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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
248
European Journal of MarketingVol 35 No 34 2001 pp 248-291 MCB University Press 0309-0566
Corporate identity corporatebranding and corporate
marketingSeeing through the fog
John MT BalmerBradford School of Management The University of Bradford UK
Keywords Corporate identity Corporate Communications Brands Corporate image
Abstract Outlines 15 explanations for the fog which has enveloped the nascent domains ofcorporate identity and corporate marketing However the fog surrounding the area has a silverlining This is because the fog has unwittingly led to the emergence of rich disciplinaryphilosophical as well as ` nationalrsquorsquo schools of thought In their composite these approaches havethe potential to form the foundations of a new approach to management which might be termed` corporate marketingrsquorsquo In addition to articulating the authorrsquos understanding of the attributesregarding a business identity (the umbrella label used to cover corporate identity organisationalidentification and visual identity) the author outlines the characteristics of corporate marketingand introduces a new corporate marketing mix based on the mnemonic ` HEADSrsquorsquo[2] Thisrelates to what an organisation has expresses the affinities of its employees as well as what theorganisation does and how it is seen by stakeholder groups and networks In addition the authordescribes the relationship between the corporate identity and corporate brand and notes thedifferences between product brands and corporate brands Finally the author argues thatscholars need to be sensitive to the factors that are contributing to the fog surrounding corporateidentity Only then will business identitycorporate marketing studies grow in maturity
Introduction` FOG IN CHANNEL plusmn EUROPE ISOLATEDrsquorsquo So ran a famous headlineappearing on the front page of The Thunderer[1] in the early 1900s Thisheadline has achieved some notoriety and is sometimes used as a metaphor forEnglish insularity and isolationism Using fog as a metaphor is apposite for` business identity studiesrsquorsquo The area may be broken down into three mainstrands plusmn corporate identity organisational identity and visual identity As thisarticle will reveal there are numerous factors which have contributed to the fogthat is enveloping business identity studies In the authorrsquos opinion the ` fogrsquorsquohas stunted the recognition of the strategic importance as well as themultidisciplinary nature of business identity However isolationism has asilver lining in that it can result in scholars and practitioners achieving a highdegree of creativity and innovation This appears to have occurred in the broadarea of business identity studies where distinct schools of thought haveemerged from national and disciplinary roots However what is becomingincreasingly apparent is that the provenance to guide identity studies is not
The research register for this journal is available at
httpwwwmcbupcomresearch_registers
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
httpwwwemerald-librarycomft
The author is indebted to all those who have assisted in the preparation of this article includingthe invaluable assistance given by the reviewers This paper has been reviewed separately bythe European Journal of Marketing review board
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
249
solely limited to marketing scholars The current cross-fertilisation takingplace among the various literatures on the broad area of identity studies has ledthe author to the conclusion that in time these distinct strands are likely tocoalesce and give rise to a new cognitive area of management called corporatemarketing
A growing number of scholars are beginning to appreciate themultidisciplinary foundations of business identity In the above context thevarious disciplinary national and cultural approaches when reviewed inisolation may appear to be little more than a modest tour drsquohorizon In theircomposite they represent a veritable firmament with the potential to form thekey building blocks of a new area of management However while the area islikely to be enthusiastically embraced by marketing scholars since it supports anumber of concepts that have a long lineage in the marketing discipline plusmnbranding communications image reputation and identity plusmn these conceptswhen applied to the corporate level are invariably more complicated than whensimply applied to products Furthermore such corporate concerns areinextricably linked to questions pertaining to corporate strategy and toorganisational behaviour and human resources As such marketing at thecorporate level requires a radical reappraisal in terms of its philosophycontent management and process
The article opens with a brief overview of the growing consensus gentiumamong many managementscholars with regard to the importance of theidentity concept This is followed by an examination of the 15 reasons for thecause of the fog In focusing on these reasons it is hoped that marketing andmanagement scholars will concentrate on the opportunities rather than thedifficulties associated with the identity concept What is clear is that theidentity concept is particularly salient for a host of management disciplines andprovides a new supplemental lens by which an organisationrsquos quintessentialattributes may be revealed nurtured managed influenced and altered
The growing importance of business identity studiesThe last decade has seen a burgeoning interest among the business andacademic communities in what the author calls for the sake of expediency` business identityrsquorsquo Business identity encompasses a triumvirate of relatedconcepts and literature which are
(1) corporate identity
(2) organisational identity and
(3) visual identity
It should be noted that business identity is viewed as encompassinginstitutions in the public not-for-profit and private sectors as well as supra andsub-organisational identities such as industries alliances trade associationsbusiness units and subsidiaries A sign of the heightened importance attachedto business identity can be seen in the number of management conferences and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
250
articles devoted to the area Of additional note are the special editions ofjournals devoted to the area including the European Journal of Marketing(1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing (1997) CorporateCommunications (1999) and The Academy of Management Review (2000)
The saliency of the identity concept to contemporary organisations and tomanagement academics from various disciplinary backgrounds has beenarticulated by Cheney and Christensen (1999) They observed that identity wasa pressing issue for many institutions and that the question of identity or ofwhat the organisation is or stands for cuts across and unifies many differentorganisational goals and concerns
This interest in identity has led to the emergence of courses on the areaCourses in strategic business identity management have been offered atStrathclyde Business School since 1991 where an International Centre forCorporate Identity Studies was also established A number of other leadingbusiness schools have also begun or are about to offer business identity studiesas part of their degree courses including Bradford School of Management(UK) Cranfield University (UK) Erasmus Graduate Business School (TheNetherlands) Harvard Business School (USA) HEC Paris (France) QueenslandUniversity of Technology (Australia) Loyola University Los Angeles (USA)and Waikato University (New Zealand) Not surprisingly the realisation of thesaliency of business identity is reflected in texts by academics who to varyingdegrees focus on business identity (Bromley 1993 Dowling 1993 Fombrun1996 Van Riel 1995) Articles are also to be found on the area in many businessand academic journals and in a growing number of business and marketinghandbooks and encyclopaedias (Balmer 1999a Cheney and Christensen 1999Tyrell 1995) Recently Whetten and Godfrey (1998) have edited a book whichdraws on several different academic traditions regarding identity However itadopts an overtly North American and behavioural stance on the area andmarshalls little of the marketing literature that has been extant since the 1950s
However the rapid ascendancy of business identity has had the ratherunfortunate effect of producing what the Scottish call a haar plusmn a thick sea fogAn examination of the literature on corporate identity and related areas has ledthe author to identify 15 contributory reasons for the fog This article seeksfirst to explain the factors causing the fog and second to begin the task ofrevealing the horizon of business identity studies which has thus far beendisguised
Business identity why the fogWhile this article will largely focus on the business identity concept it will alsomake reference to other related areas namely corporate reputation totalcorporate communications and corporate branding
The 15 contributory factors which have created fog vis-aAacute -vis businessidentity are illustrated in Table I
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
251
First explanation for the fog the terminologyProviding an exegesis of the literature surrounding the family of conceptsrelated to business identity is a difficult task Existing literature reviews gosome way in giving clarity in this regard (Abratt 1989 Balmer 1998 Fombrunand van Riel 1997 Grunig 1993 Kennedy 1977)
What is clear is that the identity concept in its various facets is ubiquitousbut it can be used with reckless permissiveness among practitioner circles andto a lesser degree among scholars The practitioner literature is replete withexamples of where identity is initially defined in terms of the fundamentalattributes of an organisation but often undergoes a dramatic volte-face withidentity solutions being explained only in graphic-design terms The existenceof a trio of identity concepts is indicative of the perspicacity which needs to beaccorded by identity scholars The literature pertaining to the three identityconcepts is still evolving as is the relationship between the concepts A degreeof symbiosis is occurring and the author shares Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998)view of the efficacy of greater dialogue between management scholars fromdifferent disciplinary perspectives
The literature covering the business identity domain not only makesreference to the triumvirate of concepts underpinning business identity(corporate identity organisational identity and visual identity) but alsoembraces a wealth of other concepts comprising the corporate brand corporatecommunicationtotal corporate communications corporate image corporatepersonality and corporate reputation However as several writers haveremarked there is a lack of consensus as to the precise meaning of many of the
Table IThe 15 contributory
factors for the fogvis-aAacute -vis business
identity
1 The terminology2 The existence of different paradigmatic views vis-aAacute -vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetre3 Multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identity4 A failure to make a distinction between the elements comprising a business identity and
the elements to be considered in managing a business identity5 Disagreement with regard to the objectives of business identity management6 A traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophone and Non-Anglophone scholars and
writers7 The traditional lack of dialogue between researchers from different disciplines8 The association with graphic design9 The effect of fashion
10 The inappropriateness of the positivistic research paradigm in the initial stages oftheory generation vis-aAacute -vis business identity
11 The paucity of empirical academic research12 Undue focus being accorded to the business identities of holding companiesparent
organisation13 The emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxon forms of business structures14 Weaknesses in traditional marketing models of corporate identitycorporate image
management and formation15 A failure to make a distinction between the actual communicated conceived ideal and
desired identities
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
252
concepts articulated above and the relationships between them Abrattrsquos (1989p 66) insightful comment articulated below reflects the views of many scholarsincluding Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) Ind (1992) Olins (1978) and Van Rieland Balmer (1997)
Despite the voluminous literature the concepts remain unclear and ambiguous as nouniversally accepted definitions have emerged (Abratt 1989)
The following authors provide an overview of the following concepts corporateidentity (Balmer 1998) organisational identity (Whetten and Godfrey 1998)visual identity (Chajet and Schachtman 1998) corporate image (Grunig 1993)corporate personality (Olins 1978) corporate reputation (Fombrun and VanRiel 1997) corporate communications (Van Riel 1995) total corporatecommunications (Balmer and Gray 1999) and the corporate brand (Macra1999) The muddled use of the terminology has perhaps contributed more tothe fog surrounding the business identity domain than any other factor For thewould-be novice of business identity studies or indeed of corporate marketingthe concepts may at first sight appear to be impenetrable and theirrelationships Byzantine in complexity The author while recognising the abovedifficulties is of the view that the emergence of a family of related concepts isindicative of business identitycorporate marketingrsquos growing maturityAccording to Watershoot (1995 p 438) the making of listings and taxonomiesis one of the primary tasks in the development of a new body of thought TableII articulates the authorrsquos understanding of the principal concepts therelationships between them and their place in the current understanding ofbusiness identity including its nature management objectives and outcomesBuilding upon Table II Table III attempts to show the saliency of the identityand related concepts in addressing key organisational issues and questions
