Country Profile Romania 1992

8/14/2019 Country Profile Romania 1992

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[MeurostatCountry profi le Statistisches Bundesamt

Romania 1992

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murostatCountry profile Statistisches BundesamtRomania 1992

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Statistisches BundesamtGustav Stresemann-Ring 11, D-65180 WiesbadenandEurostat, Statist ical Off ice of the European Communit iesPlateau de Kirchberg, L-2920 LuxembourgEdited by: Statistisches Bundesamt

Cataloguing data can be foun d at the end of this publication.The French version of this publication is available from the Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities.The German version of this publication may be obtained from the publisher,Verlag Metzler-Poeschel, Stuttgart. Delivery: Hermann Leins Gm bH & C o KG,Holzwiesenstrasse 2, D-72127 Kusterdingen; fax 49/70 71/336 53.Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1994ISBN 92-826-7316-2 ECSC-EC-EAE C, Brussels Luxembourg, 1994Printed in Belgium


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C O N T E N T SPage

Sym bols and abbreviations 3List of tables 6Introductory Remark 9Maps 101 General survey 142 Area 183 Population 214 Health 295 Education 336 Employment 377 Agricu lture, forestry, fisheries 418 Production industries 659 Foreign trade 7410 Transp ort and comm unications 8211 Tourism 8812 Money and credit 9113 Public finance 9414 Wages and salaries 9915 Prices 10416 National accounts 10817 Balance of payments 11318 Sources 115

E X P L A N A T I O N O F S Y M B O L S0 = Less than half of 1 at the last occupied

digit, but more than nilMagnitude zero

| = General break in the seriesaffecting com parison over timeFigure unknownTabular group blocked, becauseinformation is not meaningful


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GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS )

gkg =dttmmcmmkmm 2 =hakm2 =1him 3tkm =grt =nrttdw1us$ =DM =SDR =

gramkilogramquintal (100 kg)tonne (1,000 kg)millimetrecentimetremetrekilometresquare metrehectare (10,000 m 2)square kilometrelitrehectolitre (100 I)cubic metretonne-kilometregross registered tonnet registered tontonnes deadweight(t = 1,016.05 kg)leuUS dollarDeutsche MarkSpecial-DrawingRights

hkW =kWh =MW =MWh =GW =GWh =StMill. =Mrd. =AMA =ciffob =

hourkilowatt (103 Watt)kilowatt-hour(1 03 Watt-hour)megawatt (106 Watt)megawatt-hour(1 06 Watt-hour)gigawatt(10 9Watt)gigawatt-hour(1 09 Watt-hour)piecepairmillionthousand million(USA: billion)averagemonthly averagecost, insurance, freightincludedfree on board

Special abbreviations are allocated to the respective sections. With only a few exceptions,provisional, revised and estimated figures are not marked as such. Detail may not add to totalbecause of rounding.


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Selected international weights and measures1 inch (in) = 2.540 cm1 foot (ft) = 0.305 m1 yard (yd) = 0.914 m1 mile (mi) = 1,609 km1 acre (ac) = 4.047 m21 cubic foot (ft3) = 28.317 dm31 gallon (gal) = 3.785 I

1 imperial gallon (imp. gal).... = 4,546 I1 barrel (bl) = 158.983 11 ounce (oz) = 28.350 g1 troy ounce (troy oz) = 31.103g1 pound (lb) = 453.592 g1 short ton (sh. t) = 0.907 t1 long ton (I t) = 1.0161


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L I S T O F T A B L E SPage

1 Gen era l Survey1.1 Basic data 141.2 Important economic and social indicators for the countries of Ce ntraland Eastern Europe 172 Area2.1 Climate 193 Populat ion3.1 Population developm ent and population density 213.2 United Nations' population projections 213.3 Birth and deaths 223.4 Population by age group 23

3.5 Are a, population and population density by district 243.6 Urban and rural population 263.7 Population in selected cities 273.8 Population by ethnic group 284 Health4.1 Reg istered illnesses 304.2 Mortality by selected cause of death 304.3 Beds in med ical establishments 314.4 Doctors, dentists and nurses 324.5 Pharm acies and staff 325 Education

5.1 Schoo ls and other educational establishments 345.2 Pupils and students 345.3 Students by type of studies 355.4 Teac hing staff 355.5 Students abroad by selected host countries 366 Education6.1 Persons of working age as a proportion of the total population 376.2 Em ployed persons and employmen t rates in 1977 by age group 386.3 Persons in emp loyment in 1977 by occupational status 386.4 Persons in emp loyment by area of the economy 396.5 Manua l and non-ma nual workers by area of the economy 396.6 Manua l and non-ma nual workers by sex 407 Agricultur e, fore stry, f isheries7.1 Area of agricultural holdings by form of ownership 447.2 Num bers emp loyed by form of ownership of agricultural holdings 447.3 Land use 527.4 Agricultural mach inery 547.5 Con sum ption of com mercial fertilizers 55


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Page7.6 Index of agricultural production 567.7 Harvest volume s for selected crops 587.8 Yields for selected crops 587.9 Livestock population 607.10 Slaughte rings 607.11 Production of selected animal products 617.12 Afforestation 637.13 Timber extraction 637.14 Fishing vessels 647.15 Catches 64

8 Produ ction industries8.1 Enterprises and employment in industry 668.2 Industrial enterprises by size classes 668.3 Craft cooperatives and services enterprises 678.4 Employees by group of industries 678.5 Index of industrial production 688.6 Power station capacity 698.7 Electricity production 698.8 Electricity consum ption 708.9 Mining produc ts, extraction of stones and earth 718.10 Production of selected products from the manufacturing industries 718.11 Com pleted dwellings 738.12 Com pleted dwellings by number of rooms 73

9 Fore ign Trade9.1 Foreign trade 759.2 Main import goods/comm odity groups 769.3 Main export goods/comm odity groups 769.4 Imports by major country of origin 779.5 Exports by major country of destination 789.6 Trade betwee n Germany and Romania 809.7 Major goods/com modity groups imported from Romania by S ITC heading 809.8 Major goods/com modity groups exported to Romania by SITC heading 8110 Transpo rt and commun ication s10.1 Length of railway network 8210.2 Amou nt of traffic carried on the railways 8310.3 Length of road network by type of road 8310.4 Num ber of motor vehicles and car ownership 8410.5 Amo unt of traffic carried on the public network 8410.6 Inland waterway transport 8410.7 Num ber of merchant ships 8510.8 Sea traffic 8510.9 Civil air traffic 8610.10 Com mun ications 8610.11 Long-distance pipelines 87


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Page11 Tourism11.1 Foreign visitors by route 8811.2 Foreign visitors by selected country of origin 8811.3 Acco mm odation establishments 8911.4 Beds in accom modation establishments 8911.5 Visitors in accom modation establishments and foreign currency receipts 9012 Money and Credi t12.1 Official exchange rates 9212.2 Gold and foreign exchange holdings 9212.3 Selected data on money and credit 9313 Public Finan ce13.1 Con solidated state budget 9413.2 Con solidated state budget revenue 9513.3 Con solidated state budget expenditure 9513.4 Gross fixed capital formation by selected sector 9713.5 Gove rnmen t foreign debt 9714 Wages and Salaries14.1 Index of nom inal and real wages 9914.2 Index of average earnings by area of the economy 10014.3 Average net monthly earnings by area of the economy 10014.4 Average net monthly earnings of manual workers by area of the econom y 10114.5 Emp loyees by net earnings category 10114.6 Average monthly earning of employees by selected occupations 10215 Prices15.1 Cos t-of-living index 10415.2 Cos t-of-living index for goods and services from the state andcoope rative sector 10515.3 Averag e prices of selected agricultural products in 1990 on freemarkets in 95 towns 10515.4 Prices of selected energy products 10615.5 Import and export price indices, terms of trade 10716 Nation al Accoun ts16.1 Deve lopment of national income 10916.2 Gross domes tic product at market prices 10916.3 Gen eration of national income 110

16.4 Gen eration of gross domestic product at market prices 11116.5 Use of gross domestic product at market prices 11217 Balance of Payments17.1 Balance of payments 11418 Sources 115


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INTRODUCTORY REMARKThe country reports published in the "Statistics of Foreign Countries" series contain acompilation of statistical data on the demographic and, more particularly, economic structureand development of individual countries based on statistical publications produced by both thecountries concerned and international organizations. The most important national sources areindicated at the end of the report.The statistical methods and classifications of the former Socialist countries are still, in somecases, different from those commonly used in economic accounts, and this makes it difficult - oreven impossible - to compare existing data. With regard to the reliability of Romanian statisticaldata it should be pointed out that many official data from the time of the Ceausescu regime hadsubsequently to be corrected. A detailed discussion of this problem is outside the scope of thispublication.Chapter 7 (Agriculture, forestry, fisheries) of this country report was drawn up by the Institut frAuslndische Landwirtschaft e.V. Berlin/IALA. The sources used by the lALA are listedseparately in Chapter 18 (Sources). The data taken from these sources may in some cases bepresented differently from those in the other sections.For users who require more detailed figures or more information on questions of methodology,the Statistisches Bundesamt in Wiesbaden has the original publications, while its branch officein Berlin has an information service.The maps in this report have been produced solely for illustrative purposes. In using thedesignations and borders shown, the Statistisches Bundesamt is not passing judgment on thelegal status of any of the territories or confirming or recognizing any borders.'


