COSGROVE_D - Prospect Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape Idea

7/27/2019 COSGROVE_D - Prospect Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape Idea

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Prospect, Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape IdeaAuthor(s): Denis CosgroveReviewed work(s):Source: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1985),pp. 45-62

Published by: Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of BritishGeographers)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/622249 .

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45Prospect,erspectivendthe volutionftheandscapedeaDENIS COSGROVESenior ecturernGeography,oughboroughniversity,oughborough,eic.LE113TURevised S received4May 1984ABSTRACTThe andscapeonceptngeographyasrecentlyeen dopted yhumanisticritersecausef tsholisticnd ubjec-tivemplications.ut he istoryf heandscapedea uggestshatts riginsie n he enaissanceumanists'earchorcertaintyatherhan vehiclef ndividualubjectivity.andscape as way f eeing'hat asbourgeois,ndividual-ist ndrelatedothe xercisefpower ver pace. hebasic heorynd echniquef he andscape ayof eeingwaslinearerspective,s mportantorhe istoryf he raphicmagesprintingasfor hatf hewrittenord. lberti'sperspectiveas the oundationfrealismn rt ntil he ineteenthentury,nd scloselyelatedyhim o social lassand patial ierarchy.temployshe ame eometrysmerchantradingnd ccounting,avigation,and urvey, ap-ping nd rtillery.erspectives firstppliedn he itynd hen oacountryubjugatedourban ontrolndviewed slandscape.he volutionf andscapeaintingarallelshat fgeometryust s tdoes he hangingocial elationsnthe andnTudor,tuartndGeorgianngland.hevisual ower iven ythe andscape ayof eeingomplementsthe eal ower umansxertverand sproperty.andscapes a geographicalonceptannot e free f hedeologicaloverlaysf tshistorysa visualonceptnlesst ubjectsandscapeohistoricalnterrogation.nly s anunexaminedconceptna geographyhich eglectstsown visual oundationsan andscapeeappropriatedor nantiscientifichumanisticeography.KEY WORDS: Landscape, eometry,erspective,rospect, umanism,deology,Graphicmage,Cartography,Painting,eeing,horography,orphology,urvey,pace.

Geographicalnterestn the andscapeconcepthasseena revival n recent ears.n argemeasure his sa consequence of the humanist renaissance ngeography. avingenjoyed degreeofprominencein the nterwar ears, andscapefellfrom avournthe 1950s and 1960s. Its referenceo the visibleforms f a delimited rea to be subjected o mor-phological tudya usagestill urrentntheGerman'landscape ndicators' chool)' appearedsubjectiveand too impreciseforAnglo-Saxongeographersdeveloping spatial cience.The static, escriptivemorphologyof landscape ill-suited heir call fordynamicfunctional egions to be defined andinvestigated y geographers ontributingo econ-omic nd socialplanning.2Recently,and primarily n North America,geographers ave soughtto reformulateandscapeas a concept whose subjective and artisticresonances re to be actively mbraced. heyallowfor he ncorporationf ndividual,maginativendcreative human experienceinto studies of the

geographical environment, aspects whichgeographicalcience s claimed o havedevaluedatbest and at worst, gnored.MarwynSamuels,forexample,3 refers to landscapes as 'authored',CourticeRose thinking long similar ines wouldanalyse landscapesas texts,4 nd EdwardRelphregards andscape s 'anythingsee and sensewhenI am out ofdoors-landscape is thenecessary on-text ndbackgroundothofmy daily ffairsnd ofthemore xotic ircumstancesfmy ife'.5 mericanhumanist eographers ave adopted landscapeforthevery easons hat heir redecessorsejectedt. tappearsto pointtowards heexperiential,reativeand human spectsof our environmentalelations,ratherthan to the objectified,manipulated ndmechanicalspectsof those relations.t is the atteragainstwhichhumanisms a protest,whichRelphtraces to the seventeenthentury cientificevol-ution nd tsCartesian ivision f ubject ndobject.Landscape seems to embody the holism whichmodern umanistsroclaim.

Trans.nst.Br.Geogr.N.S. 10: 45-62 (1985) ISSN: 0020-2750 PrintednGreatBritain


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46 DENIS COSGROVEIn Britain revival f andscape s also apparent.Here the humanistritiquen geographyhas beenless vocal. Recent landscape studyhas remainedcloser opopularusageof thewordas an artisticrliterary esponse to the visible scene.6 Among

Britishgeographers interest n landscape wasstimulatedartly yperceptiontudies, articularlythe short-lived xcitement ver landscapeevalu-ationforplanning urposeswhich surroundedhe1973 reform f local government.7 his led tovariousmechanisticheories f andscape estheticswhich, ike JayAppleton's ethologically-foundedand influentialhabitat heory' f landscape,8hadlittlen commonwiththe humanismroclaimednNorthAmericantudies.Epistemological divergence notwithstanding,landscape s againa focusofgeographicalnterest.Withthat nterest as comea refreshingillingnessbygeographersoemploy andscape epresentations-in painting, maginative iteraturend gardendesign-as sources for answeringgeographicalquestions.9 he purposeofthispaper s to supportand promotethat initiativewhile simultaneouslyentering ertain aveats about adoptingthe land-scape ideawithout ubjectingtto critical istoricalexamination s a termwhich embodies certainassumptionsbout relations etweenhumans ndtheir nvironment,r more pecifically,ociety ndspace.These caveatsgo beyond andscape s suchand touch upon aspects of the whole humanistendeavourwithin eography.Landscapefirstmerged s a term, n idea, orbetter till, wayof eeingio heexternalworld, nthe fifteenthnd earlysixteenthenturies.t was,and itremains, visualterm,ne that rose nitiallyout ofrenaissance umanismnd itsparticularon-cepts and constructs f space. Equally, andscapewas,overmuch f tshistory,losely oundupwiththepracticalppropriationfspace.As we shall ee,its connectionswerewiththesurvey ndmappingof newly-acquired,onsolidated and 'improved'commercial estates in the hands of an urbanbourgeoisie;with the calculation f distance andtrajectoryor annonfire nd ofdefensive ortifica-tions against the new weaponry;and with theprojection f the globe and its regionsonto mapgraticulesby cosmographers nd chorographers,those essentialset designersfor Europe's entrycentre-stagefthe world'stheatre.n paintingndgarden design landscape achieved visually andideologicallywhat survey,map making nd ord-nancechartingchievedpractically:hecontrol nd

domination ver space as an absolute,objectiveentity, ts transformationnto the propertyofindividual r state. And landscapeachieved theseendsbyuse of thesametechniquess thepracticalsciences, rincipallyyapplying uclidian eometryas theguarantorf certaintyn spatialconception,organizationndrepresentation.n the ase of and-scape the techniquewas optical, inear erspective,but the principles o be learnedwere identicalto those of architecture,urvey,map-makingndartillerycience.The same handbookstaughtthepractitionersllofthese rts.1Landscape,ike hepracticalciences f the talianRenaissance, as founded ponscientificheoryndknowledge. Its subsequenthistorycan best beunderstood n conjunction iththehistory f sci-ence.Yet in tscontemporaryumanistuisewithingeography,andscape s deployedwithin radicallyanti-scientificrogramme. ignificantlyhat pro-grammes equallynon-visual. ecent rogrammaticstatementsfgeographical umanismandcritiquesof it) n thepages oftheseTransactionsrenotablefor heironcentrationnverbal,iterarynd inguis-ticmodes of communicationnd for their lmnostcompleteneglectof the visual and its place ingeography.12 he attack n science s characteristicof muchcontemporaryumanistwriting. ut theapparentackof nterestnthegraphic mage s moresurprising.onsider hetraditionsf ourdiscipline,its alignmentwithcartographynd the long-heldbelief hat heresults fgeographicalcholarshiprebestembodied nthemap.Consider oo thehuman-ists'proclaimednterestn mages fplaceand land-scape, and yet theirremarkable eglect of thevisual.13 Indeed the clearest statementof thecentralityfsightngeographyhat know sfoundin William Bunge's TheoreticalGeography,manifestoor patial cience:geographys theonepredictive cience whose innerlogic is literallyvisible'.'4Bunge'sbook maybe closer n spirit otheoriginal umanistuthors fthe andscape deathan his contemporaryumanist ritics. he bookafterll is a celebrationfthe ertaintyfgeometryas the onstructionalrinciplef pace.In fact, he humanist ttackon science and itsneglectof the visual image in geography re notunconnected. hey both result n some measurefrom he ack of critical eflectionn theEuropeanhumanistradition,rom he conflationf the patialtheme ngeographywith positivist pistemology,and from mystificationf art and literature. llthreeof theseaspectswill be illustratedn a brief


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Evolutionf heandscapedea 47explorationfthe andscape dea as a wayofseeingin theEuropeanvisual tradition,mphasizinghattradition'smostenduringonvention f space rep-resentation,inearperspective.n thisexplorationshall ustifynd elaborate he claim that the land-scape idea is a visual deology; n ideologyall tooeasilyadoptedunknowinglyntogeographywhenthe andscape dea is transferreds an unexaminedconcept ntoourdiscipline.GEOMETRY, PERSPECTIVE ANDRENAISSANCE HUMANISMTraditionally he seven liberal arts of medievalscholarship eregrouped nto wo sets.The triviumwas composedofgrammar,hetoric nd logic; thequadriviumfarithmetic,eometry,stronomyndmusic.While in its narrowest efinition umanismreferred o studiesin the triviumthe recovery,securedating nd translation f texts),many earlyrenaissance umanists ereequally ascinatedythematerialfthequadrivium,eeking unity f know-ledgeacross llthearts.15 he fifteenthenturyawrevolutionarydvances in both sets of studies,advanceswhich ltered heir rganization,ocial ig-nificancend role ntheproductionndcommunica-tion fhuman nowledge ftheworld nd ourplacewithin t. n the arena ofwords, anguage ndwrit-ten expression he most strikingdvance was the