One problem associated with some of the concepts is the analogy that issometimes made between the human identity and personality and the corporateidentity and personality There are clear benefits but also dangers inassuming that corporate entities can be understood explained and altered byapplying the principles of social psychology (cf Bromley 1993) A couple ofobservations need to be made here First the use of metaphors pertaining to thehuman identity has been used by leading identity scholars such as Albert andWhetten (1985) and is particularly prevalent in their text Identity inOrganisations (Whetten and Godfrey 1998) Many of these anthropologicalmetaphors were introduced by practitioners for practical reasons Alan Siegalrsquosuse of the ` voicersquorsquo (corporate communication) metaphor and Olinsrsquos use of thepersonality metaphor are perhaps the most obvious examples For example inOlinsrsquos text (1978) the corporate personality and its link with the humanpersonality is more apparent than might be deduced from a reading of therecent literature Olins hypothesised that organisations in their formative yearsoften mirror the personality of the organisationrsquos founder and it is theorganisationrsquos founder or founders who Olins argues imbue the organisationwith its distinctiveness Once the founder has left there is a void (what the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
253
Table IIOverview of the main
concepts
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
Aak
er(1
996)
B
alm
er(1
995
1999
)In
d(1
996)
D
eC
her
nat
ony
(199
9)G
regor
y(1
997)
K
apfe
rer
(199
2)K
ing
(199
1)
Mac
rae
(199
9)M
aath
ius
(199
9)IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
corp
orat
ebra
nd
isan
espou
sed
obje
ctiv
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tA
corp
orat
ebra
nd
pro
pos
itio
nsh
ould
be
der
ived
from
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
iden
tity
(b
)T
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
mix
consi
sts
ofcu
ltura
lin
tric
ate
tangib
lean
det
her
eal
elem
ents
`C2IT
Ersquorsquo
(Bal
mer
20
00)
Inth
isar
ticl
eco
mm
itm
ent
has
bee
nad
ded
asa
fift
hel
emen
tT
his
isbec
ause
aco
rpor
ate
bra
nd
requir
esco
mm
itm
ent
from
all
staf
fas
wel
las
com
mit
men
tfr
omse
nio
rm
anag
emen
tan
din
finan
cial
suppor
tT
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
conce
pt
isre
late
dto
the
conce
pts
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
and
corp
orat
eim
age
whic
har
eal
soto
som
edeg
ree
conce
rned
wit
hper
cepti
on
Vid
ein
fraU
nlike
pro
duct
bra
nds
the
focu
sof
corp
orat
ebra
nds
ison
(i)
all
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
(ii)
bas
edon
abro
ader
mix
than
the
trad
itio
nal
mar
ket
ing
mix
and
(iii)
isex
per
ience
dan
dco
mm
unic
ated
thro
ugh
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nra
ther
than
sim
ply
via
the
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
V
ide
infr
a
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
nan
dto
tal
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns
Aber
g(1
990)
B
alm
eran
dG
ray
(199
9)
Ber
nst
ein
(198
4)In
d(1
996)
IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(see
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
chan
nel
sby
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyis
mad
eknow
nto
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
and
whic
htr
ansl
ates
over
tim
ein
toth
eac
quis
itio
nof
aco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
cor
por
ate
bra
nd
reputa
tion
(b
)V
anR
ielrsquos
infl
uen
tial
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
nm
ixen
com
pas
ses
(i)
man
agem
ent
(ii)
organ
isat
ional
and
(iii)
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
Aber
gan
dB
ernst
ein
bro
aden
edth
e`c
orpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
rsquorsquoan
din
cluded
elem
ents
such
asco
mpan
ypro
duct
san
dbeh
avio
ur
Bal
mer
expan
ded
Van
Rie
lrsquosco
nce
pt
toen
com
pas
sth
ose
com
munic
atio
nel
emen
tsw
hic
hca
nnot
be
contr
olle
den
titl
ing
this
`tot
alco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nsrsquo
rsquoB
alm
eran
dG
ray
concl
uded
that
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
consi
sted
ofth
ree
elem
ents
(i)
pri
mar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(t
he
com
munic
atio
nef
fect
sof
pro
duct
san
dof
corp
orat
ebeh
avio
ur)
(ii)
seco
ndar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(in
esse
nce
Van
Rie
lrsquosm
ix)
(iii)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
n(w
ord-o
f-m
outh
and
mes
sages
impar
ted
abou
tth
eor
gan
isat
ion
from
thir
dpar
ties
)(c
onti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
that
hum
ans
do
This
conce
pt
has
also
suff
ered
asa
conse
quen
ceof
the
vag
arie
sof
fash
ion
Cor
por
ate
reputa
tion
Bro
mle
y(1
993)
C
aruan
aan
dC
hir
cop
(200
0)
Fom
bru
n(1
996)
F
ombru
nan
dV
anR
iel
(199
7)G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)
Gre
yse
r(1
999)
Sob
olan
dF
arre
ll(1
988)
W
eigel
tan
dC
amer
er(1
988)
(a)
One
obje
ctiv
eof
effe
ctiv
ebusi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tis
the
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
reputa
tion
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
gro
ups
This
isbel
ieved
togiv
eth
eor
gan
isat
ion
aco
mpet
itiv
ead
van
tage
(b)
Fom
bru
nan
dV
anR
iel
pro
vid
esi
xca
tegor
isat
ions
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
sre
flec
ting
the
six
dis
tinct
lite
ratu
res
onth
ear
eaw
hic
hvar
iousl
yfo
cus
onit
sfi
nan
cial
wor
th
its
trai
tsan
do
rsi
gnal
sit
sfo
rmat
ion
reputa
tion
alex
pec
tati
ons
and
nor
ms
and
onre
puta
tion
alas
sets
and
mob
ilit
ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
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Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
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Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
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Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
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Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
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Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
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Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
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Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
249
solely limited to marketing scholars The current cross-fertilisation takingplace among the various literatures on the broad area of identity studies has ledthe author to the conclusion that in time these distinct strands are likely tocoalesce and give rise to a new cognitive area of management called corporatemarketing
A growing number of scholars are beginning to appreciate themultidisciplinary foundations of business identity In the above context thevarious disciplinary national and cultural approaches when reviewed inisolation may appear to be little more than a modest tour drsquohorizon In theircomposite they represent a veritable firmament with the potential to form thekey building blocks of a new area of management However while the area islikely to be enthusiastically embraced by marketing scholars since it supports anumber of concepts that have a long lineage in the marketing discipline plusmnbranding communications image reputation and identity plusmn these conceptswhen applied to the corporate level are invariably more complicated than whensimply applied to products Furthermore such corporate concerns areinextricably linked to questions pertaining to corporate strategy and toorganisational behaviour and human resources As such marketing at thecorporate level requires a radical reappraisal in terms of its philosophycontent management and process
The article opens with a brief overview of the growing consensus gentiumamong many managementscholars with regard to the importance of theidentity concept This is followed by an examination of the 15 reasons for thecause of the fog In focusing on these reasons it is hoped that marketing andmanagement scholars will concentrate on the opportunities rather than thedifficulties associated with the identity concept What is clear is that theidentity concept is particularly salient for a host of management disciplines andprovides a new supplemental lens by which an organisationrsquos quintessentialattributes may be revealed nurtured managed influenced and altered
The growing importance of business identity studiesThe last decade has seen a burgeoning interest among the business andacademic communities in what the author calls for the sake of expediency` business identityrsquorsquo Business identity encompasses a triumvirate of relatedconcepts and literature which are
(1) corporate identity
(2) organisational identity and
(3) visual identity
It should be noted that business identity is viewed as encompassinginstitutions in the public not-for-profit and private sectors as well as supra andsub-organisational identities such as industries alliances trade associationsbusiness units and subsidiaries A sign of the heightened importance attachedto business identity can be seen in the number of management conferences and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
250
articles devoted to the area Of additional note are the special editions ofjournals devoted to the area including the European Journal of Marketing(1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing (1997) CorporateCommunications (1999) and The Academy of Management Review (2000)
The saliency of the identity concept to contemporary organisations and tomanagement academics from various disciplinary backgrounds has beenarticulated by Cheney and Christensen (1999) They observed that identity wasa pressing issue for many institutions and that the question of identity or ofwhat the organisation is or stands for cuts across and unifies many differentorganisational goals and concerns
This interest in identity has led to the emergence of courses on the areaCourses in strategic business identity management have been offered atStrathclyde Business School since 1991 where an International Centre forCorporate Identity Studies was also established A number of other leadingbusiness schools have also begun or are about to offer business identity studiesas part of their degree courses including Bradford School of Management(UK) Cranfield University (UK) Erasmus Graduate Business School (TheNetherlands) Harvard Business School (USA) HEC Paris (France) QueenslandUniversity of Technology (Australia) Loyola University Los Angeles (USA)and Waikato University (New Zealand) Not surprisingly the realisation of thesaliency of business identity is reflected in texts by academics who to varyingdegrees focus on business identity (Bromley 1993 Dowling 1993 Fombrun1996 Van Riel 1995) Articles are also to be found on the area in many businessand academic journals and in a growing number of business and marketinghandbooks and encyclopaedias (Balmer 1999a Cheney and Christensen 1999Tyrell 1995) Recently Whetten and Godfrey (1998) have edited a book whichdraws on several different academic traditions regarding identity However itadopts an overtly North American and behavioural stance on the area andmarshalls little of the marketing literature that has been extant since the 1950s
However the rapid ascendancy of business identity has had the ratherunfortunate effect of producing what the Scottish call a haar plusmn a thick sea fogAn examination of the literature on corporate identity and related areas has ledthe author to identify 15 contributory reasons for the fog This article seeksfirst to explain the factors causing the fog and second to begin the task ofrevealing the horizon of business identity studies which has thus far beendisguised
Business identity why the fogWhile this article will largely focus on the business identity concept it will alsomake reference to other related areas namely corporate reputation totalcorporate communications and corporate branding
The 15 contributory factors which have created fog vis-aAacute -vis businessidentity are illustrated in Table I
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
251
First explanation for the fog the terminologyProviding an exegesis of the literature surrounding the family of conceptsrelated to business identity is a difficult task Existing literature reviews gosome way in giving clarity in this regard (Abratt 1989 Balmer 1998 Fombrunand van Riel 1997 Grunig 1993 Kennedy 1977)
What is clear is that the identity concept in its various facets is ubiquitousbut it can be used with reckless permissiveness among practitioner circles andto a lesser degree among scholars The practitioner literature is replete withexamples of where identity is initially defined in terms of the fundamentalattributes of an organisation but often undergoes a dramatic volte-face withidentity solutions being explained only in graphic-design terms The existenceof a trio of identity concepts is indicative of the perspicacity which needs to beaccorded by identity scholars The literature pertaining to the three identityconcepts is still evolving as is the relationship between the concepts A degreeof symbiosis is occurring and the author shares Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998)view of the efficacy of greater dialogue between management scholars fromdifferent disciplinary perspectives
The literature covering the business identity domain not only makesreference to the triumvirate of concepts underpinning business identity(corporate identity organisational identity and visual identity) but alsoembraces a wealth of other concepts comprising the corporate brand corporatecommunicationtotal corporate communications corporate image corporatepersonality and corporate reputation However as several writers haveremarked there is a lack of consensus as to the precise meaning of many of the
Table IThe 15 contributory
factors for the fogvis-aAacute -vis business
identity
1 The terminology2 The existence of different paradigmatic views vis-aAacute -vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetre3 Multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identity4 A failure to make a distinction between the elements comprising a business identity and
the elements to be considered in managing a business identity5 Disagreement with regard to the objectives of business identity management6 A traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophone and Non-Anglophone scholars and
writers7 The traditional lack of dialogue between researchers from different disciplines8 The association with graphic design9 The effect of fashion
10 The inappropriateness of the positivistic research paradigm in the initial stages oftheory generation vis-aAacute -vis business identity
11 The paucity of empirical academic research12 Undue focus being accorded to the business identities of holding companiesparent
organisation13 The emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxon forms of business structures14 Weaknesses in traditional marketing models of corporate identitycorporate image
management and formation15 A failure to make a distinction between the actual communicated conceived ideal and
desired identities