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-48 NORT H

U K R A I N E

- 1 2

M O L D A V I A"^ 7

H U N G A R Y

S E R B I A

ROMANIATRANSPORT

1 National border Capital cityO Town Railway

Motorway, under construction,~ - p la n n e d

Trunk roadOther major roadRiver

r Canal under construction-f- Major airportJ Sea portt Inland waterw ay port){ Pass Dam

SO 1OOkm

BLACK SEA

30* Statisti sches Bundesarnt 92 0188

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1 GENERAL SURVEYState and GovernmentName of cou ntryIn full: RomaniaShort form Romania

Parliament/LegislatureTwo-house Parliament: Senate with 119members and Parliamentary Assembly with387 membersStatehood/IndependenceIndependent since 1878Const i tut ionof November 1991Form of State and Go vernmentRepublicHead of StatePresident Ion lliescu

Parties/ElectionsResults of the May 1990 Parliamentaryelections:Front for National Salvation - Assembly 263seats; Senate 91 seats; Hungarian People'sUnion of Romania 2 9, 10 ; National LiberalParty 29 ,10 ; Romanian EnvironmentalMovement 12 ,1 ; Christian-democraticNational Peasants Party 12,1 ; others 42, 4Administrative subivisions41 districts, 5 cities w ith extended self-administration, ("municipalities"), 189 towns,2,705 rural comm unes.

Head of Governmen tPrime Minister Theodor DumitruStolojanMembership of international organizationsUnited Nations and UN special agencies.

1.1. B A S I C D A T AUnit

TerritoireTotal areaArable landPopulationTotal populationResults of population censusesMid-yearPopulation increase

Population densityBirthsDeathsDeaths in 1st year of lifeLife expectancy at birthMalesFemales

km2km2

1,0001,000%Inhabitants per km2per 1,000 inhabitantsper 1,000 inhabitantsper 1,000 live births

YearsYears

1992:1989:

1966:1990:1966-1977:

1966:1965/70 A:

237,50094,580

19,10323,27212.980.421.39.252

6670

1977:1992:1990-1992:

1992:1985/90 A:

21,56023,4900.998.915.510.822

6873

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UnitHealthHospital bedsInhabitants per hospital bedDoctorsInhabitants per doctorDentistsInhabitants per dentistEducationIlliterates, aged 15 or overPupils at general schoolsStudents at technical collegesStudents at universities or equivalentEmploymentEmployed populationof which:AgricultureProduction industriesAgriculture, fo restry, fisheriesIndex of agricultural productionFood productionper capitaHarvest volumesWheatMaizePotatoesCattleTimber remova l

Fish catchesProduction industriesProduction indexPower station capacityElectricity productionExtraction ofbrown coal and ligniteoilnatural gasProduction ofmotor fuelcementcrude steelForeign tradeImportsExports

1,000NumberNumberNumberNumberNumber%1,0001,0001,000

1975:

1988:1970/71:

245.38728,0047626,0513,528

22,941506152

1989:

1,0001,0001,000

1979/81 D = 1001979/81 D = 1001979/81 D =1 001,000 t1,000 t1,000t1,0001,000 m31,000t

1980 = 100MWMill. kWhMill, t

1,000t1,000t1,000tMilltMillt

Mill. US$Mill. US$

1975: 10,151

1986:

1D:

1985

1985:1970:

1985:

1985:

3,8373,110

1181181155,47111,8234,3816,04723,004

238120

7,34635,08837,92410,71836,8755,30511,18913,795

8,59910,414

1989/90:

1989:

285.'841,93155-7,1113,261

2,89!1.3416

10,94f

1990:

1989:

1989:1990:

1990:

3,01 4,16$

111121078.00C9.20C7.60C6,29119,307

22E13322,90464,142

33,7377,92528,8864,66710.389,687

9.14E6.09E

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UnitTransport and CommunicationsLength of railway netwayLength of road networkMotor cars per 1,000 inhabitantsTAROM passengersTelephonesRadio and television licencesTourismForeign visitorsForeign currency receiptsMoney and CreditOfficial exchange rate, buying an dselling

Foreign exchange holdingsPublic FinanceConsolidated state budgetIncomeExpenditureForeign debtPricesCost of living inde x1'FoodNational accountsGeneration of national incomeat current pricesat constant pricesper capita

km1,000 kmNumber1,0001,0001,0001,0001,000

I per DM1Mill. US$

Mrd. IMrd. IMill. US$

1970=1001970 = 100

Mrd. I1980 = 1001980 = 100

1970:1985:1986:1970:

1980:1985:

JE 1990:JE 1987:

1985:1984:

1985:

1980:

11,01275.941.71,2406391,4846,742182

23.481,402

399.4375.56,255

141162

513.6100100

1989:1990:1989:

1988:1989:

June 1991:July 1991:

1989:

1989:

1989:

11,3437Z855.71,3222,9033,696

5,514170

5,514261

408.045Z10146162

63Z6108104

State and coopratives sector

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1.2 IMPORTANT EC ONOMIC AND SOCIAL INDIC ATORS FOR C OUNTRIESOF C ENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE*)

\ Indicator

Country \AlbaniaBulgariaYugoslaviaPolandRomaniaSoviet UnionCzechoslovakiaHungary

NutritionCalorie intake 1986

Per capita/day

kcaP2,7133,6423,5633,3363,3733,3993,4483,368 (a

% requirements3'1141451391261271331419) 135

Health

Lifeexpectancyat birth1988

Years72 (90)72 (86)73 (90)72707072(89)70(89)

Inhabitantsperhospitalbed1989Number190 (88)100169 (86)122(90)

81769799 (90)

EducationPercentage ofliteracy inthepopulation(aged 15and over)1988

registered pupilsin the populationof primaryschool age19871'

%75 (86)9893 (90)99 (86)98100 (86)9999 (90)

10010495101971059699 (89)

Energy

Energyconsumptionper capita1988kg oilunit4'894 (86)

4,074 (87)2,1593,4533,4594,5124,302 (87)2,984

\\ Indicator

\Country \

\AlbaniaBulgariaYugoslaviaPolandRomaniaSoviet UnionCzechoslovakiaHongrie

Agriculture% share ofproducednationalincomeaccountedforbyagriculture1989

totallabourforceworking inagri-u Itu re1989

Foreigntrade% of totalexportsaccountedforbymanufacturedproducts71

%35 (85)1314 (87)1516231016

49.8 (88)13.2(88)23.6 (88)26.8 (90)27.918.8 (88)11.515.3

78(88)62(87)24(87)89(86)67 (90)

Transport

Motor cars1989

Communications

Number of maintelephone lines1989Televisionlicences1989

Per 1,000 inhabitantsNumber

2(70)129127 (86)138 (90)56 (90)50(87)200188 (90)

223513886 (90)12210613696 (90)

83 (87)185175 (87)259 (90)160321298283 (90)

Nationalincome5)Per capitaindex ofproducednationalincome1989

1980 = 100133102118120115111

') Figures in brackets indicate the year in question.1) Figures over 100% occur as a result of the survey method based on educational stages, some pupils being recorded in the wrong agegroup. 2) 1 kilocalorie = 4,187 kilojoules. - 3) 1984/86 average 4) 1 kg oil unit = 0.043 gigajoules. - 5) The national accounts of thecountries of central and eas tern Europe are based on the concept of material production. For further explanations of the terms anddefinitions used, please refer to the section on National Accounts. 6) In current prices. -7) SITC Headings 5-8.

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2 AREARomania's national territory covers a total area of 237,500 km 2 equivalent to two-thirds the siz6of the Federal Republic of Germany. Romania's location in south-east Europe bordering on theDanube, the Carpathians and the Black Sea ranges from latitude 48 to 43 N and fromlongitude 20 to 29 E.The following types of topography can be distinguished.The Tisa Plain, a fertile farmland, is an offshoot of the Hungarian Plain and is drained by theTisa. In the south of the Tisa Plain lies the Banat region, through which the Timis flows.The Transylvanian Plateau forms a fertile hilly country, with an altitude of 400 to 700 m andcriss-crossed by rivers, in the inner rim of the Carpathians; it is linked to the rest of Romania bygorges and passes.The wall of the Carpathians stretches across the country in a vast arc from the northern borderto the Danube.In the south and east of the Carpathians the foothills form a transitional area.Walachia (Romanian Plain) forms the fertile core of Romania. Between the SouthernCarpathians/Carpathian foothills and the Danube (border with Bulgaria) lies Lesser Walachia(Olteniat) to the west of the Olt, joined by Greater Walachia (Muntenia) to the east.The Danube Delta is about 80 km long and covers an area of 4,000 km 2. It grows about 4 minto the sea each year.The Moldavian Plateau is a hilly area lying between the Carpathians and the Prut River, whichforms the country's eastern border.The tableland of the Dobruja Massif drops down to the Black Sea coast with steep limestonecliffs, which are separated from the Sea by a flat strip of land with lagoons and sandy beaches.The Danube is the country's most important river, flowing through Romanian territory for morethan a third of its total length (1,075 out of 2,857 km). A multitude of rivers, almost all of themrising in the Carpa thians, form a dense network of watercourses with the D anube.The climate is temperately continental (cold winters, warm summers) with seasonaltemperature fluctuations that increase and year-round precipitation that decreases to the eastand south-east. The average tem peratures are 21 C in summer and -2C in winter.The difference between Romanian national time and Central European Time (CET) is +1 hour.

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2.1 CLIMATE*)(Long-term average)

Month

StationLocation^x ^H ek jht above sea level

Bucharest

44N 26E82m

Sibiu

46N 24E416 m

Jasi

47N 28E10 0 m

Cluj

4724363m

Coldest month (January)..Warmest month (Jury)Year

Coldest m onth (January)..Warmest month (July)Year

Wettest month (December)..Driest month (May)Year

Air temperature (C), monthly and annual averages-2.723.211.1

-4.019.88.9

-4.121.6

9.4A ir t e m p e r a t u r e ( C ) , a v e r a g e d a i ly m a x i m u m / m i n im u m

0.730.016.6

0.026.014.2

Humidity (%), average maximum (mornings)94 90'66 77IV+V80 83

-0.428.314.7

816 6 v + v "73

-3.919.98.8

0.426.915.1

937082

For notenotes, please s e e e n d of Table.

