in a positive context, is what is needed in order to sustain

long term cultural diplomacy with Hungary’s international partners.

3.3 Third Trend

For the future, it would be wise for Hungary to focus on cultural diplomacy on the

international stage. Hungary has up to this point focused its cultural diplomacy efforts

towards European politics and a closer intergration within Europe, but there is certainly an

argument that there is substantial potential for Hungary to focus its efforts more towards the

East, such as towards Russia and China. The radical right political party within Hungary, called

Jobbik, is adamant about these incentives to orient Hungary more towards the East. The

party are huge supporters of the dual-citizenship law for granting Hungarians outside the

present borders of Hungary full Hungarian citizenship. Specifically in the case of citizenship;

as of January 1, 2011, anyone that can retrace their routes to Hungarian ancestry and

that can demonstrate knowledge of the Hungarian language has the right to apply for

Hungarian citizenship164. Although this is a political move, it has cultural origins since those

now given the opportunity to apply for citizenship to those that are also Hungarian and hence

Hungarian culturally. This is a very significant move because of the fact of extending

citizenship to many people is viewed as historically symbolic, therefore cultural diplomacy

eases those relations with Hungarians all over the world.

Moreover, according to Harsányi Lászlo, a professor of cultural politics at the Budapest

Corvinus University, there is currently a divide in Hungary between two different perceptions

of cultural diplomacy on which there has been no decision upon as to which area to pursue.

These two ideas range from using cultural diplomacy as a tactic of cultural politics, or on the

other hand, taking cultural diplomacy as a tactic in foreign relations and using it as a strategy

in decision making. Therefore, one of the challenges of Hungarian cultural diplomacy in the

future is to reconcile these two diverse aspects and be able to use them together.

157 Sáringer, 2.

158 Sáringer, 2.

159 Sáringer, 2.

160 Sáringer, 2.

161 Bozóki, 6.

162 Bozóki, 5.

163 Sáringer, 3.

The progress for the expansion of cultural diplomacy programmes has been successful with the

last couple of years. In 2006 there have been Hungarian cultural offices opened in Beijing,

Shanghai, and Tel-Aviv. In 2007, the cultural sector opened offices in Belgrade and in Zagreb.

In 2009, there was an expansion to Madrid, and Abu Dhabi. Together with opening these

offices, was the strengthening of the relationship between the Spanish, Hungarian, and

Belgian Council of the European Union rotating presidency. All of these cultural expansions

combined have helped Hungary develop a number of cultural centres in other European states,

which have further helped the spread of Hungarian culture abroad.

164 Peter, Laurence. "New Hungary citizenship law fuels passport demand." BBC News, January 4, 2011.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12114289 (accessed October 5, 2011).

4. Examples of Hungarian Cultural Diplomacy In this following section, the examples of Hungarian cultural diplomacy will be demonstrated

and analysed, within the three sectors of public, private, and civil society.

4.1 Cultural Diplomacy in the Public Sector

HUNGARIAN CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS: IE. COLLEGIUM HUNGARICUM BERLIN

Agent: The Ministry for Education and Culture in Hungary is the active agent and supporter of

Collegium Hungaricum. The original idea for this particular cultural house came from after

the First World War, when Hungarian soldiers started looking for Hungarian cultural

institutions in foreign countries because of dissatisfaction with the nature of culture in

Hungary itself. Thus 1923, in the three locations of Rome, Vienna and Berlin, the Hungarian

government opened the first ever Hungarian offices abroad165. During the Second World War,

these houses were destroyed and were only reopened in 1973166. All of these Hungarian

cultural institutions including the Collegium Hungaricum are part of long-term cultural

projects by the Hungarian government.

Agenda: To provide a place for Hungarian culture to flourish in Berlin through cultural

events organised by the Collegium Hungaricum, occasionally in collaboration with another

German organisation is the main goal. Historically, Collegium Hungaricum was a meeting

place to those Eastern European thinkers, and artists that did not share the same ideology as

the government in power at the time in their native countries. This grew to become very

popular therefore at the time in the early 1970s, it was an indispensable part of Berlin

cultural life167. Since 2000, the goal of the Collegium Hungaricum has been to provide a

diverse and modern cultural experience on the Berlin cultural front, through presenting

Hungary as European, building up and developing relations within the cultural sphere with

other organisations, working with current and topical issues related to Hungarian and

German culture168. This institution is seen as successful because of the very diverse and

vibrant programmes it currently offers.

165 Collegium Hungaricum Berlin, "Collegium Hungaricum Berlin - Magyar Kulturális Intézet." Accessed

September 27, 2011. http://www.hungaricum.de/index.php?id=unserhaus&L=1.

166 Collegium Hungaricum Berlin, "Collegium Hungaricum Berlin - Magyar Kulturális Intézet." Accessed

September 27, 2011. http://www.hungaricum.de/index.php?id=unserhaus&L=1.