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
252
concepts articulated above and the relationships between them Abrattrsquos (1989p 66) insightful comment articulated below reflects the views of many scholarsincluding Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) Ind (1992) Olins (1978) and Van Rieland Balmer (1997)
Despite the voluminous literature the concepts remain unclear and ambiguous as nouniversally accepted definitions have emerged (Abratt 1989)
The following authors provide an overview of the following concepts corporateidentity (Balmer 1998) organisational identity (Whetten and Godfrey 1998)visual identity (Chajet and Schachtman 1998) corporate image (Grunig 1993)corporate personality (Olins 1978) corporate reputation (Fombrun and VanRiel 1997) corporate communications (Van Riel 1995) total corporatecommunications (Balmer and Gray 1999) and the corporate brand (Macra1999) The muddled use of the terminology has perhaps contributed more tothe fog surrounding the business identity domain than any other factor For thewould-be novice of business identity studies or indeed of corporate marketingthe concepts may at first sight appear to be impenetrable and theirrelationships Byzantine in complexity The author while recognising the abovedifficulties is of the view that the emergence of a family of related concepts isindicative of business identitycorporate marketingrsquos growing maturityAccording to Watershoot (1995 p 438) the making of listings and taxonomiesis one of the primary tasks in the development of a new body of thought TableII articulates the authorrsquos understanding of the principal concepts therelationships between them and their place in the current understanding ofbusiness identity including its nature management objectives and outcomesBuilding upon Table II Table III attempts to show the saliency of the identityand related concepts in addressing key organisational issues and questions
One problem associated with some of the concepts is the analogy that issometimes made between the human identity and personality and the corporateidentity and personality There are clear benefits but also dangers inassuming that corporate entities can be understood explained and altered byapplying the principles of social psychology (cf Bromley 1993) A couple ofobservations need to be made here First the use of metaphors pertaining to thehuman identity has been used by leading identity scholars such as Albert andWhetten (1985) and is particularly prevalent in their text Identity inOrganisations (Whetten and Godfrey 1998) Many of these anthropologicalmetaphors were introduced by practitioners for practical reasons Alan Siegalrsquosuse of the ` voicersquorsquo (corporate communication) metaphor and Olinsrsquos use of thepersonality metaphor are perhaps the most obvious examples For example inOlinsrsquos text (1978) the corporate personality and its link with the humanpersonality is more apparent than might be deduced from a reading of therecent literature Olins hypothesised that organisations in their formative yearsoften mirror the personality of the organisationrsquos founder and it is theorganisationrsquos founder or founders who Olins argues imbue the organisationwith its distinctiveness Once the founder has left there is a void (what the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
253
Table IIOverview of the main
concepts
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
Aak
er(1
996)
B
alm
er(1
995
1999
)In
d(1
996)
D
eC
her
nat
ony
(199
9)G
regor
y(1
997)
K
apfe
rer
(199
2)K
ing
(199
1)
Mac
rae
(199
9)M
aath
ius
(199
9)IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
corp
orat
ebra
nd
isan
espou
sed
obje
ctiv
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tA
corp
orat
ebra
nd
pro
pos
itio
nsh
ould
be
der
ived
from
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
iden
tity
(b
)T
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
mix
consi
sts
ofcu
ltura
lin
tric
ate
tangib
lean
det
her
eal
elem
ents
`C2IT
Ersquorsquo
(Bal
mer
20
00)
Inth
isar
ticl
eco
mm
itm
ent
has
bee
nad
ded
asa
fift
hel
emen
tT
his
isbec
ause
aco
rpor
ate
bra
nd
requir
esco
mm
itm
ent
from
all
staf
fas
wel
las
com
mit
men
tfr
omse
nio
rm
anag
emen
tan
din
finan
cial
suppor
tT
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
conce
pt
isre
late
dto
the
conce
pts
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
and
corp
orat
eim
age
whic
har
eal
soto
som
edeg
ree
conce
rned
wit
hper
cepti
on
Vid
ein
fraU
nlike
pro
duct
bra
nds
the
focu
sof
corp
orat
ebra
nds
ison
(i)
all
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
(ii)
bas
edon
abro
ader
mix
than
the
trad
itio
nal
mar
ket
ing
mix
and
(iii)
isex
per
ience
dan
dco
mm
unic
ated
thro
ugh
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nra
ther
than
sim
ply
via
the
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
V
ide
infr
a
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
nan
dto
tal
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns
Aber
g(1
990)
B
alm
eran
dG
ray
(199
9)
Ber
nst
ein
(198
4)In
d(1
996)
IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(see
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
chan
nel
sby
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyis
mad
eknow
nto
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
and
whic
htr
ansl
ates
over
tim
ein
toth
eac
quis
itio
nof
aco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
cor
por
ate
bra
nd
reputa
tion
(b
)V
anR
ielrsquos
infl
uen
tial
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
nm
ixen
com
pas
ses
(i)
man
agem
ent
(ii)
organ
isat
ional
and
(iii)
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
Aber
gan
dB
ernst
ein
bro
aden
edth
e`c
orpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
rsquorsquoan
din
cluded
elem
ents
such
asco
mpan
ypro
duct
san
dbeh
avio
ur
Bal
mer
expan
ded
Van
Rie
lrsquosco
nce
pt
toen
com
pas
sth
ose
com
munic
atio
nel
emen
tsw
hic
hca
nnot
be
contr
olle
den
titl
ing
this
`tot
alco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nsrsquo
rsquoB
alm
eran
dG
ray
concl
uded
that
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
consi
sted
ofth
ree
elem
ents
(i)
pri
mar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(t
he
com
munic
atio
nef
fect
sof
pro
duct
san
dof
corp
orat
ebeh
avio
ur)
(ii)
seco
ndar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(in
esse
nce
Van
Rie
lrsquosm
ix)
(iii)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
n(w
ord-o
f-m
outh
and
mes
sages
impar
ted
abou
tth
eor
gan
isat
ion
from
thir
dpar
ties
)(c
onti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
that
hum
ans
do
This
conce
pt
has
also
suff
ered
asa
conse
quen
ceof
the
vag
arie
sof
fash
ion
Cor
por
ate
reputa
tion
Bro
mle
y(1
993)
C
aruan
aan
dC
hir
cop
(200
0)
Fom
bru
n(1
996)
F
ombru
nan
dV
anR
iel
(199
7)G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)
Gre
yse
r(1
999)
Sob
olan
dF
arre
ll(1
988)
W
eigel
tan
dC
amer
er(1
988)
(a)
One
obje
ctiv
eof
effe
ctiv
ebusi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tis
the
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
reputa
tion
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
gro
ups
This
isbel
ieved
togiv
eth
eor
gan
isat
ion
aco
mpet
itiv
ead
van
tage
(b)
Fom
bru
nan
dV
anR
iel
pro
vid
esi
xca
tegor
isat
ions
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
sre
flec
ting
the
six
dis
tinct
lite
ratu
res
onth
ear
eaw
hic
hvar
iousl
yfo
cus
onit
sfi
nan
cial
wor
th
its
trai
tsan
do
rsi
gnal
sit
sfo
rmat
ion
reputa
tion
alex
pec
tati
ons
and
nor
ms
and
onre
puta
tion
alas
sets
and
mob
ilit
ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
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273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
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Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
250
articles devoted to the area Of additional note are the special editions ofjournals devoted to the area including the European Journal of Marketing(1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing (1997) CorporateCommunications (1999) and The Academy of Management Review (2000)
The saliency of the identity concept to contemporary organisations and tomanagement academics from various disciplinary backgrounds has beenarticulated by Cheney and Christensen (1999) They observed that identity wasa pressing issue for many institutions and that the question of identity or ofwhat the organisation is or stands for cuts across and unifies many differentorganisational goals and concerns
This interest in identity has led to the emergence of courses on the areaCourses in strategic business identity management have been offered atStrathclyde Business School since 1991 where an International Centre forCorporate Identity Studies was also established A number of other leadingbusiness schools have also begun or are about to offer business identity studiesas part of their degree courses including Bradford School of Management(UK) Cranfield University (UK) Erasmus Graduate Business School (TheNetherlands) Harvard Business School (USA) HEC Paris (France) QueenslandUniversity of Technology (Australia) Loyola University Los Angeles (USA)and Waikato University (New Zealand) Not surprisingly the realisation of thesaliency of business identity is reflected in texts by academics who to varyingdegrees focus on business identity (Bromley 1993 Dowling 1993 Fombrun1996 Van Riel 1995) Articles are also to be found on the area in many businessand academic journals and in a growing number of business and marketinghandbooks and encyclopaedias (Balmer 1999a Cheney and Christensen 1999Tyrell 1995) Recently Whetten and Godfrey (1998) have edited a book whichdraws on several different academic traditions regarding identity However itadopts an overtly North American and behavioural stance on the area andmarshalls little of the marketing literature that has been extant since the 1950s
However the rapid ascendancy of business identity has had the ratherunfortunate effect of producing what the Scottish call a haar plusmn a thick sea fogAn examination of the literature on corporate identity and related areas has ledthe author to identify 15 contributory reasons for the fog This article seeksfirst to explain the factors causing the fog and second to begin the task ofrevealing the horizon of business identity studies which has thus far beendisguised
Business identity why the fogWhile this article will largely focus on the business identity concept it will alsomake reference to other related areas namely corporate reputation totalcorporate communications and corporate branding
The 15 contributory factors which have created fog vis-aAacute -vis businessidentity are illustrated in Table I
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
251
First explanation for the fog the terminologyProviding an exegesis of the literature surrounding the family of conceptsrelated to business identity is a difficult task Existing literature reviews gosome way in giving clarity in this regard (Abratt 1989 Balmer 1998 Fombrunand van Riel 1997 Grunig 1993 Kennedy 1977)
What is clear is that the identity concept in its various facets is ubiquitousbut it can be used with reckless permissiveness among practitioner circles andto a lesser degree among scholars The practitioner literature is replete withexamples of where identity is initially defined in terms of the fundamentalattributes of an organisation but often undergoes a dramatic volte-face withidentity solutions being explained only in graphic-design terms The existenceof a trio of identity concepts is indicative of the perspicacity which needs to beaccorded by identity scholars The literature pertaining to the three identityconcepts is still evolving as is the relationship between the concepts A degreeof symbiosis is occurring and the author shares Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998)view of the efficacy of greater dialogue between management scholars fromdifferent disciplinary perspectives
The literature covering the business identity domain not only makesreference to the triumvirate of concepts underpinning business identity(corporate identity organisational identity and visual identity) but alsoembraces a wealth of other concepts comprising the corporate brand corporatecommunicationtotal corporate communications corporate image corporatepersonality and corporate reputation However as several writers haveremarked there is a lack of consensus as to the precise meaning of many of the
Table IThe 15 contributory
factors for the fogvis-aAacute -vis business
identity
1 The terminology2 The existence of different paradigmatic views vis-aAacute -vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetre3 Multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identity4 A failure to make a distinction between the elements comprising a business identity and
the elements to be considered in managing a business identity5 Disagreement with regard to the objectives of business identity management6 A traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophone and Non-Anglophone scholars and
writers7 The traditional lack of dialogue between researchers from different disciplines8 The association with graphic design9 The effect of fashion
10 The inappropriateness of the positivistic research paradigm in the initial stages oftheory generation vis-aAacute -vis business identity
11 The paucity of empirical academic research12 Undue focus being accorded to the business identities of holding companiesparent
organisation13 The emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxon forms of business structures14 Weaknesses in traditional marketing models of corporate identitycorporate image
management and formation15 A failure to make a distinction between the actual communicated conceived ideal and
desired identities
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
252
concepts articulated above and the relationships between them Abrattrsquos (1989p 66) insightful comment articulated below reflects the views of many scholarsincluding Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) Ind (1992) Olins (1978) and Van Rieland Balmer (1997)
Despite the voluminous literature the concepts remain unclear and ambiguous as nouniversally accepted definitions have emerged (Abratt 1989)
