Upload
others
View
2
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
! "# $%&'(% )* +,- . /
0'1# 2
0'1# .)
3 4,5 6)
+7
! " "#$
! " #$%&
' ()*
+, !% !-. % / %&' ()* + DZ
12 +3 /* 4 5 672 6 /* 8 9" :* +3 ;<!=
/* >* :" ?1 #$%& % & />* -@
'%
* A <@ 4> 6 4 B () * 12 $, - +
C5) %; 41 ' !! D? A 1" 12
' /$5
<1 3(* E& /* FG) 12 H B %.!/ %0 1$
'B IG 3(* J" K5
2! 61LM -N* ,* :. ! A <1 K5
'1* : ,* AA / & 4% 61LMOP ,*
/:& Q/$C, Q/B QA?1 R(* 1. "L# ,* 1.
'% 61LM /( Q S1M /* /
12 -. BH -E B () * 2 .! & 12 2! :C
T
/ @ 41 ' !! 12 12 E /* & $1(%
UE E /* !! / , /* /$5 /* )V /*
'$ (
W1. :. % 2) 1 / R 4WX !<!= W % : <!=
'% ()* /.
8 1 79 & % 79
.1
! "# $ % !& '(( !'( $) *'+ !, -' , $)+ . /) 0 1 234 5. $6 7 7#7 -7.# 8, 9 % $ +% 7 : +% $, !'( $;( *'+ 0 !.<)=%>1 "? /),@, 0% ;A 7 $, !, -$ +% /) $B $)+ +/, CD 0!& '( $;( *'+ $) 7E 6, >1 F). -7 !, , ! $)+ +/, /), 4G +!H >1 "? , ) +IJ !'( 8% + 6 /) 07 KSpark ChamberL !14M N1 O $ % P) 6 + B $)+! 7 'B Q 'B "?1 7: /) . @+ + /) !.4"# 0R) !@, 7 !. $4D - NHS +!## TTL U D $ + B $S !& ) V. , 0 Q 7 !.B7 , + H< 7 / $6D@W -' ?& >)D /) 7 R) "? $)+ /, ) 'X K-@/) >)D EGRET Q4 Y# : +% +!HS $, , Z @E 0R) !X#[ +/, /) B +!HS /) 0R) '+H EGRET !& HS \T !HS 'X 'B "? $)+ +/,$H X4< +!.6+ 'B !.@B +!HS !HS UU 0'@.6+ !.@B !& HS T 7 'B !.@B !&HS/) ]4 'B '+H !& HS !.5"B 0' 8, ) X#C< +9 Z X ! ,/)*7X $) (MrK421) _\ /) $) ! '@.6+ $H X4< +!.6+ 7M !HS a !)7 $H X4< !& .6+ $#. !& HS B b) !& HS a $c, 0^, +9 : % +!HS, $)+')' -@d !, !HS S /) /) e( /) , 0 EGRET !& .@B !& HS _, +.% /) Z@E 0R) $<4X #7 -7.# 8, 9 & , 9 % +!HSa B !) /) 0< '+ ! , $) !& ) ' 7 , ! 'B !.@B . , ! )
0'B '+ f3 . \ gV 7 - Ph B "# + 7 , '+ B
! "# ! $%&# '(
EGRET )* ( +,- .% /01
YZ
YZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'Y
[\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1 ! !% ['Y
[[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ] ^ R W1. !_% T'Y
[[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !_% 21( Y'T'Y
[` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *(C *(C ; ! 4> `'Y
[a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bAGNsc *(C - !2! Y'`'Y
[d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (GRBs) ; < !>G ['`'Y
Y
[
[d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bSNRsc & @ T'`'Y
T\ !"#$ %&' ( )* + ,
T\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'[
T[ . . . . . . . . . bHEc ! ; ! :$e O G. ['[
TT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J(H < !.(% T'[
Ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bEASsc2; ! !C `'[
Ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Fly’s Eye)f, *H < a'[
TZ -EASs./0 1 2 3
TZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'T
T
!.(% ! S.) bEASsc 2; ! !C .(% ['T
Tg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
`[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! !C +2; . - A Y'['T
`[ . . . . . . . . . . . . /& CH R S.) 2; ! !C :$e T'T
`` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! C A :$e + Y'T'T
`h . . . . . . . % :$e ! R2; !C RX> ? J8 ['T'T
`g 41 0 5+67 8
`g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'`
aY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )5 A ['`
aa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _1 +3 / A*H !OO T'`
ad . . . . . . . . . . . .i R 1)O) _1 +3 A :&. )E Y'T'`
h\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . D? R A :&. ['T'`
hY . . . !12 f(X 1j 21. . K) T'T'`
h[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . R .B1C `'T'`
`
h` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C R RG. a'T'`
hZ 9:; 5&< = / >
hZ . . . . . . . . ! R2; !C 1 21EBN /1 e R Ok Y'a
hd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'Y'a
hg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !,* /1H ['Y'a
ZY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! 61WM + T'Y'a
Z` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l !,* !<>B. `'Y'a
dg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ] a'Y'a
!C AH R A G. C1 ! ;/2! . ['a
g\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !
g\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'['a
gY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . < m% ['['a
g[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !& nB! T'['a
gT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !& nB! 5 e `'['a
g` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;/2! 61WM a'['a
a
! C < A G. EGRET ; < !*H R!* T'a
Y\T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2;
Y\` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) @ Y'T'a
Y\a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !,* /1H ['T'a
Y\Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! 61WM T'T'a
Y[` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l `'T'a
Y[d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1] o3 pM a'T'a
Yd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1 ! )V % W12G 91E YqY
[T . . . . . . . . . . : - .3 R W1. -) R $ r !_% [qY
[` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ] ^ R W1. 4) R $ r !_% TqY
[h . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGRET 4). DO % !* !*H R*@ `qY
[Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *(C -) R 2! 6& % ^& )V :5 aqY
Ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : - R W1. -) s r !_% Yq[
h
Z
`T . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2; ! !C +2; . - A YqT
`h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1(O < < [qT
`d . . . . . . . . . . BMB A ! !C !& I TqT
/* ; ! C1 ! % ! !C +2; Yq`
aY . 5 C1 ! / 1 tk. )V I / :. !
a[ . . . . . . . . )5 A S.) C1 )V R% !* !12 [q`
a` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . < - % &. R Tq`
/* )5 A ! B! R oGM ; uL) 21. `q`
a` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !
aZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _1 +3 (1(O ((O aq`
ad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i _1 +3 R% &. mE hq`
d
h\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i _1 +3 S.) % !* 12 1O) Zq`
hY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . _1 +3 R% &. R mE dq`
h[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . _1 +3 R% &. R gq`
-) 4 /* !_1 +3 S.) % !* !12 Y\q`
h` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. !.(%
ha . . . . _12 .(% A /BX _1 +3 ! mE YYq`
hh . . . . !/.. ! _1 +3 S.) ! !C R!* Y[q`
' B ; G . < ! k& R $ .M m E Yqa
S.) %(% !& /1 $ Ov I /1H S.) %(% !&
hg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2! ! !C $Ov II /1H
ZY . . . . . . . . ) CH R A (1(O < < [qa
g
Za . . . BMB A I /1H S.) % :$e ! !C I Tqa
Zh . . . I < :. l (−/)(T + T) T QT I `qa
R $.M KORSICA i G. ! !C !.1$% l aqa
ZZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C :#]
.; BMB A % . 1$% !C !<# ) 8 I hqa
:#] BMB :. %*H @ ':. % + /
Zd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B 11 C
C.. 1 ! J3& BMB ! !C I Zqa
\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. UEB RBB 5 !@W ) R
UEB a 6(% ) < % :$e ! !C .. I dqa
) + G. b 6(% :. 6$ 6(% % 5
d` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. % $.M
Y\
da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;/2! I gqa
dh . . . . . . . . . . . 1&H R . ;/2! I Y\qa
o . KORSICA i S.) % .1$% !C I YYqa
dZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(% 6M 21EBN /1 ;
l & U /& R S.) % !* ;/2! I Y[qa
dg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2 R &" :.
g[ . . . :. % + / I A !& R W" I YTqa
g` . . . . . . . . . * K2 % :$e !& nB! X. S.) @ Y`qa
/ 1%& / % :$e ! !C 4& !& I Yaqa
gh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >
! * S.) % :$e ! !C R% / !& I Yhqa
gZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . > / 1%& /
YY
l 2@ b !c /& R S.) ;/2! R!* YZqa
gg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b!I)c A2 R
6M ! !C . L) # W)M L) # E Ydqa
Y\\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &"
Y\Y . . . . . . . . . . . . L) # % :$e !& W1 R I Ygqa
Y\Y . . . . . . . . . . . . L) # % :$e !& i R I [\qa
Y\Z . EGRET !*H R!* < (1(O < < [Yqa
bbzc.. bφc.c W)M L) # % :$e !& I [[qa
YY[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. % + ] I
YY` . . . . . b × c !& *(C L) # % :$e ! R*@ [Tqa
YYd . . b × c !& *(C L) # % .1$% ! R*@ [`qa
Y[
*(C L) # ; 4> .1$% S.) % t1ML ! R*@ [aqa
Y[\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b × c !&
gd bac > R *H gd\\\ :1)! K2 !& I [hqa
Y[[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bbc EGRET R% ._ R*5
Y[a . . . *(C L) # × !& !& .. R S.) [Zqa
!*H JE × !& !& X% I . [dqa
Y[Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bbc u :1)! !*H bac >
bYa < 1 : 1) !c EGRET R % ! * ! * H R * @ [gqa
Y[g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *(C L) #
Z` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II I !/1H !< L#) * -5 Yqa
dZ . . . . . . . . % + ! ASYM ;/2! I K] [qa
% 4> < % !* B5qO% ;/2! R 2@ Tqa
b(Ns −Nn)/(Ns +Nn)c KORSIKA i R W1. .1$% % 1O l !
dd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w K2
gh . . . ! * R W1. % / ! 4& ! ;/2! l `qa
gd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;/2! l aqa
YT
Y`
gd . . . . . . . . . . . % .1$% !C r . r ;/2! l hqa
gd . . . . . . . . % + ! ASYM ;/2! I K] Zqa
Y\[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i R ;/2! l dqa
Y[T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGRET 4. DO R%!* !*H gqa
)$O ':. f1EBN(O 91E . G. & /1 S1M X3E) <1
5 !B . (% . :. . - JE S1M . 5 R&%
/C1 5 B !*H / :. 1 . / % B! ) :.
'; * () G R B1*1 f1EBN(O 91E . R B1*1 O Q "
≡ W .c /C1 R B1 < 3 x 12 12 ^ f1EBN(O ^ 91E
A /2 *H ':. % 2; bE∼ eVc 12 12 ^ b.×− eV
bλ ∼ nm ≡ E ∼ . eVc ? 7 R 1 V S@ :. 21EBN(O 91E ;(% s
$> !/2 91E , :. % 2; bλ ∼ nm ≡ E ∼ . eVc <GB n
'B2! :1$E R!* K.B ? G.
! ':. 4. " /. 91E . 21EBN(O 91E -E 4
G !^ -E /. R *@ B :% !& < 91E M R *H
" -$ v & <1 -. BH $O C1 R &" ' !& G
?1 @1 ?1 /B :. bE≥ eVc OF R 1 ; < !*H
Ya
Yh
:. &" ; 4> ! *# ) 7 J! ':. :.
'% !& G; 61LG
1!& C !*H ; ! QC1 ! . -) 6L +?;
C y X3E) :$e ; !*H .(% !+ 4) 6L ':&
61LG 4) . 6L :. / W" s] 2; ! !C ' !&
:&. )E &" ; 6X %?; 4CH 6L '% .
>B 6L :C '4% / C. ?1 K5 :. C1 _12 !.(%
':& 1!& C 61WM $O R &" ! .
$ ? @
tk. !:C5 4 zYB2!1,B. !2! !/ 6x V C1 !
1%& ! 6x C1 ! 1 5 21EBN /1'B. 1
5 ! , ! $O 'B :oM !*H , C1 !
! 'z[:. 12 C % O BB |G 1 5 6& % < 1%&
C1 ! R Ok !* '% 1O 1%& R oB ^& !*H $Ov
21EBN C1 / :WX C1 ! /H % _2M 4> *#
G. / B QB! :. & R 1)O :C5 % JMB *(C 1 *(C
u 12 12 ! , Q C RBB 1O R *H :C5 ! :C5
C1 ! 91E ':. b - A $@ c :O /(O <1 )V
:O /(O × :O /(O B :1)$ / A
YZ
Yd
C1 ! )V % W12G 91E YqY 6(%
u ((dN/dE ∝ E.)) [Z 91E f :. 4. 91E
K1 :. T\ 91E f % 1 91E ~ :O /(O ×
! W12G 91E YqY 6(% '% !& % <? 1. % <!
':. !* 6 91E !.B% , ~ Q / ! /* C1
-. I) )V A (? '*1 & 6(% b)Vc ! %
:. .(% 6 -. I) W1 )V A ~ (?
B! O % Ok :. 12 C1 ! 5
A? ! % X ':. &B% ! DZ*B
Yg
CO '% 1O bSNRsc & @ 6x ! S1M C1 ! u
- !- ( '% mk EHE UHE u 5 B1
! b:O /(O × c u ! C zTQ `:. GZK
BB / 1O <B! /C1 R B1 < C1
P± + γ −→ n+ π± , P± + γ −→ p± + π bY'Y'Yc
e '% !* 91E :2 % <! <! C K1
) 5 E :O /(O × u ! :. J GZK Ik R k@
! ! /* , < BH AGASA !* )$O 'B 1 :1! % mk
& ! HiRes < )$O 'za% : ?1 GZK Ik Rk@ <1 ! C1
4 1oX 12 R 'zh:. !* o 6 91E Ik R k@ A
Ok ! !C ~ u ! :. 5 :. Pierr Auger
Ik Rk@ / B! :. 12 )V % R :WX 'zZ!
1. B!& ) % :$e ! u 1oX R O :$M"GZK
' pM ) 5 E Ik Rk@ /
Super Nova Remnants
Greisen - Zatsepin - Kuzmin
[\
7 ,@
!_% !/( !_% !21( QC1 ! A?1 1B .. uR. (
/*(C 6& !B!_% 'B2! OF ! C1 !
'B /*(C ^& 1%
!; !< ' B% !_% !21( 1%& R oB
B 5 1. 1 zgQ d] ^ UE MeV KeV ; !
R W1. , ] ^ 1 R ] ^ -x 'B! 7
5 1@2 !; ':. 8 /( !_% B 5 1%& !
$Ov uLM 1; _% GeV ! !/W 1%& !/
'zY\B2! !/
C1 ! !*H R!* Q5 21EBN C1 :WX % G; E /!
:. )e rxB& )V / , C1 ! / -$ CB ':21 8/(
B !& 'B 5 , !2! ;_% )V & R W1.
K.B A B 'BG1 FG) k@ !*H JE !S1M . /1 S1M
)V S.) % 1O R )e ; ! . QC1 ! !*H >25
1O KOv B '% 1O Sig X-3 Her X-1 6x & !*H :.
:. m% UE ; !
Shock Wave
Earth Bow Shock
[Y
P + Nucleon −→ π + . . . , π −→ γ + γ b['['Yc
: > u / 1BH R *H -) % mk B1 .. -.