167 Collegium Hungaricum Berlin, "Collegium Hungaricum Berlin - Magyar Kulturális Intézet." Accessed

September 27, 2011. http://www.hungaricum.de/index.php?id=unserhaus&L=1. 168

Collegium Hungaricum Berlin, "Collegium Hungaricum Berlin - Magyar Kulturális Intézet." Accessed September 27, 2011. http://www.hungaricum.de/index.php?id=unserhaus&L=1.

Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The Collegium Hungaricum in Berlin offers a wide range of

cultural interaction possibilities. These come in the forms of artistic and photography

exhibitions, concerts, literature events, organising debates about current topics of interest,

book presentations and film showings. The institution also offers language courses for those

wishing to pursue Hungarian studies. This is cultural diplomacy in its most basic sense since it

is providing the framework for cultural exchange to take place in the hopes of a better

common understanding of the other shared ties between German and Hungarian cultures. Target Audience: The target audience for a project such as this is naturally a diverse one, but

the Collegium Hungaricum caters specifically to those with a deep interest in the Hungarian

cultural heritage. The office is situated in Berlin, as such Germans who are interested in getting

to know Hungarian culture and potentially pursue Hungarian language studies. This Berlin

office also promotes Hungarian artists living in Germany by providing them with a location in

which to exhibit their work.

Locations: Vienna, Austria; Berlin, Germany; Brussels, Belgium; Bucharest, Romania; Delhi,

India; Helsinki, Finland; Cairo, Egypt; London, United Kingdom; Moscow, Russia; New York,

United States; Paris, France; Bratislava, Slovakia; Prague, Czech Republic; Rome, Italy;

Stuttgart, Germany; Sofia, Bulgaria; Tallinn, Estonia; and Warsaw, Poland.

HUNGARIAN DAYS IN GRONINGEN

Agent: Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in The Hague, the Netherlands. This was a one-

time project, but with hopes of being repeated in other areas.

Agenda: The main goal of arranging this particular gathering by the Hungarian embassy

was to bring together small and medium business owners from the northern part of the

Netherlands (Groningen-Friesland-Drenthe region), and from southern Hungary in order to

help foster potential new business relations. More specifically, this particular project was

designed to bring together these two regions for cooperation in research and development,

in innovation, and in supply chain partnering169.

By presenting the southern Hungarian region as an area ripe for foreign trade and

involvement, the Hungarian government hoped to increase Dutch investment in the region.

Although the main goal of this event was economics and business oriented, it was also

partnered by numerous cultural events in order to allow the northern Dutch to get to know

Hungary in more depth. This is an effective way to conduct cultural diplomacy, by bringing

two separate cultures together in order to allow a mutual understanding of cultre; as

professor Harsányi Lászlo suggested. In this case the Hungarian Government took the

concept of culture and applied it to foreign relations and business in order to tie everything

together.

169 Grencze, Gábor. Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in The Hague, "Co-operating in Technology and

Innovation and Business Development Region meets Region Seminar." Last modified May 27, 2011.

Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The vehicle through which the participants were interacting was

through meetings and conferences of all sorts, such as the Co-operating in Technology and

Innovation; and the Business Development - Region meets Region seminar. In addition, there

were also one on one meetings set up between potential business partners from the

Netherlands and from Hungary. The Dutch also discussed the current trends of the Dutch

economy, and the potential business opportunities for Dutch businesses in Central and Eastern

European countries170. From the Hungarian side, business leaders promoted and described the

investment opportunities and introduced knowledge- centres171. On top of this, there were

successful business encounters of the past presented by both sides.

The cultural aspects of the programme included the presentation of two Hungarian artists

known as BOLDI and Pál Breznay through an exhibition of their work. Other aspect of

Hungarian culture were highlighted, an example being a special screening of the hughly rated

Hungarian film; ‘Cloud over the Ganges’.172. By combing both the business and the cultural

aspects, the Hungarian government has more of a chance to succeed in creating business

endeavours because of creating a familiarity with the country as a whole.

Target Audience: For the small and medium sized businesses, the main target audiences

were those involved in the following industries: pharmaceutical, medical devices,

biotechnological, agricultural/food, chemical and logistics. Therefore any business owner

that is looking to export and expand within Europe had the opportunity to get to know

others in Hungary working within the same field.

Since this project took place recently, the results as of the short term are not yet fully known,

but there was a high turnout of participating business owners with over seventy Dutch

business owners and twelve Hungarian business owners directly involved.173. Therefore, it can

be seen that for an initial project, it was a success. The participants had many opportunities to

get to know the other regions in terms of potential for investment. Through the cultural

sections of the programme, the participants were able to see the appeals of Hungarian culture.

Accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/86F03255-351B-4A5F-B510-

AAEFDF0F45FE/0/110526InvitationtotheHungarianseminarGroningen.pdf.