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2 . 1 C L I M A T E * )(Long- term average)

Month

StationLocation

^ x H e ig h t above sea leve lConstanta

44N 29E32m

PredeaH)

46N 25E1,093 m

Timisoara

46N 2 1 91m

Turnu Severin

45N 23E70 m

Coldest month (January)..Warmest month (July)Year

Coldest month (January)..Warmest m onth (Jury)Year

Wettest month (December)..Driest month (May)Year

Air temperature CO , monthly and annual averages- 0.4 - 5.422.4 14.611.2 4.9

-1 .621.710.9

(C), average daily maximum/minimum3.0 - 0.6

26.5 20.815.0 10.4;%) , average maximum (mornings)

89 XkXll 89.90 70 7482 82

2.228.916.9

95-96 -'8089

-1 .623.211.6

1.930.116.9

906479

) Roman figures indicate different months.1) Tomo Pass, south of Brasov, passage over the Southern Carpathians to Bucharest.The German Meteorological Service, Zentralamt, Postfach 185, D-W-6050 Offenbach am Main has more detailed climatic data for theseand other weather stations. These data are generally released only against payment of a fee.

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POPULATIONIn mid-1992 Romania had a population of 23.5 million (extrapolated figure) and an averagepopulation density of 99 per km 2 over its whole area. The last population census took place on5 January 1977, when a population of 21.6 million was recorded (10.6 million males and 10.9million females). The March 1966 population census had recorded a figure of 19.1 million. Thepopulation thus increased by 2.5 million (12.9%) between these two censuses, giving anaverage annual growth rate of 1.1% .According to World Bank figures, the average annual rate of population increase was 1.1%between 1965 and 1980 and 0.4% between 1980 and 1988. It is estimated at 0.5% for theperiod from 1988 to 2000.Average life expectancy at birth for men went up from 66 to 68 years between the periods1965/1970 and 1985/1990; for women it increased from 70 to 73 years.

3.1 TOTAL POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY*)Survey item

PopulationmalefemalePopulation density inrelation to total area1 '

Unit1,0001,0001,000Inhabitantsper km2

196619,103 a)9,3519,752

80.4

197721 , 56010,62610,934

90.8

198022,20110,95411,248

93.5

198522,72511,21411,511

95.7

199023,27211,49111,781

98.0

199223,490

98.9

*) As at the middle of the year.1) 237,500 km2.a) Results of the population census of 15 March.b) Results of the population census of 5 January.

According to United Nations' population projections, Romania's population willbetween 24.1 million (low variant) and 27.5 m illion (high variant) by the year 20 25. increase to

3.2 U N I T E D N A T I O N S ' P O P U L A T I O N P R O J E C T I O N S1,000

Population projectionsLow variantMedium variantmalefemaleHigh variant

199523,68923,81611,76912,04723,984

200024,08424,34612,03612,31024,649

201024,34425,01312,38112,63225,740

201524,32625,28412,52512,75926,285

202524,12525,74512,76112,98427,485

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Demographic trends in Romania in the last few decades can be divided into the followingphases:Immediately after the war up to the second half of the 1950s, relatively high numbers ofbirths were recorded (up to 28 per 1,000 inhabitants). The reason can be traced back tothe resurgence in the numbers of marriages and births, which had fallen off because ofthe war.In the following period up to about the mid-1960s, the numbers of births declinedappreciably, with the legalization of abortion in 1957 being an important contributoryfacto r. B y 1966 the birth rate had fallen to 14.3 per 1,000 inhabitants.In the next period, a series of population policy measures brought in by a 1966 Decree ofthe State Council resulted initially in a leap in the numbers of births. These measuresincluded a ban on abortion, more difficult divorce, additional taxation on childlesscouples and socio-economic measures designed to improve living conditions.This was followed by a substantial long-term decline in the numbers of births, since inview of the country's economic problems a general improvement in the population'sliving conditions and medical facilities was not achieved. This decline could not bestemmed even by repeated attempts to boost population growth by means of legislativemeasures. However, this policy resulted in sudden fluctuations in the numbers of births,with concomitant effects on the age structure of the population (cf. Table 3.4). This madeit impossible in many cases to draw up realistic plans in many areas such as educationand h ealth and also the economy and administration.

3 .3 B I R T H S A N D D E A T H S

Survey itemBirthsDeathsDeaths in the 1 st year o f life

Unitper 1,000 inhab.per 1,000 inhab.per 1,000 live births

1965/70 D21.39.252

1970/75 D19.39.440

1975/80 D19.19.731

1980/85 D15.810.226

1985/90 D15.510.822

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3.4 PO PU LATION BY AGE GROUP*)% of the population

Age

5 -1 010 -1515 - 2020 - 2525 - 3030 - 3535 - 4040 - 4545 - 5050 - 5555 - 6060 - 6565 - 7070 - 7575 - 8080 - 8585 and over

1977Total9.1

10.26.37.58.57.75.86.77.16.96.24.13.94.03.01.80.80.4

Male4.75.23.23.84.33.92.93.33.53.43.01.81.71.81.30.70.30.2

1985Total7.68.78.38.86.27.67.76.55.46.66.35.84.92.63.22.21.10.4

Male3.94.54.34.53.23.93.93.22.73.33.12.82.21.11.40.90.40.1

1990Total7.57.48.58.18.56.07.47.56.25.26.25.95.34.22.12.311.7

)

Male3.83.84.34.24.33.13.83.83.12.63.02.82.51.90.80.90.7

) As at the middle of the year.

A G E S T R U C T U R E OF T H E P O P U L A T I O N OF R O M A N I AA N D THE F E D E R A L R E P U B L IC OF G E R M A N YAge groups as %of the population

ROMANIA FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYAs at th e end ' of 1 9 9 0 : 3 8 . 1 8 mill.

Age from...to under...years

Female

As at 31 .12 .1988 : 61 .72 mill.Age from...to under...years

/'//.r////////////

pr////-//////.I ' / / / / /Scale referred to age groups in5-year increments

i) Est imat

Fe m a l e'////777.f/ / / / / / \'."/Z/\77///,./ s s /.' ;'////// / / / / / / . \~7777ZZL

' ' V'/Vs .' / / / / / /77777\'////

SutisWchS Bundesamt 92 0189

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In the last few decades Romania's adminis trat ive subdiv is ion has twice been radical lya me n d e d .In 1950 the more than 50 dis tr ic ts were replaced by 18 administrat ive regions (plus the capita lregion of Bucharest) . The number of adminis trat ive regions was subsequently reduced to 16.The reasons for creat ing relat ively few regions to replace a large number of d is tr ic ts were givenas the low level of development and the need to create a base of heavy industry. This led to theloss of their posi t ion as adminis trat ive capita ls for those towns which were centres of(agr icul tural) trade and also often had other important serv ice funct ions for their environmentbut d id not have a stron g industr ia l base. In the years that fo l lowe d, most of these tow ns fel l intoa state of (at least relative) stagnation.In a further administrative reform, 40 distr icts (plus the municipal distr ict of Bucharest) werecreated in 1968 instead of the previous 16 regions. This reorganizat ion was intended to serveas an instrument of sophist icated regional development - under the condit ions of the level ofdevelopment atta ined in the 1960s. One of the resul ts of th is reform was that smal l provinc ialtowns where growth had been s l ight now received more substant ia l investment, which in manycases speeded up their development appreciably. In general , effor ts were made to reduce thedif ferences in development between the regions, a l though dispar i t ies with in the regions were inmany cases not last ingly el iminated.

3.5 AREA, POPU LATION AND POPULATION DENSITY BY DISTRICT*)

District Capital Areakm21977" 1989

Population1,000

1977 1989Inhabitants

per km2Municipal district ofBucharestAlbaAradArgesBacauBihorBistrita-NasaudBotosaniBrasovBrailaBuzauCaras-SeverinCalarasiClujConstantaCovashaDimbovitaDolj

BucharestAlba JuliaAradPitestiBacauOradeaBistritaBotosaniBrasovBrailaBuzauResitaCalarasiCluj-NapocaConstantaSfintu-Gheorghe..TirgovisteC r a i o v a

1,5216,2317,6526,8016,6067,5355,3054,9655,3514,7246,0728,5035,0756,6507,0553,7054,0357,413

2,0954 1 05 1 26 3 26 6 86 3 32 8 74 5 15 8 33 7 85 0 83 8 63 3 97 1 56 0 91 9 95 2 87 5 0

2,3194 2 85 0 76 7 87 3 16 6 03 2 84 6 86 9 54 0 45 2 44 0 83 5 17 4 37 3 72 3 85 7 07 7 2

1,377.46 5 . 866.99 2 . 9

101.18 4 . 054.19 0 . 8

1 0 8 . 98 0 . 08 3 . 74 5 . 46 6 . 8

1 0 7 . 58 6 . 35 3 . 7

1 3 0 . 91 0 1 . 2

1,524.76 8 . 76 6 . 69 9 . 7

1 1 0 . 78 7 . 66 1 . 89 4 . 3

1 2 9 . 98 5 . 58 6 . 34 8 . 06 9 . 2

1 1 1 . 71 0 4 . 56 4 . 2

1 4 1 . 3104.1

For footnotes, please see end of Table.

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3.5 AREA, POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY BY DISTRICT*)

District Capital Areakm219771> 1989

Population1,000

1977 1989Inhabitants

per km2Galat'GiurgiuGorjHarghitaHunedoara..JalomitaJasiMaramures..MehedintiMuresNeamtOftPrahovaSatu-Mare...SalajSibiuSuceavaTeleorman...TimisTulceaVasluiVilceaVrancea

GalatiGiurgiuTirgu-JiuMiercurea-Ciuc.DevaSloboziaJasiBaia MareDrobeta-Turnu-SeverinTirgu MuresPatra-NeamtSlatinaPloiestiSatu-MareZalauSibiuSuceavaAlexandriaTimisoaraTulceaVasluiRimnicu Vilcea..