Gutenberg inventionof movable type in the1440s.16 n thequadrivium,lwaysmore heoretical,the critical dvance came from the re-evaluationof Euclid and the elevationof geometry o thekeystone of human knowledge, specificallytsapplicationto three-dimensionalpace represen-tationthrough ingle-point erspective heory ndtechnique. Perspective,the medieval study ofoptics,was one of the mathematicalrts, tudiedsince the twelfth-centuryevival of learning,as evidencedforexample n Roger Bacon's work.Painters ikeCimabueand Giotto had constructedtheirpictures n new ways to achieve a greaterrealism il vero) han theirpredecessors.'7But thetheoreticalndpractical evelopmentf a coherentlinear perspectiveawaited the fifteenth-centuryTuscan Renaissance.That movement, espite itsemphasison classical exts,grammarnd rhetoric,revolutionized patial apprehensionsn the west.For theplasticand visual arts:painting, culptureandarchitecture,nd for eographyndcosmology,all concernedwith space and spatial relations,it was from he quadrivium,romgeometry ndnumber theory,that form and structureweredetermined-even ftheir ontentwas providedbythe rivium.In 1435 the Florentine umanist nd architectLeonBattista lberti ublished is Della PitturaOn

--- Median raysExtrinsicaysCentricay

FIGURE 1. The visualtriangle s describedby Alberti from amuel Y. EdgertonJr, heRenaissanceediscoveryf inear erspective,Harper ndRow, London,1975,reproducedwithpermission)


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48 DENISCOSGROVEpainting),'8 work whose authorityn artistic he-oryenduredbeyondthe eighteenthenturywhenSir JoshuaReynolds,first resident f the RoyalAcademy, sed it as the foundation orhis ectureson pictorial omposition, eauty nd thehierarchyof genres. n Della Pittura lbertidemonstratestechniquewhichhe had worked ut experimentallyfor onstructingvisualtriangle hich llowed thepainterodeterminehe hape nd measurementfgridded quareplacedon thegroundwhenviewedalong the horizontalxis,and to reproducenpic-torialform ts appearanceto the eye. The con-struzioneeggitima ave the realist illusion ofthree-dimensionalpace on a two-dimensionalur-face.Thisconstruction,hefoundation f inear er-spective, ependedupon concepts fthevanishingpoint, istance oint nd intersectinglane.Albertidescribest as a trianglefrays xtendingutwardsfrom heeyeandstrikingheobjectof vision.Thereare three inds fray Fig ).

The extrinsicays,hus irclingheplane-onetouch-ingtheother,nclose ll theplane ikethewillowwands of a basketcage, and make.. the visualpyramid.t stime orme odescribehat he yramidis and how it is constructedy theserays...Thepyramids a figuref body rom hose ase ines redrawn pward,erminatingta single oint. hebaseofthepyramidstheplanewhichsseen. he ides fthepyramidrethe ayswhich have alled xtrinsic.Thecuspid,hatsthepoint fthe yramid,s ocatedwithinhe yewherehe ngle f he uantitys.19The visualpyramid eredescribeds familiar oevery geographerwho reads Area, although tsgeographical ignificance aynot alwaysbe fully

appreciatedFig2). We need not concern urselveshere withthedetails nd accuracy f Alberti's on-structionexcept perhaps o note thedefinitionfpyramid,ifted irectlyrom uclid).Butwe shouldobserve ertainonsequenceshat low romt.First,formndpositionnspaceare showntobe relativerather han bsolute.The forms f what we see,ofobjects in space and of geometrical igures hem-selves,varywith theangleand distance f vision.They are producedby thesovereign ye,a singleeye, for this s not a theoryof binocular ision.Secondly,Alberti egards heraysofvision s hav-ing origin in the eye itself, hus confirmingtssovereignty t the centre of the visual world.Thirdly,he creates a techniquewhich becamefundamentalo the realist epresentationf spaceand theexternalworld.The artist,hrough erspec-tive,establishes he arrangementr composition,and thusthespecific ime, f the eventsdescribed,determines-inbothsenses-the 'point fview' tobe taken ytheobserver,nd controlshroughram-ing thescope ofreality evealed.Perspectiveech-niquewas so effectivehatthe realist onventionswhich it underlaywere not fundamentallyhal-lengeduntil henineteenthentury.20Realistrepresentationfthree-dimensionalpaceon a two-dimensionalurface hrough inearper-spective directs the externalworld towardstheindividualocated utside hat pace. tgivesthe yeabsolutemasteryverspace.The centric aymovesina directinefromheeye to thevanishing oint,to the depth of the recessionalplane. Space ismeasured nd calculated rom his ine and the restof what is seen constructed round the vanishingpointand within he frame ixedby external ays.

Iiii Observation

FIGURE 2. A seventeenth-centurywayof eeing' familiaro readers fArea)


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Evolutionf heandscapedea 49. ...

.............. ......

............... .as ~ ~ w~~?:;?~?1.:??..........- ..............FIGURE .Ambrogioorenzetti:GoodGovernmentn he ity' etail romalazzo ubblico,ienaditta . B6hm)

Visually space is renderedthe propertyof theindividualdetachedobserver, romwhose divinelocation t is a dependent, ppropriated bject.Asimplemovement f thehead,closingtheeyes orturningway and thecompositionnd spatialformof objects are alteredor even negated. Develop-mentsfrom he fifteenthenturymayhave alteredthe assumedpositionof theobserver, r used per-spective analytically atherthan syntheticallysAlberti nd hiscontemporariesntended,21utthisvisual appropriation f space endured unaltered.Significantly,headoptionof linearperspective stheguarantorfpictorial ealismwas contemporarywiththoseother ealist echniques fpainting: ils,framingndproductionor marketfmobile,mallcanvases. In this respect perspectivemay beregarded s one of a number f techniqueswhichallowedfor hevisualrepresentationf a bourgeois,rationalistonception f theworld.The term ourgeois s appropriate,or inear er-spectivewas an urban nvention,mployednitiallyto represent he spaces of the city. It was firstdemonstratedracticallyyAlberti'sloseassociate,FilippoBrunelleschi,n a famous xperimentf1425whenhe succeeded nthrowingnimageof theBap-tisterytFlorence ntoa canvassetup in thegreatportal f thecathedral.22f we compareAmbrogioLorenzetti's ell-knownrescoesnthePalazzoPub-blicoat Siena Fig3) whichrepresentood govern-ment n thecity, ainted n the 1340s,with PeitroPerugino'srepresentationf Christgivingto St

Peter heKeysto theKingdom f Heaven (Fig 4)painted n thewallof theSistine hapel n1481,thesignificancefperspectives clear.Lorenzettihowsus thecity s an activebustlingworldof human ifewhereinpeople and their environment nteractacrossa spacewhereunityderivesfrom he actionon its urface.Thesepre-perspectiverbanandscapeshownot somuchwhat he owns ookedike swhat tfeltike obe inthem.Weget n mpressionf the owns ot stheymightave ooked oa detachedbserverromfixedantage oint ut stheymightave mpressedpedestrianalkingpthe treetsnd eeinghe uild-ings rom any ifferentides.23By contrast,n Perugino's deal city a formal,monumental rder is organized throughprecisegeometry,onstructedy theeye around theaxiswhich eads acrossthechequerboard iazza to the

circularemple t its centre. he piazza,geometricalcentre f this ity, ecomes n thisgenre ymbolicfthewholecity.24 he hills nd treesbeyondreflectthe ameregimentedrder s theurban rchitecture.The people of thecity, r ratherwithint,for heyrevealno particularttachmento it,groupthem-selves ndignifiednd theatricaloses. In the idealtownscapes'of the late fifteenth-centurymbrianschool of Piero della Francescahumansscarcelyappear.Theyhave no need to forthe measure fman', o neatly apturednLeonardo a Vinci'sManin a Circlenda Square,s writtenntothe measured


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50 DENIS COSGROVE?~:~?:i?~;~?~?~?~?:?~~??: M~:?i:aww~j::x~i:~rQldiiiil::'iilili.~g:l:t:l:lll:':::::::::::::::::::':~"''':~:'::':':::::i::::::::::::::::1:::::?::1:1:1:1:i:':::::-:l:':l:l:l ..lllilliililil:liiIli:::::il:::l:i:i:l ~:gi :~i?:-:::?:?:??l?:-::::::'i:I:i:::::j:::