The following authors provide an overview of the following concepts corporateidentity (Balmer 1998) organisational identity (Whetten and Godfrey 1998)visual identity (Chajet and Schachtman 1998) corporate image (Grunig 1993)corporate personality (Olins 1978) corporate reputation (Fombrun and VanRiel 1997) corporate communications (Van Riel 1995) total corporatecommunications (Balmer and Gray 1999) and the corporate brand (Macra1999) The muddled use of the terminology has perhaps contributed more tothe fog surrounding the business identity domain than any other factor For thewould-be novice of business identity studies or indeed of corporate marketingthe concepts may at first sight appear to be impenetrable and theirrelationships Byzantine in complexity The author while recognising the abovedifficulties is of the view that the emergence of a family of related concepts isindicative of business identitycorporate marketingrsquos growing maturityAccording to Watershoot (1995 p 438) the making of listings and taxonomiesis one of the primary tasks in the development of a new body of thought TableII articulates the authorrsquos understanding of the principal concepts therelationships between them and their place in the current understanding ofbusiness identity including its nature management objectives and outcomesBuilding upon Table II Table III attempts to show the saliency of the identityand related concepts in addressing key organisational issues and questions
One problem associated with some of the concepts is the analogy that issometimes made between the human identity and personality and the corporateidentity and personality There are clear benefits but also dangers inassuming that corporate entities can be understood explained and altered byapplying the principles of social psychology (cf Bromley 1993) A couple ofobservations need to be made here First the use of metaphors pertaining to thehuman identity has been used by leading identity scholars such as Albert andWhetten (1985) and is particularly prevalent in their text Identity inOrganisations (Whetten and Godfrey 1998) Many of these anthropologicalmetaphors were introduced by practitioners for practical reasons Alan Siegalrsquosuse of the ` voicersquorsquo (corporate communication) metaphor and Olinsrsquos use of thepersonality metaphor are perhaps the most obvious examples For example inOlinsrsquos text (1978) the corporate personality and its link with the humanpersonality is more apparent than might be deduced from a reading of therecent literature Olins hypothesised that organisations in their formative yearsoften mirror the personality of the organisationrsquos founder and it is theorganisationrsquos founder or founders who Olins argues imbue the organisationwith its distinctiveness Once the founder has left there is a void (what the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
253
Table IIOverview of the main
concepts
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
Aak
er(1
996)
B
alm
er(1
995
1999
)In
d(1
996)
D
eC
her
nat
ony
(199
9)G
regor
y(1
997)
K
apfe
rer
(199
2)K
ing
(199
1)
Mac
rae
(199
9)M
aath
ius
(199
9)IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
corp
orat
ebra
nd
isan
espou
sed
obje
ctiv
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tA
corp
orat
ebra
nd
pro
pos
itio
nsh
ould
be
der
ived
from
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
iden
tity
(b
)T
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
mix
consi
sts
ofcu
ltura
lin
tric
ate
tangib
lean
det
her
eal
elem
ents
`C2IT
Ersquorsquo
(Bal
mer
20
00)
Inth
isar
ticl
eco
mm
itm
ent
has
bee
nad
ded
asa
fift
hel
emen
tT
his
isbec
ause
aco
rpor
ate
bra
nd
requir
esco
mm
itm
ent
from
all
staf
fas
wel
las
com
mit
men
tfr
omse
nio
rm
anag
emen
tan
din
finan
cial
suppor
tT
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
conce
pt
isre
late
dto
the
conce
pts
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
and
corp
orat
eim
age
whic
har
eal
soto
som
edeg
ree
conce
rned
wit
hper
cepti
on
Vid
ein
fraU
nlike
pro
duct
bra
nds
the
focu
sof
corp
orat
ebra
nds
ison
(i)
all
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
(ii)
bas
edon
abro
ader
mix
than
the
trad
itio
nal
mar
ket
ing
mix
and
(iii)
isex
per
ience
dan
dco
mm
unic
ated
thro
ugh
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nra
ther
than
sim
ply
via
the
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
V
ide
infr
a
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
nan
dto
tal
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns
Aber
g(1
990)
B
alm
eran
dG
ray
(199
9)
Ber
nst
ein
(198
4)In
d(1
996)
IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(see
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
chan
nel
sby
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyis
mad
eknow
nto
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
and
whic
htr
ansl
ates
over
tim
ein
toth
eac
quis
itio
nof
aco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
cor
por
ate
bra
nd
reputa
tion
(b
)V
anR
ielrsquos
infl
uen
tial
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
nm
ixen
com
pas
ses
(i)
man
agem
ent
(ii)
organ
isat
ional
and
(iii)
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
Aber
gan
dB
ernst
ein
bro
aden
edth
e`c
orpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
rsquorsquoan
din
cluded
elem
ents
such
asco
mpan
ypro
duct
san
dbeh
avio
ur
Bal
mer
expan
ded
Van
Rie
lrsquosco
nce
pt
toen
com
pas
sth
ose
com
munic
atio
nel
emen
tsw
hic
hca
nnot
be
contr
olle
den
titl
ing
this
`tot
alco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nsrsquo
rsquoB
alm
eran
dG
ray
concl
uded
that
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
consi
sted
ofth
ree
elem
ents
(i)
pri
mar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(t
he
com
munic
atio
nef
fect
sof
pro
duct
san
dof
corp
orat
ebeh
avio
ur)
(ii)
seco
ndar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(in
esse
nce
Van
Rie
lrsquosm
ix)
(iii)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
n(w
ord-o
f-m
outh
and
mes
sages
impar
ted
abou
tth
eor
gan
isat
ion
from
thir
dpar
ties
)(c
onti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
that
hum
ans
do
This
conce
pt
has
also
suff
ered
asa
conse
quen
ceof
the
vag
arie
sof
fash
ion
Cor
por
ate
reputa
tion
Bro
mle
y(1
993)
C
aruan
aan
dC
hir
cop
(200
0)
Fom
bru
n(1
996)
F
ombru
nan
dV
anR
iel
(199
7)G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)
Gre
yse
r(1
999)
Sob
olan
dF
arre
ll(1
988)
W
eigel
tan
dC
amer
er(1
988)
(a)
One
obje
ctiv
eof
effe
ctiv
ebusi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tis
the
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
reputa
tion
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
gro
ups
This
isbel
ieved
togiv
eth
eor
gan
isat
ion
aco
mpet
itiv
ead
van
tage
(b)
Fom
bru
nan
dV
anR
iel
pro
vid
esi
xca
tegor
isat
ions
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
sre
flec
ting
the
six
dis
tinct
lite
ratu
res
onth
ear
eaw
hic
hvar
iousl
yfo
cus
onit
sfi
nan
cial
wor
th
its
trai
tsan
do
rsi
gnal
sit
sfo
rmat
ion
reputa
tion
alex
pec
tati
ons
and
nor
ms
and
onre
puta
tion
alas
sets
and
mob
ilit
ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
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273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
251
First explanation for the fog the terminologyProviding an exegesis of the literature surrounding the family of conceptsrelated to business identity is a difficult task Existing literature reviews gosome way in giving clarity in this regard (Abratt 1989 Balmer 1998 Fombrunand van Riel 1997 Grunig 1993 Kennedy 1977)
What is clear is that the identity concept in its various facets is ubiquitousbut it can be used with reckless permissiveness among practitioner circles andto a lesser degree among scholars The practitioner literature is replete withexamples of where identity is initially defined in terms of the fundamentalattributes of an organisation but often undergoes a dramatic volte-face withidentity solutions being explained only in graphic-design terms The existenceof a trio of identity concepts is indicative of the perspicacity which needs to beaccorded by identity scholars The literature pertaining to the three identityconcepts is still evolving as is the relationship between the concepts A degreeof symbiosis is occurring and the author shares Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998)view of the efficacy of greater dialogue between management scholars fromdifferent disciplinary perspectives
The literature covering the business identity domain not only makesreference to the triumvirate of concepts underpinning business identity(corporate identity organisational identity and visual identity) but alsoembraces a wealth of other concepts comprising the corporate brand corporatecommunicationtotal corporate communications corporate image corporatepersonality and corporate reputation However as several writers haveremarked there is a lack of consensus as to the precise meaning of many of the
Table IThe 15 contributory
factors for the fogvis-aAacute -vis business
identity
1 The terminology2 The existence of different paradigmatic views vis-aAacute -vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetre3 Multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identity4 A failure to make a distinction between the elements comprising a business identity and
the elements to be considered in managing a business identity5 Disagreement with regard to the objectives of business identity management6 A traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophone and Non-Anglophone scholars and
writers7 The traditional lack of dialogue between researchers from different disciplines8 The association with graphic design9 The effect of fashion
10 The inappropriateness of the positivistic research paradigm in the initial stages oftheory generation vis-aAacute -vis business identity
11 The paucity of empirical academic research12 Undue focus being accorded to the business identities of holding companiesparent
organisation13 The emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxon forms of business structures14 Weaknesses in traditional marketing models of corporate identitycorporate image
management and formation15 A failure to make a distinction between the actual communicated conceived ideal and
desired identities
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
252
concepts articulated above and the relationships between them Abrattrsquos (1989p 66) insightful comment articulated below reflects the views of many scholarsincluding Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) Ind (1992) Olins (1978) and Van Rieland Balmer (1997)
Despite the voluminous literature the concepts remain unclear and ambiguous as nouniversally accepted definitions have emerged (Abratt 1989)
The following authors provide an overview of the following concepts corporateidentity (Balmer 1998) organisational identity (Whetten and Godfrey 1998)visual identity (Chajet and Schachtman 1998) corporate image (Grunig 1993)corporate personality (Olins 1978) corporate reputation (Fombrun and VanRiel 1997) corporate communications (Van Riel 1995) total corporatecommunications (Balmer and Gray 1999) and the corporate brand (Macra1999) The muddled use of the terminology has perhaps contributed more tothe fog surrounding the business identity domain than any other factor For thewould-be novice of business identity studies or indeed of corporate marketingthe concepts may at first sight appear to be impenetrable and theirrelationships Byzantine in complexity The author while recognising the abovedifficulties is of the view that the emergence of a family of related concepts isindicative of business identitycorporate marketingrsquos growing maturityAccording to Watershoot (1995 p 438) the making of listings and taxonomiesis one of the primary tasks in the development of a new body of thought TableII articulates the authorrsquos understanding of the principal concepts therelationships between them and their place in the current understanding ofbusiness identity including its nature management objectives and outcomesBuilding upon Table II Table III attempts to show the saliency of the identityand related concepts in addressing key organisational issues and questions
One problem associated with some of the concepts is the analogy that issometimes made between the human identity and personality and the corporateidentity and personality There are clear benefits but also dangers inassuming that corporate entities can be understood explained and altered byapplying the principles of social psychology (cf Bromley 1993) A couple ofobservations need to be made here First the use of metaphors pertaining to thehuman identity has been used by leading identity scholars such as Albert andWhetten (1985) and is particularly prevalent in their text Identity inOrganisations (Whetten and Godfrey 1998) Many of these anthropologicalmetaphors were introduced by practitioners for practical reasons Alan Siegalrsquosuse of the ` voicersquorsquo (corporate communication) metaphor and Olinsrsquos use of thepersonality metaphor are perhaps the most obvious examples For example inOlinsrsquos text (1978) the corporate personality and its link with the humanpersonality is more apparent than might be deduced from a reading of therecent literature Olins hypothesised that organisations in their formative yearsoften mirror the personality of the organisationrsquos founder and it is theorganisationrsquos founder or founders who Olins argues imbue the organisationwith its distinctiveness Once the founder has left there is a void (what the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
253
Table IIOverview of the main
concepts
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
Aak
er(1
996)
B
alm
er(1
995
1999
)In
d(1
996)
D
eC
her
nat
ony
(199
9)G
regor
y(1
997)
K
apfe
rer
(199
2)K
ing
(199
1)
Mac
rae
(199
9)M
aath
ius
(199
9)IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
corp
orat
ebra
nd
isan
espou
sed
obje
ctiv
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tA
corp
orat
ebra
nd
pro
pos
itio
nsh
ould
be
der
ived
from
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
iden
tity
(b
)T
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
mix
consi
sts
ofcu
ltura
lin
tric
ate
tangib
lean
det
her
eal
elem
ents
`C2IT
Ersquorsquo
(Bal
mer
20
00)
Inth
isar
ticl
eco
mm
itm
ent
has
bee
nad
ded
asa
fift
hel
emen
tT
his
isbec
ause
aco
rpor
ate
bra
nd
requir
esco
mm
itm
ent
from
all
staf
fas
wel
las
com
mit
men
tfr
omse
nio
rm
anag
emen
tan
din
finan
cial
suppor
tT
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
conce
pt
isre
late
dto
the
conce
pts
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
and
corp
orat
eim
age
whic
har
eal
soto
som
edeg
ree
conce
rned
wit
hper
cepti
on
Vid
ein
fraU
nlike
pro
duct
bra
nds
the
focu
sof
corp
orat
ebra
nds
ison
(i)
all
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
(ii)
bas
edon
abro
ader
mix
than
the
trad
itio
nal
mar
ket
ing
mix
and
(iii)
isex
per
ience
dan
dco
mm
unic
ated
thro
ugh
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nra
ther
than
sim
ply
via
the
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