Focsani

4,4253,8105,6416,6107,0164,4495,4696,2154,9006,6965,8905,5074,6944,4053,8505,4228,5555,7608,6928,4305,2975,7054,863

582327349326514296729493322605532519817394264482634518697254437414370

642325388363567309810556329621580535877417269509699504726275468430394

131.585.861.949.373.366.5133.379.365.790.490.394.2174.189.468.688.974.189.980.230.182.572.676.1

145.185.368.854.980.869.5148.189.567.19Z798.597.1186.894.769.993.981.787.583.532.688.475.481.0

*) As at the middle of the year.1 ) Results of the population census.In Romania, urbanizat ion has gathered pace again in the last few decades. An important factorin this was the co llectivization of agriculture in the late 1950s a nd ea rly 19 60s. It wasaccompanied by such things as the mechanizat ion of agr icul tural act iv i t ies, which led tounderemployment in th is sector , whi le at the same t ime pr ior i ty was given to creat ing jobs inindustry, thereby boosting the internal migrat ion towards the towns.In the 1977 po pulat ion cen sus, the degree of urbanization was calculated at arou nd 44 %. For1990, the proport ion of town-dwel lers in the total populat ion was est imated at 53%.Far-reaching changes in the method of sett lement, both urban and rural , were brought in withthe law enacted in 1974 on the "systematization" of the land and urban and rural settlements. Itserved initially as the basis for a radical reform of the capital in accordance with the ideas of thethen Head of State, Ceausescu. In the second hal f of the 1980s the "systematizat ion" of therural sett lements was stepped up. The agr icul tural cooperat ives were supposed to give way toagro- industr ia l complexes in which farms and factor ies were to be merged under "cul t ivable"conditions. Ultimately, this plan would have resulted in the elimination of half of the 13,000 or so

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villages n Romania. Even before the revolution in 1989, a great many villages in Romania weredestroyed as part of this reform, despite many protests (including some from the internationalcommunity).

3.6 URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION*)Urban/Rural

In townsIn urbanized ruralcommunesIn rural communes

*) As at the middle of the year.1) Results of the population cens i2) As at the beginning of the year

Unit1,000%1,000%1,000%

s.

19771>9,39643.68443.911,32152.5

198010,17245.88433.811,18750.4

198511,37050.06913.010,66346.9

198711,77151.3--11,17048.7

198912,31253.2--10,84046.8

199012,35353.2--10,85946.8

In mid-1989 the population of the capital was put at 2.04 million, an increase of 28% comparedwith 1975. However, the rate of population increase of Brasov over the same period wasconsiderably higher at 74%. The eight next-biggest towns also had appreciably higher ratesthan the c apital, with increases ranging from 40 to 60% .Bucharest, which in 1977 was struck by an earthquake, subsequently became a special targetof the radical reorganization and redevelopment plans of the former Head of State, Ceausescu,which were bound up with the concept of "systematization". In particular, the mature structureof not only the old city but also other parts of Bucharest was destroyed, after the inhabitantshad been evicted from their homes and allocated to other dwellings at random.

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3 .7 P O P U L A T I O N IN S E L E C T E D T O W N S * )1,000

Town 1 9 7 51,58920319821321622220219817015914711111498938492

1 9 7 81,858268273278278273253231200180174136158137133108103108

19811,861 a320280288280290268240219193182156164141144123116116

1 9 8 41,961335319309310300286267228206183170173152152131130126

1 9 8 61,990352328325313310295281236214188180178159157140136130

1 9 8 92,037353316333330318307300243225191193184165162150145137

Bucharest, capital.,BrasovConstantaT i m i s o a r aJasiClui-NapokaGalatiCraiovaB r a i l aGradeaAradBacauSibiuTirgu MuresPitestiBaia MareBuzauSatu Mare

*) As a t t he middle of the year,a) 1980.The 1977 census gave the fo l lowing breakdown of the total populat ion by nat ional i ty : Romanian88 . 1% , Hungar ian 7.9% (1.7 mi l l ion) , other 4.0% (0.9 mi l l ion) . A l though in the next ten years upto 1987 the proport ion of Hungar ians fe l l by 0.1 percentage points to 7.8%, their absolutenumber ( in an increasing total population) went up to 1.8 mill ion ( it was put as high as 2 to 2.5mil l ion by some western experts) . Owing to extensive migratory movements the proport ion ofthe 20 or so other m inor i t ies fe ll by 0.9 percentage points betwe en 1977 an d 19 87 to 3. 1 % ofthe total populat ion, or in absolute terms from 0.85 mi l l ion to 0.71 mi l l ion. Germans formed thelargest group in 1987, with 1.5% (0.34 mill ion). At the end of the 1980s there was a significantincrease in emigrat ion by inhabitants of German or ig in. Part icular ly after the revolut ion in 1989,Romanian Germans emigrated in large numbers to the Federal Republ ic of Germany.At the beginning of 1 992 i t was est imated that only between 80,000 an d 100 ,000 Transylvan ianSaxons and Banat Swabians st i l l l ived in Romania. Their minor i ty r ights are scrupulouslyrespected by the present Romanian leadership; they were guaranteed in the Treaty on GoodNeighbour l iness concluded between Romania and the Federal Republ ic of Germany in Apr i l1 9 9 2 . Other minor i t ies are Ukrainians, Serbs, Croats, Jews and gypsies.The strongest re l ig ion is the Romanian Orthodox Church, to which about 70% of the totalpopulat ion belonged in 1980. Over the previous 20 or 30 years c lose personal t ies haddeveloped between the leading members of th is fa i th and the state apparatus. I t thereforereceived the greates t gove rnmen t support of a l l the rel ig ions.Some 3 mi l l ion Cathol ics form the next largest group, which is div ided into fact ions of theRoman Cathol ic and United Churches. Most of the Roman Cathol ics belong to the Hungar ian

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minority. In recent times the state has placed considerable obstacles in the way of both factionsexercising their religion.The various Protestant Churches have more than a million members. Moslems number about40,000, while there were some 20,000 to 25,000 Jews in Romania at the beginning of the1980s.

3.8 POPULA TION BY ETHNIC GROUP

Ethnic group

RomaniansHungariansOthers

19771' 19872)1,000

18,9971,713850

20,4361,789711

19771' 19872)%

88.17.94.0

89.17.83.1

1) Results of the population census.2) As at the middle of the year.

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4 HEALTHIn Socialist Romania state health care was officially free and available to all citizens. The rightof all Romanians to health protection and equality of treatment was even enshrined in theConstitution of Socialist Romania. Although especially between 1940 and-1980 there was asubstantial increase in expenditure on public health services and in the number of doctors andhospital beds, the country's health care facilities are now inadequate. This is due to the rapidreduction of Romania's foreign debts during the 1980s and to the general economic crisis. Inview of the concomitant scarcity of funds, which was exacerbated by the expenditure on largeprestige projects, interest in investment for social policy measures has faded into thebackground.At the beginning of the 1990s Romanian hospitals were likened by western experts to technicalmuseums representing a level of development achieved half a century previously in westernEurope. There is also a shortage of surgical instruments, syringes, ECG and blood pressuremeasuring equipment, other types of equipment and all sorts of drugs and medicines.Even in Socialist Romania, equality of health services for the various sections of the populationwas nowhere near achieved. There are still serious diferences between the towns and ruralareas. Although at the beginning of the 1990s almost half of Romania's inhabitants still lived inrural areas, barely a sixth of the country's doctors practised there.For the rural population medical treatment therefore involves long journeys in most cases. Thefarmers (about half a million) and the more than 40,000 private artisans were granted noaccess at all to free state health care. For the rest of the population too, the use of healthservices - and the quality of those services - became increasingly dependent on their ability tomake "payments of gratitude". On the other hand, preferential treatment was given to membersof the secret police "Securitate" and of the state and party apparatus. For them, medicalfacilities of western European standard and medicines from western countries were readilyavailable.Table 4.1 gives a picture of registered illnesses in the period from 1971 to 1981. More recentcomprehensive data are not available. The health of the population was critically impaired bythe increasing shortage of food during the 1980s and by restrictions on heating imposed onaccount of the energy shortage. In recent years there has also been a significant increase inalcohol abuse.Over the last few years there has been a substantial rise in the number of AIDS sufferers. Up tothe end of 1990 a total of 1,168 AIDS cases had been recorded. The main cause was thewidespread practice of giving underweight infants "mini-transfusions" with in many casesinfected syringes (used many times over) or blood. An investigation at the end of the 1980srevealed that, out of 1,025 tested young children living in orphanages or hospitais, 367 (28%)were HIV positive, whereas 98% of their mothers were HIV negative.Even disregarding the AIDS cases, the state of health of the children living in orphanages isgenerally very poor. At the beginning of the 1990s their number was estimated at between50,000 and 130,000. The rapid increase in the number of orphans over a period of many yearsis the result of the population policy measures brought in under Ceausescu. The policy ofencouraging births (backed among other things by the ban on abortion) did not pay any heed tothe economic and social situation of the mothers, who found themselves unable to bring uptheir children. As a result, there was a sharp rise in the number of orphans, who wereaccommodated in orphanages under frequently inhumane conditions.

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A fu r t h e r p a r t i c u l a r ly d i s a d v a n t a g e d s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r e t h e e l d e r l y . In v i e w o f t h ei n a d e q u a t e i n c r e a s e s i n r e t i r e m e n t p e n s i o n s , t h e y s u f f e r e d v e r y m u c h f r o m t h e g e n e r a lp r o b l e m s s u c h a s f o o d s h o r t a g e s . T h e y w e r e n o t a l l o w e d t o m o v e t o b i g g e r t o w n s ; w h e r e t h e i rc h i l d r e n m i g h t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o s u p p o r t t h e m a n d t h e s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n w a s g e n e r a l l y n o t a sb a d . T h e y w e r e a l s o b a d l y o f f a s r e g a r d s a c c e s s t o h e a l t h s e r v i c e s .