170

Grencze, Gábor. Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in The Hague, "Co-operating in Technology and Innovation and Business Development Region meets Region Seminar." Last modified May 27, 2011. Accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/86F03255-351B-4A5F-B510- AAEFDF0F45FE/0/110526InvitationtotheHungarianseminarGroningen.pdf. 171

Grencze, Gábor. Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in The Hague, "Co-operating in Technology and

Innovation and Business Development Region meets Region Seminar." Last modified May 27, 2011.

Accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/86F03255-351B-4A5F-B510- AAEFDF0F45FE/0/110526InvitationtotheHungarianseminarGroningen.pdf. 172

Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in The Hague, "Hungarian Programme in Groningen from 26 May 2011." Last modified May 27, 2011. Accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.mfa.gov.hu/kulkepviselet/NL/en/upcoming_events/110526GroningenDays.htm.

BALASSI BÁLINT INTÉZET (BALASSI INSTITUTE) Agent: The original idea for the Balassi Institute was provided by the Hungarian Minister for

Education, and the project came about with the support of the Hungarian Language Institute

and the International Hungarology Centre. It was originally formed in January 1, 2002174. It

was initiated by the public sector, but continues to maintain ties to certain non-governmental

organisations such as the two mentioned above. Agenda: The main aims include the promotion and teaching of the Hungarian language in

Hungary to Hungarians living abroad and non-Hungarians studying in Hungary. Additionally, it

was also formed to respond to the growing demands of language knowledge within the

present globalized world. As there are many Goethe Institutes and French Institutes all over

the world, including in Hungary, the Minister of Education had suggested creating a similar

institution to compete with other similar European institutions175. Moreover, as a historical

result there are presently about five million Hungarians living outside of Hungary today. As

the Hungarian national government does not support the linguistic heritage of their own

minorities in terms of financial or educational means, the Balassi Institute was created in order

to allow Hungarian children the opportunity to learn the Hungarian language. This type of

cultural exchange which gives Hungarians living abroad the opportunity to learn more

about their culture is very useful since it not only teaches the participants about their

heritage but participants are able to take the learned skills and apply them when getting to

know another culture. Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The main vehicles of cultural diplomacy of the Balassi Institute

are academic exchange and language courses. The functions that they serve, specifically

within these academic exchanges include:

The cultivation of the Hungarian language and education of Hungarians living outside of Hungary;

- Offers extended education courses, linguistic and terminological sessions for teachers of the Hungarian language;

- Organisation of Hungarian studies programmes, and the research of the Hungarian language abroad, with the cooperation of other international institutions;

- Preparatory courses and tests for state exams in Hungarian, - Establishing connections and networks between Hungarian foreign institutes, - Researching and organising text book publications dealing with the instruction of

the Hungarian language - Offers a scholarship fund and financial assistance for Hungarian studies, - Creates a database of communication for all those with teachers of the Hungarian

language, - Organisation of Hungarian cultural events like exhibitions and conferences176

173 Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in The Hague, "Hungarian Days in Groningen: “Region meets Region” investment

seminar and b2b event." Accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.mfa.gov.hu/kulkepviselet/NL/en/news_events/110526-

Groningen-seminar-b2b event.htm?printable=true.

174

Balassi Institute, "Welcome Introduction Information." Accessed September 27, 2011.

http://www.bbi.hu/index.php?id=99&fid=110.

All of these tasks and goals listed are done with the overall goal of getting the Hungarian culture out into the rest of the world and making it more popular as a choice of study, thus making the Hungarian language and culture widely known and appreciated around the world.

Target Audience: For the Balassi Institute, the main vehicle for transmitting cultural diplomacy

is academic exchange; therefore the main target audience is students of Hungarian studies or

students in general who wish to pursue linguistic studies. In addition, the Balassi Institute also

wishes to facilitate interaction between the teachers of the Hungarian language and other

institutions who are involved in teaching Hungarian. Furthermore, the Balassi Institute is

expanding to open new networks and centres in places outside of Hungary. These include

Osijek, Croatia (Eszék) in 2007, Kaniza, Serbia (Magyarkanizsa) in 2009, Krakow, Poland in

2009, and Gothenburg, Sweden in 2009177. This expansion is following through with the

desire to move Hungarian political and cultural efforts more towards Eastern Europe and the

Balkans, and eventually on into the Nordic countries. These efforts to expand the institute to

different countries also strengthens the knowledge and perception of the Hungarian language

among Europeans, and therefore the target audience is constantly expanding to include more

and more international students.

175

Balassi Institute, "Welcome Introduction Information." Accessed September 27, 2011.

http://www.bbi.hu/index.php?id=99&fid=110.

176 Balassi Institute, "Welcome Introduction Information." Accessed September 27, 2011.

http://www.bbi.hu/index.php?id=99&fid=110.

4.2 Cultural Diplomacy in the Private Sector The examples in this section were chosen to showcase varied examples of Hungarian

cultural diplomacy in practice through the medium of the private sector.