V
ide
infr
a
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
nan
dto
tal
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns
Aber
g(1
990)
B
alm
eran
dG
ray
(199
9)
Ber
nst
ein
(198
4)In
d(1
996)
IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(see
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
chan
nel
sby
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyis
mad
eknow
nto
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
and
whic
htr
ansl
ates
over
tim
ein
toth
eac
quis
itio
nof
aco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
cor
por
ate
bra
nd
reputa
tion
(b
)V
anR
ielrsquos
infl
uen
tial
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
nm
ixen
com
pas
ses
(i)
man
agem
ent
(ii)
organ
isat
ional
and
(iii)
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
Aber
gan
dB
ernst
ein
bro
aden
edth
e`c
orpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
rsquorsquoan
din
cluded
elem
ents
such
asco
mpan
ypro
duct
san
dbeh
avio
ur
Bal
mer
expan
ded
Van
Rie
lrsquosco
nce
pt
toen
com
pas
sth
ose
com
munic
atio
nel
emen
tsw
hic
hca
nnot
be
contr
olle
den
titl
ing
this
`tot
alco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nsrsquo
rsquoB
alm
eran
dG
ray
concl
uded
that
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
consi
sted
ofth
ree
elem
ents
(i)
pri
mar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(t
he
com
munic
atio
nef
fect
sof
pro
duct
san
dof
corp
orat
ebeh
avio
ur)
(ii)
seco
ndar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(in
esse
nce
Van
Rie
lrsquosm
ix)
(iii)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
n(w
ord-o
f-m
outh
and
mes
sages
impar
ted
abou
tth
eor
gan
isat
ion
from
thir
dpar
ties
)(c
onti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
that
hum
ans
do
This
conce
pt
has
also
suff
ered
asa
conse
quen
ceof
the
vag
arie
sof
fash
ion
Cor
por
ate
reputa
tion
Bro
mle
y(1
993)
C
aruan
aan
dC
hir
cop
(200
0)
Fom
bru
n(1
996)
F
ombru
nan
dV
anR
iel
(199
7)G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)
Gre
yse
r(1
999)
Sob
olan
dF
arre
ll(1
988)
W
eigel
tan
dC
amer
er(1
988)
(a)
One
obje
ctiv
eof
effe
ctiv
ebusi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tis
the
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
reputa
tion
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
gro
ups
This
isbel
ieved
togiv
eth
eor
gan
isat
ion
aco
mpet
itiv
ead
van
tage
(b)
Fom
bru
nan
dV
anR
iel
pro
vid
esi
xca
tegor
isat
ions
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
sre
flec
ting
the
six
dis
tinct
lite
ratu
res
onth
ear
eaw
hic
hvar
iousl
yfo
cus
onit
sfi
nan
cial
wor
th
its
trai
tsan
do
rsi
gnal
sit
sfo
rmat
ion
reputa
tion
alex
pec
tati
ons
and
nor
ms
and
onre
puta
tion
alas
sets
and
mob
ilit
ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
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Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
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Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
252
concepts articulated above and the relationships between them Abrattrsquos (1989p 66) insightful comment articulated below reflects the views of many scholarsincluding Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) Ind (1992) Olins (1978) and Van Rieland Balmer (1997)
Despite the voluminous literature the concepts remain unclear and ambiguous as nouniversally accepted definitions have emerged (Abratt 1989)
The following authors provide an overview of the following concepts corporateidentity (Balmer 1998) organisational identity (Whetten and Godfrey 1998)visual identity (Chajet and Schachtman 1998) corporate image (Grunig 1993)corporate personality (Olins 1978) corporate reputation (Fombrun and VanRiel 1997) corporate communications (Van Riel 1995) total corporatecommunications (Balmer and Gray 1999) and the corporate brand (Macra1999) The muddled use of the terminology has perhaps contributed more tothe fog surrounding the business identity domain than any other factor For thewould-be novice of business identity studies or indeed of corporate marketingthe concepts may at first sight appear to be impenetrable and theirrelationships Byzantine in complexity The author while recognising the abovedifficulties is of the view that the emergence of a family of related concepts isindicative of business identitycorporate marketingrsquos growing maturityAccording to Watershoot (1995 p 438) the making of listings and taxonomiesis one of the primary tasks in the development of a new body of thought TableII articulates the authorrsquos understanding of the principal concepts therelationships between them and their place in the current understanding ofbusiness identity including its nature management objectives and outcomesBuilding upon Table II Table III attempts to show the saliency of the identityand related concepts in addressing key organisational issues and questions
One problem associated with some of the concepts is the analogy that issometimes made between the human identity and personality and the corporateidentity and personality There are clear benefits but also dangers inassuming that corporate entities can be understood explained and altered byapplying the principles of social psychology (cf Bromley 1993) A couple ofobservations need to be made here First the use of metaphors pertaining to thehuman identity has been used by leading identity scholars such as Albert andWhetten (1985) and is particularly prevalent in their text Identity inOrganisations (Whetten and Godfrey 1998) Many of these anthropologicalmetaphors were introduced by practitioners for practical reasons Alan Siegalrsquosuse of the ` voicersquorsquo (corporate communication) metaphor and Olinsrsquos use of thepersonality metaphor are perhaps the most obvious examples For example inOlinsrsquos text (1978) the corporate personality and its link with the humanpersonality is more apparent than might be deduced from a reading of therecent literature Olins hypothesised that organisations in their formative yearsoften mirror the personality of the organisationrsquos founder and it is theorganisationrsquos founder or founders who Olins argues imbue the organisationwith its distinctiveness Once the founder has left there is a void (what the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
253
Table IIOverview of the main
concepts
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
Aak
er(1
996)
B
alm
er(1
995
1999
)In
d(1
996)
D
eC
her
nat
ony
(199
9)G
regor
y(1
997)
K
apfe
rer
(199
2)K
ing
(199
1)
Mac
rae
(199
9)M
aath
ius
(199
9)IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
corp
orat
ebra
nd
isan
espou
sed
obje
ctiv
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tA
corp
orat
ebra
nd
pro
pos
itio
nsh
ould
be
der
ived
from
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
iden
tity
(b
)T
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
mix
consi
sts
ofcu
ltura
lin
tric
ate
tangib
lean
det
her
eal
elem
ents
`C2IT
Ersquorsquo
(Bal
mer
20
00)
Inth
isar
ticl
eco
mm
itm
ent
has
bee
nad
ded
asa
fift
hel
emen
tT
his
isbec
ause
aco
rpor
ate
bra
nd
requir
esco
mm
itm
ent
from
all
staf
fas
wel
las
com
mit
men
tfr
omse
nio
rm
anag
emen
tan
din
finan
cial
suppor
tT
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
conce
pt
isre
late
dto
the
conce
pts
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
and
corp
orat
eim
age
whic
har
eal
soto
som
edeg
ree
conce
rned
wit
hper
cepti
on
Vid
ein
fraU
nlike
pro
duct
bra
nds
the
focu
sof
corp
orat
ebra
nds
ison
(i)
all
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
(ii)
bas
edon
abro
ader
mix
than
the
trad
itio
nal
mar
ket
ing
mix
and
(iii)
isex
per
ience
dan
dco
mm
unic
ated
thro
ugh
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nra
ther
than
sim
ply
via
the
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
V
ide
infr
a
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
nan
dto
tal
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns
Aber
g(1
990)
B
alm
eran
dG
ray
(199
9)
Ber
nst
ein
(198
4)In
d(1
996)
IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(see
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
chan
nel
sby
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyis
mad
eknow
nto
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
and
whic
htr
ansl
ates
over
tim
ein
toth
eac
quis
itio
nof
aco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
cor
por
ate
bra
nd
reputa
tion
(b
)V
anR
ielrsquos
infl
uen
tial
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
nm
ixen
com
pas
ses
(i)
man
agem
ent
(ii)
organ
isat
ional
and
(iii)
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
Aber
gan
dB
ernst
ein
bro
aden
edth
e`c
orpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
rsquorsquoan
din
cluded
elem
ents
such
asco
mpan
ypro
duct
san
dbeh
avio
ur
Bal
mer
expan
ded
Van
Rie
lrsquosco
nce
pt
toen
com
pas
sth
ose
com
munic
atio
nel
emen
tsw
hic
hca
nnot
be
contr
olle
den
titl
ing
this
`tot
alco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nsrsquo
rsquoB
alm
eran
dG
ray
concl
uded
that
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
consi
sted
ofth
ree
elem
ents
(i)
pri
mar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(t
he
com
munic
atio
nef
fect
sof
pro
duct
san
dof
corp
orat
ebeh
avio
ur)
(ii)
seco
ndar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(in
esse
nce
Van
Rie
lrsquosm
ix)
(iii)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
n(w
ord-o
f-m
outh
and
mes
sages
impar
ted
abou
tth
eor
gan
isat
ion
from
thir
dpar
ties
)(c
onti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
that
hum
ans
do
This
conce
pt
has
also
suff
ered
asa
conse
quen
ceof
the
vag
arie
sof
fash
ion
Cor
por
ate
reputa
tion
Bro
mle
y(1
993)
C
aruan
aan
dC
hir
cop
(200
0)
Fom
bru
n(1
996)
F
ombru
nan
dV
anR
iel
(199
7)G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)
Gre
yse
r(1
999)
Sob
olan
dF
arre
ll(1
988)
W
eigel
tan
dC
amer
er(1
988)
(a)
One
obje
ctiv
eof
effe
ctiv
ebusi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tis
the
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
reputa
tion
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
gro
ups
This
isbel
ieved
togiv
eth
eor
gan
isat
ion
aco
mpet
itiv
ead
van
tage
(b)
Fom
bru
nan
dV
anR
iel
pro
vid
esi
xca
tegor
isat
ions
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
sre
flec
ting
the
six
dis
tinct
lite
ratu
res
onth
ear
eaw
hic
hvar
iousl
yfo
cus
onit
sfi
nan
cial
wor
th
its
trai
tsan
do
rsi
gnal
sit
sfo
rmat
ion
reputa
tion
alex
pec
tati
ons
and
nor
ms
and
onre
puta
tion
alas
sets
and
mob
ilit
ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
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Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
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Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
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Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
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Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
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Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
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Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
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Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
253
Table IIOverview of the main
concepts
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
Aak
er(1
996)
B
alm
er(1
995
1999
)In
d(1
996)
D
eC
her
nat
ony
(199
9)G
regor
y(1
997)
K
apfe
rer
(199
2)K
ing
(199
1)
Mac
rae
(199
9)M
aath
ius
(199
9)IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
corp
orat
ebra
nd
isan
espou
sed
obje
ctiv
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tA
corp
orat
ebra
nd
pro
pos
itio
nsh
ould
be
der
ived
from
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
iden
tity
(b
)T
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
mix
consi
sts
ofcu
ltura
lin
tric
ate
tangib
lean
det
her
eal
elem
ents
`C2IT
Ersquorsquo
(Bal
mer
20
00)
Inth
isar
ticl
eco
mm
itm
ent
has
bee
nad
ded
asa
fift
hel
emen
tT
his
isbec
ause
aco
rpor
ate
bra
nd
requir
esco
mm
itm
ent
from
all
staf
fas
wel
las
com
mit
men
tfr
omse
nio
rm
anag
emen
tan
din
finan
cial
suppor
tT
he
corp
orat
ebra
nd
conce
pt
isre
late
dto
the
conce
pts
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
and
corp
orat
eim
age
whic
har
eal
soto
som
edeg
ree
conce
rned
wit
hper
cepti
on
Vid
ein
fraU
nlike
pro
duct
bra
nds
the
focu
sof
corp
orat
ebra
nds
ison
(i)
all
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
(ii)
bas
edon
abro
ader
mix
than
the
trad
itio
nal
mar
ket
ing
mix
and
(iii)
isex
per
ience
dan
dco
mm
unic
ated
thro
ugh
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nra
ther
than
sim
ply
via
the
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
V
ide
infr
a
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
nan
dto
tal
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns
Aber
g(1
990)
B
alm
eran
dG
ray
(199
9)
Ber
nst
ein
(198
4)In
d(1
996)
IC
IGSta
tem
ent
(see
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
chan
nel
sby
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyis
mad
eknow
nto
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
stak
ehol
der
san
dnet
wor
ks
and
whic
htr
ansl
ates
over
tim
ein
toth
eac
quis
itio
nof
aco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
cor
por
ate
bra
nd
reputa
tion
(b
)V
anR
ielrsquos
infl
uen
tial
corp
orat
eco
mm
unic
atio
nm
ixen
com
pas
ses
(i)
man
agem
ent
(ii)
organ
isat
ional
and
(iii)
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
Aber
gan
dB
ernst
ein
bro
aden
edth
e`c
orpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
mix
rsquorsquoan
din
cluded
elem
ents
such
asco
mpan
ypro
duct
san
dbeh
avio
ur
Bal
mer
expan
ded
Van
Rie
lrsquosco
nce
pt
toen
com
pas
sth
ose
com
munic
atio
nel
emen
tsw
hic
hca
nnot
be
contr
olle
den
titl
ing
this
`tot
alco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
nsrsquo
rsquoB
alm
eran
dG
ray
concl
uded
that
tota
lco
rpor
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
consi
sted
ofth
ree
elem
ents
(i)
pri
mar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(t
he
com
munic
atio
nef
fect
sof
pro
duct
san
dof
corp
orat
ebeh
avio
ur)
(ii)
seco
ndar
yco
mm
unic
atio
n(in
esse
nce
Van
Rie
lrsquosm
ix)
(iii)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
n(w
ord-o
f-m
outh
and
mes
sages
impar
ted
abou
tth
eor
gan
isat
ion
from
thir
dpar
ties
)(c
onti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
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rsquosdep
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per
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(a)
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sets