4.1 REGISTERED ILLNESSESIllness 1971 1974

41425,24619,570

14,56418,358212

1074,344

122,47055,86576,0077,845

36,194350,379

198075

2,2418,280

11,44114,417

4963340

55,74510,47650,08564,3332,247

20,226235,584

198182

2,73417,7688,5447,3509,559

50333125

53,52721,58453,87777,197

1,61318,929

119,205

Typhoid and paratyphoid feverOther salmonella infectionsBacterial dysenteryPulmonary tuberculosisPertussis (whooping co ugh)Streptococcal angina an d scarlet feverMeningococcal infectionTetanusAcute poliomyelitisVaricella (chicken pox)MeaslesViral he patitisMumpsSyphilis (lues)Gonococcal infectionInfluenza

31521,82817,62813,548396

2176,61597,08458,42978,972

501,039

T h e t a b l e b e l o w s h o w s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e d e a t h s b y s e l e c t e d c a u s e w e r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t od i s e a s e s o f t h e c i r c u l a t o r y s y s t e m . O t h e r im p o r t a n t c a u s e s w e r e m a l i g n a n t n e o p l a s m s ,d i s e a s e s o f t h e r e s p i r a t o r y o r g a n s , i n j u r i e s a n d p o i s o n i n g , a n d d i s e a s e s o f t h e d i g e s t i v eo r g a n s .

4.2 MORTALITY BY SELECTED CAUSE OF DEATHCause of death

Infectious and parasit ic diseasesTuberculosisMal ignant neoplasmsEndocrinal disease s, nutr i tional

and metabol ic diseases anddisorders of the imm une system

Diseases of the nervous systemand sensory organs

For footnote, please see end of Table.

30

19801,571830

29,976

1,5022,798

19851,226947

31,064

2,054

3,235

19881,3561,185

32,739

2,1664,002

19891,4141,285

32,775

2,240

3,803


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4.2 MORTALITY BY SELEC TED C AUSE OF DEATHCause of death 1980 1985 1988 1989

Circulatory diseasesof which:diseases of the cerebro-vascularsystemDiseases of the respiratory organs.,of which:influanzaDiseases of th e digestive organsDiseases of th e urinary a n d sexualorgansComplications during pregnancy,childbirth and PuerperiumCongenital disordersSpecific diseases1'Symptoms and poorly describeddiseasesInjuries and poisoning

130,543

31,8893 0 , 3 4 2

2 0 410,0793,587

5 2 72 , 3 3 72 , 4 8 2

1 2 514,893

1 4 3 , 2 9 4

36,2162 8 , 8 8 4

4 011,9483,811

4 9 32,3121,625

7 815,418

1 4 6 , 2 1 9

4 0 , 3 7 62 5 , 7 3 4

1 91 2 , 4 2 53 , 728

5 9 12,7711,603

7 716,393

1 4 2 , 9 8 8

3 8 , 9 9 82 4 , 4 6 2

2 31 2 , 3 8 83 , 680

6 2 62 , 5 4 51,423

6 117,285

1) Arising during the perinatal period.B e tw e e n 1 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 8 9 t h e n u m b e r o f hosp i ta l beds inc reased b y 1 6 % t o a r o u n d 2 9 0 , 0 0 0 . A sa resul t , t h e ra t io o f i n h a b i t a n t s p e r hosp i ta l b e d w e n t d o w n f r o m a b o u t 8 6 t o a r o u n d 8 1 .H ow eve r , th is t rend d i d n o t au tomat ica l l y mean a n i m p r o v e m e n t in hosp i ta l se rv ices f o r thegenera l pub l i c , s ince - a s a l re a d y me n t i o n e d - the hosp i ta ls ' equ ipmen t a n d fac i l i t i es have fo rma n y y e a rs n o t b e e n a d e q u a te l y r e p l a c e d o r m o d e r n i z e d .

4.3 BEDS IN MEDIC AL ESTABLISHMENTSEstablishment Unit 1975

245.3174.710,8107,3074,4789,51438.5

19802614194.8

6,5204,6022,46112,27142.7

1985274.2203.25,319

2,7382,14613,06147.7

1988283.5206.2

4,9902,2631,99613,87854.2

1989285.7206.9

4,9902,8791,99613,96355.0

Total 1,000General hospitals 1,000Tuberculosis sanatoria NumberMaternity homes NumberPrevention centres NumberChildren's homes NumberHearth resort establishments 1,000

T h e n u mb e r o f d o c to r s w e n t u p b y 5 0 % b e tw e e n 1 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 8 9 t o a b o u t 4 2 ,0 0 0 , w h i c h me a n tthat t h e ra t io o f i n h a b i t a n t s p e r doctor fe l l f rom 7 6 2 t o 5 5 4 . T h e n u m b e r s o f den t is ts , nu rses a n dpharmac is ts ' s ta f f a lso wen t u p .

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4.4 DOC TORS, DENTISTS AND NURSESSurvey item Unit 1975

28,0047626,0513,528121.3

198032,7626807,0293,169132.9

198540,0505697,3403,103133.9

198741,0595607,2123,188135.2

198941,9385547,1163,263135.7

Doctors NumberInhabitants per doctor NumberDentists NumberInhabitants per dentist NumberNurses 1,000

4.5 PHARMAC IES AND STAFFSurvey item

PharmaciesPharmacistsPharmacists'assistantsDispensaries

19751,8195,376604

19801,8576,4516856,700

19851,9226,5586686,800

19871,9306,517656

19891,9356,4326846,600

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5 EDUCATIONUnder the 1948 Education Reform Law the whole of the public education sector wasnationalized along Soviet lines. Following the introduction of seven years' compulsory schooling(in 1961/62), this was subsequently increased to eight years and finally to ten years at thebeginning of the 1970s. Compulsory schooling was preceded by pre-school education forchildren aged between three and six. The compulsory general school with eight classes has ahorizontal grading with two cycles: the primary cycle with years one to four and a follow-oncycle with years five to eight. The changeover is marked by the introduction of specialistsubjects. Those completing general education have the choice of eight types of "stage Igrammar schools", two in the general sector ("technical" and "humanistic") and six in thespecialist sector (industry, agriculture, economics, health, education, art). Further educationleads either directly to production, to vocational school (courses lasting a year or a year and ahalf) orto stage II grammar school (with secondary leaving certificate and university entrance).Since 1973 there have also been training centres for highly qualified technicians with a shorttraining period (usually two years). They train "medium-grade" technicians (between craftsmanand qualified engineer) for industry. These "lower schools of engineering" have been set upwithin large polytechnics and technical universities.Schooling is free. Illiteracy is considered to be more or less eradicated, after about 27% of thepopulation in 1945 were still unable to read and write. In 1988 the proportion of illiterates wasput at 2% .In some cases the national minorities have their own schools or special classes in which thechildren are taught in their mother tongue.In Romania there are four categories of higher education establishments with legal personality:universities, institutes, academies and conservatories. However, there are few clear-cut criteriafor distinguishing between them. The studies generally last for four to six years, depending onthe subject. "Day courses" are the rule. Correspondence and evening courses are alsoavailable, but they last a year longer than the day courses for the same subject.In Socialist Romania education was seen as the most important way of social reform. Througheducation in Socialist behaviour and values the "New Man" of the Socialist type was to becreated. In addition, the "democratization" of education was propagated. In this context theoffer of free educational facilities for the entire population became an important plank in thelegitimization of the re gime.Public education for all led at the same time to the emergence of a working population that wassupposed to become the cornerstone of permanent economic development. From pre-school touniversity, education was interpreted as a political socialization process. As early as nurseryschool, goals were set such as love of the fatherland, faithfulness to the state party andreverence of the Head of State, Ceausescu. As part of the Marxist view of the working world tobe created, equal opportunities for the sexes at work and the equality of mental and physicalwork were also propagated. Also to be imparted were Socialist ideals which placed disciplineand active involveme nt in the bu ilding of Socialism above individual well-being and job success.Alongside ideological educ ation, older children were increasingly involved in direct political workas part of organizations such as the "Young Pioneers" or later the Communist YouthOrganization. Participation in the work of these organizations, which were controlled by theCommunist Party, was compulsory. Ideologically correct behaviour became a condition foradvancement in the education system and was thus of crucial importance for future job

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prospects. After the overthrow of the former Head of State, Ceausescu, a thorough overhaul ofthe education system was announced, to be accompanied by de- ideologizat ion of th is sector .

5.1 SC HOO LS AND OTHER EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTSEstablishment 1970/71 1980/81 1985/86 1987/88 1989/90

Pre-school establishmentsGeneral schoolsVocational schoolsTechnical collegesSpecialized schoolsHigher education establishmen ts.

10,33614,95840328283151

13,46714,38160330097144

12,81114,07675329698144

12,29113,89576432298144

12,10813,357798225 a)98144

a) 1988/89.As already mentioned, the "democrat izat ion" of education was one of the main demands ofeducation policy in Socialist Romania. This policy led temporarily to a rapid increase in pupilnumbers - especial ly in elementary schools, but a lso at secondary level , which was to beincreasingly opened up to chi ldren of manual workers and farmers. In 1975 i t was observedthat 100% of the relevant age group were fo l lowing a ten-year elementary education. Theproport ion complet ing secondary education and higher education had r isen to 49% and 10%respectively . Subsequent f luctuat ions in pupi l numbers must also be v iewed in the context ofthe Government's populat ion pol icy, the shape of which had corresponding effects on the bir thf igures - and hence on the later numbers of pupi ls .

5.2 PUPILS AN D STUDENTS1,000

Establishment 1970/71 1980/81 1985/86 1987/88 1989/90Pre-school establishmentsFemale pu pilsGeneral schoolsFemale pupilsVocational schoolsFemale pupilsTechnical schools

Female pupilsSpecialized schoolsFemale pupilsHigher education establishmen ts.Female students

448.2224.52,941.31,435.5195.927.333.0

10.9505.9260.7151.965.4

935.7461.13,308.51,610.1139.845.828.4

1.8979.7465.6192.88Z1

864.3426.83,030.71,476.5287.886.22Z 8

1.41,226.9623.4159.871.7

828.1409.83,027.21,474.9278.094.522.9

1.31,228.5623.4157.073.9

835.9413.52,891.81,408.8304.5114.51Z 23)

0.81,346.3671.0164.579.5

a) 1988/89.