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:~l~ss~R9n-as;~srss6s~ak:::iii~::::r PIPi:i i~B~::~:i.i~:l~jj~~~:.~~f~""~"~""~""""""li-i~ ii:::: :::ini:l ~:----;::i:i-1-1:::1:1:::::-:':1:1:::1-::1: ~i~'..~...::i~~.ili~/j~l;:l(Sj , L-i B::,::::: j::::: ::: :::::;e iiiiii-~iiiiiiiiiii~;iii~II:?? B;~a! " ~Zil i~ia~~l --i ::::::~?::::-z :-1r:i :1iiiai:i:i:iliiliiiiiiiliiiii~,l~B~B~:?:'~~~8~3~81~ii~i:::::: ~~i?ji~I~j~~_-_-~;L~i?~j~31~;i18~.::-:~S~Bs~BH~sE~81li?8BS88~8eB~aBBB~~I;:~~:X:jir~d~Bs~B~~ ~~_~~~__$BagarPnsa~or~Bl~s~8ssaaaaa~.~a:~:::::ir~~silillii iii''iiiiiiiii~iL~:iij~~i~-I - li-~~ll~j~ir~~-i :!-Pi---'?:::~3~;~~iiij~7~e~61~8~~ g:~S~Ss~~'' . -isay '8?:---:-:-:I:::-: I~i j~f88li~?i8~i~Bsa~ase~s~an~gi:'.'~8~?~:-:::::-:~:~: ili:iIl~iBid~iiiiiili-i:iii??i~.~i"iiia4 ~ ~:::-:::::u~?:?:::::::::::::::

~~:::~~_: :I:--r-:-I^;~.-i?--?::----I:::.:.;~~-::_?-i.-_?_::::?~~*wl~:.~::r::~ r~s;*:-:-:-:::::~:::~:ia,:,:,:::,~,-,-.L...._:-:_:-:::~;:::i:il:'::d:i::t:::::l.':l:::~:S~:i:-::_~;:':'::i:l::~::I:::l:::-:-:_-is~is~.:11:1:':~?::-:-:-:ii:_-:?-~i.l::::--i---:~:--:-:jj~:FIGURE4. PietroPerugino:Christ iving o StPeter heKeysto theKingdom fHeaven' VaticanCity, istineChapel dittaO. B6hm)architecturalacades ndproportionedpacesof thecity, n intellectualmeasure rather hansensuoushuman ife.25 his alerts s to thefact hatperspec-tive nd tsgeometry ada greater ignificancehanmerelytsemployments a painting echnique.The mathematicsnd geometry ssociatedwithperspectiveweredirectly elevant o the economiclife fthe talianmerchantities ftheRenaissance,to trading nd capitalist inance,o agriculturendthe andmarket,o navigationndwarfare. ichaelBaxandall26 as shown hatmerchantsttendingheabbaco or commercial chool in theiryouthunder-tooka curriculumhichprovided hekeyskills fmathematicsor pplicationn commerce: ccount-ing,book-keeping,alculation f interest nd ratesofreturn,eterminingroportionsn ointrisk en-tures.One of themostcommonly sed tests sum-marizing he variousmerchant killswas Fra LucaPacioli's Summa di Arithmetica,eometria,ropor-tione t Proportionalita1494).27 Its author, closefriend fLeonardo, cknowledgesAlberti s wellasPtolemy ndVitruvius,nd of courseEuclid monghis sources.While Pierodella Francesca ad himselfwritten n earlier ext,De Abbaco, acioli'swas thefirst ompletemanual of practicalmathematicso

appear in printed ook form, ollowing nlytwoyears fter hefirstrinted eometryndsettinghemodelfor collection f ater exts. acioli devotesthe econd bookof thevolume ogeometryndthemeasurementf distance, urface nd volume. Hepointsout thevalue of suchskills or and surveyandmap making,.forarfarendnavigation. romtext ike this talianmerchantsearned o calculatevisually r gauge'by eyeandusing t hevolume fa barrel, churn, haystackr other egularhape,valuableskill n an age before tandard izes andvolumesbecame the norm. his visualgaugingwasregarded s a wonderfulkill.n thewordsof SilvioBelliwritingf visualsurveyn 1573: certainlyt sa wondrous hing omeasurewith heeye,becauseto everyonewho does not know its rationale tappears completely impossible.'28 t has beenargued hat he earch or ccurate isual echniquesof land surveyheld back Italianinnovations ninstrumentationormanydecades,29 utthe ignifi-cance accorded to it indicates the importanceattached o thepowerof vision inked o intellectthrough eometry,nd how the principleswhichunderlayperspectivetheorywere the everydayskills ftheurbanmerchant.


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Evolutionf heandscapedea 51Not all land surveywas by eye. The astrolabe,quadrant ndplanetable were nuse anddiscussedin the texts cited.Formapmakers nd navigatorsthese were crucial nstruments.ut theyrequiredgeometrical calculation to make their resultsmeaningful. he Italianrenaissancewas a carto-graphic s much s anartisticvent.PtolemywhoseAlmagest ad alwaysranked s a key geometricalsource became known too for his Cosmografia,broughts a Greek ext o Florence tthebeginningof the fifteenthentury. lberti roduced n accu-ratelysurveyedmap of Rome, Leonardoone ofPavia. These were regarded s revelations f therationalorderof createdspace producedby theapplicationof geometry.Perhaps more closelyrelated o landscapepaintingwas thepianta rospet-tiva, hebird's ye view of citieswhichbecame sopopular t theturn f the ixteenthentury. mongthebestknown fthese sJacopode Barbari's 500mapofVenice, ike so manyof tstype s much nideological expressionof urban dominionas anaccurate enderingf the urban cene.30The view-pointfor hesemaps s,significantly,igh bove thecity, istant,ommanding,ninvolved.t s the ameperspectivehatwe findnBruegel's rTitian's and-scapes,panoramas vergreat weepsof earth pace,seas,mountainsndpromontories.Linearperspective rganizes nd controls patial

coordinates, and because it was founded ingeometry t was regardedas the discoveryofinherentropertiesfspace tself.3'nthis, erspec-tivehada deeper ulturalignificance,s Pollaiuolo'sbas-relief f Prospettivas a nubilegoddess,sculp-ted on thetomb fSixtus V in1493might uggest.One of the arliestndmostwidelynfluentialf heRenaissance hinkers,he Paduan humanist icholasof Cusa, theologian, osmographernd mathema-tician, hallenged heAristotelian cholasticworldview inhis De DoctaIgnorantiaf 1440 by appealto theEuclidean eometry.32ejectinghe dea thatthere could be no empiricalknowledge of thespiritual phereby menconfined o the temporal,and thusno direct nowledge fGod,Cusanuspro-claimedthe significancef indirect videncein aneoplatonicsense. He pointed out that in theinfinitelyargecircle hecircumferencend tangentcoincide n a straightinewhile the nfinitelymallcirclewas a point.This is thefoundation fa con-tinuous eometryelatingllEuclid's eparate rop-ositionsand givingforms qualitative s well asquantitativeharacter.33qually,tgave support oCusanus' rgumentor patternunning hroughll

creation n whichGod was to be found t thecentreand circumference f the cosmos. A regulargeometryproceedingfrom he perfection f thecircleunderlay he structure f both spiritualndtemporalworlds.Geometryndproportionookontherefore metaphysicalignificance,ne thatwasgivenevengreaterweightwiththetranslatingndmisdating f the CorpusHermeticumy MarsilioFicino n 1464 andthe ntroductionfcabalist um-bertheory y Pico dellaMirandola n 1486.34Thecircle, hegolden section, he rule of threes, ll ofthem art ndparcel fthe ntellectualndpracticalbaggage of the Renaissance merchant, ailor,surveyor nd chartmaker,ould be relatedto themost eruditemetaphysicalpeculation. bove all itwas the human ntellect,umanreason, hatcouldapprehend his ignificancend seek thecertaintiesofgeometry. nd the humanbody,created n theimageand likeness fGod,replicatedn microcosmthe divineproportions,s Leonardo'shuman igureenclosed in divinegeometrymakes clear. At thecentre f Renaissance pace, thespace reproducedby perspective,was the human individual, hemeasureofhis world and its temporal reator ndcontroller. ike God, the microcosm,man, alsoappearsat the circumferencef Renaissance pace,highabove theglobe, seeingit spreadbefore hesphereof his eye in perspective n themap, thepianta rospettivar thepanoramicandscape.The authorityttributedo man35was exercisedin a hierarchyhatwas at once spatial nd social,hierarchynwhich he andscape deaplayed signi-ficant,fsubordinateole.Referringo architecture,the queenofthearts',Alberti iscusses he decor-ation uitable o differentuildings:

Both aintingsndpoetryarynkind. hetype hatportrayshedeedsofgreatmen,worthyfmemory,differsromhatwhich escribeshehabits fprivatecitizensndagainfrom hat epictinghe ife f thepeasants.hefirst,hichsmajesticn haracter,houldbe used for ublic uildingsndthedwellingsf thegreat, hile he astmentioned ouldbe suitableorgardens,ort s themost leasingf ll.Ourmindsrecheered eyondmeasure y thesight f paintings,depictinghedelightfulountryside,arbours,ishing,hunting,wimming,hegames fshepherds-flowersandverdure.36

The references to the genresof paintingwhichreplicate hose of poetry:from he mostelevated,storia (epic or historic events), to portraitureand domestic cenes, nd finallyhe least serious,