RUBIK’S CUBE

Agent: The Rubik’s Cube private business is implementing cultural diplomacy in an indirect

fashion. This well-known corporation have created a forum for people of different

nationalities to interact, through the many competitions and international events held

worldwide. The common interest of these individuals is their fascination with the Rubik’s

Cube and people get together in order to discuss and race to become the fastest puzzle

solver. The Rubik’s Cube connects to Hungary because it was invented by a Hungarian named

Ernő Rubik in 1974178. In 1982 the first International Rubik’s Cube Championships were held in

Budapest179. This tradition continues to this day. Therefore, this is an aspect of Hungarian

culture that has spread throughout the world and it is bringing people of all nationalities

together.

Agenda: The main aims of this international business is to bring people together to enjoy their products through the organisation of events held all around the world. In addition, in 1990 there was the establishment of the International Rubik’s Foundation which encourages and financially supports young and upcoming designers and engineers180. Since this is a private owned business, one cannot leave out the agenda of generating revenue and increasing sales. This was also increased by the invention of a new product called Rubik’s 360, a similar concept to the original design but with colourful balls rather than squares181.

Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The Rubik’s Cube itself is the vehicle of cultural diplomacy. It is

bringing people together who share a similar fascination with this little puzzle, therefore all of

the organisation championships and competitions are also a part of the vehicle in order to

spread cultural diplomacy. More specifically, there is the International Rubik’s Cube

Championships, and other events organised by the World Cube Association (WCA), which in

turn provides the forum for people to interact. Through these vehicles it is also a way for

Hungary to present to the world their own invention and through competitions a view of

Hungary to be experienced with an international group of people. Rubik himself stated that

the cube is more of a piece of art182, which directly relates to cultural diplomacy since it is

spreading worldwide.

177 Sáringer, 8.

178 Rubik's Official Website, "The History of Rubik's." Accessed September 29, 2011.

http://www.rubiks.com/world/history.php. 179

Rubik's Official Website, "The History of Rubik's." Accessed September 29, 2011. http://www.rubiks.com/world/history.php.

Target Audience: The target audience for the Rubik’s Cube is a diverse one. According to

Rubik himself, the real fascination with the toy is that parents are returning to the original,

simple, and orderly toys of their own childhoods183 despite the advancement of electronic

entertainment in recent decades. He also states that with all of the chaos and instability that

currently exists in the world, the Rubik’s Cube is something that parents and the elderly can

teach their children as a relic of a simpler, more orderly time184. Thus parents and children

equally are very much targeted through the company’s marketing schemes since it is

reminiscent of the past. The success rate of the product is indicated by the decision to re-

launch the product very recently185.

180 Rubik's Official Website, "The History of Rubik's." Accessed September 29, 2011.

http://www.rubiks.com/world/history.php. 181

Adams, William Lee. "The Rubik's Cube: A Puzzling Success." Time Magazine World, January 28, 2009.

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1874509,00.html (accessed September 29, 2011).

182

Adams, William Lee. "The Rubik's Cube: A Puzzling Success." Time Magazine World, January 28, 2009. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1874509,00.html (accessed September 29, 2011). 183

Adams, William Lee. "The Rubik's Cube: A Puzzling Success." Time Magazine World, January 28, 2009.

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1874509,00.html (accessed September 29, 2011). 184

Adams, William Lee. "The Rubik's Cube: A Puzzling Success." Time Magazine World, January 28, 2009.

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1874509,00.html (accessed September 29, 2011). 185

Adams, William Lee. "The Rubik's Cube: A Puzzling Success." Time Magazine World, January 28, 2009.

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1874509,00.html (accessed September 29, 2011).

INTERNATIONAL VISEGRAD FUND Agent: This organisation was created June 9th, 2000 in Štiřín in the Czech Republic, in order to

promote closer cross border collaboration between the states of Czech Republic, Poland,

Slovakia, and Hungary186. All four government contributed finances towards this inter-

European project. However, no government of any of the four states has any authority over

the manner in which this organisation chooses to invest its capital. Since this collaboration is

among four countries, it allows them to have a larger goal in mind of supporting culture,

regardless of which country it is originating from.

The annual budget for the year 2010 was six million Euros187. This Fund is classified in the

private sector because of the huge sums of money used independently to support culture.

The Visegrad Group, of which the International Visegrad Fund is a part of, is also an

organisation set up for closer collaboration in European affairs between the four countries.

Agenda: The agenda of the Visegrad Fund includes the support for collaborative projects

between the member countries. These common projects take place in the fields of cultural

and scientific research and educational projects, youth exchanges, promotion of tourism and

cross-border cooperation188‛. T positive, since this can include more opportunities to work

together in a variety of fields. Although the funding for the Visegrad subjective nature of

the projects is surely a positive aspect of the project, as this can increase the co-

operation between the four states involved. Although capital for the Fund comes from

the respective governments, the Fund operates with its own board of executives and an

administrative body. Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The main vehicle for cultural diplomacy is providing the

financial support in order to be able to sponsor and hold culturally collaborative events

between the four member countries. These events involve a variety of cultural fields.