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In t h e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n s e c t o r t h e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n t s a s a p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r a g e g r o u p w a sf i n a ll y l i m it e d t o a b o u t a t e n t h o f e l i g ib l e p e r s o n s . T h e b a r o n a c c e s s w a s e n f o r c e d b y m e a n s o fp a r t i c u l ar l y di ff i cu l t e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n s , w h i ch co u l d o n l y b e p a s s e d w i t h t h e -h e l p o f m a n yy e a r s ' e x t r a t u i t i o n b y p r i v a t e t e a c h e r s ( th e p r o p o r t i o n o f u n i v e r s i ty e n t r a n t s w h o h a d r e c e i v e de i g h t y e a r s ' e x t r a e d u c a t i o n w a s e s t i m a t e d a t 9 0 % ) . I n p r a c t i c e t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s o n a c c e s sm e a n t t h a t m a n y c hi l d re n o f m a n u a l o r f a r m w o r k e r s w e r e t o al l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s p r e v e n t e df r o m g o i n g o n t o h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n f o r r e a s o n s o f co s t . T h e c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s f o ra c c e s s t o e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l is h m e n t s in u r b a n a n d r u r a l a r e a s m e a n t t h a t t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o nin p a r t ic u l a r h a d l i m i t e d p r o s p e c t s o f g o i n g o n t o h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n .

5.3 STUDEN TS BY TYPE OF STUDIES1,000

Su rvey item 1970/71 1980/81 1985/86 1987/88 1989/90TotalDay studiesEvening studiesCorrespondence stud ies.

151.9107.46.837.6

192.8161.118.713.0

159.8100.048.711.1

157.090.555.611.0

164.595.059.310.2

T h e r ap i d gr o w t h i n p u p i l n u m b e r s in t h e d e c a d e s f o l lo w i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r w a sa c c o m p a n i e d b y a s h a r p i n c r e a s e in t e a c h i n g s t af f . In 1 9 7 0 t h e n u m b e r o f p r i m a r y a n ds e c o n d a r y t e a c h e r s h a d t r e b l e d c o m p a r e d w it h t h e f ir s t h a lf o f t h e 1 9 4 0 s . I n g e n e r a l s c h o o l st he a v e r a g e p u p i l / t e a c h e r r a t i o f e l l t o 2 1 . 3 b y 1 9 7 0 / 7 1 . It s u b s e q u e n t l y f l u c t u a t e d b e f o r e f a l l in gto 2 0 . 4 b y 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 .

5.4 TEAC HING STAFF1,000

Establishment 1970/71 1980/81 1985/86 1987/88 1989/90Pre-school establishments (female teachers only).General schoolsFemale teachersVocational schoolsFemale teachersTechnical schoolsFemale teachersSpecialized schoolsFemale teachersHigher education establishmentsFemale lecturers

18.9137.888.111.83.21.80.523.112.113.44.0

38.5156.8109.02.00.50.30.0446.520.614.64.4

33.5147.1103.52.50.80.10.03

47.523.213.03.8

31.3141.1101.72.40.90.050.0143.821.71Z03.4

31.3141.710Z91.90.70.02 a)0.01

4Z521.711.73.2

a) 1988/89.

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5.5 STUDENTS ABROAD BY SELEC TED HOST C OUNTRYHost country 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

Federal Republic of Germany..FranceUnited StatesSwitzerlandAustriaHungaryVatican City

238 a '201746727129

193606922167

21817563612223

191726225196

271223856730169

a) 1983.

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EMPLOYMENTAs part of the reform of the economy after the Second World War there were sweepingchanges in employment. With the collectivization of agriculture and the nationalization ofindustry, mining, banking and transport, private economic activities were extensively eliminated.As early as the first half of the 1950s the first five-year plan along the lines of the Soviet modelsparked off rapid industrialization of the country. This economic strategy led to far-reachingchanges in the structure of employment. The number of persons employed in agriculture as aproportion of all those in employment fell sharply from about three-quarters in 1950 tosomewhat under a third in 1980. At the same time the proportion employed in productionindustries went up from 12% to 36%. This shift was bound up with extensive migration to thetowns. In particular, young, relatively well-educated and ambitious people left the villages. As aresult, the working population that remained there comprised a high proportion of older people.The proportion of women in the agricultural labour force rose to well above the correspondingpercentage in the total number of employed persons.After the revolution in 1989 unemployment rocketed. The number of recipients ofunemployme nt bene fit was estimated at about 180,000 in October 199 1, which was almostthree times as high as the figure at the beginning of the year. However, this increase was stillwell below the level originally feared, an important factor being the delay in closing downunprofitable firms. The growth of unemployment was also stemmed by the rise of subsistencefarming, the absorption of available labour by the booming private economy, early retirementand people going to work in other countries.

6.1 P E R S O N S O F W O R K I N G A G E A S A P R O P O R T I O N O F T H E T O T A LP O P U L A T I O N

Survey itemPersons2*Proportion of total population

Unit1,000%

1977"10,793.650.1

198513,994.561.2

198614,116.361.7

198814,214.661.5

198914,250.761.4

1) Working population aged 14 or over. Results of the population census.2) Women aged between 16 and 60. Men aged between 16 and 65.

Table 6.2 shows the breakdown of employees by age group. As age increases, the proportionof employed persons in the relevant age group rises, reaching a peak of 90.8% in the 30-35age group. In the case of elderly persons the employment rate falls to 11.7% for the 70-75 agegroup. 6.8% of persons aged 75 or over were still in employment in 1977.As already mentioned, one of the consequences of the process of industrialization andurbanization was that young men in particular moved away from the villages. The average ageof male farmers thu s rose to 43 (results of the 1977 population ce nsus).

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6.2 EMPLOYED PERSONS AND EMPLOYMENT RATES IN 1977 BY AGEGROUPAge Total Male Female

1,000Total Male Female

% of age group14-15. .15 -20-25 -30-35 -40-45 -5 0-55 -60 -65 -70-

5-20) - 25i -3 01-35i-40) -45i - 50) - 55i-601-65i-70) -7575 and over..Unknown

5.7581.91,458.61,449.51,147.11,338.71,370.11,256.01,047.6524.3305.2143.872.94Z 549.9

2.6317.6788.9789.2623.1719.6740.8686.4568.7286.2179.681.937.620.324.4

3.1264.2669.7660.3524.0619.1629.3569.6478.9238.1125.661.935.322.225.5

0.434.881.490.190.890.488.885.778.964.133.916.711.7

6.847.2

0.437.587.197.097.997.295.893.888.878.744.720.913.4

8.249.2

0.532.175.683.183.583.681.777.669.75Z 525.213.210.3

5.945.4

*) Results of the population census.

T h e 1 9 7 7 p o p u l a t i o n c e n s u s r e v e a l e d t h a t o n l y 6 % o f p e r s o n s i n e m p l o y m e n t c o u l d b ec l a s s i f i e d a s s e l f - e m p l o y e d , w h i l e 6 4 % w e r e w a g e - a n d s a l a r y - e a r n e r s a n d 2 9 % f a m i l y w o r k e r s .A t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 8 0 s a l m o s t a l l w o r k e r s w e r e m e m b e r s o f t h e t r a d e u n i o n s . H o w e v e r , t h e s ea s s o c i a t i o n s w e r e t r a d e u n i o n s i n n a m e o n l y ; i n a c t u a l f a c t , t h e y s e r v e d a s o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o rp u s h i n g t h r o u g h t h e l e a d e r s h i p ' s i d e a s . T h e w o r k e r s w e r e , h o w e v e r , f o r c e d t o j o i n t h e s eo r g a n i z a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o r e c e i v e s o c i a l b e n e f i t s a n d s h a r e s o f p r o f i t s .

6.3 PERSONS IN EMPLOYMENT IN 1977 BY OC C UPATIONAL STATUS*)Occupational status

TotalSelf-employedFamily workersWage- and salary-earnersNot specified

Total1,000 %

Male Female1,000

10,793.6 100 5,866.9 4,926.7701.0 6.4 230.6 470.33,114.8 28.9 1,043.4 2,071.46,945.9 64.4 4,576.0 2,369.831.9 0.3 16.8 15.1

*) Persons aged 14 or over. Results of the population census.

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In the 1980s the pace of industrialization slackened. Between 1980 and 1989 the number ofpersons employed in agriculture fell by only 1.2%; in production industries, however, there wasstill an increase of 13%. With an increase of 37% over the same period, the local authority,housing and services sector showed a strong upward trend.

6.4 PERSONS IN EMPLOYMENT BY AREA OF THE ECONOMY*)1,000

Area of the economy 1975 1980 1985 1988 1989TotalAgricultureForestryProduction industries1'ConstructionDistributive tradesTransportCommunicationsLocal authorities, housing, servicesEducation, culture, artsScience and researchHearth and social se rvices, physical educa tion.Public administration

Other

10,150.83,837.426.53,109.7

825.5558.7431.8

68.7348.7408.6

77.3267.3

67.6123.0

10,350.13,048.139.53,678.7857.6619.9629.8

79.9390.9430.5

98.3281.7

64.8130.4

10,586.13,020.838.73,927.8787.6617.4639.0

81.6429.0412.5134.8286.1

56.8154.0

10,805.43,024.2

42.74,064.6771.8635.4670.280.3503.7370.9140.8288.956.3

155.6

10,945.73,012.3

44.04,169.0

766.7648.9675.381.8

533.6372.8141.2292.353.8154.0

*) A s a t t h e e n d of th e year.1) Excluding construction.6.5 MANUAL AND NON-MANUAL WORKERS BY AREA OF THE

E C O N O M Y * )1,000

A r e a of th e e c o n o m y 1 9 7 5 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 5 1 9 8 8 1 9 8 9TotalAgriculture

ForestryProduction industriesConstructionDistributive tradesTransportCommunicationsLocal authorities, housing, servicesEducation, culture, artsScience and researchHearth and social services, physical educa tion.Public administrationOther

6,300.8484.2

51.22,802.1

736.4553.2402.267.9286.1387.584.3262.064.1119.6

7,340.0550.6

53.13,329.2

787.6624.6578.579.3339.4418.7110.0278.4

61.6129.0

7,661.3612.955.43,583.7692.7623.7593.581.0371.5404.4151.8283.053.7154.0

7,842.6609.658.93,698.6696.4635.5614.579.9435.8361.7158.3287.3

52.9153.2

7,997.1601.6

59.13,799.4717.4643.3618.181.0459.8364.2159.1289.751.2153.2

') Annual average.39


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Between 1975 and 1989 the proportion of female manual and non-manual workers went upappreciably from 34% to 40%.Considering manual workers only, the proportion of women is again quite high; between 1975and 1989 it went up from 3 1 % to 38%.6 .6 M A N U A L A N D N O N - M A N U A L W O R K E R S B Y S EX *)

1,000Survey item

TotalmalefemaleManual workersmalefemale

19756,323.44,134.42,180.04,982.83,461.41,521.4

19807,378.54,631.82,746.75,891.53,888.42,003.1

19847,574.04,623.52,950.56,013.83,839.32,174.5

19857,689.34,661.83,027.56,104.13,871.62,232.5

19898,023.84,785.23,238.66,408.23,992.82,415.4

*) As at the end of the year.