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52 DENIS COSGROVElandscapesand ruralscenes. Geographically,hecentre of the city,where public buildingsandmonumentsdorn hemainpiazza, s the etting orgreatmen nd shouldrecord heir picdeeds. n theurbanpalaces and privatehouses of thepatriciateappear portraits nd familygroups while in thecountryside,ar way from nd subordinate o thepower t theheart fthecity, hepeasants-'beastsof the villa' -disport themselves n their rudemanner,whilegentlemen elax,followappropriateleisurely ursuitsndenjoythebeautyofnature.37In the theatre,whose auditorium esign,spatialarrangementsnd stage sets were exercises inapplied geometry nd perspective onstruction--even cosmologicaltheory38--this ierarchywascarefullyrticulated or the threeforms f drama.Tragedywasplayed gainst ettingsf the dealcityand its monumental rchitecture,omance n thepalace nteriorrclosedgarden,ndcomedy rfarcein thesylvansetting f a rural andscape.Controland power radiatedown a socio-spatial ierarchyalong the orthogonal inesreaching ut from hepiazza of an ideal city to transect ecognizablydistinctandscape ypes.LANDSCAPE, PERSPECTIVE AND REALISTSPACEIt is known hat he firstrtist eferenceso specificpaintingss 'landscape' paesaggio)omefrom arlysixteenth-centurytaly. One of the most oftenquoted is thatfrom 521 referringo Giorgione'sTempesta.39othKenneth lark ndJ.B.Jackson,ndiscussions f andscape n thisperiod, ensea rela-tionshipbetweenthe new genre and notions ofauthoritynd control.Noting the appearanceof'realist' andscape n upper talyand Flanders, hesecond mercantile ore of earlymodernEurope,Clark claims that t reflectedsome changein theaction of the humanmindwhichdemanded newnexus of unity, nclosedspace,'and suggests hatthis was conditioned y a new, scientific ay ofthinkingbout theworldand an 'increased ontrolofnature yman'.40Jacksonefers o a widespreadbelief hattherelationshipetween socialgroupand its andscape ouldbe so expertlyontrolled sto make appropriate a comparison betweenenvironmentalonds and family onds,41 therebyallowing andscapeto become a means of moralcommentary.erspectivewas the central echniquewhich llowedthis ontrol obe achieved n thenewpaintings f landscape. n Leonardo'swritings he

importance f perspective s in no doubt: 'forLeonardo,as for Alberti,painting s a sciencebecause of ts foundation n mathematicalerspec-tiveand on the tudy fnature'.42eonardohimselfwrote hatAmong ll the tudies fnaturalauses ndreasonslight hieflyelightshe beholder-and mong hegreat eaturesfmathematicshe ertaintyf tsdem-onstrationss what re-eminentlyends oelevate hemind f henvestigator.erspectiveusthereforeepreferredo allthediscoursesndsystemsf humanlearning.43

Geometry s the source of the painter's reativepower, perspective ts technicalexpression.ForLeonardo,perspectivetransformshemindof thepainternto he ikeness fthedivinemind, orwitha free andhe canproduce ifferenteings, nimals,plants,fruits,andscapes, pen fields, bysses andfearfullaces'.44 inear erspectiverovides he er-tainty f our reproductionsf nature n art andunderlies the power and authority, he divinecreativityf the rtist.Leonardo, espitethesecommentsnd hismap-pingexperiments,s not remembereds a landscapepainter, lthoughhis geographicalcontributionswerebyno meansmeagre.45More interestingromthispoint of view is the work of the VenetianChristoforoorte n the aterRenaissance. ortewasa cartographernd surveyor, mployedby theVenetianrepublic s one of the 'periti'or landsurveyorsnd valuersof the Provveditoriopra ibeni nculti,hereclamationffice hich upervisedmarshland rainageand dryland rrigationn thesecondhalf f the ixteenthentury. e wasa skilledcartographer hose maps are regarded s beingamong hefinestecords ftheVenetian tate t thistime Fig 5).46 Sortewas also a landscapepainterwhohas left s a remarkablereatise n hisart47 intheformf reply o a letter rom Veronesenoble,BartolomeoVitali,requestingnformationn howSortehad succeedednreproducing

thetruegreenof thepastures,hevarietyf theflowers,herange fgreen lants,hedensityftheforests,hetransparencyfwater...thedistancesfperspectives.48The work thatVitalirefers o is sadlyunknown.But from textual evidence it is clearlypart-mappart-landscaperawing: chorographynplanandperspective f the provinceof Verona,carefully


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.........."AlA-:r*ii~iiii~i~~-?i--iiiic 74:i.i:J*. ~ii IVS'4:i---?IFiii;i::il-`::7 ?: j:il?:: ov~_:~l::.;;. ::i:--;-:?:ii:Ao

:ii':--'-:::i:-:;i:- ~t^-~,, :'i: ~ :::::: :::-::j::i:I--:::UU--, ~s:~afAdiL-- i::-?"-i-ii~i il _,-i:V.:-: : i-:::I,---i-~-:-x-:%:" -ia$i:Yi0.........

FIGURE5. Christoforoorte:Map ofVenetian oundaries tCadore Venice,Archivio iStato,Provv.CameradeiC


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54 DENISCOSGROVEcoloured ndconsidered workof art.Sorte,nhisreply,modestly eferso himselfs merely practi-cal man unpuro prattico) ather han philosopheror an artist. e is a chorographer.ut hischorogra-phy is securelybased in science.FromPtolemy'sCosmographiae has learnedhow to organizehismap accordingo thefour ardinal oints,nd he has'locatedthesaidchorography ith ts true elationsand distances n themap'.49Once thesegeometricalessentialsrecompleted e candiscuss he olouringof themap. Coloursare used partly o avoid toomanywords,partly o produce representationfreality. husdifferenthadesofgreen llows us torecognize ertilend infertileandsandforests. hecareful nd observantuse of colour helps us to'create he mageof a landscape paese) n canvas ngouacheand according o perspective'.ndeedthetext nds with discourse n perspective,fwhichSorte describes two methods, one theoreticalfounded n distance nd anglemeasurementnd asecond,morepractical,orwhichhe employs mir-rormarkedwith graticule.orSorteperspectives'thefoundationfpainting'withoutwhichnothingcanbe painted fanyvalue. And this kill fpaint-ing s tselfundamentalo thework fthe horogra-pher: niunapotraessercorografo,he non sappiadisegnare dipingere'.50The relationshipetweenperspectivend land-scape could scarcely e more clear than n Sorte'stext where thepractical urveyornd topographeroffers neofthe arliest reatises n the rtofpaint-ing landscape. The early twentieth-centuryrthistorian ernard erensongreedwith orte.Spacecomposition' e wrote, s the bone andmarrow fthe rtof andscape'.Referringo the arlyUmbrianlandscapists ietroPerugino ndRaphael,Berensonclaimed heirriumphay ess nthe ubtlemodellingof atmosphere nd elaboratestudyof lightandshade such as we find n the Venetians han n thetechniquefspace composition. lthough erensonspeaks f this bilityocompose paceas a structureoffeeling' ather han specificechnique ased onsophisticatedeometricalheory, e is well awareofthat ense ofpowerandcontrol verspacethat hespectator erives rom heperspectiverganizationof andscape ainting:in such ictures,owfreelynebreathes-asf loadhad ustbeen ifted romne'sbreast,owrefreshed,hownoble, owpotentne eels.51No longer s the pectator elightednlybysurfacepattern nd the arrangementf forms cross two

dimensions,utrather xhilaratedythepotency fextension ndepth, controlled,xialentryntothepictureplane achievedby linearperspective. hisis the achievement t all the great landscapists,of Bruegel's and Titian's cosmic panoramas,ofGiovanni Bellini's carefully ocated figuresandmodulatedbands of lightand shade,of Claude'sstage-likewings,coulisses and recessionalplanesalongthe xis, nd ofJ.M. W. Turner-himselfro-fessor fPerspectivet theRoyal Academy-whoonce claimed hat without he id ofperspective,llart otters n itsvery oundations'.52Perspectivehen s criticalo landscapepainting,and t s significant,fbeyond he copeof this aperto explorein detail,how close are the historicalparallels etween hegreat dvances nperspectivegeometrynd innovationsn landscape rt.Albertiwrote his treatiset the timeof Van Eyck nd theearliest talian andscapists;elerin,whorefined hedistancepointconstructionn 1505 was the con-temporaryf Leonardo ndGiorgione; ignolawhoshowed n 1535 thatPelerin nd Alberti's onstruc-tionproduced he amegeometricalesultswrote tthe time f Titian's ndBruegel'smaturitynd waspublishedntheproductive ears fPaolo Veroneseand JacopoBassano. The greatadvancesof Pascaland Desargues nthe1630sinestablishinghecon-vergence fparallelines ndshowing heirpparentvisual onvergenceo be a necessaryonsequence fpoint,ine ndsurfaceefinitionsevoid ofEuclidianmetricalassumptions, oincide with the Dutchsupremacyn opticsand its greatschool of land-scape. Geometrical ontinuitynd new transform-ational rules between geometrical forms arepropoundedn a treatise y Ponceletwrittent thesametime hat onstable ndTurner ere xploringlight and atmospheren landscapein ways thatimplicitlyhallenged he dominance f linearper-spective or pacecomposition.inally on Staud nthe 1840s eliminated etricaldeasfrom erspectivegeometry, revealing the possibility of anon-Euclidianpace and n-dimensional onstruc-tions.Hisworkwas completed yF.Klein n1875alittle eforemodernistsliminatederspectiveromspace compositionnd at the sametime s the firstpatentswere taken out for modernphotographicprintingechniques.53LANDSCAPE, PROSPECT AND VISUALIDEOLOGYWhile it is not suggestedthatperspective tandsalone as thebasisfor ealismndlandscape ainting