! 'B. u ! 1BH !B B H )V 4) %
/*(C C1 ! W)M O,H ! /* zYY:.% 4> B1
B :. ρ eV/cm
LCR =VDρE
τR∼ times erg/s bT'['Yc
VD = πRd ∼ π( pc)( pc) ∼ × cm b`'['Yc
!*H /* %8; zY[(21. D?B1; 'B2! τR × years
Y\ 5 _ II s & ; 3 x 'B% !& B C1 !
& >G A -. T\ ! b∼ .cc × cm/s :X. 1%& 45
; O :. B1# 12 X $O !& LSN ∼ × erg/s , 1, o
4u 4 % J" C1 ! / _% " BH S@
'B 15
[[
A B = :+ 47 3@
-) R $ !_% B2! ?1H / C1 ! & !>G
(?1 & D? !1@ ] ^ !_% s] 'B B1 <1
':. ; . :)
%# : ;1% <=>=<
' 1 ; " ( )V 1E B N .3 *$ B5 -@ 21 (
$ ! <? 'b[qY 6(%c FG) B )V <?
K1 En E QzYY !& En = E(+ ξ)n n f B :. ∆E = ξE
, % Pesc !_% S1M R)V - ! ; ':. )V C 1)O)
B ' !& (− Pesc)n !_% $ n f )V / -
C )V B ' !& :. n = ln(E/E)/ ln(+ ξ) C
!& % <1 E
N(> E) ∝ Σ∞m=n(− Pesc)m = (− Pesc)n/Pesc ba'T'Yc
N(≥ E) ∝ (− Pesc)(E/E)−γ 1B1 a'T'Y Rk n @ . f
γ = ln(
− Pesc)/ ln(+ ξ) ≈ Pesc/ξ bh'T'Yc
Tcycle Pesc = Tcycle/Tesc k ':. :. ξ Pesc ! u K@
_% t / ) )V ; f ':. S1M / Tesc !_% A 4u /
[T
: - .3 R W1. -) R $ r !_% [qY 6(%
>1 n = t/Tcycle %
E ≤ E(+ ξ)t/Tcycle bZ'T'Yc
% 6" >1 B
': B!& *1 B ] ^ S1M *1 )V qY
A ?1 ;_% )V , % % u ) A !_% 21( ; q[
' ,2 / :% B!& R B1*1
: - .3 θ R R)V -) R $ !_ % 2 1 (
^& / θ R 6& & BH f % [qYI. O(W 5
ξ = ∆E/E S. K] , % : - β = v/c :X. O(W ; 'TqY%
'ξ = /β !&
% ] ^ R C$5 θ R RV 4) R $ !_% 21(
S. K] , 'bTqY 6(%c ; ^& / θ R B : β = v/c :X.
!_% ! /* u $X R 2@ QB '% !& ξ = /β ξ = ∆E/E
[`
] ^ R W1. 4) R $ r !_% TqY 6(%
'. u ! R)V Q 21( R ] ^ S.
)6 C )6 DE 8@
% ; ! *# E C1 ! ,B,B ,2! ; !
<# /j ( ;B ?1 *# Q1;_% - )V /(B1. <
B2! KOv !B ; 1O !B )$O 'B 5 π % ,
OF ! R u :. 5 ; 91E ?1 , !B
'be+ + e− −→ γc /q/(O 6x C. bEHE UHEc
Synchrotron Radiation
Inverse Compton
π Decay
[a
MeV Y\\ <1 ! bk@ R *Hc ? ; < R *H T\\ $ @
' GeV T\\ <1 ! C *H d :. % &B%
*(C R GO)R 'zYT*(C zY`*(C Q:. <# 6% *# ; <
*(C X *1 R 1 ?5 :. % 1O,H b|b| ≤ c /*(C RMG" %
R *H [ZY bCGROc /j R! ':. KOv *(C R GOR :$2 R 1)@
CB*1 EGRET < S. T\ GeV Y\\ MeV R ; < k@
B$X :. % &B% C X Y\Y :1$E !*H 'b`qY 6(%cz`a:.
QbSNRc & @ QbGRBc ; < !>G QbAGNc *(C - !2!
:1$E B! '!2O M ∼ M⊙ 1%& 45 Y\ <1 45 *(C !OH1.
% &B% !*H L# ':.* #) * . , R *H YZ\
' 1!& t1]
?AGNs@ ) A4# <=B=<
! /*(C " A $ @ :. X /C1 !/*(C $ @
-) !2! % ^& < '*(C -) R 2! B -) !2!
% < 6) <1 QbUHEc OF ; !< ^ *(C
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope
Active Galactic Nuclei
Gamma Ray Burst
Super Nova Remnant
[h
EGRET 4). DO % !* !*H R*@ `qY 6(%
BH 1@ % 11N . o 1 R 1 ;* ':. /*(C @
/% RX ! AGN :. !- '% % 5 / :X. BH
bM = M⊙c 1%& 45 5 ? R OH1. A 45 <?
A2 R MG" X /*(C 21EBN !Kk -E C !:5 ' :.
− :#] A. Y k Q) 6 !MG" 'baqY 6(%c% 1 <?
!/( !:5 '% _ /1 bΓ ∼ c 1$2 !:X. :5 -E A.
<B 21EBN(O R% !* < 'zYaB2! )V !_% $.B 12
!:5 ; < 1$E ':. AGN (? /1 ;_% )V
% Y <1 Γ '% ?1 !AGN ; L )$O o )V
$ @ Γ '! & ; $X < Q)V !_% !:5
R 1 A % 1Wv R S1M , bΓ ∼ c % A? A
[Z
*(C -) R 2! 6& % ^& )V :5 aqY 6(%
/CB R *H A " *H , 4,B! 'B ! C1 ! ; !
12 ! .(% / / / B G. S@ !&
OF !B R!* zYZANTARES zYhAMABDA/IceCube 1oX
B2! Mrk 501 Mrk 421 QJG) % A? -r ) *(C !2! '
[\ TeV <1 ; < B2! 3 !*H ' :C5 C !:5
'% !*
Blazar
[d
(GRBs) % C7 D E=B=<
; 2! !< f2) > ( ..5 !!
' : & A nB! 9W# C5 !< o 6 1v E
% *(C :1$E B :. ;/2! 3 !< B ) f
: f ':. 1e Y\ \Y C < ) B2! % 12 !>G '%
'B2! J < f % !* ?1 1 !2 !< Q!<
!GRB 91" !- KWv 'B2! /. R% &B% 45 /*& !GRB /B
1* R OW; ':. y$ 1)$2 y2$ - 1* R OW; A - % mk
!< '1 5 R. & & >G A S. 2
O . / < :. D? R (1 UX b1* R OW; R 1)O) R .c 1)O)
% / (1 UX <! R / *$B5 QOW; y2$ f
4 2 ;_% !/(O % /(B1. < '1B !* / 1
' 5 !*H % !* ; <
?SNRs@ F G >=B=<
R c!B C1 ! Q; ! % &B% !*H !&
!< 3X ':. SN1987A & C ! ( B2! b a q a\MeV
Fire Ball
Hypernove
[g
& )e !21( S.) ?1 u ! < /( % < & 1@2
& @ % t1] L# E 3 $ !_% !21( ' 5
TeV ; < , JE 'BB 1O a\\ GeV C1 ! B
91E *1 :) ':. 8/( C1 ! R *H A (? S@ π %
'B2! K.B 12 !/(O !_% . o ; ! R% !*
M. -x /BX 'B2! ! 1BH !*H % &B% & @
% ! B*& 12 ! ) 1. :$e /. /1B1H 2 nBH&
:. /( / & >G A 11 :. % +& fj.
':. % &B% ; < W" !*H . I% /BX &
! "#$%
& " ' ()*+, -
$ ? @,
/(O /1W1 BH <1 $ $@ ! ! ; Q ! 4>
:. /q/(O % . MeV S& ) '% F3E bE ≥ MeVc :O
" u ; ! R 2; '% . ; R 1 ? 1 be+ + e− −→ γc
zYd % B12@
':. Y\ MeV . MeV bLEc ; < qY
':. T\ MeV Y\ MeV bMEc k. ; < q[
Low Energy Gamma Ray
Medium Energy Gamma Ray
T\
TY !"# $ %& '( )*+ ( ,
':. Y\ GeV T\ MeV bHEc ! ; < qT
':. Y\\ TeV Y\ GeV bVHEc W1& ! ; < q`
':. Y\\ EeV Y\\ TeV bUHEc OF ; < qa
':. Y\\ EeV <1 ! bEHEc :v ! ; < qh
G. A1B( Q. R 2 u ! ! A !
l *1 U1 !! :. l ':. G ! .(%
. ; 91E C5) 6 <# bCGROc /j R! ':. 5
Y\\ MeV R EGRET < /j R! R u ':.
:. * U1 < ':. . T\GeV
31 [\\a -. :. zYgGLAST < )$O ':. % 4> R
:W)X ' !& *B EGRET R! :$2 U1 l u 1;
< !< l W5 , ! I5 l EGRET R! l / U1
R &" ;c ; 5) <1 ! ':. OF ! ;
VHE QHEc OF W1& Q ! ! . :. % bC1
5 u ! .(% 5 5 :W)X ! ':. ; ! bUHE
4> ;(% /BX 2! /12O G. O R W1. u !< '1; 4>
High Energy Gamma Ray
Very High Energy Gamma Ray
Ultra High Energy Gamma Ray
Extremely High Energy Gamma Ray
Gamma ray Large Area Space Telescope
T[ !"# $ %& '( )*+ ( ,
:$e . .(% A1B( W1& ! RM u ! '%
A1B( 'z[\:. 1)O) ; ! % R 5 C * J(H
bPMTc 1x( !u u I5 (1 !(2W ^1
':. 6$ :1 /; 12 (1B( A1B( Q% V ' u A1(G
! !C :$e + G. . .(% A1B( OF ! R 1
.. .(% u s ':. B1 ! S.) 2;
R W1. 5 G] y@ + .. '% 1H ) R ($% A "
+ A1B( '% JE C1 _ 12 !.(% G. 6x 6)( !<
. :. * &. <1 A S@ / ?1C> ; :W)X Q.(% ,
'% ?1 ! C A $X K$. 5 :. )V % < R!*
1 5 B2! R 1)O) C1 A ; A % & ! !C
C 12 B J(H !(2W 1$% (2W 1 + ':. %
% /. 4 1; ; !(2W 'B 1. % > !
'B : / 61WM 21. A
-HE. 15 F %&' 2< 5 /G+ ,@,
! !C 61(* )V ':. Y\ GeV T\ MeV R
! C % J(H (% 1 tk. / R )e )V /
Photo-Multiplier Tube
TT !"# $ %& '( )*+ ( ,
12 :$e O G. 91E <# R!* B ' . 1 tk.
YgZa -. !< ( ':. ; 5) 5 u XG )V
T gr/cm - tk. u W1 `\ sG 6 Y GeV Ya MeV RM
f(X [a\\\ ) @1 [Z :X. Y[ < / ) '% 4>
!-E b/*(C R MG"c G" *(C !X @kB BH < '% 1)C
!f(X R 1)C + 'B; . Q Q *(C
> ! B MG" " !/12O '% G . 2! /12O
/ f ' Y mm $ @ MG" 4 ! :#] B ; × × cm
6& R)V $X ':; . (.(1 :) MG" ! <
'% R1 @ ?W Q< % ?1 )V 12 @ 1 fB5 !/12O
1" -35 S.) /*(C ? OH1. A 5 !f(X .
'z[Y1. H Nature R W)> % CB*1
H6* I 5+67 3@,
!/ )V Q:. Y\\ TeV Y\ GeV W1& ! R
6(%c % .(% 6 1 tk. C J(H < ! !C 61(*
:X. )V :X. % < R)V A J(H 'bYq[
z[\% $.M )V 6 B:C5 R W1. )V :C5 '% <1 S1M
W1 Y\ C R B1*1 sG /H ':. R5 R $ B:C5 A1(G /
T` !"# $ %& '( )*+ ( ,
+ '% 2; I) 1 6 tk. B :. 1 tk.
?1 (2W / u I) > !(2W 8 / 91] K$.
)5 S% J" Q / !K% S@ < s ' G. 1x( !u
':% !& " Y\ 1G 6(1. < s K1 ':. 8 4> K.B
_] ?1 , " Y\ a A ?1 ; A?1&
'1; " Kr .B /( M R A ; R *H ! /. H
:C B $X ?1 &" 6M .. QS% C !* R *H ; -x /BX
R ! !C % '1; Ok :X. CH " R !
. Mk. B ':. − )Vcm sr s R $ W1& !
:$e 6 ! C Y\ 1e ! Q5 Y s% R>B ! % 1BH I)
A $@ :X. T\ I5 / *H A R!* K1 ':.
<1 σ <1 ) *H A R!* K1 '% I5 /1W1
'× − )Vcm s <1 % / - % : *H / / T\\\
1x( !u ! sG % 1; K1 + S.) % :$e !C
;? /* B % I5 J(H ) % /* (2W / zweekes 6(%
! !C . 1$% + ' 1)O) R)V / % (% ! C
8/( C1 )V ; !/ .5 _& ) 1)O) R)V 1# 3X
' !* UE ; k@ !*H / B :.
Ta !"# $ %& '( )*+ ( ,
: - R W1. -) s r !_% Yq[ 6(%
-EASs./0 1 2 5 1 8@,
'% !& t1] 6L 3 L) G <#
(Fly’s Eye)JK L)* I15 >@,
z[[/?; S.) B. / R )e )V ! R2; !C .(% +
* f.W .(% . '% CB*1 6@2 E z[T(2O.
)E Utah QDugway < ':. ! !C R )e )V R W1. 1 !/1
!B 4 ! B2! O !B 6% !.(% ':. % &.
k@ A RB QB ! 1x( u ! ' & R MG" 1x( u A
12 Q5 6& ! C A $X % R% 1 >B./ ':. /. R *@
Th !"# $ %& '( )*+ ( ,
12 1 )Vc k) & R *H :C5 W" W 1O) '% . C
:C5 / y * / 1x( u ! sG fj. '% #) * bC
. U1 12 ! % 1 !/ 2 4?W2 '; 6$
C $X 12 / !C. R ! ; o ':. .(% ! :1).2) 5
:C5 )V ' $.M 1)O) R)V /! C UE .
E 1 f.W % 61WM + R W1. B / (?
3 X +2; )V $X . J(H O % <# ;/.!
.(% /BX f, *H )$O ':21 ( ,! < .5 .
'% ?1 Y\\ TeV <1 ! !C J(H
.EASs/012 3- 4#
$ ? @3
% )e )V 1O W BH & BH R :. C1 )V
! R2; !C :$M" m3k" O 'BB 1O ! C B B%
C $X B. 1 tk. C R )e )V B2! 5) !C % mk
! !/ ( O 5 u '% <1 B 1 ) A C !C
tk. u Y[\\ sG /C 3 x '1; " & A gr/cm
! R2; !C !& 6M ':. gr/cm -
)V 1 !<B! !& u ':. & [T ! . /C tk.