Target Audience: The most common recipients of the scholarships, grants, and financial aid

are non-governmental organisations, municipalities, local governments, universities, schools,

public institutions and individual citizens. Therefore the most common forms of support are

granted to those running specific projects that bring these four countries together in

cooperative events. In addition, some of the scholarships offered by the Fund are also

available to those in the Balkans and former Soviet countries, thus there

186 Visegrad Fund, "Basic Facts." Last modified 2011. Accessed September 29, 2011.

http://visegradfund.org/about/basic-facts/.

187

Visegrad Fund, "Budget - 2010 Budget." Last modified 2011. Accessed September 27, 2011.

http://visegradfund.org/about/budget/.

188

Visegrad Fund, "Basic Facts." Last modified 2011. Accessed September 29, 2011. http://visegradfund.org/about/basic-facts/.

are occasional times when the financial support of the Fund goes beyond the borders of the

four main countries. Since the foundation of the Visegrad Fund, there have been over four

thousand different recipients of this grant, both individuals and organisations. Furthermore,

the number of recipients is increasing every year189.

4.3 Cultural Diplomacy in Civil Society The examples of cultural diplomacy within the civil sector were selected based on their

varied vehicles of cultural diplomacy. Within each of the fields selected (folk dance, pedagogy

and theatre), they all have the same goal of reaching out to foreign institutions working in

the same field in order to be able to culturally interact and thus contribute to an

understanding of each other. The selected examples are a combination of past projects and

continuous projects.

DESZK KÖZSÉG NÉPMȔVÉSZETÉÉRT ALAPÍTVÁNY (DESZK DISTRICT FOLK ART)

Agent: The agent is the Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Foundation, which was created on December 25th, 2005190.

Agenda: The goal of the creation of this foundation was to aid folk art traditions and

values, specifically in the southern region of Hungary. These traditions, according to the

foundation, need to be kept alive. This institution emphasises their goal of retaining these

traditions in order to see them passed on to the next generation. Within this foundation

specifically, there is a desire to preserve folk dancing and folk dancing organisations, in order

to spread dancing culture even further. In addition, the goals of the foundation include

working towards the continuation of dance halls for children and for adults, the organisation

of intensive dance lessons, organising excursions to significant villages and maintaining

cultural ties with Hungarians living outside of Hungary and their respective associations191.

Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The vehicle through which this foundation reaches out to

others is by performing the traditional dances of Hungary’s past and ensuring that this

tradition is kept alive. Along with establishing sustainable relations with other types of folk

dance groups all around the region and outside of Hungary, the foundation also organises

certain types of professional training for those that would like to pursue dance as an art type.

At the Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Foundation, there are also numerous teachers that

come from all over the world, in order to teach new folk dances and dancing techniques. In

addition, there is also an annual summer camp where those interested can take place, and

often professional folk dancers are invited to teach and to perform.

189 Visegrad Fund, "Basic Facts." Last modified 2011. Accessed September 29, 2011.

http://visegradfund.org/about/basic-facts/. 190

Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Alapítvány , " „ MÚLT NÉLKÜL NINCS JÖVŐ " (Dr. Holló Ferenc József) ."

Last modified February 15, 2010. Accessed October 4, 2011.

http://www.deszkineptanc.hu/index.php?page=kronika.

191

Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Alapítvány , "Alapitvanyunkrol." Last modified February 15, 2010. Accessed October 4, 2011. http://www.deszkineptanc.hu/index.php?page=alapitvany.

Target Audience: The Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Foundation aims to ensure Hungarian

dancing traditions; therefore the target audiences include all those in the field of dance who

are also interested in keeping these traditions alive. Along with this goes the preservation of

different types of dance around Hungary’s southern region, which also includes those

members of folk dance groups in Vojvodina.

Although the foundation concentrates on the preservation of Hungarian folk art and dance,

there are numerous ties with other such organisations and foundations in other countries

which are working to preserve their own traditional dances. The organisations with

which Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Foundation has a close connection are: Tisza

Néptáncegyesület, in Magyarkanizsa, Serbia, where the folk dancers from Deszk took part in

the Kukorika Fesztival (Corn Festival), and the people from Magyarkanizsa regularly go to

Deszk, to share folk dance experiences. There is also Ifjúsági és Kulturális Egyesülettel

located in Transylvania, Romania.

These two cities got into contact because they are officially twin cities and after

establishing the contact the Deszk Letye-petye folk dance group performed at the Narcisz

Fesztival in Transylvania. Another area where this foundation is active is in Rahó, Ukraine,

where the Desezk folk dance group travelled to Ukraine to perform at their Brindza Festival.