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7 AGR IC ULTU RE, FORESTRY, FISHERIESUntil well into the 1970s Romania was regarded as a primarily agricultural country. Even today,agriculture and forestry still play an important part in the economy: some 62% of the total landarea is used for agriculture, w hile about 27% is wooded land. Almost half the population lives inrural areas and 28% of the economically active population are employed in agriculture andforestry. In 1990, 17.5% of the national income was produced by this sector. Agriculture'sshare of total investment rose slowly but steadily from 10% in the 1950s and '60s to around13% in the 1970s and early '80s and about 17% at the end of the 1980s. The ratio of nationalincome contribution to share of investment shows clearly that agriculture has acted as a sourceof growth for other sectors and over a long period of time has therefore lost the capacity toaccumulate as a result of the price and taxation policy pursued. It was also seen as animportant source of foreign exchange, with agricultural products forming the major proportion ofRomanian exports to western countries. In 1988, products of agricultural origin accounted forabout 11 % of the value of total exports.By western European standards, the use of land and labour is high, output moderate andproductivity low. Whereas in western European countries increasing surpluses are beingproduced with much lower rates of utilizable land (western E urope as a who le: 0.43 ha;Romania: 0.64 ha of utilizable land per inhabitant), Romania had to switch to rationing mostbasic foodstuffs. This happened at the same time as substantial export surpluses of US$ 234million were a chieved in agricultural trade.The following quantities were approved in 1988 as annual per capita consumption: 6 kg of flour,55 kg of brea d, 6 kg of sugar, 2 kg of butter, 36 litres of m ilk, 6 litres of edible oil, 18 kg of m eatand meat products, and 108 eggs. Only 2,000 kcal per person were available for average dailyconsumption. There were supply crises in some regions, not least because of the system ofterritorial self-sufficiency introduced in the 1980s, which to a large extent put an end to thedistribution of agricultural products from one region to another. Despite increased imports inrecent years , the supply of food to the population is not adequately ensure d at p resent.After the Second World War an important task for agriculture was to absorb as many workersas possible. Between 1950 and 1960 more than 6.2 million persons (65% of the total number inemployment) were active in this sector. At the same time, this vast supply of labour (for everyagricultural worker there were 2.3 ha of utilizable agricultural land in 1960) also releasedinvestment for industry. The increasing development of industry and the extremely poor incomesituation in agriculture meant that in the 1960s and 70s there was a massive exodus,particularly of young workers, to industry. In this period (1960 to 1980) the number employed inagriculture fell by more than half to around its present level. Government measures whichmade it more difficult to move to the towns prevented a further reduction. Whereas in westernEurope in the late 1980s there were 8 persons employed for every 100 ha of agricultural land,the corresponding figure for Romania was 20. However, this reflects not only the low labourproductivity of Romanian agriculture but also the consequences of excessive specialization,inflated management structures and inadequate planning and organization of work. Anyanalysis of these ratios should also take account of the fact that many collective farms andlarge state-run holdings were not engaged exclusively in primary agricultural production butalso in other a ctivities.As far as the short- and medium-term future is concerned, agriculture as a means ofsubsistence will be relatively important for the time of conversion and reorganization of theeconomy as a whole. The measures adopted to dissolve the agricultural cooperatives show that

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the present government sees agriculture as a sort of catchment basin for the labour freed byrestructuring.Hardly any other branch of the economy was subjected to such radical processes of changeunder the Communist systems as agriculture. After more than 40 years' existence and thecollapse of the Socialist economic order, the reform of agriculture has its own specialdimension.The origins of the Socialist agricultural system go back to the events of the Second World War.When the Communists seized power on 6 March 1945, far-reaching changes in forms ofownership and the organization of agriculture were set in motion. The Land Law of 23 March1945 marked the first step in this direction. All privately owned land of more than 50 ha(excluding model farms initially) and the land owned by certain groups of people wasexpropriated without compensation. This also affected 85% (536,000 ha) of the agricultural landowned by German small and medium-sized farmers from Banat and Transylvania. Theexpropriated land was used to create new holdings with a maximum size of 5 ha. Existingsmallholdings could be increased to this size.What was trumpeted in the propaganda as a continuation of the great Romanian agriculturalreform of 1918 to 1922 (some 6.1 million ha of land had been distributed) was in fact thepreparation for the introduction of a completely new social order in rural areas. Theredistribution of land was intended to satisfy the desire of the smallest farmers and landlesstenants for land and win them over to the new government's goals. The existence of a largenumber of miniature farms with low economic power and productivity served a few years lateras the main argument in favour of the need for collective farming.After model farms and the properties of up to 50 ha, which until that time had remained in thepossession of the former owners, were transferred to the Agricultural Reform Fund in March1949, the total area of expropriated land amounted to 1.5 million hectares. Of these, 1.1 millionha went to 918,000 peasant families, which thus received an average of 1.2 ha of land. Thestate claimed 0.4 million ha and, in addition, the landed property of the Crown, the Church andthe estates that were already state-owned before the war.At the end of the post-war stage and the beginning of the Socialist stage of the agriculturalreform, 22% of agricultural land was state-owned and 78% in the possession of farmers. 53%of holdings were very small farms with less than 3 ha of land, 41 % had between 3 and 10 ha,and only 6% had more than 10 ha. Control of the farms was exercised initially via statesupervision of the marketing of agricultural products and from 1947 onwards by means ofcompulsory deliveries. Small farmers with less than 4.35 ha were exempted from thesedeliveries, whereas the quotas for large-scale farmers, against whom the battle had never letup , were dow nright prohibitive.The Socialist reform was initiated with the plenary meeting of the Central Committee of theRomanian Workers Party in May 1949. This officially laid the ground for the furtherdevelopment of the different forms of ownership, the inroduction of the socialist agriculturalsector and its increasingly closer tie-in with the planned economy.State, cooperative and private farms constituted the different forms of agricultural holdingsduring Romania's Socialist period.The state agricultural sector comprised the former large estates, the royal domains, Churchproperty and former state property. Further land was added by the conversion of cooperativesinto state-run holdings. Under the title "state agricultura! holdings" the state's agriculturalproperty emerged in two forms: as actual state farms and as production sectors of research42


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institutes and stations, processing plants and mechanization stations. By the mid-1980s thestate farms had taken over a considerable proportion of state land. A further part, especiallypastureland, was leased to the agricultural production cooperatives. Altogether, the state sectorcomprised 4.5 million ha of agricultural land at the end of the 1980s, some 30% of the totalutilizable area. 2.1 million ha of agricultural land were worked by the state farms. Between 1965and 1989 their number declined by 60%, while their average size increased from 2,880 to5,000 ha. In 1989 there were 411 state farms in Romania. Being better equipped than theagricultural production cooperatives and also given preferential treatment in the supply ofmeans of production, they achieved a higher level of productivity. For the rest of the agriculturalsector they were supposed to act as models and as experimental farms. They were given tasksconnected with animal and plant breeding.Cooperative ownership constituted the dominant form of ownership in Romanian agriculturebetween 1960 and 1989. In order to overcome the peasants' scepticism and resistance towardscollectivization, it was initially possible to choose between various forms of collectivization.Farming cooperatives and farmers' associations were set up as the lower echelons of collectivecooperation. Since, however, they were intended to be only temporary phenomena on the roadto the Soviet-type cooperative, the pressure soon intensified on the farmers to join the"Gospodarii agricole colactive" (GAC) and to change over from "low-type" cooperatives to GAC.Four years before the deadline originally set and at more or less the same time as the otherSocialist countries, the collectivization of Romanian agriculture was declared completed inspring 1962. In 1965 the collective farms were renamed agricultural production cooperativesand new model statutes were introduced. Unlike previously, however, these statutes no longercontained any sort of guarantees for the legal ownership of the land contributed. Land, livestockand equipment were declared communal property. Only the land on which the farmhouse andother farm buildings stood remained expressly the private property of the member of thecooperative. In 1989, 8.9 million ha of agricultural land belonged to the cooperative sector.Here too a process of concentration took place. By means of mergers the number ofcooperatives fell to just under 80%. Between 1965 and 1989 the average land capacity of thecooperatives increased from 1,920 ha to 2,825 ha of agricultural land. In 1989 there were 3,172agricultural production cooperatives.The cooperative farmers were allowed to use "farmland" privately. The land was allocated tothe member from the communal property. From 1972 onwards the parcel remained limited to1,250 m 2 per member. Altogether, 6% of the agricultural land was worked as farmland. For along time there were also limits for individual livestock farming. However, because thecooperative and state sectors were unable to fulfil the production tasks assigned to them, thelimits were abolished. In 1983 a special programme for the development of the individualhousehold farms was even drawn up. A significant proportion of important agricultural products(milk, pork, sheepmeat, wool and eggs) is produced by secondary farms. The sector's outputcovers a large part of the producers' own requirement for certain agricultural products.As in all the S ocialist countries of Europe, the collectivization of agriculture was accom panied inRomania too by the development of state machinery and tractor stations. Followingreorganization (a decision to this effect was adopted in 1970), they continued their work withextended responsibilities as stations for the mechanization of agriculture. Their main task wasto provide mechanical services for the cooperatives, in return for which they received a share ofthe harvest. In the livestock sector they were responsible for the assembly, servicing andgeneral maintenance of plant and equipment. There were considerable problems in obtainingthe technical basis from the agricultural production units. Time and time again, new decisionshad to be taken to improve mechanization activity and normalize relations between themechanization stations and the production cooperatives. Some progress was achieved throughthe demarcation of fixed areas of responsibility and the formation of complex brigades in which