B 9W 22; E 1)O) R)V B '^ 1O ? < Q/j B$X
!" # $"% &'! (')* )+ "$, ,-) . /+ 01
2 + 3 x '! 0)& 4 5 )6 78 0+9 : "$, , ;/ -) 5 + 9 0< =-
: ,- > 0< -) 7$& ? ;)6 @ )) Ax 73 )&& 5 BC D)9 $/ =-
TZ
Td -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
A O '% C )V <? pX B )V 12@ $X
?1 K1 ?1 ! 5 ! QC R )e )V 5 ?1 .1 J3
- C % <1 .1 J3 22; J3 'B! :. &
2 22; J3 ) 'B <? / R )e )V !& +2;
<1 12 -E )V % - / :. & - % .1 J3
1. B1*1 A C )V 3 X '8; <! )e )V B '%
'B% 2 $@ 22; J3 .1 J3 :. ,B! B1*1 / 'B : fj.
Ecµ = GeV !/1 Ec
e = MeV C !/(O FG) u
R B1*1 u '% G; C R B1*1 B. B1*1 )V ( '!
% <1 1)O) / )V H ! )$O ' FG) tk. ?! BH C
<! ) % % Q <? /H O !& 1 sG C R B1*1
sG H ! '% u XG .. ! /( :. C ! !C .
B <? !C .(% - Q% <1 )e )V % u &"
R B1 ! /* :$) R &" E Q !& 1 .(% R B1
/* :. % 4> HEGRA ; S.) . 1$% ':. T TeV C .(%
Y\\\\ Y\\ TeV ! !C )V b gr/cmc /C !
Shower maximum
Tibet
High energy Gamma Ray Astronomy experiment
Tg -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
Y :#] Y\\ a\ s% )V C$5 )V ':. )e R)V
1 tk. b)V & 1O) /1. 1e BH J3&c /! E $@
':. AH 12 R ! 1! ! C ! R * B 'B.
1 M +$ -EASs. / 0 1 2 5 + 6 7 ,@3
5++ 5+67
1O 1)O) )V Q:. Y\\ EeV Y\\ TeV OF !
2; !C 5 )V ' B |G 1 tk. 2; ! C A
/ Q/ Q/ Q9W# "BX !/ 6x , )V B2! / /(O <1
I 1)O) R)V I )V :1)5 'B! 61(* )V 6) (H 2 '''
!C 1O +2; B )$O ':. 1)O) R)V s I :1) 3X ?1 )V
. W2 ) ' :. 12 -E % 1O )V 5 ! R2;
4> :e UX A 1; A S@ ! !C !;(% !
b∼ mc 5) 6 tk. A !C ; /% 2; :W)X 3X QB!
:$e BB $X !.(% )e )V S@ 5 )e )V R ! :$e /( 3 X
'B% tk. 6) " Y 2 !.(% ! u '%
!.1$% l + ^1 !.(% s :. l 61WM K1
Mulier Radius
: )& 5 E" ,+ )& 5 )# F G) HI &4
`\ -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
A S@ !C /H ' < % :$e X3E) 5B. / )
'BB 1O sG BC R 1BH B ! 1. Q% 1;
5 4C I !+ )$O ':. 5 C 61(* / S$ ! G
" Za u ) B (% )V × $@ tk. .(% A 3 x
1)O) C 1@ 1 R GO)R <>B. 'B2! !C % 1O !C
U1 B B 5 !/7 !/ R W1. 5 u tk. !/1 !&
S@ :. C 61(* 6M 6@2 !C 1 R GO)R 1 tk. B Q%
)V .(% 6(* (1B( o !/1 .(% u ':. 2 1)O) R)V s
1 !.(% B ' !/(O :$2 O,H !/1 3X ':. ,
Q! R2; C A 1 R GO)R <>B. , 61O '% :oM !/(O
; !*H . / + ':. !C ! !C .5
?1H Q% 12 !/1 :1)5 o Q/ A % C A ':&
/ <1 K$. s] ' R /! ! !C 1 :1)5 " a
1O :. ! !<B! :$2 21EBN(O !<B! b;? R $ BHc
3(* 5 Q /1 .(% 12 ? E& 'BB / /1
' 5) ! R2; !C ! ! Q/ .(%
4> )e )V I. >B./ R W1. !C :C5 ! R2; !C !
% $.M ! u ! A1(G '%
: ? ;/ - -) "4 F E ? J3 ?K6 L% +$ ) $
`Y -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
Q:. Y\\ a\ % 1>B. 1O C X 1@ qY
'! /* 5 . k@ :) ? s3] R2@ q[
% '1. 5 Y :) / ) :. 6(* W1& :) /1. 6X ) $ O
)V % ;? R $ BH UHE R -) k@ !*H % % C1 !
:X. [` B ! X O ':. 1B !* C J(H VHE
1B -x /BX 'BB !* /. A R BB $%
I) Y\Q\\\ 2 (∆ψ ∼ ) 5 Y A1(G
W)M sG R W1 R *H A ; 'B Y\\ TeV R .
:. :R 6 S.) ! :X. ` bB $X .. $@c 1;
!& :. 31! R O )V % '-. 1e × - E
F (> E) ≈ × −
(E
TeV
)−γ &cm. sr.s
bY'['Tc
K1 ':. × − )Vcm sr s Y\\ TeV u 1)O) )V % B
× R & ! & [\\ <1 f '% :$e & `\\\ × R & !
R *H A / B ' !* σ <1 :1)! k@ R *H A /
% 5 (∼ × − )V/cm s ) .(% 6 R B1 % A E− 91E
! :1).2) Y\\ TeV <1 R % 5 % f '%
':. J(H (2W A :1).2) - $@
Risetime
`[ -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
H A.% 0 <=E=>
5 ! R 1)O) )V R W1. O& 21EBN(O ! !C . W1& - A
A )e R)V A RB S& ! YqT 6(% ':. % . - z[`W! S.) B
f !12@ :. % 12@ 2 :2 IE@ ! ':. R 2
!2 )V /% &% bn = X/λc n '1; " λ r& -E ! $X
gr/cm K2 ! C 12 -E r ) UX X !& N(X) = X/λ
.1 E ;% 5 ':. E(X) = E/N(X) X UX )V ! ':.
:. C 'bE(X) = Ecc . C )e )V
/j e ? < Q^ 1O % R 22; !J3 /1.?1 % R .1 !J3
)V /1. f ':. a\\ GeV /1 d\ MeV /(O '%
B1*1 )V ( 'BB % % _85 )V RX C
'% #) * Nmax = E/Ec )V B1*1 Xmax = λ ln(E/Ec)/ ln B.
:. :. $.M )C QR ( $@ ! !C S
':. Xmax ∝ ln(E) Nmax ∝ E
1* = 1 M+$ /0 1 2 %&' 3@3
1 ! J3& /& CH R S.) 2; ! !C .
/ 1)7?5 ; c S.) J3& . ; '% :$e .. !.(%
`T -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
5 2; ! !C +2; . - A YqT 6(%
/BX ! J3& % +?; b:. !,* /1H !<# 6L
:. , <# ! !C y !& *# '% :$e & A
! :. ( > :. +3 '% J8 R X>
R>B 1B . ?1 1B( :$e C 5 bOnlinec 1@2 "
#) * ) A O 1B AH ( ) bTACc B / -) $ S.) -$ 6
1! , 1B AH <1 R>B ; ' W5 1 :. ns
" ! '1B 5 % :$e !C 1 :% 1!# .
1@2 1v + C % :$e ! !C R X> @ !
! . 1BH! ! C & <1 :$e B '1B J8 bOfflinec
fj. ! !C :$e + <# '% ; [\\ ns R C
:& 1!& RX> 5 R ? J8 +
Time to Amplitude Converter
`` -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
0 "IJ H& <=>=>
! C :$e . .. !.(% ! R2; C A
% 5& .(% CH ! $X B $X )V A :. .. .(%
% G1] .. .(% QB $X .(% ! 6& )V 'B%
O !< f 'b ..cB < :. )V $X 6M ! AM
1G. n / 6& Ya cm sG m × m RX 6(% ! A A !
c 1x( u ! '. bPMTc 1x( u A z[a:. % n 3
Yg\\ u O A bbEMI 9813KBc 1B G. & < !
R B 'B :@ .× 1x( u 5& 1 :O [\\\
A % :@ b×c A B ':. :O ! 1x( u 5&
':. b) O ac @kB A Discriminator 5& '% . Discriminator
o )V BC 1!# ; ' :. 1x( u y X3E) W
Discriminator 6$ 1! . / $X )V O,H
'1 :$e sG y X3E)
!& ) 1R @kB A C ( 5& Discriminator !
1oB 6 1e d\\ Ya\ R>B A @kB '% b! C /BX c
ac @kB r 5& r A B. R W" CH "
Photo-Multiplier Tube
`a -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
'% G. bTACc B / !-) $ / -) ':% !& b:O
!& / R 1e ''' / ) S@ % -) o B / -) $
!# 5& ?1 B / -) $ * : j W" ; 'B : j
!Discriminator , 5& ' ) > . -) 1 : :%
/ !-) $ '% . 9W# R B / !-) $ y Stop Start !
1)N R B O @kB A Stop Start ! 1 ! J3& ?1 B
1e [\\ B / !-) $ R ; 3 x 'BB 6$ :O Y\ G" 1
! K1 1e [\\ Y\\ QG" ! J3& BC !5& 1!
3X B / !-) $ ( 1BH! ':% B!& :O Y\ a QG" !sG
! /* :. O a @kB A % ; ?1 val. conv. 5& J
-) $ RBB -) /BX val. conv. 5 '1& :. % 5& B / -) $
B / !-) $ 5& ! 4,B! 'B 6X bADCc -1> DO
% bdigitc X 6$ % bADCc -1> DO -) $ T T /BX
( $ Yd[ 1e ! 6X bADCc-1> DO -) $ '; :$e 1j
' !& :$e G" % ( : B / !-) $ j 1! W" ; 'B
'B2! ! :$e 21. !G" 3 X B
! s% / / ?1 C / % :$e ! !C K1
Time to Amplitude Converter
valid convert
Analog to Digital converter
`h -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
(1(O < < [qT 6(%
1 [qT 6(% ' $.M % :$e !& !G" <
& 6L 1 < , ! '1B !* < ! < :$e
'17 5 b$O R &" ! 61WMc
. "IJ -D% ' KLM E=>=>
< u O % J8 ! 1@2 " :. +3 ! :$e u
< u E& 1! ' 5 ?1 BB DZ] . -) y% ?1 @
J8 bOfflinec 1@2 1v " % :$e ! !C ! @
2 R ?O 7 pW)x " .. (% T 1 J3& '%
M 5 5 1 ++ M , $ 5 0 @ ? M * G $
"M ) ::: 5 , - +,< 01 )# 7$& 2 ,$ 5 0 A +
`Z -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
BMB A y x /BX J3& '1; o ; 12O
!.(% R E& u ' B 12@ Y\[` 4 ! % :$e
B / !-) $ [\\ ns R b∼ m IW] -Ec G . ..
c & G. bADCc -1> DO -) $ '1B G. bTACc
- :$2 . ns - !c B 12@ - Y\[` b% :O Y\ / R B1*1
A? ! J3& % .. @1 ! C A ; 'b:. W5 W$
':; !& R$ (? BMB C B R k@ B!& G"
1B :$e C 1 1! :. ! !C *# !& :$e
R 1 k@ $@ .. B R k@ % bx,yc Stop ! 1&
R?5 A .. Rk@ JE ! !C 4 1BH '1; BMB ?
/ C. k@ 6" 3 X b33 6(%c B! 61(* 6(%
R R B1*1 % Y\ ,A .. .(% R W" 3 x ; ' !* &
T\ ns .. .(% 1 R W" R B1*1 1, o bc ! !C
k , 1, W" 1e h\ a\ R .. B R k@ ; - ' !&
J8 'B2! % :$e y@ R! 5 :2 ! C 1! 1!&
2 ?5 C. $.M C. ?5 6" 8 R?5
3 X W . f ' :. @kB ! R2; !C 1B
!C 61WM 6 B2! ! !C !& 12! k
:? )# 7$& )+
`d -EASS./012 3$ 4) 5
BMB A ! !C !& I TqT 6(%
'1! 4> % !& t1] 3 L) G & 6L
53 2 6&
$ ? @8
!.(% 'B2! _ /# .. !.(% C1 !.(% .
<! )V [ MeV .. .(% 6& )V $X . ! DZ ..
$X 6M K1 K1 % .. .(% /1.?1 pX
n / .. .(% oGM W& tk. u '% < R)V
u % _85 O !_ QK1 6" % n 3 1G.
:. 1x( u /( B1C R W" % 4> !< '. 1x(
% :@ 1x( u 'z[h:. . Ya
'; -. :$e 21.
Rc R )V ':. G 1O B _ /# !.(%
$X B QB2! 1)$2 )V 1; . b! !C R )e )V
`g
a\ 63 2 7( 8
1x( u S.) J(H '% 1O C $X 12 G(H < _ 6& )V
!.(% % K1 '; -. ! :$e 21. % :@
$X )V )V : :C5 Q)V $X 6M BB 43X )V $X 4X $X S@
1 C > / :. U1 !< 4> B 'B! X3E)
u 'B /$5 u B ; % 2 <1 :) !.(%
)V 12 / C K.B )E /* )V $X 6M & _12 !.(%
. ?1 $X )V C G. ] ' 11 C S.)
UE G. ! !C )V I / :1)"& ':.
bYq` 6(%c 1#* bC1 ; c 1)O) R)V s /
<# z[Z:. % 4> ; ,. & S.) / <#
'% 1; ?1 .(%
2) !6M C1 ! .(% 1)! :W)X !.(%
?1 (1B( 3(* % /1 ? 6@ )$O '1; ! u
':. ! ?1 u !B?! 6 u 5 C C, 1; Q:&.
' 1 , e !; Q3R & Qu O 6x = ( !.(% u
! R2; !C ! !.(% u % V Wu
!< l /1*# :1)G1 ?1 $O C1 R &" ; '1; G.
':. 2 C1 _12 !.(% s :&. !+3 &
aY 63 2 7( 8
! /* ; ! C1 ! % ! !C +2; Yq` 6(%
5 C1 ! / 1 tk. )V I / :.
'B2! / A*H !OO )5 A .(% s
$ N ,@8
-L)cGB bu Oc:$x (O 1 ! $5 R )5 A .
! . (% s ' % O& 12 r x B & ! ; ) 5 A ':. b 1
1O !/ _85 pX E %8; .(% B 12 1eR !LO&
GB 1e LO& " !.(% /=12 ; 5 "L# '; S1M %
S1M 5 !/ :X. u / 1,(O /H .(% ,%
Spark Chamber
Flash Tube
a[ 63 2 7( 8
)5 A S.) C1 )V R% !* !12 [q` 6(%
R)V .(% >1 e ; 6& C !C 61(* I _85
'% $X
5 e ; !-(W & 12 )5 A 6& $X )V
R?1 !-(W !_% pX !(O % -X u O 'BB ?1 A
? 1 S1M ?1 , )V ; _% !-(W % )5 A 5
A % 1O / C5) 6 @ 1)O) R)V : 12 K1 'BB
K1 '% (O 1 ((O R 1W# pX (O 1 ((O -L)
'zTYb[q` 6(%c ; :$e % /*& $X )V R)V : 12
)5 !A 1O) YTZ\ -. R $O R &" ! .
)5 A '% &. )E C M %! 12O 12 / S.)
/ 6& ; '% &. a cm sG oB W] :*! A 6(% × cm RX
'''' R *H G. :O W1 T\ O -X aa\ / W& * O& /
aT 63 2 7( 8
O ' ?1 :1)@) 12 AH R 6" l '% !* )V !12
D? R E& 1! ' <? / :1)G1 K] 4u " !G.