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ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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290
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Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
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Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
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Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
254
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
er(1
998)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
O
lins
(199
5)Sch
mid
t(1
995)
Ste
idl
and
Em
ory
(199
7)
Stu
art
(199
8a19
98b
1999
a)T
agiu
ri(1
982)
T
yre
ll(1
995)
V
anR
ekom
(199
7)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)W
iedm
ann
(198
8)
ICIG
Sta
tem
ent
(See
Appen
dix
1)
(a)
The
mix
ofel
emen
tsw
hic
hgiv
esor
gan
isat
ions
thei
rdis
tinct
iven
ess
the
foundat
ion
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
(b
)A
lthou
gh
ther
eis
still
ala
ckof
conse
nsu
sas
toth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
aco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
au
thor
sdo
for
the
mai
nem
phas
ise
the
impor
tance
ofse
ver
alel
emen
tsin
cludin
gcu
lture
(wit
hst
aff
seen
tohav
ean
affi
nit
yto
mult
iple
form
sof
iden
tity
)st
rate
gy
stru
cture
his
tory
busi
nes
sac
tivit
ies
and
mar
ket
scop
eT
he
abov
eper
spec
tive
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
conce
pt
isbec
omin
gm
ore
com
mon
wit
hin
mai
nla
nd
Euro
pe
the
UK
and
the
Bri
tish
Com
mon
wea
lth
espec
ially
thos
efr
oma
mar
ket
ingc
omm
unic
atio
ns
bac
kgro
und
(Oft
en
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
erro
neo
usl
yuse
dw
hen
refe
rrin
gto
vis
ual
iden
tity
V
ide
Infr
a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
Alb
ert
and
Whet
ten
(198
5)
Ash
fort
han
dM
ael
(198
9)
Dutt
onet
al
(199
4)H
atch
and
Sch
ult
z(1
997)
W
het
ten
and
God
frey
(199
8)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
giv
ing
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
(vid
esu
pra
plusmnco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
and
vide
infr
aplusmn
corp
orat
eper
sonal
ity)
(b)
Ref
ers
tow
hat
emplo
yee
sfe
elan
dth
ink
abou
tth
eir
organ
isat
ionF
ocuse
son
ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toor
gan
isat
ional
cult
ure
A
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
infl
uen
tial
def
init
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
refe
rsto
thos
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
anor
gan
isat
ion
whic
har
ece
ntr
alen
duri
ng
and
dis
tinct
ive
How
ever
th
ere
ishea
ted
deb
ate
amon
gst
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
uri
sts
regar
din
gA
lber
tan
dW
het
tenrsquos
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
R
elat
ionsh
ipw
ith
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyis
beg
innin
gto
be
explo
red
but
the
mar
ket
ing
per
spec
tive
espec
ially
from
the
Com
mon
wea
lth
and
Euro
pe
has
mad
elitt
lein
the
way
ofin
road
sw
ith
Nor
ther
nA
mer
ican
schol
ars
Appea
rsto
hav
em
any
sim
ilar
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
and
wit
hco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
(cf
Fio
let
al
(199
9)vi
de
infr
a
Itsh
ould
be
bor
ne
inm
ind
that
cult
ure
isso
met
imes
vie
wed
asa
var
iable
inco
rpor
ate
iden
tity
form
atio
n
(con
tinued
)
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
that
hum
ans
do
This
conce
pt
has
also
suff
ered
asa
conse
quen
ceof
the
vag
arie
sof
fash
ion
Cor
por
ate
reputa
tion
Bro
mle
y(1
993)
C
aruan
aan
dC
hir
cop
(200
0)
Fom
bru
n(1
996)
F
ombru
nan
dV
anR
iel
(199
7)G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)
Gre
yse
r(1
999)
Sob
olan
dF
arre
ll(1
988)
W
eigel
tan
dC
amer
er(1
988)
(a)
One
obje
ctiv
eof
effe
ctiv
ebusi
nes
sid
enti
tym
anag
emen
tis
the
acquis
itio
nof
afa
vou
rable
reputa
tion
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
gro
ups
This
isbel
ieved
togiv
eth
eor
gan
isat
ion
aco
mpet
itiv
ead
van
tage
(b)
Fom
bru
nan
dV
anR
iel
pro
vid
esi
xca
tegor
isat
ions
ofco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
sre
flec
ting
the
six
dis
tinct
lite
ratu
res
onth
ear
eaw
hic
hvar
iousl
yfo
cus
onit
sfi
nan
cial
wor
th
its
trai
tsan
do
rsi
gnal
sit
sfo
rmat
ion
reputa
tion
alex
pec
tati
ons
and
nor
ms
and
onre
puta
tion
alas
sets
and
mob
ilit
ybar
rier
s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
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this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
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263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
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264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
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265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
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seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
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brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
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problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
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273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
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challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
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275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
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Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
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Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
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Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
255
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Vis
ual
iden
tity
Bal
mer
(199
5)B
aker
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
Chaj
etet
al
(199
3)
Dow
ling
(199
4)
Hen
rion
and
Par
kin
(196
7)M
elew
aran
dSau
nder
s(1
998
1999
)N
apol
es(1
988)
O
lins
(197
819
79)
Pildit
ch(1
971)
Je
nkin
s(1
991)
Sel
ame
and
Sel
ame
(197
5)
Sim
pso
n(1
979)
Ste
war
t(1
991)
(a)
One
mea
ns
by
whic
ha
busi
nes
sid
enti
tym
aybe
know
nor
in
dee
d
dis
guis
ed
An
audit
ofan
organ
isat
ionrsquos
sym
bol
ism
can
also
hel
pin
giv
ing
insi
ghts
into
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
corp
orat
eid
enti
tyo
rgan
isat
ional
iden
tity
T
he
mos
tpro
min
ent
aspec
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
eT
he
only
par
tof
abusi
nes
sid
enti
tyw
hic
hca
nbe
effe
ctiv
ely
contr
olle
dby
senio
rm
anag
emen
t(b
)B
alm
errsquos
anal
ysi
sof
the
lite
ratu
rere
vea
led
that
auth
ors
ascr
ibe
four
funct
ions
tovis
ual
iden
tity
inth
atit
is(i)
use
dto
signal
chan
ge
inco
rpor
ate
stra
tegy(ii)
cult
ure
an
d(iii)
com
munic
atio
nSom
etim
esch
anges
are
under
taken
inor
der
toac
com
mod
ate
(iv)
chan
ges
infa
shio
nw
ith
regar
dto
gra
phic
des
ignO
linsrsquo
use
ful
cate
gor
isat
ion
ofvis
ual
iden
tity
into
mon
olit
hic
en
dor
sed
and
bra
nded
cate
gor
ies
has
bee
nw
idel
yad
opte
din
the
lite
ratu
reev
enth
oughas
Olins
adm
its
itra
rely
refl
ects
organ
isat
ional
real
ity
Cor
por
ate
imag
eA
bra
tt(1
989)
B
ernst
ein
(198
4)
Bro
wn
(199
8)
Bri
stol
(196
0)B
oors
ein
(196
1)
Bou
ldin
g(1
956)
B
udd
(196
9)C
raven
(198
6)
Dow
ling
(198
6)G
ray
(198
6)
Gra
yan
dSm
elze
r(1
985)
G
ray
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)G
runig
(199
3)K
enned
y(1
997)
L
indquis
t(1
974)
M
arti
nea
u(1
958)
Spec
tor
(196
1)V
anH
eerd
enan
dP
uth
(199
5)
Van
Rie
l(1
995)
W
orce
ster
(198
619
97)
(a)
One
ofth
ees
pou
sed
obje
ctiv
esof
effe
ctiv
ely
(or
non
-eff
ecti
vel
y)
man
agin
ga
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyie
th
ecr
eati
onof
apos
itiv
e(o
rneg
ativ
e)im
age
(b)
Ther
ear
eth
ree
bro
ad
dis
ciplinar
yap
pro
aches
toco
rpor
ate
imag
edra
wn
from
psy
chol
ogygra
phic
des
ign
and
from
public
rela
tion
sse
eB
row
n(1
998)
and
Bal
mer
(199
8)T
he
conce
pt
isim
por
tant
but
ispro
ble
mat
icdue
toth
em
ult
iplici
tyof
inte
rpre
tati
ons
and
neg
ativ
eas
soci
atio
ns
Ques
tion
sre
lati
ng
toit
s`m
anag
emen
trsquorsquoar
ein
her
entl
ypro
ble
mat
icC
once
pt
has
larg
ely
bee
nec
lipse
dby
that
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
reputa
tion
bot
hin
the
lite
ratu
rean
din
man
agem
ent
par
lance
V
ide
infr
a
(conti
nued
)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
ofco
rpor
ate
pro
fess
ional
re
gio
nal
and
other
sub-c
ult
ure
sin
organ
isat
ions
and
that
this
`cult
ura
lm
ixrsquorsquo
isa
key
elem
ent
ingiv
ing
dis
tinct
iven
ess
tobusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
C
lear
links
wit
hth
e`d
iffe
renti
atio
npar
adig
mof
cult
ura
lst
udie
srsquorsquo
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tifi
cati
onis
per
hap
sa
pre
fera
ble
conce
pt
inlight
ofth
edif
ficu
ltie
sas
soci
ated
wit
hth
enot
ion
that
organ
isat
ions
hav
ea
per
sonal
ity
inth
esa
me
way
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Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
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260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
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261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
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265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
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266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
256
Table II
Con
cept
Key
sourc
es(a
)R
elat
ionsh
ipto
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty(b
)Sum
mar
yof
char
acte
rist
ics
Cor
por
ate
per
sonal
ity
Abra
tt(1
989)
B
alm
eran
dW
ilso
n(1
998)
B
irkig
tan
dSta
dle
r(1
986)
L
ux
(198
6)
Olins
(197
8)V
anR
iel
and
Bal
mer
(199
7)
(a)
Akey
elem
ent
whic
hgiv
esa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyit
sdis
tinct
iven
ess
and
rela
tes
toth
eat
titu
des
and
bel
iefs
ofth
ose
wit
hin
the
organ
isat
ion
Ther
efor
eth
ere
appea
rsto
be
apri
me
faci
eca
sefo
rlinkin
gth
eco
nce
pt
toor
gan
isat
ional
iden
tity
and
toth
eco
nce
pt
ofco
rpor
ate
cult
ure
V
ide
supra
(b
)O
lins
pos
tula
ted
that
anor
gan
isat
ionrsquos
cult
ure
invar
iably
dev
elop
sar
ound
the
organ
isat
ionrsquos
founder
and
afte
rth
efo
under
rsquosdep
artu
rere
quir
esm
anag
emen
tat
tenti
onin
order
tofi
llw
hat
the
auth
orca
lls
`the
per
sonal
ity
def
icit
rsquorsquoA
uth
ors
who
refe
rto
the
conce
pt
inth
eir
wri
ting
orm
odel
spla
ceth
eco
nce
pt
per
sonal
ity
atth
ece
ntr
eof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty
The
BB
Cst
udy
under
taken
by
Bal
mer
lead
sto
the
concl
usi
onth
atth
eco
rpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
refe
rsto
the
mix
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(a)
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s
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
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260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
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Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
257
Table IIIThe saliency of
identity and relatedconcepts in addressing
major organisationalconcerns
Concept Addresses key question Commentsexplanations
Corporate identity What are we Also involves addressing a series ofquestions including What is ourbusinessstructurestrategyethosmarketperformancehistory andreputationrelationships to otheridentities
Organisationalidentity (corporatepersonality)a
Who are we The mix of dominantascendantsubcultures withintranscending theorganisation Employeesrsquo relationshipswith myriad organisational identities(holding company subsidiaryiesdepartments original current andemergent identities) Professionalcultural industrial sexual identitiesetc
Visual identity (visualidentificationsystem)
What are theorganizationrsquos symbolsand system ofidentification
Do the organisationrsquos visual (and verbal)cues communicate whatwho we areWhatwho we were Whatwho wewish to be A mix of the above Isthere clarity or confusion Does itreflect or possibly inform currentstrategy
Corporatecommunication
Is there integratedcommunication
In relation to management organisationaland marketing communications Arethey integrated in terms ofmanagement philosophy and process
Total corporatecommunications
Is there congruency revertical and horizontalcommunication
Vertical between corporatecommunication corporate actionsperformance and behaviours andbetween third partiesHorizontal asabove but also congruency over time
Corporate image What is the currentperception andorprofile
In relation to the immediate mentalperception of the organisation held byan individual group or network
Corporate reputation What distinctiveattributes (if any) areassigned to theorganisation
The enduring perception held of anorganisation by an individual group ornetwork
Corporate brand What is the promiseinferred fromcommunicated by thebrand
Are these inferences accurate reflected inreality (the promiseperformance gap)shown in management commitment andunderpinnedmade explicit by effectivecommunications Vida supra
Note aThe traditional andor preferred marketing description
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author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
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259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
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(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
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261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
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this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
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263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
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264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
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265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
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seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
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brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
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Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
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Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
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Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
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thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