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Evolutionf heandscapedea 55-the demandfor i vero n Renaissance rt was acomplex ocialandcultural roduct54-it s arguedthat the realist llusionof space whichwas revol-utionizedmorebyperspectivehan nyother ech-nique was, throughperspective, ligned to thephysical ppropriationfspace as property,r ter-ritory. Surveyors' charts which located andmeasured ndividual states, or xample nEnglandafter hedissolution fmonasteries;artographers'mapswhichused thegraticule o apportion lobalspace, for example the line definedby PopeAlexanderVI dividingthe new world betweenPortugal nd Spain; engineers' lans forfortressesand cannon trajectories o conquer or defendnational erritory,s forexampleVauban's Frenchworkor Sorte's forthe Venetiandefences gainstAustria; ll of these reexamples f theapplicationofgeometry o theproduction f realproperty.55They presuppose a differentoncept of spaceownership hanthecontingentonceptofa feudalsocietywhere and s locked ntoa web of nterde-pendentordships ased on fiefndfealty. henewchorographieswhichdecorated the walls of six-teenth-centuryouncilhalls nd signorial alaces,56and the new taste foraccuraterenderingsf theexternalworld whichgraduallymoved from ack-ground o main ubjectmatter, erebothorganizedby perspective eometry nd achieveaestheticallywhat maps, surveys nd ordnancecharts chievepractically.andscapes thus wayof eeing, com-position nd structuringf theworld o that tmaybe appropriatedy a detached,ndividualpectatorto whoman illusion f order nd control s offeredthrough hecomposition fspace according o thecertainties of geometry. That illusion veryfrequentlyomplemented veryreal power andcontrol verfields ndfarms n thepartofpatronsandowners f andscape aintings."5andscape is-tancesus from heworld ncritical ays,definingparticularelationship ith nature nd thosewhoappear nnature,ndofferss the llusion f worldinwhichwe mayparticipateubjectivelyy enter-ingthepicture ramelongtheperspectivalxis. Butthis s an aesthetic ntrance ot an activeengage-mentwitha nature r space thathas its own life.Implicitn the landscape dea is a visual ideologywhichwas extendedfrom ainting o ourrelation-shipwith herealworldwhose framendcompass'Elizabethanso admired ndwhichGeorgian nglishgentlemen ouldonly pproach hroughhe angu-age of andscape aintingr theopticaldistortionftheir laude Glass.

The Italianword forperspectives prospettiva.tcombines enses which n modemEnglish re dis-tinct:perspective'nd 'prospect'. erspectivetselfhas a number fmeaningsnEnglish,ut s thepro-jection f a spatial mageonto a plane t firstppearsin the laterdecades of the sixteenth entury. hisusage is found or xample nJohn ee's Preface othefirstnglish ranslationf Euclid1570).Dee, theElizabethanmathematician,avigationalnstrumentmaker ndmagician,inks hisuse ofperspectiveopaintingna classicallyenaissance ay:

great kill fGeometrie,rithmetik,erspectivendAnthropographieithmany ther articularrts aththe Zographer eed of for his perfection...hismechanicalographercommonlyalled he ainter)smarvelousn hisskil, ndseemeth o have a divinepower.8

Dee iswritingttheopening f a decade whichwillsee Saxton's ountymapspublishednd when new'imageof the country'was beingproducedas anaspect of Elizabethan atriotism,singmaps andlandscape representationss instrumentsf Tudorpower nd nationalistdeology.59By1605 we can find eferenceoperspectives aformf nsight,point fview, s in thephrase get-ting omethingntoperspective',r seeing t in itstrueight,ts correct elationship ithother hings.Many of theearly eferencesuoted n theOxfordEnglishDictionaryo support hedefinitionfper-spectiveas a drawing ontrived o representruespace and distance elations efer o landscape ndgarden ayout.60 hevisual deologyofperspectiveand of andscape s waysofseeingnature,ndeedtruewayofseeing,s certainlyurrentn theEnglishRenaissance.Whenwe turn o thewordprospectefind tused to denote viewoutward, looking or-ward n time s wellas space.Bytheend ofthesix-teenthcentury rospectcarriedthe sense of 'anextensive r commandingightor view,a view ofthe andscape s affectedy one's position'.61 hisneatlyreflects periodwhencommand ver landwas being establishedon new commercially-runestatesbyTudorenclosers ndthenewlandownersof measuredmonasticproperties. hat commandwas establishedwith the help of the surveyors''maliciouscraft', he geometrywhich wrotenewperspectivescrossreal andscapes.62By the mid-seventeenthenturyprospect'hadbecome a substitute or andscape.The commandthat t impliedwas as much social and political s


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56 DENISCOSGROVE

-::::::::::::~:~::-:-::;:':-~::~-:::-:-1:S !:-i'~..............-i; ;~:;::::~~i,- :::::.:::--:::::::::::::::::::::KR .W,:::--lilllii:::ll::_:ii_::::i:::::.:::__-_-::-:::_:. i1~:-:ii:-:::j:::?:::::-ci:~:::-1:::-::::-lii~ilii~'ill-::-'':i-::-::::---':--':-?'~-~'-~::::11 .....?::-::: .\i~iili:~~i~~li:-::1':-.:::::-::::-::----i~i~ii~iiiiiiFilll::::::::::::::_:i-li'i-'il~i-iil~l~~l:i~~l........-::--::::::::::- :::::~?~?~lllii~ii~:':::::-jn ---:,:-'-~'::-?:::::::::::'1I1:.'?-::'-:-':::~:.i---:~l~-i:~~:-.i :::::;:-::::::i~l--ll::5,5!2,l:-:-:-:~-:~~i:~:-i~-!~j,~ ::::i~-:l~~:~-.:?::~:::--:--r-:----,-:,~l::~::-::Rn:::::-:::-r_:-.----::::?::j:::------_:::i:-:::-::::~_::::?::::::::::?:_~lii-:~-:-lii:-:-::-l~~:-:----:-l_?--:::::_-:~-i::::;:_i-:--::::Mr.: --::::-x-::-i:~--::i. ..............::--

FIGURE 6. Roushamgarden,Oxfordshire.heBowlingGreen: Claudian andscapebyWilliamKent

spatial. Commandingviews are the theme ofcountryhouse painting,poetry and landscapingthroughout he seventeenth nd eighteenth en-turiesFig 6), and a number frecent tudieshaverevealed the degree to which landscape was avehicle for social and moral debate duringthisperiod.63The prospects esignedformen liketheDuke ofMarlborough t Blenheimwho had madetheir ortunes romwarhad an appropriately ili-tary haracterntheir locks fwoodland etagainstshaven awns.This no doubtreinforcedhe mageofpowerandauthority,t least for hosewho wieldedit. The survey killswhichcalculated nd laid outtheselandscapes producedfortificationlans,ord-nance charts nd campaignmapsas well as servingtherequirementsftheparliamentarynclosers. t snotsurprisinghatnhiscritiquefemparkmentndlandscapingOliverGoldsmith n TheDesertedVil-lage should describe the park that has replacedSweet Auburn in militarymetaphors: its vistasstrike,ts palaces surprise'.n those greatEnglishlandscapeparksprospect lso signifiedhe future.Controlwas as much temporal s spatial.Theirclumpsof oak and beechwould notbe seenin fullmaturity y those who had themplanted,butsecurityfpropertynsured or ater cionsofthefamilyree heprospect n inheritancefcommand-

inga fine iew. Theprospect f the yewas equallycommercial,uchwoodland nthe andscapewas aneconomic nvestment.t representedrospectingnwood,as thosewhoscoured he andscapenthefol-lowing enturyeeking oldwould be described.64LANDSCAPE AND THE HUMANISTTRADITION IN GEOGRAPHYLandscapecomes intoEnglish anguagegeographyprimarilyromthe German andschaft. uch hasbeenwritten bout thefact hatthe Germanwordmeans area, without ny particularlyesthetic rartistic, r even visual connotations.65My ownknowledge f German sage is too meagre o con-test this laim, utsome comments warranted.nHumboldt'sKosmos, egardedby manyas one ofthetwopillars ponwhichGerman eographywaserected, whole section s devotedto thehistoryfthe ove oflandscape nd nature p to the timeofGoethewhomHumboldtgreatly evered nd whowas a majorvisualtheorist.66nglishgeographerscould have taken heirandscape oncept rom ohnRuskin nd discovered usage not verydifferentfrom umboldt's.67Moredirectly, andschaftntheworkofHettnerndPassarge, hemain ources orEnglish anguagegeographersikeCarl Sauer and