6(% xB& ; /% f % O 1W# 4,B! D? R O '% &. )E
A Q(?1 6(% 11N / D? R R 1W# B ' :. & R 1)O)
&. B! 1#] MG" cm sG . m R7 . 6(% D? 3R & RoGM
6)M i [\ - 1 6& /1 * J3& B MG" E %
<# 61k2 K)( A " × × cm )5 A ) > 'B
6% )5 A '% &. % . ,A × × cm ! 5
B2! 6L) u O 1 RMG" 1 1 u MG" :. 1B1O RMG" .
! ; 3; 2(W fB5 ( 6& 41B1O MG" 'bTq` 6(%c
R oGM 6& )5 A '% % :* @ % B! 3 A
% 5 ! L#) * *OO 21. )5 A /1 6& * :; B!
'% 1W# × − * b`q` 6(%c
R B1*1 ac a oGM 6& S@ S1M 5 LO& / fj.
/% ] 6x (?1 & 11N 6(% 11N / )5 A :. * J3&
×− * )> % bwg\ Ne wY\ Hec xB& ; b'B 6)M . . . :*
:) A /1 6& W '; 1W# 1W# ! C *
E B :. :1 /; 12 xB& ; :W)X '% /?! E
Plexy Glass
a` 63 2 7( 8
< - % &. R Tq` 6(%
! /* )5 A ! B! RoGM ; uL) 21. `q` 6(%
aa 63 2 7( 8
6& b% a <1 A /1 6& 1 * J3& $ ;1!c :) /?!
A /1 6& * /1. B '% ! / ^& xB& ; A
% :2 ?1 < '% ^& oGM 6& A fj. 1 5 *
. Y\ !(O 1 R W" /H K1 :2 B ' :$x / R >1
:OW1 h\ u O ^1 5 * A $5 61(* B
$> E& 1! Q$ 5 ,* 8N I$B 1BH / / % 2 <1
6& * A B '1! 4> 1 O 1 * < %
8N I$B :&. W ' :$x ?1 < R>1 < ?)W R oGM
<1 :OW1 da 8N I$B 6X O :; . :OW1 Y\\ O R B1*1
21. ^& < o ; 5 * A B ' :
'* 6" _Wk R>1 W ( B (% C1 !
-@ M1ML :* W5 A . B1C !+3 ) > /
A :$x l K2 f WODZ* ':. 1. / B! )$O 4> u O
':; !& G. &" .. !.(% R .(% )5
4 (C 1 5 N)* << 3@8
B :. C1 _12 !.(% 3(* % V u ;/!
!.(% 6& ; ' C, u R B?! ^1 !.(% u
/=12 " 4" BH E B% /=12 "L# LO& X O& 12
ah 63 2 7( 8
A u !.(% B ' <! k3 6 E 21. :21
21. B2! ?C)> !LO& _85 . R W A ! ; +; 21.
'$WE u R B?!
" C ; :. !21. G. 6(* I !(! (
/ O? :W)X O <! / !21. )$O ' -) 1v
( _1 +3 ' (! 8/( Q. C, 1B! C :* /(
X> .(% 'B G. -) 1v r xB& !; :. !.(%
Q . R *1% fB5 !OO '% 1H ,( B / ; !OO
O& / / 6& ; ':. 75 cm 9 mm Q8 mm K1 C -E 5& k QW& k
JE ':. % /C 5 * - hh\ * bYa ppm LO&c
'BB -X C ! " u O ; !(O !OO
J3& A f & " _1 +3 6& )V $X f O
O -X .(% G. '% -X _1 +3 1e (1
'% aq` 6(%
5 !OO 6& R)V $X K$. !/ % pX O
5 OO 6& !/ .3 K1 '% , ! /1.?1 pX ; _%
-X O 'B bA*Hc +3 !OO BB < !/ QK1
: $X R)V C5) 6 R ( 1)O) !/ /H % -X ! " %
Soda glass
Part Per Milion
aZ 63 2 7( 8
_1 +3 (1(O ((O aq` 6(%
!/ ; 'B! <? S1M 5 !/ O -X / B B!
^& OO 6& ; S1M :X. QB 5 (O 1 612 J3& /1 DZ
, ! /1.?1 S.) & 1)O) / % % 5 1 ; O '%
& @ <1 !/ QB1C / A <? S1M !/ ! :.
/ O -X 'b:. 1e (1 A / < c 1. !&
' ,2 !OO 6& * % -X u O ! @ '. B1*1 21.
c % G. u * !OO ; ':. E/P :$2 !.(% s C :1)
!& S1M )V < -E b:. 1 u O :e E/P )$O
<1 :) OO )V $X 6M B!& ? " !)5 !C >1
)5 )V < -E ;? :W)X % G. * ; f(X '% !& #) *
+3 ( * '% % OO o3 6 <# % <# OO -E
'1B s5 <# _1
ad 63 2 7( 8
i _1 +3 R% &. mE hq` 6(%
.4N & 1O/&O :17 HP# 0 "F & MO <=>=B
; Ok C1 ,* 6$ !) C1 _12 .(% mE
_1 +3 A % v z[d% .B% R / A /BX %8; '
'% &. ) E R MG" . × × cm AH
fB5 30cm 8mm Q7mm -E 5& k QW& k K1 OO YZ 6% MG" !
B / -) $ .. .(% 6& )V $X f 'bhq` 6(%c f1
:. B B% /! 1e BH :) ; '% . bTACc
!OO 6& >1 .. .(% 6& B2! )V A A $X %
:. :$x @kB A bTACc B / -) $ 5& ':. $X ?1 _1 +3
BH J3& /H ':. stop start 1 J3& K.B
bTACc B / -) $ R R B1*1 9L R . E B :. 1e
1B -X b1e a 1. ! DZ c 1. / ] 1&R '1! 1&R stop
ag 63 2 7( 8
/ -) $ 5& '1; bTACc B / -) $ :O a 5& A K1
,. R W1. I. 1W K1 B -) btriggercBB -) ,. bTACc B
[\ s> :1) /& a % 1&V O I. 1W '% 2 BB -)
_1 +3 !OO 5) 6 ((O /1 A K1 B 1W# _1 +3
+3 !& +3 A ? R OO % K.B 1 1BH -X / ;'% -X
_1 +3 oB :2 '! /* OO X :C5 )V $X 6M
1#* 6 1v :.!OO i A 1#* 6 i )V 12 :.
'% :$e )V 12 O f(X + G. ,. G. ':.
OO . E & A .(% - 1 ,. K$.
/ R ! 1 A !& 1BH :$e B W1& B % MG" .
_1 +3 ; ) '% G. % % , b:X. BH c uE )
O& / / ; s aa\ !OO 6& ; * '% :$e & / (% )V
B1*1 !+3 _ K] E % 1% 3 n 1G. !OO '
! 1G. ! '% .(% 6 OO C O !_ f %
', B u /% % pX * > u u ! % 11 (*
6 B ' < 1eR (* ! % 3 X <
:1)@) < 'b% nc% 1% 1G. n u A S@ !OO
'% Zq` 6(% / R :%8; 5 ?1 & l
h\ 63 2 7( 8
i _1 +3 S.) % !* 12 1O) Zq` 6(%
.4N 7Q' 0 "F E=>=B
c )V 12 R GO)R A / /* ] O$ 6 _5 W$ R% &. R /H
)E % dq` 6(% " i . R A R W ?1 b!OO
R OO . MG" ! W$ R R 61( mE '% &.
k@ ! 1 B; ! X R OO . :C5 E :%
'1B 11 Y X RL) # A MG"
. R *1% fB5 !OO ':. !OO :#] R L) # k& )$O
f(X ' Ym Y\ mm Qg mm K1 C -E 5& k QW& k
B 21. A G. ?1 6(* :% 5 1 A <1 1 ,.
hY 63 2 7( 8
i . _1 +3 R% &. R mE dq` 6(%
'; I % gq` 6(%
1. >1 / 6$ :2 ) uE f(X + G.) R O
M1ML 4> $> W E& 1! '* ; _Wk _5
'% / . B1C / 9W# !$B5
1% R- 71S% ;1 T7O% >=>=B
/ - :. ( 11 :. _Wk _5 6$ R W 61O
:$e / ) uE f(X G. / % ?1H / 12 A
'z[g 4> ,. f(X 21. / 1j !+3 E& 1!
-) bTriggerc BB -) ,. 3X bTACc B / -) $ 5& W
!f(X % 4> & " f(X -) ?1 CCD 1 A
- / R % W '% 1&V 1j K1
h[ 63 2 7( 8
i . _1 +3 R% &. R gq` 6(%
)V 12 #$%& Q:% uE / 1 )V 12 :$e :. 12 .(%
R W / 1 u ,. RC 1 K1 '% :$e +
'$
.4N ,1 B=>=B
u GW# ! . W$ +3 _Wk R >1 / :. f
' . !OO * R '1! ) > <@ ,.
zT\:. :e !/ : :1)W % E/p ∼ V/cm Torr "L# :e E/P
':% ; 6& ! * : u = Constant× (E/P )/ R. R k /
W1 YT YY !O K1 )$O Q < hh\ aa\ @ * B
:C5 B 'zTY E/p ≈ V/cm Torr @ G. :O
hT 63 2 7( 8
B Q :. B1C * !,* !$B5 O 5 G
b/C ! *c hh\ bW$ !:2 !OO *c aa\ * W$ !<
': 1 b:&. R W c * J3& % 3(* hh\ * ' (
/.A E/P !:$2 9W# !O J3& Q9W# !OO !<
& u RC < hh\ * C ' ( b∼ V/cm Torrc
':.
JE (% /*k. / D? K$. ? 1 1 B 1 O MG"
C ! B Q% .& !1W# pX 5 ?1 y@ ?1 MG"
MG" ?1 y@ 5 DZBM . 61W@ cm × cm m × m
b/c ; * cm -E / ; % R OO `a\ $@ '$ 1 ( 5
:1)G1 K] C X `\\ !OO A A / :2 f hh\
u !O % 3(* B] ' G. W 5 u
:#]c ( @ 15 mm !(O R W" Q% -X O C *1 ;
<? C5) 6 E ,. RC ' <! 10 mm b!OO
:. l ' G. / R W E& 1! :
_1 +3 G. % Y\q` !6(% ;/! ' <# :] 12 W
f(X BH ?1 i . _1 +3 G. % 12 f(X BH i
'; 1)C _& :1)G1
h` 63 2 7( 8
-) 4 /* !_ 1 +3 S.) % !* ! 12 Y\q` 6(%
:. !.(%
U=>=B
&. R % / % &. ! R W1. 6$ R W )V A <1 .(%
J! ( 1 / 1! G. .. !.(% R & R%
E& 1! '1B 1 :. :. ! !C )V O,H . &"
s3] R W" 'bYYq` 6(%c K1 ? I) A 6(% .. .(% a 6()*
y% ' % I) ? & W1& :) k. .(% . m I)
' .. .(% a b[\\ ns R W"c /! a ; .(%
+3 MG" u O -@ 21. b! C & A /BX c ! :$e
B :% k. .(% @1 _1 +3 /H '% -) ?1 i . _1
B! ,. RC / 1 K$. O :. $X / 6& R)V k
12 A " ! C BH W #$%& '1% O& !f(X !
ha 63 2 7( 8
_12 .(% A /BX _1 +3 ! mE YYq` 6(%
'% Y[q` 6(% % :$e 12 BH " C BH
R X> /* '( 1 % 9) < B) 6u G.) R
!C :$e C R W1. 1 B :. _1 +3 !
C 61WM >1 !& 12 :$e / ) 5 RG. ) $ O 'j !
IG / (1B( B) 3(* % ( < :. 4u ! !C
';
hh 63 2 7( 8
!/.. ! _1 +3 S.) ! !C R!* Y[q` 6(%
& 78 69- ": ;< 01-1
1 /=0 2 25 0#OP ' = Q<R @>
u Y[\\ sG ) A .. !.(% ! R2; !C
I ' . C XG . R I (% /C tk.
;/2! A ' :. n = .± . + cosnθ I XG R
-) nB!! nB!! I A '% :$2 21EBN /1 % . I
2 XG R / 4) -) !nB!! R B + . I
'AII ≈ (.+ .sinθ) ± . AI ≈ (.+ .sinθ) ± . K1
.. !.(% )e )V 8; /( Q,. RX> % !:1)k 4X B]
'% . ?1 :. C RC$5 !?1& :
hZ
hd 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
%.O G% <=<=U
!C R W1. Y\\ TeV <1 ! bUHEc OF C1 !
tk. .. !.(% R W 1. ! !C ' % (% C
5 ! J3& G. ! !C /1. :C5 '% .(% 1
: ) :. :) )$O :. G .. !.(% 1
)$O 'BB (% ?1 C ] O,H !.(% ' ,2 / 1;
1!& )V ] O,H ; o / .. !.(% S@ <#
RoGM A :. m × m (1.3 /.. A 6() * .(% ! 6" ':&
J! '% :@ bPMTc 1x( u A <1 A S.) ; B
:. m% <
RoGM 6& O !_ % ! C ! :$e :1)k 4X e 1# qY
'! R2; C ! .(% R :1)k 4X B
'6M tk. ! C . .. R R $.M q[
'! R2; !C . I 1 21EBN /1 e . qT
u sG $O % :. $O R &" r C < -) R W <
'% !& 4> /C (? [a\\
hg 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
!& 'B ; G . < !k& R $.M mE Yqa 6(%
!C $Ov II /1H S.) %(% !& /1 $Ov I /1H S.) %(%
B2! !
6)% +%.1 E=<=U
. ':. % /* Yqa 6(% .. !.(% ( 1 ( O 6 .
! R2; !C .(% ×× cm (1.3 /.. .(%
'% G. )e )V /1. / :$e 1B!
sG m × m tk. 6(% ! oGM / (1.3 /.. .(% !
A ?1 4! R % % 1G. n / W& $ 5 tk. ':. ; Yacm
5& ! ':. ; (EMI 9813KB) a cm R ! k bPMTc 1x( u
W A (CAEN N412) O d I. RBB :@ A R W1. bPMTc 1x( u !
O d b RBB 5c 1 Br1 (2 A ! fj. '% :@ (×)
Discriminator
Z\ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
1Br1(2 - ! '% . % 1oB [\ mV 1 R . (CAEN N413A)
1 e Ya\ R B C (CAEN N405) @kB C ( ' 5&
!5& K1 E % . bTACc B / -) $ A ,
5& % 6" [Y (TAC) B / !-) $ start ! TY !.(%
-) $ ! 5& fj. '% 6" bTACc B / -) $ ! stop ! [
bMCAc O BH ,W1WM A % 1oB 1e [\\ 1@ bTACc B /
'; 6$ X (ADC) -1> DO -) $ A UE / l % .
@kB S.) :$e y% 1R f ':. .(% . ! -. QX3E) :$e y%
/1H '% & R W1. bT[c b[Yc !.(% 1 ! J3&
R W" X " ,! .(% . -) /1H '% G. <
/1 A A $X % !! <1 E ; ,A . Z\
R W" :. S& A .(% . 4) /1H ':. .. .(% . !
II /1H !! 'bYqa 6(%c ; @ tk. A ,A . aY\
R A .. .(% CH % 4> ?1 , < ':. ! !C %
! ':. % /* [qa 6(% ! :$e (1(O ! ;
+$ NG6 0< &"+O"$) ! ? )# P mV &"+O"$) ! ? 7 Q BC )6 +.