258
author of this article calls ` the personality deficitrsquorsquo) Over time it is the mix ofsubcultures (corporate professional national etc) present within theorganisation that fills this void and gives it a collective personality albeit apersonality of many different elements (cf Balmer and Wilson 1998)
As Gioia (1998) noted
Like individuals organisations can be viewed as subsuming a multiplicity of identities eachof which is appropriate for a given context or audience Actually at the organisation level thenotion of the multiple identities is perhaps the key (if subtle) point of difference betweenindividuals and organisations
He continued
Thus organisations can plausibly present a complicated multifaceted identity eachcomponent of which is relevant to specific domains or constituents without appearinghopelessly fragmented or ludicrously schizophrenic as an individual might
The notion of multiple identities will be further explored in the 15th reason forthe fog
Second reason for the fog the existence of different paradigmatic viewsvis-aAacute-vis business identityrsquos raison drsquoeAtildetreThere are three distinct perspectives on how the business identity conceptshould be defined and explored The three perspectives are functionalistinterpretative and post-modern Gioia (1998) expounded the nature of thedebate taking place in each of these philosophical schools with regard toorganisational identity Here the modus vivendi is to uncover why and howemployees think and act in relation to their employerorganisation Theseparadigms also inform thought within other fields of business identity and ofcourse management studies generally
The functionalist lens regards business identity as a social fact Consequentlya business identity can be observed moulded and managed The key researchissues centre on uncovering describing and measuring a business identityObservation and psychometric instruments are the preferred research tools
The second paradigm embracing the interpretative perspective has as itsmain focus the understanding of how employees construct meaningsregarding who they are within an organisational environment Businessidentity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employeesseeking to give some level of meaning to their work existence The researchfocus is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their organisation Thestudy of organisational symbols underlines the methodical approach of thisparadigm
The final component of the troika of perspectives the post-modernparadigm seeks to disclose power-relationships regarding business identityThe emphasis focuses on complexity rather than on simplicity Businessidentity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about howorganisational members view themselves Provocation and reflexivity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
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263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
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264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
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265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
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seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
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brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
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problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
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273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
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challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
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275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
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(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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286
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Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
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Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
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Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
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Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
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Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
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Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
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Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
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Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
259
characterise the research process The main research tools are language anddiscourse While such schools may appear to be irreconcilable as Gioia (1998)observes they do give richness to the general understanding of the businessidentity concept as do other perspectives in this nascent area This is a keyleitmotif of this article and the author argues should characterise emerginguacuteuvre pertaining to business identity studies
Third reason for the fog multifarious disciplinary perspectives re business identityThe literatures pertaining to business identity and particularly to corporateidentity organisational identity and visual identification reveal a plethora ofperspectives with regard to first the scope of the various identity conceptsregarding various management disciplines and second the shiftingperspectives relating to the relationships between the three identity conceptsFigure 1 shows the various relationships that have been postulated in theliterature This illustrates the huge disparity between the nature and roAtildele ofidentity studies On closer examination it becomes apparent that some of thenarrower perspectives relate to what is more appropriately called visualidentity The final interdisciplinary approach represents the authorrsquos view thatbusiness identity studies will form the keystone of corporate marketingTaking up the metaphor of the silver lining outlined in the opening paragraphof this article it becomes apparent that while there has been a traditional lackof agreement on the nature and roAtildeles of identity Figure 1 does show that the(business) identity is an omnipresent concept across a whole spectrum ofmanagement and marketing areas
Fourth explanation for the fog a failure to make a distinction between theelements comprising a business identity and the elements to be considered inmanaging a business identityIt should be borne in mind that business identity in its various facets may beseen as concept philosophy and as a process Concept and philosophy will bediscussed in this section and the process will be examined under the fifthexplanation
The literature reveals a lack of consensus as to the elements which constitutea business identity (the business identity mix) as well as a failure to distinguishbetween the elements of the corporate identity management mix
The approach taken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) appears to be the first tomake a clear distinction between first the elements comprising a businessidentity and second the elements required of its management This businessidentity mix embraces a triumvirate of elements termed
(1) the soul (the subjective elements of business identity including thevalues held by personnel which find expression in the plethora ofsub-cultures and the mix of identity types present within organisations)
(2) the mind (the conscious decisions made by the organisation vis-aAacute -vis theespoused organisational ethos vision strategy and productperformance) and
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
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Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
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Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
260
(3) the voice (this encompasses the multi-faceted way in whichorganisations communicate internally and externally to stakeholdergroups and networks and which is normally called ` total corporatecommunicationsrsquorsquo viz Balmer and Gray (1999)
Figure 1The evolvingrelationships betweencorporate identity andother conceptsdisciplines
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
261
An additional trio of elements melding with the above form what Balmer andSoenen call the business identity management mix
The additional elements of Balmer and Soenenrsquos identity management mixare environmental forces (the need to take cognisance of this) stakeholders (theneed to be aware of stakeholders) and reputations (encompassing thereputation of the holding company its subsidiaries and business units thecountry-of-origin and the organisationrsquos partners such as alliance partners)
Mention may be made of those other authors who have attempted toarticulate the elements of a business identity These include Birkigt and Stadler(1986) the Mitsubishi Model of Japan (nd) and those by Schmidt (1995) andSteidl and Emory (1997)
Birkigt and Stadlerrsquos (1986) identity mix which is assigned a good deal ofimportance in Van Rielrsquos text (1995) and in a good deal of the subsequentliterature consists of a quartet of elements
(1) personality
(2) behaviour
(3) communication and
(4) symbolism
It would appear that this mix articulates the elements by which a businessidentity is known The mix emphasises the communications effect(s) of anorganisationrsquos behaviour communication policies and visual symbolism Themix is useful in revealing some of the major channels by which a businessidentity may be known and represents a distinct shift away from acategorisation of corporate identity in purely visual terms However incomparison to other more recent approaches it is somewhat narrow in scope
The primary objective of the Mitsubishi mix (nd) is to reveal those elementsthat constitute a business identity As with Balmer and Soenenrsquos (1999) mixthis approach draws on a trio of elements It is clear that a certain lineage maybe inferred between the English and Japanese approaches The Mitsubishi mixis segmented into what is called the mind identity (what the organisation isstriving to achieve) the strategic identity (the type of strategy which will causethe mind identity to become a reality) and the behaviour identity (the range andtypes of behaviour undertaken by the organisation)
Schmidtrsquos (1995) mix originating from the London-based Anglo-Germanconsultancy Henrion Ludlow and Schmidt comprises a quintet of elements
(1) corporate culture
(2) corporate behaviour
(3) market condition and strategies
(4) product and services and
(5) communication and design
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this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
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263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
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264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
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265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
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seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
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brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
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problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
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273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
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challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
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275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
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(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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286
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Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
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Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
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Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
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Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
262
this clearly suggests it is a mix focusing on the management of businessidentity As such the mix takes cognisance of how an identity is revealed(through communications and design) but also assigns importance to marketconditions
Steidl and Emory (1997) have produced what is clearly a business identityrather than a business identity management mix As with Balmer and Soenen itwould appear that these two writers have been in part influenced by SinoNippon approaches to business identity and this is reflected in their choice ofterminology This Australian model is built around another trio of elementsthe mind (the philosophy and strategy through which the organisation securesthe support of customers) the spirit (the values of the organisation and theresponse this evokes amongst key stakeholder groups) and the body (the totalphysical infrastructure which is required to operate the business) Of note hereis the emphasis accorded to ` the bodyrsquorsquo which is not encompassed by the othermodels Rather surprisingly ` the bodyrsquorsquo does not encompass organisationalstructure Thus the author is of the view that a broader interpretationencompassing company structure would appear to be appropriate Theimportance of structure is similarly noted by Balmer and Gray (1999) Ind(1996) Morison (1997) and Stuart (1998a 1999b) The authorrsquos new identitymixes taking cognisance of the above comprises four elements and this isillustrated in Figure 2
Unlike the approaches used by Balmer and Soenen Schmidt and Steidl andEmory it has been decided to break with (at least from a British NorthAmerican and Commonwealth perspective) the practitioner legacy which usesthe human metaphor The four elements comprising this new mix are strategystructure communication and culture
The need to make a distinction between the variables comprising a businessidentity and the task elements to be considered with regard to the managementof a business identity mix is deserving of more attention by both scholars andpractitioners than has been the case to date