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Evolutionf heandscapedea 57R. E. Dickinsonof the landscape concept,wasconfined o the studyof visible orms,t was theeye whichdeterminedheir election nd inclusion.Moreover, Landschaft,s Sauer's classic paper-'Morphology fLandscape'-makesclear,68was tobe studied ythe horologicalmethod nd tsresultstransmittedescriptivelynproseand above all bythemap. Givenwhat we know of the traditionallinksbetweencartography,horographynd land-scape paintingt is difficulto accepttheargumentthatLandschaftustainednGermangeography heentirely eutral ense of area or regions itsEnglishand American devotees of the inter-war eriodclaimed.Certainly here s a threadof interest nGerman geography for GestaltendeGeografie,studyof aestheticholism n landscape,thatrunsfromHumboldtthrough wald Banse to GerhartHard.69Anglo-Saxongeographersntroducingandscapeas an arealconceptwere not unawareof theprob-lems ausedby tscommon sageas a painters'erm.Butin theinterestsf a scientificeography heywere keen to distancetheir onceptof landscapefrom hatofpainters r literary riters; oets andnovelists.Thus the linksbetween andscape,per-spective nd thecontrol fspace as property-thevisual deologycommon o landscapepaintingndcartography-have gone unrecorded nd unex-ploredby geographers. his is particularlyurpris-ingtodaywhenwe are far learer bout therolethatgeographyhas played in the evolution of thebourgeois concept of individual and nationalspace.70Landscape emains art fourunexamineddiscourse,o be embraced yhumanisteographersas a conceptwhich ppears o fulfilheir esire orcontextual nd anti-positivisteography.Whereasinthepast andscape eographersctively istancedtheir onceptfrom hat of commonusage, todaywritersikeSamuels,Meinig,WrefordWatson andPococktake heoppositeposition.7' n bothperiodsofitspopularityngeography andscape s an art-istic oncept s giventhe role ofpotential r actualchallenger to geographical science. MarwynMikesell's laimwithts nterestingeferenceoper-spective)s anexample f this iew:

theperspectivef thegeographers notthat ftheindividualbserverocatedta particularoint ntheground.hegeographer'sork ntailsmap nterpret-ation s well sdiret-6ob-ser-vation,-ande-makesodis-tinction etween oregroundnd background.helandscapef he eographers thus ery ifferentromthat f hepainter,oetornovelist.ymeans f am-

pling, urvey r detailednventory,e achieves hecomprehensiveut yntheticerspectivef he elicop-terpilot r balloonistrmedwithmaps, hotographsand pair fbinoculars.2The distinctioneemsspurious,t is drawn at thelevel of technique ather han imsand objectives.Given whatwe knowofLeonardo'sdetailednotesonhowlight alls pondifferentockformations,rof Constable's nventoriesf cloud formationsndatmosphericonditions,fTurner's trapping im-self o a ship'smast hebetter oobserve hemove-ment of the storm, r of Ruskin's nstructionsopainters to rival the geologist, botanist andmeteorologistn theirknowledgeof topography,geology,vegetation nd skies, t is likely hathadtheyhad access to thebattery f techniqueswithwhichMikesellwould arm his geographer heywould all have made good use of them.CertainlyChristoforoortewouldhave revelledn their setoimprove is chorographicrt', nd bothBruegel ndTitianproduced andscapes hathave a perspectivefar bove theground ndare as comprehensivendsynthetics Mikesell ould wishfor.Above all thegeometry hich nderlay erspective,heconstruc-tionalprinciple f landscapes, nd whichgave cer-tainty o their ealism,s thesamegeometrywhichdetermines he graticule f Mikesell'smaps anddelimitsheboundariesr ocates he lementsfhisgeographicalandscapes.Beyondthe ssue ofspecificechniqueshere realso methodologicalimilaritiesetween andscapeinpaintingnd ngeography,imilaritieshichhaveallowedgeographerso adoptunconsciouslyome-thing fthevisual deology ntegralothe andscapeidea.Like other reaconcepts ngeography, egionor pays, andscapehas been closelyassociated ngeographywith hemorphologicalmethod.73Mor-phology is the studyof constituent orms, heirisolation, nalysisand recompositionnto a syn-theticwhole.Whenapplied o thevisible ormsf adelimited rea of land this s termed horology.74The resultof a landscape chorology s a staticpatternrpicturewhose internalelations nd con-stituentormsreunderstood,utwhich ackspro-cess or change. Indeed,one of the criticisms fchorologynthepost-war earswas preciselyhat tfailedto explainthe processesgivingrise to theformsnd spatialrelationst described. he idea ofchange,or process, s verydifficulto incorporateinto andscapepainting,lthough here re certainconventions ike the memento orior the ruined


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58 DENISCOSGROVEbuildingwhichoccasionally o so. Butone of theconsistenturposes f andscapepainting as beento presentn imageoforder ndproportionedon-trol, o suppress vidence of tension nd conflictbetween ocialgroups ndwithin uman elationsntheenvironment.his s true or hevilla andscapespainted by Paolo Veronese in the strife-riddenVenetian ountrysidefthe ater ixteenthentury,it was equally rue or he rcadianmageofEnglishlandscapeparksntheGeorgian eriod f rural on-flictnd transformation.n this ensethealignmentofgeographical andscapewithmorphologyervesto reproduce central imension f the deologyofthe andscapedeaas itwasdeveloped nthe rts.Despite appearanceshe ituations little ifferentinmuch fcontemporaryeographical se of and-scape.Too oftengeographical umanistsmake themistakef ssuminghat rt nd withint, andscape,are to do withthe subjective, omehowstandingagainst cience nditsproclaimedbjective ertain-ties.75The subjectivismfart s a recent ndbynomeansfully cceptedthesis, product bove all ofthe artistic elf-image enerated n the Romanticmovement. riginally,s we have seen, andscapewas composed ndconstructedytechniques hichwvereonsidered o ensure he ertaintyfreproduc-ing therealworld.Equally, gainas we have seen,there s an inherentonservatismn thelandscapeidea, in its celebrationof property nd of anunchangingtatus uo,in tssuppressionftensionbetweengroups in the landscape.When we takeover andscapentogeography,ndparticularlyntopublicpolicywe inevitablymportn largemeasurethe realist, isual values with which it has beenloaded: ts connections ith wayofseeing,ts dis-tancing fsubject ndobject nd tsconservatismnpresentingn imageof natural nd socialharmony.John unter aspinpointedheplaceofthese ocialand visual values in contemporaryiscussions flandscape and the conservation nd planningofareas defined s having landscapevalue'.76A vastfield waits research ntocontemporaryisualandsocial values nlandscape77To return, owever, o theopeningpointof thispaper.Humanistgeographershave spenta greatdeal oftime nd energy hallengingheorthodoxyofpositivism,heyhaveopened up a debate on thelanguage of geography-the constraintsandopportunitiesf anguage. omehave evenbegun oexplore he deological ssumptionsnherentnourconcepts fspace tself.78 llof these re mportantmatters. ut the deologyofvision, hewayof see-

ing implicitn much of our geography till waitsdetailed xamination.t themostobvious evel,wewarn students f thepitfallsf accepting he auth-orityof numbers,f thedangersof misused tat-istics,but virtually ever those of accepting hecartographic,till ess the landscape, mage. Lessobviously, ut moresignificantlyorgeographicalscholarship,eography nd thearts, r geographyas art, s frequentlyresenteds a refuge rom en-dentious ocial andpolitical ebateswithin hedisci-pline, nd the soul' ofgeography resortnwhichwe can expressour 'passions'in the neutral ndrefined rea of subjectivitynd humanediscourse,expressing urselves n those reverentialones thatserve purelyto sustainmystification.eographyand the arts are too importantorthis.Both beardirectlyponourworld, othcanchallenge s wellas support hewayswe structure, odify nd seethatworld.In Theoreticaleographyungecame closerthananyother ecent eographical riteroacknowledg-ing the significancef thegraphic mage in geo-graphy.His later, rilliant se of cartographys asubversive rt bears testimony o his insight.79Bunge was equally clear thatgeometrywas thelanguage of space, the guarantor f certaintyngeographicalscience,visually and logically.Asshown,therelationshipetweengeometry,pticsand thestudy fgeographic pace s very trongnEuropean intellectualhistorysince the Renais-sance.80 In Bunge's thesisspatial geometrywasalignedto a powerful laimforgeography s ageneralizing ositivistcience, verydifferenton-ceptionof science from hat understoodby thefoundersof modem geometryand perspective,many fwhom till ecalled hemagic fPythagorasandregardedmetaphysicss being smuch branchof science s empiricaltudy,81 and forwhomthetrivium nd quadrivium ereequal contributorsotheseven iberal rts. nrejectingcience out ourt,humanistgeographershave severed links withspatialgeometry,oncentrated n the material fthe trivium nd failed,among other things,todevelopa proper ritiquef andscape.Such a division was not true of Renaissancehumanist eographers. ohnDee was as close toOrtelius nd Mercators hewastoSirPhilip idney,admired hemagicianCorneliusAgrippa'swork smuch s he didthat fCopernicus. usanus' losestfriend,he executor fhiswill,was Piero dal PozzoToscanelli.Toscanelli,from Florentinemerchantfamily,was a doctor,studentof optics and the