L% +. R+ Q 5 G" &"+O"$) ! F)- Q : + NG6 P mV E" BC ,Q S'
: " TQ +% BCU ,Q V9W3 ,' ,Q F
Logic Unit
Multi Channel Analyzer
Analog to Digital Converter
ZY 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
) CH R A (1(O < < [qa 6(%
% -) 1e Ya\ BC @kB S. Q21. BB -. ! .(% CH
b[Tc bT`c Qb`Yc bPMTc 1x( !u 5& ! 1 ! J3&
'% & R W1.
V1(W7 H& >=<=U
RC$5 :. 61WM ':. % /* ! C A Yqa 6(%
':. 1)O) R)V :C5 >1 ! C : :C5 X Q:# tk. A ! C
! /* xyz L) # ! C :C5 n R()
n = sin θ cosϕi+ sin θ sinϕj + cos θk bY'Y'ac
! 1 T ! J3& 'B2! . .. K1 ϕ θ k
A " .(% . T T ; '1B 9 [T ! 1 T [Y
Z[ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
'1 $.M n /1. :C5 1 1, ; /2( s3] 7 R
:C5 y X3E) T T @ 1 !,* ! 12G oB
k& C BC % !?1& : @ )$O 'BB 6 & ! C
$.M 6 !k& @ W 1O) :. 4u DZ f 'B2! 1C. ?1 !.(%
:. !
T =
c d.n+ (T − T) + (τ − τ) + (t − t) b['Y'ac
T =
c d.n+ (T − T) + (τ − τ) + (t − t) bT'Y'ac
GW# 6X % 9W# .. !.(% C R C$5 /1. / !G
Yqa 6(% b d dc .. !.(% 1 R W" bnc C M 1; :C5 W5
4 / G . E :. 1 ! 1&R T T QT ':. , 6X
:. >B B2! 1)$2 )V /H '% ! CC !&
t t Qt ':. ,. % !k& τ τ Qτ 'BB : c :X. )V
:$e / C RC$5 )V 1O) /1. 1 :. C RC$5 :#] % !G
D(x) x 1)N <# 4CG ' 5 .. .(% . C
B :. /2( .. !.(% 4 ? :#. /H '1B G. % /*
% /2( .. .(% . ! !,. !?1& : :.
D(τ) = D(τ) = D(τ) = D(τ) b`'Y'ac
Dispersion
ZT 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
T T -) /1H
T =d/ cos θ
c+ (T − T) + (τ − τ) ba'Y'ac
T =d/ cos θ
c+ (T − T) + (τ − τ) bh'Y'ac
<1 % V ?1 3 $ / BH! ':. .. !.(% 1 R W" d S
BC % k& > 6X 1! B ':. ( !/1 % -) /1H !!
:. 1!& 1B I5 ! T T @ ; ' 5 / btc C RC$5
T + T = (T − T − T) + (τ − τ − τ) bZ'Y'ac
% Z'Y'a `'Y'a R O
DI(τ) =
DI(T + T) bd'Y'ac
)V 1O) /1. 1 J3& II /1H ':. -) < /1H RB! /* I f
B ':. .. !.(% /( 6@2 C :$e / C RC$5
D(t) = D(t) = D(t) = D(t) bg'Y'ac
:% 1!& % ; xyz y M /1H ;
T =d
csin θ sinϕ+ (T − T) + (τ − τ) + (t − t) bY\'Y'ac
T =d
csin θ sinϕ+ (T − T) + (τ − τ) + (t − t) bYY'Y'ac
:% 1!& g'Y'a `'Y'a u ; o u R O I5
DII(τ) =
DII(T + T) −D(t) bY['Y'ac
Z` 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
II I !/1H !< L#) * -5 Yqa -5
E< 0√
D(T + T)(ns) , - . 0 "1
>XPPP @Y±PP> PPP I
PPP Z@±PPY X@P II
':. ! C :$e / ! C R)V 1O) /1. / G <# I D(t)
':. C RC$5 :#] S.) * c√D(t) :G; / K1
X & 6)% CD, B=<=U
4 5+ &! 6 7 6 , 8,9* :/ 8 9-
':. % 4> 61WM C ! /* < ! *@ Tqa 6(%
T & ! :$e .. !.(% G. ! !C
< y@ ':. % /* Tqa 6(% k@ A & ! ' 1 T
. R T M / W" M 1 $@ R 1 A II /1H y
>1 '% I MG" 4 :&B( E ?1 !& %
DII(τ) R O ':%8; !# R$ W" M % (T− T) = (T− T) ; %
B '!,. k& :. 2 C RC$5 :#] <1 1 R 1 BC %
':. 2 bnc C M W" :C5 .. . I M y@ I
y@ I !L Tqa 6(% 'B2! !& 1O,H R 1 ^& y@
$ V ;$ 0 " S & 0
Za 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
BMB A I /1H S.) % :$e ! !C I Tqa 6(%
`qa 6(% 'B! /* √(T + T) T QT !I X Q@ !M
'! /* II I /1H √(T + T) T QT !L mE
:21O < ! % G. !& ! √D(T + T) @ T'Y'a -5
'%
: ':. % $.M DI(τ) R O R W1. !,. !?1& : % <#
k&c .. !.(% 6(% ! R oGM LM !?1& : !?1&
τ τ Qτ <# :. '% % G. A1(O bLM
1!& :. B Q
√DI(τ) =
√
DI(T + T) = . ns bYT'Y'ac
LM k& A 1 ( O k& % ! C / 1 . / k &
/1 A $X LM k& bz[ac W$ ! . '% bσ =√σelec + σL.Ec
Light Enclosure
Zh 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
I < :. l (−/)(T + T) T QT I `qa 6(%
'% !& ns A1(O k& f ':. . ns .. .(% 6& (
bA1(O k& ! LM k&c τ <# 1B -$ 1)O) 1
$X .. !.(% ( !/1 -) /1H /H :. /2( /1H
!.(% ! !C R ) e !/( O u 4) /1H O B B
B] ':. !/(O % ! !/1 $X % ! BB $X ..
/1 A 1BH! ':%8; !& 1eR ?1 (1(O & ! sG G
C B > .. .(% /1 $X 6) M S& A B:C5 A
'8; 1eR .(% 6& ;%
S.) / ;% <# B1# 1% ^1 6$ u DII(τ) 1# oB
CORSIKA i '1% % II /1H bD(τ)c C RC$5 :#] %
G. G .. . / 1)O) )V S.) % 1O !C . 1$%
ZZ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
:#] R $.M KORSICA i G. ! !C !.1$% l aqa 6(%
C
!W" % . 1$% C ! ' . 1$% ! C C5) 6
DZ] . -) y% E % _# " QC M r G
)V /1. / C :#] BB DZ] . -) y% !C '%
. 1$% !C $.M $1 l ':. % $.M !.(%
& `\\ S.) @ k@ ! 6(% ':. % /* aqa 6(% %
/* .. R K2 S.) <# 85 aqaa 6(% '! /* C L) #
:1) 1BH! % . R K2 :1) aqab 6(% Q:. %
C /* !BMB '% C )V " aqac 6(%
% ^#. C 1G X3E) B2! % . 1$% ! !+
':21 .. R 2 Q 1. !C <# qY
Zd 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
.; BMB A % . 1$% !C !<# ) 8 I hqa 6(%
B 11 C :#] BMB :. %*H @ ':. % + /
' <! 1)O) RV .. R <? <# S.) @ q[
' <? ! C R )e )V <? <# S.) @ qT
A :. % /* hqa 6(% !. 1$% !<# ) 8 I
) 8> S.) / .; I S.) ':. % + / .; BMB
% hqa 6(% ' :$2 II /1H C )V /1. / √D(τ) !<#
!C X> C R C$5 :#] S.) @ C :. √D(τ) = . ns
':. :. c√D(t) = . m @ % . 1$%
:. Y['Y'a R O T'Y'a -5 5 X3E) :. √D(t) G.
'√DII(τ) = ns
@ % b√DI(τ) = . nsc -) /1H y <# 2@
:. % :. DII(τ) > DI(τ) 1B1 1BH! 'B2! A? ! W1&
Zg 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
-$ 6 R . A? ! .(% R ) ! !C !<
sG ! I /1H ( !/1 1 Q% M Discriminator S.)
'BB > <1
4 6" 1; 6 <! 6 %+1 =! &>8
s ,( d R W" > .. .(% %(% C R 1)O) )V /1. / ;
R)V :C5 % [qa 6(% Q% o J" ?1 C R C$5 DZBM % s
:. R. Rk bnc
sin θ sinϕ =c
d(s − s) bY`'Y'ac
ϕ θ k& :. 'zT[ M /@ A $ @ C1 & :C5
:% " θ k& / B Q:. 2
∆θ =√[(
c
d∆s) +
(∆dd
)]/ bYa'Y'ac
A )V 5 R W" /1. / R $.M k& ∆d ∆s ¯cos ϕ = ¯sin ϕ = /
% ∆s =√σi + σsh " ! !C /1. / k& ':. ! C
C )V /1. 11N σsh / <>B. V :1)k 4X σi =√DII(τ) = ns %
/* !<>B. ':. ! C R C$5 :#] % % .. .(% A
" ! C :#] zTTLinsley R O@ -) R O ':. σi < σsh !
5 R ! Q:. B- ! C M .(% R W"
d\ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
% 6$ 6(% k
σsh = (. ns)(+ r/)./√n(r, θ) bYh'Y'ac
':. θ R C R 2! r R W" ! C )V n(r, θ) K2 r
J R k R W 1 . % )V O,H /! n(r, θ) ) A .(% A
" ∆θ B Q o J" .. R σsh 91] ,2 ':. zT`NKG
% %
∆θ =√(
c
d)[σi + .(+ r/)./n(r)] +
(∆dd
) sin θ/ bYZ'Y'ac
KOv ! C :#] % k& Qr D? @ ! /* u R O
:#] % k& <1 σi V k& ! C R 2! (? B ':.
W" ,A Ya ) A !.(% 3 x ':. bσshc ! C R C$5
1, o I) )V a\ ? )V O,H .. R BC ; Q
Q V k& B $X C. ∆θ k& . ':. ∆θ = . @
.. !.(% R K$. Q)e )V ( :1)k 4X ! C RC$5 :#]
'. . Q. K1
4[1 )E" $ , ?< $ * \ & , $ \ TShower CoreU
: F 0< V
dY 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
%?; 8 $
1 ! J3& b[qa 6(%c 6(% ) R /BX .. .(% CH /1H
T QT K1 :. ! C ! b[Tc bT`c QbY`c !.(%
C5) 6 T K2 T *@ Zqa 6(% ' % /* T
7 R A ` T QY .. .(% . > '! /* ! !C
R @kB A ! /* ! !C E@ QB! 61(* 2 s3]
* 6" *@ ':. .. !C R @kB 45 ? %
! C ! . .. ':. ! !C M :C5 I
E@ 6% Sb Sa 5& W& !s% @W nB A '% $.M *@
R Q.. R @kB / ; ! !C M :. b!Cc
% 1>B. @W nB A !+% 2 ; '. sin−(Sac/d) < θ < sin−(Sbc/d)
6(% ' !& dqa 6(% % /* " .. R K2 / !& I
Zqa 6(% @W !nB y@ +% % .. I mE dqaa
Z(θ)dθ = C sin θ cosn θdθ " dqa 6(% .. R W12G I ':.
Zqa 6(% ! ; ':. n = .± . /1H /C '% <
!sk / 6& y@ +% ?1 ! !C . I 1 1B 12@ !sk
1. C :C5 ' G. T T J3& S@ + ' :.
T QT J3& . 1& + 'z?% $.M ?1 ) +
W$ + C 1& + :) '% G. ! C ! :C5 R $.M B2! T
d[ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
R C.. 1 ! J3& BMB ! !C I Zqa 6(%
.. UEB RBB 5 !@W )
:. m% b.. .c W)M ^#. % G. S ':.
4 % , @ & ,* 8 9-
!"#$ %"& $
' ( #
z + ax+ by + c = K00aL
)# *+ z , -./ y 01.2 x 34# $ )# 5 678 4 34# xyz
# 6$ ϕ 4# , θ ## *, )$ 349 : ! # 4; <": c
' !:
tan θ = (a
+ b)/ cos θ = (+ a
+ b
)−/, Ki00aL
dT 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
cosϕ = a(a
+ b
)−/ sinϕ = b(a
+ b
)−/ K\00aL
, :## #$=> & ?"3 @: $ :## #$=> 678 4 $ (xi, yi, zi) (
) !A li = (axi + byi + c + zi)(+ a
+ b)−/
B *C"7 DE ! F i :## #$=> , " : & ti (
Σ
i=(lj − ctj) &"#, lj = l − lj 0ctj = c(t − tj) " 6G8 H 034# : I E , %
*"8J4 ( )# $> F$K :## #$=> 9: IL-# F , $: +# c
Y = b( + a
+ b)−/ , X = a( + a
+ b
)−/ 0βj = y − yj 0αj = x − xj 6$ *!!
M !> !-A $ Σ
j=(αjx+ βjy − ctj) 6$ lj , ctj " *6, 6G8 H 0?"- NG
Y , X 9: H -" )O!- z = *,$ :## *#$=>
' ?"A
X = c
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∑αjtj
∑αjβj∑
βjtj
∑βj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣ /∣∣∣∣∣∣∣
∑αj
∑αjβj∑
αjβj
∑βj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣ K\00aL
Y = c
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∑βjtj
∑αjβj∑
αjtj
∑αj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣ /∣∣∣∣∣∣∣
∑αj
∑αjβj∑
αjβj
∑βj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣ K\\00aL
' ?"- # 6$ $ ϕ , θ *, ?": Y , X DP#
θ = tan−(
√X + Y
−X − Y ) ϕ = tan−(
Y
X) K\00aL
I dqab 6(% '% 61WM + ! C Y`\\\ X> K1
n = .± . + n / '! /* ! !C ..
tk. sG <! bbNc C R )e )V c ! C R <? ' :.
b× < N < × cAH $2 !C E ' <? n /
'zTh :. n = . / @ tk.
d` 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
% 5 UEB a 6(% ) < % :$e ! !C .. I dqa 6(%
:. % $.M ) + G. b 6(% :. 6$ 6(%
da 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
. ;/2! I gqa 6(%
Ta q[\ Q[\ qa 1 .. ! !C . I gqa 6(%
! !C R% 61WM '! /* bg\ q\ c.. R ! a\ qTa
;/2! A % /* . I ':. gqa 6(% <# ! H :.
! ?1 A2 ! 1BH! ;/2! '% B5qO%
B5qO% ;/2! 1! /* 'zTZ:. % × eV <1
1! K1 1! , A < :21 CH R R .B! %
% /* Y\qa 6(% ?1 < . I ' ( 1&H R
21EBN /1 e & ; :. % f(1 ;/2! ! /* :.
':. 1
* . I A G . ? 1 KORSICA . 1 $ %
/ C 1 2 1E B N / 1 ! G O)R ' :. % . 1 $ % ! !C
dh 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
1&H R . ;/2! I Y\qa 6(%
l 'zTdB; G. . 1$% bBx = . µT , Bz = . µT c
gqa !6(% !I ':. % /* YYqa 6(% % . 1$% !C
% + I Y\qa
ASYM = +AI cos(ϕ−B) +AII cos(ϕ− C) b[`'Y'ac
:. !BM B O + !: e R !