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the members of the relevant mechanization departments worked together with the members ofthe cooperatives. In 1982 the Law on the improvement of work in the mechanization stationsfinally came into force, aimed at establishing closer relations between mechanization stationsand farms. Th e technology concentrated in the mechanization stations w as now housed in thecooperatives on the basis of long-term contracts but remained the stations' property. Moreover,the cooperatives' technical equipment was also placed under the control of these outsideagencies of the mechanization stations. A transfer of technology to the cooperatives, such ashappened in other Socialist countries after a consolidation phase, was not acceptable to theRomanian leadership. As "bases for the rural working class", the mechanization stations weresupposed to remain an instrument and an institution for safeguarding state interests in thecooperative sector. This was exemplified by, for example, the creation of the territorialcooperation councils and the agro-industry councils, on which the directors of themechanization stations were given management functions by decree.In 1989 there were 573 mechanization stations throughout the country. They controlled, forexample, 77% of the total number of tractors and 6 1 % of the total number of combineharvesters.Private property was tolerated in Romanian agriculture only where the natural conditions werenot suitable for large-scale production. Private farmers could therefore survive only in hill andmountain regions as small and very small holdings. Up to 1989 about 9% of agricultural landwas farmed by private farmers, with the emphasis on fruit and vegetables and livestockproduction.

7 .1 A R E A O F A G R I C U L T U R A L H O L D IN G S B Y F O R M O F O W N E R S H I P1,000 ha

Form of ownershipTotalState holdingsState farmsCooperativesPrivate farms

197014,9054,4922,0899,0331.380

197514,9464,4922,0589,0471,407

198014,9634,4882,0369,0611,414

198515,0204,4672,0519,1331,420

198914,7592,0568,964

7 .2 N U M B E R S E M P L O Y E D B Y F O R M O F O W N E R S H I P O F A G R I C U L T U R A LH O L D I N G S1,000

Form of ownershipTotalState farmsWorkersCooperativesMechanization stations

19704,848.6292.3266.73,376.296.1

19753,837.4251.7234.72,813.2126.4

19803,048.1199.9184.02,195.2208.5

19853,020.8266.4245.32,045.4164.3

19893,012.3261.2238.31,910.7163.3

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The process of concentration in agriculture is the result of economic activity and the pressure ofprogress. Its aim is increased efficiency of the factors of production employed. Such processescan be seen in all countries. Their degree depends on the level and pace of development of theeconomy in question. Their outward signs are increasing holding sizes, decreasing labour input,specialization of production and inter-holding cooperation. The organization of production inlarge units was one of the typical features of the Socialist agricultural system. When it was setup , the issue was not so much economic difference as the quest for further nationalization ofthe means of production and the adaptation of agricultural production to the needs of thecentral planning and leadership. At the same time the coordination of agricultural productionwith the updtream and downstream sectors of the economy was made easier for the centralplanning and leadership. It was not so important whether the property in question was private,collective or cooperative - the only crucial factor was that the representatives of the centralauthority had control over the means of production. The function of the central authority as thesupreme head of production also explains the tendency to increase the size of holdings. Therewere no fundamentally different reasons for the forms of organization of agricultural productionadopted in Rom ania too.At no time did Romania's agriculture have mechanization resources that would have requiredfarms of 3,000 or 5,000 ha. On the contrary, the farms' machinery was and remained verymeagre throughout the period. Instead of freeing labour, agriculture suffered increasingly in the1980s from the shortage of labour. The planned yield increases could not be achieved. In theearly 1970s the decision had been taken to set up large livestock farms that would use"industrial" production methods across the board or partially. The state farms saw theemergence of poultry breeding and production complexes, large units for milk production andcattle fattening and a whole series of pig breeding and fattening units. The cooperatives set upinter-holding units for the production of animal products (pig and cattle fattening, poultrymeatproduction and egg production), which proved to be very cost-intensive. At one of the lastplenary assemblies of the Party a call was made for simpler and cheaper production methods.Inter-cooperative units were also set up, however, to build and operate improvement facilities(especially irrigation systems), greenhouses, processing plants and construction and servicefacilities. The setting up of specialized sections of holdings dates back to a 1967 decision. Asrelatively independent units with their own management and accounts, they grew up withinstate farms and cooperatives. The state holdings produced mainly seeds and plants andbreeding and utility livestock on these farms. In the cooperatives they were set up primarily toproduce fruit and vegetables.One of the typical features of the economic policy of centrally planned economies was to reactto inadequacies and poor performance by setting up new institutions and further instruments forin most cases more extensive administration of the economic subjects. In Romanian agriculturetoo, an attempt was made to overcome the low level of performance with the help oforganizational stream lining and increased control. In 19 71, for exa mp le, territorial coo perationcouncils were brought into being. They were given responsibility for all decisions concerningdevelopment for the a gricultural units in their territory.At the same time decisions were taken about the local party and state organs' authority to issuedirectives to the territorial cooperation councils and the letter's resulting accountability.Formally, the cooperatives were granted economic, legal and organizational autonomy and asay in important matters, but in practice an instrument of control had been created which furtherrestricted the farms' freedom of movement.The cooperation councils were dissolved in 1979 as "historically obsolete" and replaced by the"unified state and cooperative agro-industrial councils". In addition to the primary agriculturalsector, the upstream and downstream sectois were now brought under a single leadership and

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control. Depending on their territorial location, these could be any of the following: theagricultural production cooperatives, the state agricultural holdings and their farms, themechanization stations, the inter-cooperative establishments, branch associations for theindustrial processing of meat, milk, sugar beet, vegetable fats and tobacco, other economicunits of a horizon tal agricultural na ture, agricultural research ins titutes . and s tations, andvocational schools. The organs of the council included the general assembly, the managementboard and the executive bureau. The council had its own funds for its staff requirements.The councils had management, coordination and supervisory functions within their territory,particularly as regards the following:

all-round fulfilment of the plan and of cooperative and state holdings' delivery obligations;optimal utilization of all available resources, especially the full use of land;matters of site distribution, concentration, specialization and cooperation;ensuring equal intensivization conditions for all units belonging to the territorial council;extension or establishment of processing capacities in the territory;ensuring the supply of plant and equipment to holdings;rational use of technology in the mechanization stations;planning.

Within the council, the agricultural holdings, associations, etc. kept their legal autonomy. Theycontrolled their receipts and expenditure and were responsible for fulfilment of the tasks laiddown for them by the plan.As a form of organization of vertical cooperation, agro-industry associations and combines werefounded from the mid-1970s onwards. They encompassed the cooperation links betweenagricultural holdings and the processing firms.The highest authority for agriculture was the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Industry, Forestry andWater Resources. Subordinate to it were "Government Departments" for the various branchesproducing and processing agricultural products and "Central Offices" for the horizontal sectors.The corresponding state management and planning functions were carried out at district levelby the "Directorates-General for Agriculture and Industrial Processing of Agricultural Products",which were accountable to both the Ministry and the District People's Council for fulfilment ofthe plan in the territory.Although the integration of the agricultural cooperatives into the state planning and supervisionsystem had been briefly relaxed, this state of affairs changed drastically with the 1976-1980planning period. The indicators on delivery obligations to the state for wheat, grain maize,sunflowers, sugar beet, potatoes and vegetables and on the development of livestock numberswere supplemented by plan indicators on gross output and sale to the state of barley andbrewing barley, soya beans, fibre plants and hemp, fruit and grapes, meat, milk, eggs and wool.There were guidance indicators for yields per hectare of wheat, rye, grain maize, sunflowersand sugar beet and for the target average output of milk, eggs and wool.The supply of agricultural products to the state was based on delivery contracts between theagricultural holdings and the state collection centres. The contracts were valid for a period ofseveral years and laid down quantities, quality, delivery deadlines, prices and other criteria.46


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The contract prices for crop products varied from one location to another. Uniform prices werelaid down for animal proaucts on the basis of the nationwide prime costs of agriculturalproduction calculated for the last four to five years and taking account of projectecLprime costs.Under normal production conditions, this was intended to ensure a level of profitability of morethan 15% for crop production and 7-15% for animal production.Between 1989 and 1990 the price index for agricultural products as a whole went up to 159.3%,broken down into 158.0% for crop products and 160% for animal products.In 1981 a programme for territorial self-sufficiency, self-administration and self-managementcame into force, making the territories accountable for the steadily worsening supply situationand giving them responsibility for resolving it. The centrepiece of the Order was that oncedeliveries had been made to the centralized state fund from which the processing industry, thetourist centres and a type of reserve fund were supplied, each district had to form its own foodconsumption fund, which then served in principle as the sole source of supply of the residentpopulation.The poor income situation of the collective farmers and the uncertainty over their retirementarrangements were the cause not only of the increasing exodus from agriculture to theindustrial centres but also of the lack of motivation on the part of those stayed behind to placetheir labour at the disposal of the collective. Their main concern was understandably theworking of the farm and garden. Even the setting up of an old-age pension fund for agr

Documents

Country Profile Romania 1992