Since the number of contacts and associate folk dance groups with which there has been the

establishment of relations has grown, this is a successful project that looks to be continuing

long into the future.

A KISRIGÓ-FÉSZEK ALAPITVÁNY (THE LITTLE MOCKINGBIRD NEST

FOUNDATION)

Agent: This foundation was formed in 2001 in Szeged, Hungary at the kindergarten called

Rigó Utcai Óvoda. It was formed by the parents of the children who attended the

kindergarten and the kindergarten teachers through both their own finances and outside

material support192. This foundation is classified in the civil sector because of the fact that it is

made up of individual citizens like parents and volunteers, and it is solely funded by the

members, and the donations of other citizens.

Agenda: The aims of the foundation include contributing to the kindergarten, the nurturing of the children and parenting techniques in the areas of Szeged and Csongrád Megye. The foundation also aims to support low-income families to ensure equal opportunities. The group works together with Hungary’s Serbian and German minorities with organisations in Vojvodina and Transylvania and Germany193. Therefore this is an example of a foundation that is working with ethnic Hungarians not just within Hungary but also in Hungary’s surrounding nations.

Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: This foundation is very active within their field. They apply

cultural diplomacy through the organisation of conferences and outings for the kindergartens

of the province of Csongrád; workshops, meetings, training session for kindergarten teachers,

the production of professional resources like newspapers, websites, information letters and

the organisation of a learning session for Hungarians on both sides of the border. They work

together with schools involved in training kindergarten teachers, organise workshops that

promote innovation in the field and support the Serbian and German minority kindergartens

in the province and the Hungarian kindergarten teachers in the bordering countries through

exchange of experiences. Further to this, they work together with German civil organisations

to provide donations for low-income families194.

Target Audience: Since the foundation was founded by parents of young children and by

kindergarten teachers, it is based in the field of early childhood education. Therefore the

target audience is usually anyone that is involved in this field, but most specifically

kindergarten teachers at the schools in Romania, Serbia and Germany. In Serbia one of their

main associate partners is Kerekítő Magyar Pedagógusok Egyesülete (Kerekítő Hungarian

Pedagogical Association). This body and the Kindergatern association arrange numerous

workshops together, where kindergarten teachers of both countries participate. These

collaborations take place several times a year, and therefore these collaborations are also

current and sustainable. Due to the fact that the target audience is so specific, it is still a

great form of cultural diplomacy where a body is taking experience and knowledge from a

certain field and expanding to others within the region and outside of the borders. Although

this is cultural diplomacy on a small scale, it is still very relevant because it is effective and has

many established connections between kindergarten schools in all the regions that it

reaches. These types of sma l l - s ca le projects are often more effective because of the

people that they reach; through developing individual relations and personal encounters.

192 Kisrigó-Fészek Alapítvány, "Alapítványunkról." Accessed October 4, 2011.

http://kisrigofeszek.lapunk.hu/?modul=galeria.

KRÉTAKÖR (CHALK CIRCLE) Agent: This is civil organisation based in theatre performances that has become a centre for

contemporary arts. They develop and produce community games based on social experiments.

Originally Krétakör was started by independent citizens working together and organising

performances themselves. This would provide both a performance for the public and a sense

of entertainment for those individuals involved. However following 1998, the project began to

evolve after gaining some public attention and financing from a private donor. The company

began to be exposed outside the present borders of Hungary. In 2008, there was a radical

change of direction for the organisation, which began when the company started its

performance series called Apology of the Escapologist196.

Agenda: The agenda of this civil society is changing the perception of conventional theatre,

and expanding it using a combination of pedagogues, social scientists, and media artists.

Furthermore, through performing to a wider audience regularly, those involved would be

expanding their own perception of other cultures through the numerous interactions with

people from outside Hungary.

Vehicle of Cultural Diplomacy: The performing rts is the driving force through which cultural

diplomacy is achieved. This is not limited to Hungary as the project involves other European

countries as well, along with a very nationally diverse cast. Therefore there is cultural

diplomacy in as a result of the actors, directors, and other team members working together,

and through this cultural exchange can potentially take place. Further to this, the Krétakör

commission includes a wide variety of organisations and individuals from all over Europe.

States such as France, Germany, Czech Republic, the Netherlands are represented alongside

Hungary here, and the European Union itself also has a direct involvement197.

Target Audience: Since Krétakör is a theatre company, the main target audience are those

with an interest, ability and experience in theater. Indirectly, through performances in

Hungary and in Europe, the company is reaching out to audiences as well. Through these

indirect cultural interactions, one can see cultural diplomacy in action as a result of the

sharing of art with other cultures through the platform of theatre.

193 Kisrigó-Fészek Alapítvány, "Alapítványunkról." Accessed October 4, 2011.

http://kisrigofeszek.lapunk.hu/?modul=galeria. 194

Kisrigó-Fészek Alapítvány, "Alapítványunkról." Accessed October 4, 2011. http://kisrigofeszek.lapunk.hu/?modul=galeria.