-) n B ! ! ':. < 1 AII ! AI @ % ' `'Y'a -5
<1 :1) ! . θH = R .. 1 21E B N / 1 R 6M
: $ R - x / B X Q: . G S % , ! ': . &
nB!! ! :. θH = / 21E B N / 1 .. R b.N,.Ec
dZ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
; o . KORSICA i S.) % .1$% !C I YYqa 6(%
.(% 6M 21EBN /1
% + ! ASYM ;/2! I K] [qa -5
≤ θ <
≤ θ <
≤ θ <
≤ θ < ])I <
. . 0.090 . AI *
. . . . AII
B
−.
.
C
. . 0.178 . AI "-)1
. . . . AII
B
−
C
dd 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
! % 4> < % !* B5qO% ;/2! R 2@ Tqa -5
w K2 b(Ns −Nn)/(Ns +Nn)c KORSIKA i R W1. .1$% % 1O l
≤ θ <
≤ θ <
≤ θ <
≤ θ < <
> >Y >@ *
Z >^ >> @ "-)1
>> . . ^ ),
. X X "?
R -) nB!! bN,E, θH = c A2 R 'B2! 2 $ @
R B G. '33 <1 :1)! 4) nB!! b.,., θH = c OH
! !C Ns(Nn) 1B . ;/2! @ bNs −Nnc/(Ns +Nnc
R 2@ 'B2! .. R K2 /. bO%cB5 R1 :. % (%
':. % /* `'Y'a -5 G .. % 4> .1$% !<
<? .. R <? ;/2! % YYqa Y\qa Qgqa !6(%
'1B !* b!I)c A2 l b !c l R2@ Y[qa 6(% '
' <? θ .. R ;/2! R B % 6(% K1
R H :. A2 R % +?; l <1 B ! 1B!
':. A2 R 6) M / <1 R 6M bθHc 21EBN /1 ..
Yakutsk
Chakaltaya
dg 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
:. l & U /& R S.) % !* ;/2! I Y[qa 6(%
A2 R &"
;Y U=<=U
R W1. I. :$e .(% UE u ! !C /1. :C5
,! R $5 A R W1. u .. .(% ! '% 4> .. !.(%
/ !:1)k 4X <# ':. % :oM 3 1 ! b6(% ! R $5c
/ #) * Q! C RC$5 :#] % !:1)k 4X '% 1# C A :$e
(1(O ) A .. !.(% S.) %(% R )e )V $X 6M
! C RC$5 :#] K$. k& RX % 'B2! ,! R $5 G.
V k& .. C M (? , $X ':.
% CB*1 ':. !k& , C G. (1(O ,! R $5 %
R I 'z? % G. _12 !.(% :. C U1 l / :.
C A , JE 'B :1)$ n = .± . cosn θ / ! C ..
% JMB /1 )V Q. 1 21EBN /1 :$2 !
g\ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
:. % B- zTZIvanov R O@ 5 . R ;/2! A
;/2! B5 !C <1 M O% !C ! /*
" /2( .. ! !C B- ' 5
gqa !6(% 1B !* O% !& *! 1 B ':. ;
" % .. R 91] 1) -) nB!! !B '% Y\qa
'% + AII ≈ (.+ . sin θ) ± . AI ≈ (.+ . sin θ) ± .
N* = 1 N1 5 /G+ 0 + ,@>
1 2
Y[\\ sG /C ! R2; !C G. C1 ! ;/2!
k1M e 61WM $@ !A1B( ! 61WM ' Ok tk. u
! % ! !C . ;/2! A ' G.
' !* :. 1 21EBN /1 % C1
%.O G% <=E=U
bE ≤ eV c .. !.(% J ! S.) Ok C1 !
> *# -@ A % JMB :. µG /*(C 21EBN /1
u , Q:21 8/( C1 !k.) 1) !" B 'BB
gY 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
,2! I A o " A B ' (% C / bE ≥ eV c!
W)M e % o ;/2! JM ' 9W# !:C5 C1 !
1BH R!* K$. '% 1 21EBN /1 !*H (? Q 1 : 6x
1; A / % 2 ! C5) 6 > 1 (H !;/2!
' 7 -$ 6 !:1) 1G
G . ! & I 5 K . B A
% ( % C 1 ! u ': . . . ! . ( % !
/ C R ' Y\\\ Tev Y\\ Tev R ! S .)
:$ e & [T`\\\ YTdY -. ( m ≡ gcm−,. N,. E)
':. PeV ! A ! ;/2! R Ok < W" J! '
C% Z E=E=U
! '% G. ! !C .(% (1.3 /.. .(% CH
'; 6(% ! ?W R $5 A × × cm !/.. 4
'1B 5 < /1H :2 6$ <# 1 < <1 M1]
+&'$ ; 0 !"3+_ 0 " V `G V J B.? a0< ,b) 01
: ++ cC - 2 "4 F
g[ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
:. % + / I A !& R W" I YTqa 6(%
.F [, >=E=U
[T`QZT[ ) ':. :. 1e [QTT[Qd\\ / ) RX>
Ac 1 e & \Y\\h & S.) nB! A ':. % :$e I5 &
':. % /* YTqa 6(% !& R W" I '! b1e gg` ! &
/ A C I o B2! " !& >
R W" I I + !& nB! 'B :1)$ P (t) = A exp(−t/τ)
! & A R >1 % :$e ! I + ' :. !&
! % 1v !GO)R RB! /* I JM ' :. 1e gd`
l . O +?; / JM A zTg<(! Bhat ':. C1
+?; /*!& / > Tebatron R ! -x /BX '% #) * C
':. I & U 1B! ?1 R% !* I 'z`\
gT 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
.F [, & ! $J B=E=U
.. !.(% ':. 2 ! ! !C .(% nB!
bPMTc 1x( u 3 x E :. 2 bPMTc 1x( u
/H Q <? :$e - B <? ?1 5 R <?
11 & b 1x( u ! +8 R . Oc .(% R . Q.(%
1eR H ) Q:%8; !# C5) 6 1e .(% e B 1B
/B !< ':. * . B! :%8; !& ! !C +2;
O '( . e /B E& 1! $ 1;*H 11N 4>
* ! '% . ! !C * e 5 * 5 X3E)
6(% ' :. :. 6M (? C ; 2 .B%! R
% /* < ) 6 .. . R ! !& S.) nB! Y`qa
% ; !& nB! ! * e . G !+ /B ':.
. " !& nB! ?1 'z`[Q `Y:.
R = R exp(P − Pi
P) b[a'['ac
:. ! + P = mb P = mb QR = h− @
G !/ ! * ?1 Pi b1B 5 Y`qa 6(% M s% y@ 5) c
! !C 4r& !& nB! 5 * 2 / > l ':.
' :.
Discriminator Threshold
g` 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
* K2 % :$e !& nB! X. S.) @ Y`qa 6(%
+ V1(W7 U=E=U
! M +% e :. 4u 91] !;/2!
C1 ! :C5 ;/2! '1, o )5 e % +% 11N e 1BH!
4> :. % 7 z? W2B1O S.) !nB!! 61WM G. bUHEc OF
E 1; o θN , . . . , θ, θ G :C5 N ! X> '%
O '% ; o bnB!! c 1O) S@ ;. '% ≤ θ ≤ π
61WM rh QnB!! 1O) R B ' !nB!! 4 :. l
% 9 "
rh =√ah
+ bh
b[h'['ac
k
ah =
NΣN
i= cos θi , bh =
NΣN
i= sin θi b[Z'['ac
ga 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
; $.M " :. -) nB!! θh
θh =
⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩
θ bh > Q ah >
θ + π ah <
θ + π bh < Q ah >
/ :. - W B- ':. −π/ ≤ θ ≤ π/ θ = tan−(bh/ah)
R W1. r <1 R B
P (> r) = e−k , k = rN/ b[d'['ac
A k B ':. RX> % G. !& N :.
r =√rrms 1 ':. ;/2! - I R B / #) * K.B
'1, o R B /BX :. k = B
%A. " 6 &! " B.
G2 * R W1. % / !& 4& !& I K1 Yhqa Yaqa 6(%
! 61WM l a'['a -5 'B! /* > / 1%& /
-) nB!! ?> !nB!! R ! '! /* / t1ML / ! * t1ML !
! ! * 11N E B2! 6% 4& ! > 1%& !/
G Q* M1ML >1 ':. !* 6 3 > 1%& !/
4& ! k @ % a'['a -5 E /! ':. > C R>1
;/2! C5) 6 <# ! /* ':. % / ! D? W1&
':.! * 11N % % !*
gh 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
! * R W1. % / ! 4& ! ;/2! l `qa -5
;- ,
T; ddd +,$,U T7 ddd +,$,U
k θh(h) rh(%) k θh(h) rh(%) -
Pe >> PP eX P^> >>@ @e@@ "?-
PeZ >Y> PZ ^YZ >e>@ >PY @e@@ /
? 0
PYY >Ye P@Z PX PYY PXZ @e@@ "?-
PYY X>Z P@Z >^X ^@ PX@ @e@@ /
> / 1%& / % :$e ! !C 4& !& I Yaqa 6(%
gZ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
/ ! * S.) % :$e ! !C R% / !& I Yhqa 6(%
> / 1%&
%+ 8 6" B.
:. / ! / G S@ Q% G; W5 :. $.M 1$% @1 <# $.M
Z(θ)dθ = C cosn θ sin θdθ I .. I 6$ * ':. X [T`\\\ C
W$ l ?1 < ':. n = .± . R X> :. % +
e R!* '% ?1 ! . & 21EBN /1 e % 1
'% & ?1 a'['a -5 ;/2! B] ':. / & YZqa 6(%
a'['a -5 ':. a'['a -5 / l % . 1$% < QU1 .
'! /* . 1$% :. l ! < l R2@
gd 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
. ;/2! l aqa -5
k θh() rh(%) k θh() rh(%)
. > >P >Y X ≤ θ <
. >P^ . X@ >e >> ≤ θ <
e @e^ . e >Y@ >e ≤ θ <
. @P . Z^ > . ≤ θ <
% .1$% !C r . r ;/2! l hqa -5
k θh() rh(%) k θh() rh(%) N$?
. >X . . >P @ ePZ^ θ <
>>P @P^ YX @ >> P ^>eP θ >
>Z @PX Y . >> Z >PeP all θ
% + ! ASYM ;/2! I K] Zqa -5
≤ θ <
≤ θ <
≤ θ <
≤ θ < <
. . . *
"-)1
. . . . ),
. X X "?
gg 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
R l 2@ b !c /& R S.) ;/2! R!* YZqa 6(%
b!I)c A2
CD& 6 ?EF%+ GH; +: IJ;8 B.
" O% R(1 A . L) # W)M L) # L) # 6$
C QP Ydqa 6(% '% 11N ?1 B5 R(1 Bk ':.
6$ ':. .. % :$e ! C :C5 Qb$k R.c-% :C5 K1 Z
% 4> " L) #
bZP c 1N5 X 2 1B G. R.B! B12 / qY
1B $.M bPCc 61 ) R bϕc . R bθ = ZCc C M .. R
'% $.M δ = − PC " 61 R
cos(PC) = cos( − λ) cos θ + sin( − λ) sin θ cosϕ b[g'['ac
R C .. R 61 ) Qϕ . R 2 !B1. / G. q[
Y\\ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
&" 6M ! !C . L) # W)M L) # E Ydqa 6(%
'1B $.M HA X.
sin(HA)sin θ
=sin( − ϕ)
sin(PC)bT\'['ac
$ . M LST = LST + α(ZT − ZT) R k bLSTc W) M > / qT
1%& / ZT 'z`T:. .:. 6 ZT / !~O LST '1B
'z`T:. > 6 A 1%& 6 A :$2 α = .
'RA = LST − HA C i R R $.M q`
% /* Ygqa 6(% % AH !C 61 R y $.M R
61 A? B1*1 A B 1N5 X /H ':.
A I 4i B B1 R e)R E /H E '%
G. Chi-squared < ':. % 1* − , . .
Local Sidereal Time
Y\Y 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
. L) # % :$e !& W1 R I Ygqa 6(%
. L) # % :$e !& i R I [\qa 6(%
61WM '% ;/2! G. ! R!* -
:. % 4> W1 R R . i
λ < δ < λ+ qY
λ− < δ < λ q[
λ− < δ < λ+ qT
':. 1N5 X λ!$X
Y\[ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
i R ;/2! l dqa -5
λ − < δ < λ +
λ − < δ < λ λ < δ < λ +
P@ >> PX rh(%)
Y> @ Y θh() +,$,
PeeZ >PZ^>e Ze^eX N 7
P @> PXP K
P^ PZ Pe rh(%)
@ @@ @>e θh() +,$,
PeeZ >PZ^>e Ze^eX N ;
P@X P@ P>e K
':. % /* a'['a -5 [\qa 6(% i R % X3E)
;/2! i R C 1 ! I ! /* -5 k @
':. :&A
K*
4> .. !.(% 1 I. 1; R W1. u ! !C :C5
'B :1)$ n = .± . cosn θ / !C .. R I < '%
)V Q% 1 21EBN /1 :$2 ! C A , JE
21EBN /1 % )V JM zTZ9 '% JMB C 5
/! /! B5 !C 2@ O% !C ':. B - 1
! !C . 91E ;/2! A B '% JMB <1 .. R
Y\T 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
% > / 1%& / * t1ML 61WM G. ' 5
i !nB!! 11N 1) 1O) !B 1BH! '% !* ;/2! 1!
':. 6% S@ 3 X AH W1&
I15 N1 5 /G+ EGRET I )* /=) 3@>
/0 1 2
bYTd[ YTZh -. c -. a ) bUHEc OF R2; ! !C
,2 . '% 1* L /C .. !.(% G.
!*H @ -. A -E '% Ok ! ?1 .. R !*H +%
5 :#] ,2 61O '1; /1 1)N .. G
2 .. R ) % !C +% nB! C1 ! 12 .. R
; < !*H 'z`` :. % 61WM / -E :) ,2 ':.
? + G. ! !C ! % !* EGRET 4). DO
h 6% :. EGRET !*H *H BH u ) 'B; 61WM
':. &B% R*H ` O *(C -) R 2! *(C -) R 2!
Extremely high-energy Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope
Y\` 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
%.O G% <=>=U
(% ; ! r<# ? !< bCGROc /j R! . EGRET R!
R! ' zYT *(C 1$E ! zY` *(C 1$E ! <# < ':.
(% T\ GeV Y\\ MeU 1 R ; < !*H EGRET
k E B2! *H YZ\ 6% !*H *(C -) !2! B 'z`a:.
R &B% !*H 4) . '* &B% B! 21EBN(O 91E , !<#
Q/5 !& 6% B 'z`h /*(C RMG" (? (EUI) EGRET
i !. QJ !. QbWRc :r 9O !. Qz`ZQ ? 4 !&
':. !*H s , zaTQ a[Q aY & @ Qza\
B2! O; B 6% *(C !X 1 R 1 91] !*H
X !*H 'zaaQ ah % 6$ O,H !. 6$ -. /1W1 h\\ za`
zaZ B% O! 6& *(C !*H :. ( B2! X a\ *(C
6% *(C R &B% !*H ' /*(C ^& &B% !*H
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
UnIdentified EGRET
Young Pulsars
Radio Quied Pulsars
Wolf Rayet stars
Of stars
OB associations
Gould Belt
Y\a 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
zag B.L. Lac 45 Qzad*(C !%& QbAGNc *(C -) !2! Q!3
1& < ?1 <1 ! EGRET !*H -R . 'B% , s
% 1 5 <1 Y\\ TeV <1 ! ; < 'zh\ :. KO5 12 OR.