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Evolutionf he andscapedea 59foremosteographerf hisday.As a member f theGreekAcademyat Florence, e studiedone of itsgreatest ntellectualrophies, tolemy'sCosmogra-fiabrought rom onstantinoplenthe arlyyears fthefifteenthentury.nthisworkPtolemy escribesa projectionor heworldmapwhich ses the amegeometricalonstructions theFlorentine umanistsemployed odevelop inear erspective.82 ith heaid ofthis tudyToscanelliproduced mapwhichhe sent with a letter to Christopher olumbusencouraging he Genoese navigator's xplorationweston thegrounds hat he distance rom uropeto China was shorter hanwas then commonlybelievedbycartographers.he geographical onse-quences of this collaboration f art,science andpracticalkillneednotbe spelledout here.But theexampleof thisgeographical olleagueof thegreathumanists lberti nd Brunelleschi ayremind on-temporary umanists n geographyto pay equalattention o the Albertian evolutions to thatofGutenberg.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would iketo thank hefollowing eoplefor heirhelp n improving ponearlier rafts f thispaper:StephenDaniels, Cole Harris,Robin ButlinandTrevor Pringle,and those who contributed tvarious eminars. omeofthe talianmaterials erecollected uring period fstudyn taly unded ya grant romheBritish cademy.NOTES1. GEIPEL,R. (1978) 'The landscape ndicatorschool nGermangeography',n LEY, D. and SAMUELS, M.(eds) Humanistic eography: rospectsnd problems(London)pp. 155-722. See for example the comments on landscape inHARVEY, D. (1969) Explanation n geography(London)pp. 114-153. SAMUELS, M. (1979) 'The biography f landscape',in MEINIG, D. (ed.) The interpretationf ordinary

landscapesOxford) p.51-884. ROSE, C. (1981) William ilthey's hilosophy f his-toricalunderstanding: neglectedheritageof con-temporary umanistic eography', n STODDARD,D. R. (ed.) Geography,deology nd social concern(Oxford) p.99-1335. RELPH, E. (1981) Rational andscapesnd humanisticgeographyLondon)p. 22. This sense oflandscapeasan all inclusive, uotidianphenomenon wes a greatdeal nNorthAmerican eography othework fJ. .Jackson.ee for xample hemostrecent ollection fJackson'sandscapeessays (1980), 'The necessityorruins nd otheropics'Amherst)

6. See the discussionby PUNTER, J.V. (1982) 'Land-scapeaesthetics: synthesisndcritique',nGOLD, J.and BURGESS,J. eds) Valued nvironmentsLondon)pp. 100-237. PENNING-ROWSELL,E. C. (1974) Landscape valu-ation fordevelopment lans',J.R. TnPlann. nst., 0:930-48. APPLETON, J. (1975) The experiencef landscape(London)9. POCOCK, D. C. D. (ed.) (1981) Humanisticeogra-phy and literature:ssaysin theexperiencef place(London);DANIELS, S. J. 1981) 'Landscaping oramanufacturer:umphreyRepton's commissionforBenjaminGott at Armley n 1809-10', J.hist.Geog.,7: 379-96; COSGROVE, D. (ed.) (1982) 'Geographyand the Humanities', oughboroughniv. of Techn.,Occ.Pap.,No. 510. Thisphrase s taken rom ERGER,J. 1972) Waysofseeing London), where some of the social impli-cations of visual conventions are challenginglyexplored11. Examples are numerous. One of the earliest isFRANCESCO FELICIANO (1518) Librod'aritmetica,e geometriapeculativa, practicale, ore commonlyScala & GrimaldelliVenice).One of themost ompre-hensivewas Cosimo Bartoli 1564) Del mododi mis-urare e distantie.. (Venice)12. MEINIG,D. (1983) Geography s Art' Trans. nst. r.Geogr.NS. 8: 314-28; WREFORD-WATSON, J.(1983) 'The soul ofgeography', rans. nst.Br.Geogr.NS. 8: 385-99; BILLINGE,M. (1983) 'The Mandarindialect', Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. NS. 8: 400-20.POCOCK, D. C. D. (1983) 'The paradoxof human-isticgeography', rea,15:355-5813. As always, here reexceptions,lthough omymindnone have examined the visual in relation togeographicalstudy as such: POCOCK, D. C. D.(1981) 'Sightand Knowledge',Trans. nst.Br.Geogr.NS. 6: 385-93; TUAN, YI-FU 1979) Theeyeand themind'seye', in MEINIG, The interpretationfordin-ary andscapesNOTE 3) pp.89-10214. BUNGE, W. (1966) Theoreticaleography2nd ed.Lund), . xiv15. YATES, F. A. (1964) Giordano Bruno and theHermetic raditionLondon)pp. 160-1 discusses therelations f quadrivium nd triviumn Renaissancehumanism,rguing hat the two traditionsppeal toentirely ifferentnterests. he humanist's ent s inthe direction f literature nd history;he sets animmensevalue on rhetoric nd good literarytyle.Thebentof theother raditions towards hilosophy,theology, nd also science at the stage of magic)'.Thisargumentependson a veryrestrictedefinitionofhumanismsee herfn. , p. 160), gnores he visualarts which combined iterary eferenceut picturapoesis) with scientific'kill, nd fails o account forthe argenumber f Renaissance cholars quallyat


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60 DENIS COSGROVEhome in philosophy nd science as theywere con-cernedwithgrammar,hetoric nd classical exts, orexampleGiangiorgio rissino ndDaniele Barbaronsixteenth-centuryenice16. EISENSTEIN, E. L. (1979) Theprinting ress s anagent f hangeCambridge)17. MARTINES, L. (1980) Power and imagination:City-StatesnRenaissancetalyLondon)18. ALBERTI, L. B. (1966) On paintingtrans. J. R.Spencer, ondon)19. Ibidpp.47,4820. Evenphotography as constrictedyconventionsfperspectiverealism, andscape paintinghaving farmore nfluencen earlyphotographyhanvice-versa.See GALASSI, P. (1981) Beforehotography:aintingandthe nventionfphotographyNew York)21. Ibid.pp. 16-1722. Fora detaileddiscussion fBrunelleschi'sxperimentsee EDGERTON, S. J. Jr. 1975) The Renaissancerediscoveryf inearerspectiveLondon)pp.143-5223. REES,R. (1980) 'Historicalinksbetweengeographyandart',Geogr. ev.70: 6624. Thisgroupofpaintings,roduced efore he entrallyplanned church became architecturally opular,includesRaphael's Spozalizio nd Carpaccio'sRecep-tion of the EnglishAmbassadorsn the St Ursulacycle.The sacred ignificancefthecircle nd centreis an enormous opicwith ross-culturalmplications.See TUAN, YI-FU (1974) Topophilia: study ofenvironmentalperception attitudes and beliefs(London)

25. The distinctionetweenmind, r intellect,nd sensewas central o muchRenaissance hought,nd is dis-cussed in Yates, GiordanoBruno note 15) p. 193.Geometrys ofcourse n intellectualctivity. icoloTartaglia alls t thepurefood ofintellectualife' ilpuro cibo della vita intellettuale)uclideMagarense,philosophoVenezia,1543) p. FII, in the first rans-lationofEuclid nto talian.None the ess,one ofthereasonswhyhumanistsikeAlberti cceptedthesig-nificance f numbers nd proportionswas that thesame proportionswhich pleased the intellect lsoseemedto please oureyes and ears.This s a corner-stoneofRenaissance esthetics26. BAXANDALL, M. (1972) Paintingnd experiencenfifteenth-centurytalyLondon)27. FRA LUCA PACIOLI (1494) Summadi arithmetica,geometria,proportione t proportionalittaVenice).See thereferenceo thesignificancef thiswork nBRAUDEL, F. (1982) Civilization nd capitalism,15th-18th entury. ol. II: TheWheels f Commerce(London)p. 57328. SILVIO BELLI (1565) Libro del misurarcon lavista .. (Venezia)preface, p. 1-2 ('certamente cosimeravigliosalmisuraron la vista, oi cheogniuno,chenon sa la ragione ardeltuttompossible')29. ROSSI, F. (1877) Groma squadra, vvero toria ell'

agrimensuratalianadai tempi ntichi l secoloXVIPI(Torino)30. SCHULZ, J. (1978) 'Jacopo de 'Barbari'sview ofVenice: map making,city views, and moralizedgeographybefore heyear 1500', TheArtBull.,LX:425-74; MAZZI, G. (1980) 'La repubblica unostrumentoer l dominio',nPUPPI, L. (ed.)Architet-tura e utopianella Veneziadel cinquecentoMilano)pp. 59-62. It has been pointedout that, ike con-temporarydealtownscapes,heBarbarimap acks llhuman resence31. Renaissancewriters ever tireof emphasizing hatgeometryprovidescertainty.g. Pacioli,Summadiarithmetica.. (note27) p. 2r e in a suaMetaphysicaaffermaEuclid) e scientiemathematiche,sserenelprimo radode certezza'32. McLEAN, A. (1972) Humanismnd theriseof ciencein TudorEnglandLondon)pp. 112 ff. or a fulldis-cussion ofCusanus' work and its impact n Renais-sance thought see CASSIRER, E. (1964) Theindividualnd the cosmos n Renaissance hilosophy(NewYork)33. IVINS,W. M. Jr1946) Art andgeometry,study fspace ntuitionsNew York)pp. 79-8034. There is no space here to explore the fascinatingimplicationsof Renaissance magic theories forattitudes o nature nd natural eauty.Thesetheoriesare of course fullydiscussed in Yates, GiordanoBruno... (note 15)36. There s no escapingtheuse of man' here. We aredealingwith specificallymale' view oftheworld

36. ALBERTI, L. B. (1965) Ten books on architecture(trans. fJ. eoni,1755;facs. opy,London)p. 19437. SARTORI, P. L. (1981) 'Gli scrittori enetid'agrariadel cinquecento del primoseicento.Tra realtaeutopia' in Tagliaferri,. (ed.) Venezia la terrafermaattraverso e relazionedei rettori Milano) pp.261-310. See particularlyhe last three days' ofGALLO, A. (1565) Le diecigiornate ella veraagri-culturapiacereellavilla Vinegia)38. ZORZI, L. (1977) Il teatro la citta. aggia ullascenaitaliana Torino).On the linksbetweentheatre ndcosmological heorieseeYATES,F.A. (1966) The rtofmemoryLondon)39. GOMBRICH, E. (1971) The renaissanceheory fartand therise of andscape',n Gombrich, . Norm ndForm: tudies n the art of the renaissanceLondon)10940. CLARK, K. (1956) Landscape nto art (Harmond-sworth)41. Significantly,hetitle ftheessay byJACKSON,J.B.(1979) 'Landscapeas theatre'n Landscape,3: 3; andreprintedn JACKSON, Thenecessityorruinsnote5)42. BLUNT, A. (1962) Artisticheoryn Italy1450-1600(Oxford) . 26 Italics dded43. Quoted in bid.p. 50