195KRÉTAKÖR, "About Us: 2008." Accessed October 4, 2011. http://kretakor.eu/

196

KRÉTAKÖR, "About Us: 2008." Accessed October 4, 2011. http://kretakor.eu/ 197

KRÉTAKÖR, "Partnerek: Megrendelők." Accessed October 4, 2011. http://magyar.kretakor.eu/

5. Future Goals of Hungarian Cultural Diplomacy The future of Hungarian cultural diplomacy lies in a three-fold solution, separated into

short, medium, and long term goals. The long term goals include merging together the

image of Hungary and Hungary’s position in the world, within the European Union, and

within Central Europe198. Through these steps Hungary will be able to present itself to the

world as a country that has an active role in cultural diplomacy. Moreover, the country needs

to strengthen the role of cultural diplomacy within the field of politics and foreign relations in

order to achieve the long term goal of enhancing Hungary’s image and position in the

world199. Ideally major communication and connectedness between the public, private and

civil sectors would be the best way to achieve this long term goal.

The short and medium terms goals of Hungarian cultural diplomacy are to strengthen the

current cultural centres and t o expand on what there is presently. In order to make it

easier to expand its cultural diplomatic practices there needs to be a common voice among

the foreign relations office, the cultural and sports sectors, and the Balassi Institute, to

have a clear goal of what Hungarian cultural diplomacy is and what are its tasks ahead200.

Along with this, there needs to be a national and an international perception in terms of

tourism for what is within the capacity of Hungarian cultural diplomacy201. The areas in which

Hungary wishes to be culturally active are those areas within the member countries of the

European Union, within the border countries surrounding Hungary, the United States, NATO,

the Visegrad countries, Russia, China, India, Japan, Korea, the southern European countries

(namely the Balkans), the Eastern European countries, as well as additional support from the

Committee on Foreign Relations within Hungary and other material and financial support.

What still remains to be done in the future is the eventual expansion of Hungarian cultural

diplomacy around the world to areas where Hungary does not have an economic presence.

Bilateral relations with a specific country can be initially opened up through exchange of

culture, thus allowing political and economic discussion to follow after. Examples of

countries with Hungarian minorities but with which Hungary does not have formal relations

are Argentina, Brazil and Canada. These could be massive potential markets to open up with

the use of cultural diplomacy, and provide a real potential chance for Hungary to present its

renewed cultural image to the world. Formerly Hungary has close relations with the Maghreb

countries of northern Africa, namely Tunisia and Algeria, but since the 1980s these relations

have soured. Before 1980, Hungarian was a popular language choice for young students of

northern Africa, and cultural centres were frequented by the local population. Therefore in

order to regain relations, a good starting point would be to re-establish relations through

cultural diplomacy. Further to this, Hungary should take into consideration the current

political situation in certain northern African countries, Hungarian cultural diplomacy; since

it is something that the region is r e l a t i v e l y familiar with, could aid in the peace process

and the process of building new relations with these re-emerged North African states.

198 Sáringer, 9.

199 Sáringer, 9.

200 Sáringer, 9.

201 Sáringer, 9.

One thing that has not been heavily analysed in this study is the fact that there is also a large

Roma minority presently living in Hungary. It is the largest minority in Hungary according to

the 2004 census report, and is currently numbered at 190,000 individuals202. However, over

the past decade the identification of individuals as Roma has reduced, whilst other minority

groups have seen a boost in the number of people willing to identify as part of their

culture203. This may be linked to discrimination and a widespread negative perception of the

Roma within Hungarian society, in a situation that is sadly mirrored across Europe in terms of

perception of the Roma culture. There is a pressing need for relations with the Roma to be

improved and for public perception of the Roma to be reversed. Therefore, for the Hungarian

government to improve relations with the Roma, and to aid their integration within Hungarian

society, cultural diplomacy could well be the way forward. The Roma themselves also have a

long history in Europe, but this does not change the fact that they are often discriminated

against. Helping the Roma in Hungary could eventually help the Roma in Europe since they

are often of a nomadic nature. The Roma do not belong to any nation in the ‘imagined

community’ sense of the world204, since they embody another type of community; one that

does not rely on national borders. Within the European Union there has been difficulty in

creating the feeling of being European, a n d therefore, Hungary along with the rest of

Europe could learn about the rethinking of cultural space in the sense of the Roma205. This

could also help change the perception of culture belonging to only one nation and its urban

cultural space to being moved to a European level, and encouraging a European culture206.

This is a huge potential area of involvement for cultural diplomacy in Hungary, as well as

cultural diplomacy within the whole of Europe.

202 Nemzeti és Etnikai Kisebbségi Hivatal, "National and ethnic minorities in Hungary." Last modified 2004. Accessed September 29,

2011. http://www.szmm.gov.hu/main.php?folderID=1414, 2.