1 tk. C R ) e )V .(% / zYY BB > ! !C
% +?; ! !C ! , R W1. %8; !+3 'z[h (% !C
'zhdQ h`Q hTQ hZQ h[Q hY :.
<# ! 61WM 4). <# ' 1!& m% !,* /1H 4) <#
'% !& 7 l pM ?1 >B <# '1; . / l 4CH
6)% +%.1 E=>=U
61(* I) A 6(% b× × cmc (1.3 .. .(% CH
! '; :# tk. A !/.. R ! '% [Yqa 6(% :. %
! W& tk. ':. ; . Ya sG ?) W 6(% ! A A /..
R (EMI 9813KB) PMT A bBahmanabadi 1998c % % 1G. n A
!C (1(O mE [Yqa 6(% ':. ; 6(% ! A
.. .(% A )V A 6 ) $X f '! /* % :$e / S.) !
$X )V Q$X R)V :C5 -B,1. R B 'B 1O -B,1. A E PMT
Blazars
Galaxy Clusters
B.L. Lac Objects
Y\h 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
RBB :@ A S.) !PMT 6& 5& ! ':. 2 /.. 6& )V $X 6M
:@ ! A A fj. '% :@ b×c $ A bCAEN N412c O d I.
-@ :. % 1oB mV bCAEN N413Ac O d 1Br1(2 A %
1Br1(2 ! ':. % 1oB 5 Rk@ 1Br1(2 ! R . 'B
':. 6L) bCAEN N455c @kB ?! A C ( 5&
R] ! y% ' ,. b. -) c ! y% -X !
R W" A .. .(% CH 4 ! R)V A :. %
bORTEC 566cbTACc B / -) $ A 1Br1(2 5& 1) 'B $X ns
R% .(% !5& '% . :. % 1oB ns 6 1@ A
TAC3 TAC2 Start ! [ R % .(% 5& TAC1 Start `
Y R% .(% 5& TAC2 Stop T R% .(% 5& '% 6"
-) $ A UE TAC . !5& fj. '% 6" TAC3 TAC1 Stop !
'% . BH O BH ;61WM A fj. (ADC) -1> DO
-) @kB R W1. !TAC B% % ! !.(% R !
1j A R W1. bY[c bT[c QbY`c !.(% ! 1 J3& . %
Discriminator
f" )6 :) " 6 TStopU ; (Start) 7 " gW&- TAC
gW&- )6 W( 8 3 ? ,- F)- b&4 = f" ! ? ns W( 8 TAC =
. V . V A V ,h)- ]") ? &? F 0< " ns ns A ns ,
:? ,-
Analog to Digital Converter
Y\Z 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
EGRET !*H R!* < (1(O < < [Yqa 6(%
:$e ! C A + B '% & T Y K1 - .
';
1oB R ! 'B; < /1H R W1. !,* G K1
' R 1v /2( !,* K1 bEc 1) bEc 1O) !,*
' . m× . m E . m× . m R E
V1(W7 >=>=U
! C ! bGreenwich Mean Timec UWk / !.(% 1 % :$e ! J3&
:$e A1(O 'zhg /! GMT & 1j '% :$e 4& R /BX
6@2 % 1&V !:$e ' :$e A 1e \\aa ! - E 1e Yd[
:$e / J3& . ! ! C A ; ':. ! !C 5 4X 5
Y\d 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
UWk / QG"1v G" !:$e +% < ! s% / B '% !&
! 1!& EW# ! !C !& ' 1!& :. CBC !
R & aTg\Z ! !C 6 E 'B2! ; ! !& C1
' 1e & \Y\Za -) < & nB! S.) B ' 1e a\Y`h\ <
! /* Q I A & U !& 1 ! J3& I
R X YZTZha !& 6 E 'zZ\:. 3 !
' 1 e & \\agdh / & S.) nB! B ' 1 e [g\[daZ <
-$ 6 !& <u ' <u -$ 6 ! ^#. & !
<u B] '% % 5 / !.(% CH 1 & ! B2!
RX> .5 f B ' J8 ?1 <1 .. R !&
5 C % :$e & Y[\TTY `hTT` K1 E E AH
H Q:21 :C5 ! !C A A .B% R /H ' :.
O, 91E !& nB! R2@ % 1 R . B1#
:. ≤ E ≤ TeV R C1
J(E) = .× −E−. + .×
−E−. − .× − bTY'T'ac
@ . :. E TeV E TeV 1 !.
?1 31! J 91E ; ':. YT[ TeV g` TeV K1 < S.) !
Y\g 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
zYY !& :. < h\ TeV `\ TeV 1 !. 1B G.
F (≤ E) ≈ × −
(E
TeV
)−γ &cm.sr.s
bT['T'ac
,! R R W1. % :$e C1 ! !& I >
4). DO !*H !* zh[Q hY ? + B :. ;/2!
'% G. E E< ! + ' EGRET
:. % B . " 61WM 6 R )
+ G. & ! bφc .. bzc . QW)M L) # R $.M qY
'% 4> C L) # !.(% 1 !/ J3& 2 Q)
X C C ! !C .. . !I . q[
'!&
L) # G. & ! bbDecc 61 bRAc ic . L) # R $.M qT
$.M & ! *(C # fj. ' 6) M 1N5 X & ! UWk / QWM)
'% $.M [\\\ -. !. . b*(C bbc X blc -Ec %
k& ! G. EGRET . !*H k& 1# q`
'
! % !C . ! !C ,! I A . 1$% qa
':. % ; o < R% &B% ! 4 . 1$% QC1
DO !*H :1)) ! !*H :1)) ! . qh
:1) C / 1 fj. zZY Li Ma S.) % 7 + G. QEGRET 4) .
YY\ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
'TeV R EGRET !*H
+B % , %;- GH; +: 8 9-
zTa ) + '(φ).. bzc . B$X W)M L) #
'% K@ :# R MG" A C R C$5 $.M ' G. φ z R $.M
E
tan(z) =
√X + Y
−X − Y , tan(φ) =
Y
XbTT'T'ac
X = c
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∑xojtoj
∑xojyoj
∑yojtoj
∑yoj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣/
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∑xoj
∑xojyoj
∑xojyoj
∑yoj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣bT`'T'ac
Y = c
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∑yojtoj
∑xojyoj
∑xojtoj
∑xoj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣/
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∑xoj
∑xojyoj
∑xojyoj
∑yoj
∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣bTa'T'ac
.(% 1j J3& toj = tj − t− o L) # Doj = Dj − Do = xoj i+ yoj j
C :X. B2! 1)$2 )V /H :. )V :X. ?1 c Q:. I5 .(% :$2
! R2; !C /H '% K@ :X. :. :X. A? W1& W1&
_2 ?1 X 6 ! B% C5) 6 6 <1
' % *H ! C 61WM :. l B
YYY 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
% 8 +B , %0I 6 %+ K"
A ':. ;/2! $@ ! /* ! !C . R I [[qaa 6(%
'% :$2 1 21EBN /1 % !* B5qO% ;/2!
z`` + " I A I
f(φ) = Aφ +Bφ cos(φ− ϕ) + Cφ cos(φ− ϕ) bTh'T'ac
K1 !:e ?1 ϕ ϕ 'B2! Yd` Y[Z\ QY`aYh K1 Cφ Bφ QAφ
'B2!
!C zYY B 11N ) % .. R <? 5 :#] >
':. % /* [[qab 6(% ,2 z @ ) ?1 !
nB! '% Ok E E !< B K1 ;5 E !I
1BH! ':. D? E< B K1 H :. E E ! !C
.. R W12G I 'B 2! ! 1 $% W1& ?1 E E .. I
U E E l + dN = Az sin z cosn zdz I ! R X>
Qn = . Az = G" [ 6(% 'B% ,A & W1&
!< !C .. R S.) @ , oB 'B2! n = . Az =
* B K1 l /H ':. . . K1 E E
8O :1)! ?1 ? @ B2! ! & W1& U ,A 1$% W1&
E R . D? R X> A I5 ! R X>
YY[ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
I bbzc.. bφc.c W)M L) # % :$e !& I [[qa 6(%
:. % + ]
YYT 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
' :. :. TgTeV
+B % , %.LM, 6 %+ GH; +: 8 9-
(z, φ) W)M L) # R W1. bRA,Decc ! C ! . L) # R $.M W
8 / " (λ) < 4> 6M U1 1N5 X / -X / UWk /
:.
sin(Dec) = sinλ cos z + cos λ sin z cosφ bTZ'T'ac
sin(HA) = − sinφ sin z/ cos(Dec), bTd'T'ac
cos(HA) =cos z − sinλ sin(Dec)
cos λ cos(Dec)bTg'T'ac
LST = LST + α(ZT − ZT), b`\'T'ac
RA = LST −HA b`Y'T'ac
/ Q X . R K 1 LST ZT QHA Qα = . S
R oMO > / 1%& / LST ZT 1BH! ':. 6W)M > / 1%&
Hour Angle
Solar Time
Local Sidereal Time
YY` 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
b × c !& *(C L) # % :$e ! R*@ [Tqa 6(%
:. . L) # G. ?1 *(C L) # 'zha :. < s%
z? % $.M " [\\\ -. !.
sin b = sin(Dec) sin δNGP + cos(Dec) cos(RA− a) b`['T'ac
sin(l − l) = sin(Dec) cos δNGP / cos b, b`T'T'ac
cos(l − l) = cos(Dec) cos(RA− a)/ cos b b``'T'ac
:. I 'zhh :. l = . a = . QδNGP = . S
':. [Tqa 6(% b × !& c *(C L) # ! !C
North Galactic Pole
YYa 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
%.LM, GH; +: % LN =! &:
% $.M k& *(C L) # ! C ! L) # R $.M
/ :1)k 4X 6% :. < k& ! % !k& '1 L) #
? ? .. .(% 1 % 9 R W" '% % :$e ! C ! L) #
BH ?1 .(% ! L) # :) B] ':. × × cm .(% ! R :.
':. ∆d ∼= m ! C ! )e )V ( L) # :) B ':. .
:$e k& A1(O k& QC RC$5 :#] % & ! R% ; / k&
! UWk / k& ':. z`` ∆t ∼= ns -) % k& ':.!& /
!k& ':. 1j ! :$e nB! % :. ∆T = . s % :$e ! C
' 5 S.) . !*H *(C L) # 1)k 4X
:. m% !k& R $.M 6
'2; ! C ! . . QW)M L) # k& R $.M qY
'*H ! R!* k& R $.M q[
Y\\\ <1 4 ' !k& 1 JM S.) / :. qT
' . :% bFOVc /1 R*H
<u !& R W1. % 4> ;5 E E E $.M
'% / C /%R%
Field Of View
YYh 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
:. 1 Y 6(% R.B!
sin z sinφ =c
d(t − t) b`a'T'ac
sin z cosφ =c
d(t − t) b`h'T'ac
I) IW] R d :. .(% ! C ! R% :$e !/ !ti S
':.
:. u u 1; U* R W1. .. . k&
∆z = A∆/ cos z +B∆ tan z b`Z'T'ac
∆φ = A∆/ sin z b`d'T'ac
U * *(C . L) # !k& ':. B∆ = ∆d/d A∆ = c∆t/d
O) I A y ; ':. :. l(RA,Dec) b(RA,Dec) QRa(z, φ,T) QDec(z, φ) 1;
, % T v Qu !
y = y(u, v, T ) , |∆y| =
√(dy
du)∆u + (
dy
dv)∆v + (
dy
dT)∆T b`g'T'ac
R $.M dy/dT = Ra(z, φ,T) R $.M α = . dy/dT = α
':. l(RA,Dec) b(RA,Dec) QDec(z, φ)
s% - k& ∆Ω = cos b∆l *H ! R% !* R k&
! :. k& u 61WM ':. re ∼= √∆Ω/π re
W)M L) # ! !C O '! :. CB ! C &
YYZ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
4 k& R B ':. % . R *H ! R !C. G
!k& S.) @ fj. Q $.M *H ! y !&
k& R !& R ! > O ' :. 1)O) k& /BX &
? k& R 5 !& 4 S.) B <@ *H R *
S.) @ C '% ; o E R *H k& /BX re s% *H
IW] R /H '% ; o *(C L) # *H ! k& /BX % ;
;5 E *H ! $.M B G E E <
< ! R% <u ! :$2 :. S.) @ % ( E E
> ':. Y -5 % . !*H C k& '% /
S.) @ A JE !?1& : $@ E 9W# !*H !k& !s%
bFOVc /1 R *H bY\\\c?! <1 % V $.M B '
S.) @ 1; o < k& /BX / S.) @ (
' :. re = . ± .
$ O 8LP. 6 Q"$ " &9
*(C L) # ! !C I 9W# !/ /. G !oB K$.
*H ! W)M L) # 11N % oB R *@ 11N ' !# :&B(
< 6 / / uE K$. < 9W# /*(C R ;5 R!* 1BH!
+3 B '% *(C L) # :. ! R *@ &B( K$.
YYd 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
b × c !& *(C L) # % .1$% ! R*@ [`qa 6(%
R >1 ! 4 '1! <! & @ 6X e
1$% A [[qa 6(% % /* 5 ! ; o 61& <
:#] e ] :21 :&A φ I % [`qa 6(% ' .
Yhhhha < R% :$e ! R*@ ':. C 12 9W# .. ?1 5
& 1! @1 G. Oq: + B % :$e &
" !& ' . *(C L) # / R *@ >
_#
' _# G" bzc .. qY
' _# bφc . q[
& \Y\Za E c ! !C :$e nB! ; o / RE X qT
?1 !< q R 22; ! B] ' _# b1e & \\agdh E 1e
YYg 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
'; oB !_#
× ! & :) C S.) R *@ % ( [a\\ )
X *@ 5 X ':. % /* ` 6(% :. *(C L) #
'B2! \\\Y :) @1@
,.$ &; QA 6 EGRET LN %
':. Y\\\\ TeV `\ TeV ! s R W1. % :$e !C R
e t1ML f ':. ;/2! ,! 3 /*(C C1 ! I R
' B% EGRET !*H % B ] < -$ oB
!& !*H ) ' G. I5 /BX z`a EGRET 4). DO
S.) !* 6 !*H .5 'B% R /1 O$ 6
! y R & & fj. % *H ! !& !& Q
B :. `Zgd ! R & +% S.) @ /H '1 !*H 4
Ya <1 R & +% *H gd S@ /1 !* 6 R *H YaY
% 1$% ? + A ' 4> C & !. _# √.
& ! R*@ -) 4 ' ?1 zh[Q hY ?1 3 $ :$) R S.)