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Evolutionf he andscapedea 6144. Leonardowas a masternotmerely f linearperspec-tive but also ofthatother nd distinct orm fper-spective,erial erspective, hich lays complemen-tary ole ncreatinghe llusion fspacethroughhemanipulation f tone, light and shade and colour

intensity.Whilebased on opticaltheory nd exper-iment,erialperspectivesnotgeometricallyounded.Leonardo'sworkwith olour nd chiaroscurollowedhimto conveythe mood' of space,and he saw thesuperiorityf painting ver other artsto lie in itsability oemploy erialperspective45. ALEXANDER, D. 'Leonardo da Vinci and fluvialgeomorphology', m. . Sci. 282: 735-5546. SCHULZ, J. 1976) 'New maps and landscapedraw-ings by Christoforo orte',Mitteilungener Kuns-thistorischennstitutesn FlorenzXX: I; MAZZI, G.(1980), La Repubblica unostrumentoer ldominio'in PUPPI, L. (ed.) ArchitetturaUtopanellaVeneziadelCinquecentoMilano)pp.59-6247. SORTE, C. (1580) 'Osservazioni nella pittura',reprintedn BARROCCHI, P. (ed.) (1960) Trattatid'artedel cinquecento:ra manierismo controriformoVol. 1 (Bari)pp. 275-301. This textmerits etailedgeographical tudy, otonlyas a discussion f and-scape and cartography ut equally because Sorteappears o anticipate ya centuryherecognitionyJohn ayof he ealmovementf hehydrologicalcycle48. LetterfromVitali to Sorte,reprintedn Barrocchi,Trattati'art.. (note47) p. 27549. SORTE, 'Osservazioninellapittura'note 47) p. 282:'Inoltreho posta dettaCorografia on le sue giustemisure distanze npianta'. n otherwords, heworkwas based on a planisphericurvey.On the relationsbetween such survey nd perspective ee Edgerton.TheRenaissanceediscoverynote22)50. SORTE, Osservazioninellapittura'note47) p. 28351. BERENSON, B. (1952) Italianpaintersfthe Renais-sance'London)p. 1252. Quoted in WILTON, A. (1980) Turner nd thesublimeLondon)p. 7053. IVINS, Art and geometrynote 33) pp. 105-10;GALASSI,Beforehotographynote20)54. MARTINES, Power nd imaginationnote 17); BAX-ANDALL, Paintingndexperiencenote26)

55. A pointthathas notgone entirelynnoticed y his-torical eographers.ee for xample anAdams'workon therole of land surveyorsn eighteenth-centuryScottish grarian hange.ADAMS, I. H. (1980) 'Theagents of agrarian hange', n PARRY, M. L. andSLATER, T. R. (eds) The makingof the ScottishcountrysideLondon)pp. 155-75, esp. pp. 167-7056. For examplethe great galleryof maps paintedbyIgnazioDante intheVatican 1580-83) orthesimilarcommissionsoChristoforoorte opaintwalls ntheDucal PalaceatVenice 1578 and1586)57. COSGROVE, D. (1982) 'Agrarian hange, illabuild-ing and landscape: the Godi estates in Vicenza

1500-1600', in Ferro,G. (ed.) Symposiumn histori-cal changes n spatialorganisationnd its experiencein the Mediterranean orld Genova) pp. 133-56;DANIELS, D. J. 1982) 'HumphreyReptonand themoralityf andscape',nGOLD, J. ndBURGESS,J.(eds) Valued nvironmentsnote6) pp. 124-4458. Quoted in McLEAN, Humanism nd the rise ofscience.. (note 32) p. 138. The translationf Euclidwas byBillingsley.or Dee's importanceorgeogra-phy and cartographyee TAYLOR, E. G. R. (1954)The mathematicalractitionersf Tudor and StuartEnglandLondon)pp. 26-48. For Dee andmagicseeYATES, Girodanorunonote 15)pp. 148-5059. MORGAN, V. (1979) 'The cartographicmageofthecountrynearlymodemEngland',Trans.R. Hist.Soc.29:129-5460. The whole issue ofgardendesignalongcircularndorthogonal ines is too large to discuss herebut isobviouslyvery loselyrelated o thegeometry nderdiscussion, o spatial heory nd those ofmicrocosm,macrocosm nd medicinal oncepts.The first uchgardenwas designed n Padua in the late sixteenthcentury y Daniele Barbaro, ranslaterf Vitruviusand commentatorn Euclid.See JACKSON, J. B.(1980) 'Nearer hanEden'and Gardens o Decipher'in The necessityor ruins note 5) pp. 19-35 and37-5361. OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY (OED), italicsadded62. THOMPSON, F. M. L. (1968) Charteredurveyors:thegrowth fa professionLondon);HARVEY, P. D.A. (1980) The history f topographic aps:symbols,picturesnd surveysLondon).The idea thatsurvey-ingwas a malicious nd magical rtwas founded nparton thenegative onsequences or raditionalandrights f newconcepts fprivate ropertynshrinedin the egaldocument hat hesurveyor roduced,nparton therecognition f connections etweenthegeometry f survey echniques nd thatofhermeticmagicians. n the book burnings nder EdwardVIbooks containing eometrical igureswere particu-larly trisk63. TURNER, J. (1979) The politics f landscape: uralscenery nd society n Englishpoetry1630-1690(Oxford); ADAMS, J. (1979) The artist and thecountry ouse.A history f country ouse ndgardenview painting in Britain 1540-1870 (London);BARRELL,J. 1980) Thedark side of the landscape:theruralpoor n English ainting 631-1741 (Cam-bridge);ROSENTHAL, M. (1982) BritishandscapepaintingLondon)64. TheOED notesthat heverb toprospect' mergednthe nineteenthentury eferringo the particularlycapitalist ctivities f speculativegold mining ndplayingthestockexchange. t is interestingo notehow 'speculation' has itself roots in visualterminology


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62 DENIS COSGROVE65. MIKESELL, M. (1968) 'Landscape', n Internationalencyclopaediaf the social sciencesNew York) p.577-79. DICKINSON, R. E. (1939) 'LandscapeandSociety', Scott. geogr. Mag. 55: 1-15; HART-SHORNE, R. (1939) The nature fgeography. sur-

veyofcurrenthoughtn the ight fthepast Lancas-ter, a.)66. HUMBOLDT, A. VON (1849-52) Cosmos: sketchof a physicaldescriptionf the UniverseLondon),Vol. II. The relationshipetweenthe landscape deaand attitudes o nature n thenineteenthenturysof course enormouslycomplex. On Goethe andgeography see SEAMON, D. (1978) 'Goethe'sapproach to the naturalworld: implicationsforenvironmentalheoryand education', n LEY andSAMUELS, HumanisticGeography note 1) pp.238-5067. COSGROVE, D. (1979) 'John Ruskin and thegeographicalmagination' eog.Rev. 9: 43-6268. SAUER,C. 0. (1926) 'Themorphology f andscape',reprintedn LEIGHLY, J. ed.) (1963) Land and life:selectionsromthe writings f Carl Ortwin Sauer(BerkeleyndLosAngeles)69. BANSE, E. (1924) Die Seele der Geographie(Brunswick); ARD, G. (1965) 'Arkadienn Deutch-land',Die Erde, 6: 31-470. HARVEY, D. (1974) 'What kindof geographyforwhat kind of public policy', Trans. nst.Br. Geogr.;HARVEY,D. (1984) On thehistoryndpresent on-dition of geography: an historical materialistmanifesto',rof. eogr. 5: 1-10

71. Notes3 and1272. MIKESELL, Landscape' note64) p. 57873. Explicitlyo by SAUER, Morphology fLandscape'(note 67), and equally n physicalgeographywherelandscape nthe title uggests morphologicaltudyof andforms74. VAN PAASEN, C. (1957) The classical raditionfgeographyGroningen)75. See forexample the diagramwhich serves as thefoundation orthe discussion f spatialconcepts nSACK, R. D. (1980) Conceptionsf space in socialthought: geographical erspectiveMinneapolis)p.2576. PUNTER,J.'Landscape esthetics...' (note6)77. Some oftheessays nGOLD, andBURGESS,Valuedenvironmentsnote 6) begin to broach thisfield, shave papers presented n recent IBG sessions of'Geography ndtheMedia'78. SACK, Conceptionsf pace .. (note 74)79. BUNGE, W. (1973) 'The geography of humansurvival', nn.Ass.Am.Geogr. 3: 275-9580. This s distinct rom herelations f Greekgeometrywhich apparentlywere derived from a tactile-muscularapprehension f space, an apprehensionwhichwasnon-visual.VINS, Art ndgeometrynote33)81. YATES, Giordano runonote 15)pp. 144-5682. EDGERTON, The Renaissancerediscovery...note22)

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COSGROVE_D - Prospect Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape Idea