203

Nemzeti és Etnikai Kisebbségi Hivatal, "National and ethnic minorities in Hungary." Last modified 2004. Accessed September 29,

2011. http://www.szmm.gov.hu/main.php?folderID=1414, 2. 204

Robins, 639. 205

Robins, 641. 206

Robins, 642.

6. Conclusion Cultural diplomacy is a tool now that is being used more and more all over the world in order

to achieve certain goals. Taking this into consideration the Hungarian government, like any

other world government appears to have a double motive in mind. The first is in order to

promote the culture of the particular country, and the second is to attain desired

goals. Through the numerous examples presented within the three different sectors, one can

see aspects of cultural diplomacy in society. Within the public sector, Hungary has strong

plans for the spread of Hungarian culture and language through events and institutions like

Collegium Hungaricum in Berlin, Hungarian Days in Groningen and the Balassi Institute.

Moreover, in the private sector companies like Rubik’s Cube foundation and the

International Visegrad Fund support cultural diplomacy through their numerous programmes.

Although these institutions are not directly supporting cultural diplomacy, they are providing

the forum for cultural diplomacy and exchange to take place. Within the civil sectors, there

are three Hungarian organisations that deal with bringing cultural diplomacy to the

Hungarians living outside of the present border of Hungary today. These three civil sector

organisations are the Deszk Község Népmȕvészetéért Alapítvány, the Kisrigó-Fészek

Alapitvány, and Krétakör. All of these organisations are bringing and sharing culture with

Hungarians and also more and more with others in Europe, through a specific field of focus.

When there is a common theme shared among many, then regardless of national attachment

there will be a cultural exchange, which is the ultimate goal of cultural diplomacy.

An overall assessment of cultural diplomacy includes Hungary’s involvement its diaspora in

the neighboring countries and expanding into Europe and even beyond. As a result of

historical reasons, some Hungarians may feel that their country has suffered from an inferiority

complex throughout the course of the last century, but its transition from a Communist

regime to a democratic system, followed by the entry into the European Union in 2004,

opened up the doors for Hungary to engage in international cultural diplomacy207. As the

country continues to embrace its new modern era, Hungarians need no longer

feel ashamed of their past and can newly present the culture and potential of their country

to the world as a country that has been successful208. This has also strengthened

Hungarian national identity, in order to accept and be patriotic about Hungarian culture in

order to use this to facilitating exchanges of all types with other nationalities and other

cultures209. Therefore what was hindering Hungarian cultural diplomacy between the Second

World War until the regime change is no longer the case, and Hungary is free for cultural

diplomacy.

Currently within Hungary, the fastest growing industry is the cultural sector210. However, the

support system has not adapted to accommodate for this fast paced change and the

government needs to be spending more money on cultural practices. Currently cultural

spending is 1 to 1.5% of Hungary’s annual budget211, since there is not that much

funding available, the country has seen a rise in regional funding in cooperation for cultural

projects of all sorts212. This is a successful policy, which enables Hungary’s regions to take

responsibility for culture as an asset that needs to be sustained. Funding overall is a huge

concern in Hungary. There needs to be the development of a standardized regulation to

ensure funding and support for cultural organisations that are new start-ups213. More

specifically for art exhibitions, theater performances, and workshops, the government should

set up a yearly plan to ensure the sustainability of these projects214. For Hungary to be able

to work and maintain its cultural sector it also needs to rearrange its ability to fund projects.

With the expansion of Hungarian cultural houses taking place in all parts of the world, this is

a very positive sign to show how far Hungary is going and taking the importance of

cultural diplomacy very seriously. Although Hungary is presently doing a lot, there is always

room for improvement. Expanding into countries with which Hungary had former relations,

but have muted in recent years due to various political reasons, is a first potential market to

explore culturally. Furthermore, expanding more towards the East and the growing

development of countries there would aid Hungary. If the country was able to build concrete

relationships with Eastern states it would no longer have solely rely on Western support in

dire situations. Hungary also has a huge Roma population, and presently the relations are

strained. Therefore, using cultural diplomacy to find commonalities in order to help them

integrate more into society and help ease relations could prove effective. Through cultural

diplomacy Hungary can start to build up strong relations with other culturally rich countries

and from these cultural relations, economic and political ties can develop.

Cultural diplomacy is a great tool for Hungary to use in order to connect and have

various exchanges with other countries. From these fruitful encounters, Hungary can develop

stronger ties which will be beneficial to both sides in challenging situations. It is hoped that

cultural diplomacy can lead to future integration and future cooperation between states in the

international arena. From the evidence of this report; despite some issues it seems that overall

Hungary is on track to becoming a significant cultural diplomatic power.

211 Bozóki, 10.

212 Bozóki, 10.

213 Bozóki, 11.

214 Bozóki, 11.

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