@ G" 1v !& RX $@ :. R*@ ' 12@ oB R*@ & &
C5) 6 ?1& : !& O !*H y !& ?> Q Y JE
`Zgd & & 5 R *@ ?1& : !& J8 ' A :$2
Y[\ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
*(C L) # ; 4> .1$% S.) % t1ML ! R *@ [aqa 6(%
b × c !&
% % t1ML R*@ ' . 4& R% t1ML R*@ K1 ' _]
b:. C !& c % 91] " oB R*@ @EB
!+% 4 R 6X K1 t1ML ':. <1 !?1&
B X Yhhhha < % :$e !& /H ' I5 ! 4& oB R*@
> ' J8 oB R *@ 91] UEB ; !&
'% Yhhhha & W1& :) % t1ML oB R *@ !& I5
\Za\ :. C%% % J8 !& u R . A :)M
/* [aqa 6(% :. % t1ML oB R*@ K1 ' oB R*@ &
':. %
' /* C5) 6 &A *(C L) # :. R *@
. % :$2 ; !*H B 91] !B,!
Y[Y 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
! !C R% t1ML !& 4 ( R *H ! :1)! 1# '
; O !& 6% I5 *H ? re s% 1
'bnsc % % ?1 G" 1v !& @kB 1BH! 'bNonc :. B1 !&
s% @W % t1ML oB R *@ % :$e !& 6 B1 J8
% C G" 1v !& bNoffc % 1 ?1 *H re 5& s% √re W&
zZY% $.M Li Ma + G. *H :1)! 'bnbc %
S =Non − αNoff√Non + αNoff
, α =ns
nb. ba\'T'ac
:. % + " .; A *H gd :1)! I
f(σ) = aσ exp(−(σ − bσ)
cσ) baY'T'ac
Q.± . K1 cσ bσ Qaσ @ + ':. % /* h 6(%
:1)! I . fj. ' :. .± . .± .
C :1)! Q _# EGRET R *H gd * k% O1& R *H gd\\\
1B1 6(% '% [hqa 6(% . C I $.M
:1)! R $.M R ) 'Y\\Y 1 JM \\`` S.) -i I A I
?> :. EGRET R *H gd !:1)! R $.M R ) 1$% W1& O1& R *H gd\\\
, Rk B ] !& 1v !*H .. 'AH G A
zZY G. % 7 1v !*H
Y[[ 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
R *5 gd bac > R *H gd\\\ :1)! K2 !& I [hqa 6(%
bbc EGRET R% ._
Y[T 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
EGRET 4. DO R%!* !*H gqa -5
t t Flux z re () σtot σE σE bd ld ID b l T3EG JU$1√ √ ^@P eY eP ZP YP >Z −@Z >X A −@ZY >X^e^ 0237+1635 >
Y ePX eY >ZX >Y >^X −e >X −XP^ >X^@ 0407+1710
P ^Z eYZ Z ^P >>> −@ >Y −@Y >Y>ZY 0426+1333 @
>e> @Z X>P >Z> >@ >eP @@ >^Y a @^^ >^X> 0808+5114 e√ √ eYX >XZ ee@ >@ >@P >> ^^ >YP A ^XPe >ZZ 1104+3809 X
e> ee>e e^ @e@ >YY e@ Y >e Z@Y >e 1308+8744 ^√ e@> Z e^ >> >XX >X@ e @ A e>PX @X> 1608+1055
>@P >^>Z ee >Z> >^P >PX > ^> P>e ^eZ 1824−3441 Y
YX> YPX X>^ >ZX >^ >PZ −>Y X A −>>Y X^> 2036+1132 Z√ Yee PeP eX >Y^ >^P >eX − Y> A −X^X Y>Y@ 209+2401 >P
0jUTk ' ' B $ ) @ B CASA-MIA 8) JZ " 1 ! ' @ . 6 + $ ) + AGN J0721 7 J0237 +! HS
'j?k ''B "? GeV 8, 9 , : +!HS -@d!, EGRET Y# $)+!HS
S =Non − αNoff√α(Non +Noff )
, α =ns
nb. ba['T'ac
LN .L. %J+ %** %
>25 B Q! /* L&% % R *H 1! oB R% t1ML R *@
2; ! !C ! S.) Ok ! R !*H
R ,22; :. 5 6 ( ) ' G. I5 /BX EGRET 4) . DO
Y\\ MeV EGRET . R ':. R Ok R EGRET
Y[` 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
!*H 1BH >25 B QY\\\\ TeV `\ TeV R :. T\ GeV
EGRET R :. C 91E A !*H 1% 1 /!
! QB.L. Lacertae 45 Q!Blazar 6x B% % . R
G ! !*H > ', ! :&A 91E
A R EGRET R*H ! JE /. /( A @1 55
!*H y . R% 55 !b l '1*; *H -$ 55 bc 5
Y <1 :1)! *H ! JE B '% /* Y -5 EGRET
' _# / :1)! *1 :1) /M × R & d
X B=>=U
%.LM, GH; +: $ & &*
1 / M $k R. 1 G '8; $k R. (? 1 / M
B ':. re *(C L) # R :) S.) AH a $@
R. *(C X -E '% ; o 1 / M /BX $k R. 61WM
':. O% N ?1 /C 1N5 X ':. . . K1 $k
[[qa 6(% ; o ':. $k R . .. 1 R f
$k R. B ' _# 61WM .. R !&
6(% '% [Zqa 6(% % !* .. R !& / JE
Flat-Spectrum radio quazars
Y[a 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
*(C L) # × !& !& .. R S.) [Zqa 6(%
[[qa 6(% ':. !* 6 R @k B C % [[qa
D? l ≈ − (× − ( −)) ≈ AH *(C !-E %
K1 1! 'B2! !* 6 91] E l ≈ + (× − ) ≈
AH !X /1 o 91] R @kB ?1 *(C X
6 91] ?1 b ≈ + ( − ) ≈ D? b ≈ − ( − ) ≈ −
'B2! !*
E 6 EQ"$ 6 R; L LN 8BP
4). DO S.) % +?; !*H /% +?; !*H 55 )
':& 1!& Ya <1 :1)) ! !*H -$ % 7 6$ <# EGRET
a Ya <1 :1)! *H YT /1 . R *H gd K1
Y[h 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
1 % !* ! :1)! K$. '% !* B2! ?1 [ <1 C
!?1& : :. C R>1 O !?1& 1e - :.
E E E !*H 1% 4> *H YT ?1 , :2
E "L# !X> (H K$. 5 ) ' . ;5
C :1)! *H Y\ B ' 5 A <1 !:1)!
!2! !*H X a #$%& ':. Y <1 E E Ya <1 ! s>
'B2! &B% !*H 1)@ O *(C -) R 2! A , ( Q *(C -)
*(C -) !2! C hh EGRET 4). DO R *H [ZY s> :. O
'B2!
S $ &; EGRET LN T 2 +B % , ! K"
*(C L) # × !& !& X% I . o
$@ @kB :*! '% :# R B1 A .; I A " 1$E !*H
R @kB '√/re s% -) R @kB ' 5 *H ! JE 2 !&
, R @W <% K1 1! '√/re 5& s%
√/re W& s% @W 4)
!& !& X%k.) I ' 5 ,A 2 $@ !:2
/* [dqa 6(% Y -5 % +?; R *H Y\ O1& R *H gd\\\ ×
:. " :# I A . .; I A " !I ':. %
f(re) = ar + br exp(−re /cr ) baT'T'ac
Y[Z 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
> !*H JE × !& !& X% I . [dqa 6(%
bbc u :1)! !*H bac
!*H !BMB I + cr br Qar @
Y`\h Q`[a\ 1 BH! \gdYhd \YZ[dT Q``Z`a K1 EGRET !*H
' :. \gaYT
Y[d 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
1Y $\MP% & ]W U=>=U
' ≤ z ≤ R 1 % !* !? C % !* Y -5
1 % [[qa 6(% :) H 1% / o :. >1
, R ( '1% C5) 6 ! 1 /1 R 1 /.
/1 91] !*H k !*H . !?1& : J8
A 'B! /* & <1 ! :1)! ( ' J8 B%
!C .(% A1B( UE ; < !*H .(% 5) 6 C5 +3
6 + bC R! c EGRET !*H o ' 5 ! R2;
pM M 'B% OF ! .(%
<1 ! , 1N5 !X < 4> O % EGRET !*H
.(% ) !:1)! ' . !*H <1 /
1B! . .(% + .. + O $ u :)
' . 1% 7 EGRET R &B% !*H .B% , !
C ( S@ b|b| > c *(C Y -5 !*H g za` Gehrels B.
!*H X CH ':. *(C -) R 2! A ! / *(C R @kB
X zhZ B; Ok CASA-MIA ! !C R S.) 3 $ +?;
B 'zh\ B2! EGRET !*H 6% GEV !*H :21O C
OF R 1 !,* Y -5 % +?; , R &B% R *H CH o
% [gqa 6(% :) 'B% -) *(C !2! ! %
Y[g 9: 7%;$ < = >( /0$0 ?
L) # bYa <1 :1)!c EGRET R% !* !*H R *@ [gqa 6(%
*(C
6 U1 61WM R W B %! , !*H !*H
'17 G. z? :!$% R B1*1 +
! % ! !C .5 :1)W B! < 1B 1R 1BH!
OF !,* >25 ? + E& 1! ; ! C1
1j R 1e :$e :1)W 1 1 61WM f ' G.
C1 R &" B ' ; !*H R!* k& R $.M )C <@
:% 1!& /1 .(% WOR* tk. u [h\\ sG $O !
& !. 5 C1 ! ; ! 1@2 / +
'1! 4> <1 :)
Maximum Likelihood
"5 =
[1] A.H. Compton, (1936), phys. Rev., 50, 1119.
[2] R. Atkins, (1999), 26th ICRC, Salt-Lake city, astro-ph 9906387.
[3] K. Greissen, (1966), phys. Rev. Lett., 16, 748.
[4] G. Zatespin & V. Kuzmin, (1986), Sov. phys. JETP Lett., 4, 78.
[5] N. Sakai et al. (2001), 27th ICRC, Hamburg, 333.
[6] C. Jui et al. (2001), 27th ICRC, Hamburg, 354.
[7] http://www.auger.org
[8] J.R. Jokipii, (1987), ApJ, 313, 842.
[9] J.R. Jokipii, (1982), ApJ, 255, 716.
[10] E.L. Chupp, (1984), Ann. Rev. Astron. Astroph., 22, 359.
[11] T.K. Gaisser, (1990), Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics, Cambridge University Press,
1st ed.
YT\
YTY 61 @
[12] V.L. Ginzburg, & S.I. Syrovatskii, (1964), The Origin of Cosmic Rays, Pergamon Press,
Classic monograph.
[13] P. Sreekumar, (1998), ApJ, 494, 523.
[14] S.D. Hunter, (1997), ApJ, 481, 205.
[15] D. Pourmohammad, & J. Samimi (2001), A&A, 371, 61.
[16] http://amanda.uci.edu
[17] http://antares.in2p3.fr
[18] T.C. Weekes, (1988), Phys. Rep., Vols 1,2, 160.
[19] http://www-glast.stanford.edu
[20] T.C. Weekes, (1989), ApJ, 342, 379.
[21] J. Samimi, (1979), Nature, 278, 434.
[22] K. Greissen, (1960), Ann. Revs. Nuclear Science, 10, 63.
[23] P. Sokolskii, (1988), Introduction to Ultra High Energy Cosmic Ray Physics, Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company.
[24] W. Heitler, (1944), Quantum Theory of Radiation, Oxford University Press, 2nd ed.
7 : + % 7 $ + % 9 % 8, K. !& - ) %L A ,/ , j\ak
KTTL e)B $.X@( bH B
[26] M. Bahmanabadi et al., (1998), Experimental Astronomy, 8/3, 211.
YT[ 61 @
[27] G. Rastegarzadeh & J. Samimi, (2001), J. Phys.G: Nucl. Part. Phys., 27, 2065.
, $ 8, B 8) 7 $4D K'B $@B !& -)%L $" '4A $4< j\k
KTUL e)B $.X@( bH Kl7+L 9B +!## V.
$.X@( bH $ +% $,) K'B $@B !& -)%L /6A -@ !M j\ik
KL e)B
[30] L.B. Loeb, (1955), Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics, University of California Press.
[31] P. Rice-Evans, (1973), Spark, Streamer, Proportional and Drift Chambers, University of
London.
[32] X. Bertou et al., (2000), Int. J. Mod. Phys., A15, 2181.
[33] J. Linsley, (1986), J. Phys. G: Nucl. Phys., 12, 51.
[34] B.S. Acharya et al., (1988), NIM, A270, 556.
[35] K. Mitsui et al., (1990), NIM, A290, 565.
[36] S. Lourui & M.M. Winn, (1984), NIM, A223, 173.
[37] A.A. Ivanov et al., (1990), JETP Lett., 69, 288.
[38] Http://ngdc.noaa.govBhattacharya 2003
[39] C.L. Bhat, M.L. Sapru &c.L. Kaul, (1980), Nature, 288, 146.
[40] A.G.K. Smith & R.W. Clay, (1997), Aust. J. Phys., 50, 827.
[41] D. Horns et al., (1998), NIM, 328, 570.
YTT 61 @
[42] D.E. Alexandreas et al., (1993), CORSIKA FZKA6019 (Forschungs-zentrum Karlsruhe).
[43] Http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/sidereal.html
[44] M. Bahmanabadi et al., (2002), Experimental Astronomy, 13/1, 39.
[45] R.C. Hartman et al., (1999), ApJS, 123, 179.
[46] D. Bhattacharya, A. Akyus, A. Miyagi, J. Samimi, (2003), A&A, 404, 163.
[47] D.F. Torres et al., (2001), ApJ, 560, L155.
[48] N. D’Amico et al., (2001), A&A, 552, L45.
[49] L. Zhang et al., (2000), A&A, 357, 957.
[50] G.E. Romero et al., (1999), A&A, 348, 868.
[51] G.L. Case & D. Bhattacharya, (1998), ApJ, 504, 761.
[52] S.J. Sturner & C.D. Dermer (1995), A&A, 293, L17.
[53] J.A. Combi et al., (2001), A&A, 366, 1047.
[54] N. Gehrels et al., (2000), Nature, 404, 353.
[55] I.A. Grainer, (2000), A&A, 364, L93.
[56] A.K. Harding & B. Zhang, (200), ApJ, 548, L37.
[57] D. Dixon et al., (1998), New Astron., 3, 539.
[58] S. Colafrancesco, (2002), A&A, 396, 31.
YT` 61 @
[59] D.F. Torres et al., (2003), ApJ, 595, L13.
[60] R.C. Lamb & D.J. Macomb, (1997), ApJ, 488, 872.
[61] M. Amenomori et al., (2002), ApJ, 405, 353.
[62] M. Amenomori et al., (2000), ApJ, 532, 302.
[63] A. Borione et al., (1997), ApJ, 481, 313.
[64] D.E. Alexandreas et al., (1993), ApJ, 405, 353.
[65] Roy, A.E., Clarke, D.
[66] http://aanda.
[67] M. Catanese et al., (1996), ApJ, 469, 572.
[68] T.A. McKay et al., (1993), ApJ, 417, 742.
[69] Http://timeanddate.com
[70] M. Bahmanabadi et al., (2003), Experimental Astronomy, 15/1, 13.
[71] T. Li, & M. Ma, (1983), ApJ, 272, 317.
[72] J.R. Mattox et al., (1996), ApJ, 461, 396.
Sharif University of Technology
Department of Physics
PhD Dissertation
Investigation of Gamma-Rays and
Cosmic-Rays :
Via Extensive Air Showers, using a Small Scintillation
Detector array
by
Mehdi Khakian Ghomi
Supervisor: Prof. Jalal Samimi
Advisor: Dr. Mahmoud Bahmanabadi
2004