The implications of the authorrsquos new mix and those of many of other mixesis that researching a business identity involves using Gioiarsquos (1998 p 26)classification plusmn marrying the interpretive lens (with regard to understandingpersonnelrsquos various affinities to different identities) with the functionalist lens(with regard to the above parts of the mix) Consequently what is required is afurther breaking down of boundaries between research paradigms Thisprocess has implications not only for identity scholarship but also for identityconsultancy and management
Fifth explanation for the fog disagreement with regard to the objectives ofbusiness identity managementThe literature reveals a wide variety of purposes and objectives associated withbusiness identity management Balmerrsquos (1995) initial literature review
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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286
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Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
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263
revealed that corporate identity change programmes were variously used as avehicle to assist in
strategy formulation
culture-change
effective corporate communication
articulating a corporate strategy
articulatingchanging the organisationrsquos culture
acting as a platform for corporate communications and
ensuring that the organisationrsquos visual identity is fashionable
This is indicative of the multidisciplinary nature of the domain with the type ofidentity change reflecting the aspects of the organisationrsquos identity that requireattention
Significantly the effective management of a business identity has beenregarded as imbuing an organisation with a favourable image (cf Abratt 1989
Figure 2Balmerrsquos new identity
mix and identitymanagement mix
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264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
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265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
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272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
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Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
264
Balmer 1995 Birkigt and Stadler 1986 Dowling 1994 Steidl and Emory 1997Tyrrell 1995 Van Rekom 1997) and more recently the acquisition of afavourable corporate reputation coupled with business survival andprofitability (Balmer and Stotvig 1997 Van Riel and Balmer 1997 Gray andBalmer 1998) The objective of acquiring a favourable corporate image hasfallen out of favour since the concept of the corporate image is fraught withdifficulty (Balmer 1998) The acquisition of a corporate brand on the otherhand has been identified as an objective of corporate identity management(Balmer 1999a) The ICIG statement reproduced in Appendix 1 cites a numberof possible objectives in relation to corporate identity management namely
fostering a sense of individuality
achieving differentiation in a competitive environment
providing disciplinary integration
providing a platform for coherent corporate communication
nurturing an image that is consistent with the organisationrsquos definingethos and character
nurturing understanding and commitment among stakeholders
attracting and retaining customers and employees
achieving strategic alliances and
gaining support of financial markets
Sixth explanation of the fog a traditional lack of dialogue between Anglophoneand non-Anglophone scholars and writersIn addition to the lack of dialogue between scholars from different disciplines anotable feature of the literature on business identity is how linguistic andcultural barriers have exerted an influence in the general understanding of thearea The most dramatic divide is between Anglophone and non-Anglophonenations For instance the literature on business identity emerging frommainland Europe appears to have developed quite independently from theNorth American literature and also from that of the UK and the old (British)Commonwealth and vice versa An example of this is the French school ofthought on corporate identity (Moingeon and Ramanantsoa 1997) TheNetherlands appears to be the exception to the rule owing to the linguisticdexterity of the peoples of that kingdom This can be seen in Van Rielrsquos (1995)influential text Principles of Corporate Communication which contains averitable cornucopia of international sources
Further afield questions of language have hindered our understanding ofSino and Japanese approaches to the area The current understanding ofbusiness identity in `Westernrsquorsquo nations might need to undertake a furtherradical reappraisal in order to accommodate what appear to be substantivedifferences of approach between ` Westernrsquorsquo and ` Asianrsquorsquo scholars of businessidentity Reference has already been made to the Mitsubishi mix According to
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
265
Steidl and Emory (1997 pp 4-5) the Japanese approach to business identityadopts a radically different manner from that found in other nations They referto Motoo Nakanishi the chairman of one of Japanrsquos foremost businessconsultancies who states that Japanese business identity change programmesare characterised by their longevity in planning and implementation and thatthey are also dependent upon the CEO championing such a change In contrastNakanishi comments that US identity change programmes reflect the characterof the CEO to a greater extent than Asian approaches are similar to Japaneseprogrammes in their reliance on the CEO for their success are more project-orientated and are short-term in scope For their part Johansson and Hirano(1999) point out that in Asia there is a higher degree of parallelism betweenindividual and corporate objectives than in the West cf Balmer and Wilson(1998)
Seventh explanation for the fog the traditional lack of dialogue betweenresearchers from different disciplinesThe business identity literatures encompass distinctive and not so distinctiveschools of thought business communications and corporate communications(Cheney and Christensen 1999 Van Riel 1995) graphic design (Olins 1995Schmidt 1995) image and image-research (Brown 1998 Barich and Kotler1991 Worcester 19861997) marketing (Abratt 1989) organisationalbehaviour (Albert and Whetten 1985 Mael and Ashforth 1992) publicrelations (Grunig 1993) psychology (Bromley 1993) reputation (Fombrun1996) and strategy (Gray and Smeltzer 1985 Marwick and Fill 1997 Morison1997) A multi-disciplinary approach is adopted by Balmer (1995 1998) with astrong marketingcommunications emphasis
Despite the wealth of disciplines the degree of cross fertilisation of ideas andinsights from these literatures is comparatively slight It would appear thatbusiness identity issues have to a large degree matured along narrow verticaland disciplinary paradigms There has been little in the way of multi-disciplinary holistic development This may be placed in the context of thevarious business identity mixes articulated by Balmer and Soenen (1997)Birkigt and Stadler (1986) Schmidt (1995) and Steidl and Emory (1997) thatclearly demand that a broad multi-disciplinary approach be adopted
Mention may also be made of Whetten and Godfreyrsquos (1998) book Identity inOrganisations where academics from a number of disciplines discuss variousfacets of the business identity world However there is a paucity of materialemanating from British Commonwealth and European sources in this text andfor the main little from the marketing literature is marshalled This may becontrasted with the recent marketing literature where organisationalbehaviourists for instance have made a significant contribution
Eighth explanation for the fog the association with graphic designThe importance accorded to graphic design in the business identity literaturehas exacerbated the confusion surrounding the area and may in retrospect be
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
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268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
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269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
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271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
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272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
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Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
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Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
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Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
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Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
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Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
266
seen to have exerted a deleterious influence regarding the conceptualisation ofidentity In the past this has led to the business identity domain being narrowlyconceived Some writers with backgrounds in marketing and communicationhave accorded symbolism the same importance as other business identityelements such as behaviour and communication viz Birkigt and Stadler (1986)The emphasis accorded to graphic design in business identity studies has beenperpetuated by many so-called corporate identity consultancies who are to allintents and purposes graphic design consultancies Research undertaken byMORI revealed that significant numbers of managers in UK and Europe stillequate UK-based corporate identity with graphic design (cf Schmidt 1995)Such has been the influence of graphic design that it has almost becomeaxiomatic that any change of business identity will have an attendant changeof visual identity The author has not to date discovered a case where acorporate identity consultancy advising a client during a business identitychange programme has not as a minimum tweaked the corporate logo This isa curious state of affairs and again raises some profound questions Wolff Olins(Europersquos largest corporate identity consultancy) in their ` Guide to corporateidentityrsquorsquo produced for the UK weekly magazine Marketing (1990 pp 19-24)made this very point
Because of corporate identityrsquos roots in design it will probably entail a new or revised logodesign
With the passing of ten years little appears to have altered For instance themajority of personnel employed by corporate identity consultancies tend tohave a background in graphic design The author is of the view that thegraphic design emphasis ascribed to business identity has thrown the area outof kilter This has had the unfortunate effect of stifling a broader moresophisticated and scholarly appreciation of business identity The distinctcorporate identity and organisational identity literatures although somewhatparvenu in relation to the visual identity literature have without doubt made aprofound contribution to the general understanding of business identity overrecent years What is required is for a more balanced appraisal to take place vis-aAacute -vis the power of visual identity and of graphic design in what is starting to beknown as the corporate identity mixbusiness identity mix What is not refutedby the author is that visual identification does unquestionably have powerVan Riel (1995) pointed out the wide impact of visual communication when hewrote that the average lorry is capable of delivering 7-9 million visualimpressions per year or about 60 per kilometre Empirical work undertaken byMelewar and Saunders (1998) revealed the benefit of standardised globalcorporate visual identity systems Furthermore the use of what is known as` the visual auditrsquorsquo (an examination of the organisationrsquos symbolism and brandstructure) has been shown to be a most effective initial means ofcomprehending an organisationrsquos cultures power-base strategies andcommunication As such the visual audit may provide useful insights into anorganisationrsquos identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
267
However whereas a visual audit may reveal symptoms of inherent corporatemalaise many organisations fall into the trap of resorting to the initiation of anew visual identity as a means of correcting what can be profoundorganisational difficulties This may suggest a degree of naivety on the part ofsome senior managers and consultancies in failing to differentiate between thecauses and the symptoms (visual-identity) of a weak inconsistent negative orunwanted business identity As a result of this approach a number of authorstend to define corporate identity in prosaic terms namely ` what anorganisation isrsquorsquo While inadequate as a definition it does help to distance thearea from the narrow graphic design perspective
The emphasis on the visual has had another unfortunate effect in cloudingover the importance of the other senses of sound scent taste and touch Itwould be perverse to suggest that visually impaired customers employees orinvestors are unable to recognise differentiate between or form opinions oforganisations Upon reflection it becomes apparent that the non-visual sensescan be just as powerful in communicating the identity of a collective group Forexample the aural sense has a dominant role in the recognition of the identitiesof radio stations The aural sense also helps to differentiate one nation statefrom another via the use of languages and national anthems Important lessonscan in this regard be learned from ancient institutions such as the CatholicChurch which marshals all the senses to forge an impressive panoply ofsignals to support the Catholic Churchrsquos tenets and beliefs Although theCatholic Church has in recent years offered a somewhat flaccid version of itsidentity it is still possible to experience the effect of marshalling of all thesenses in an experience which is unique to the Catholic faith Thus at atraditional solemn celebration of the liturgy at Londonrsquos Brompton Oratorythe churchrsquos distinctiveness is communicated through among otherssymbolism (vestments church furnishings architecture posture of clergy andlaity) sound (Latin Gregorian chant and polyphony) smell (incense) touch(holy water) and taste (taking the sacrament)
Ninth explanation for the fog the effect of fashionVagaries in fashion in the use of concepts have played their part in thickeningthe fog surrounding the area A would-be scholar of business identity studieshas to show a good deal of perspicacity not only in accommodating the richvariety of concepts in use but also in exerting acute vigilance in theirassessment of what he or she understands by the concept The effects offashion can clearly be seen in the 1950s and 1960s when much attention wasfocused on the concept of the ` corporate imagersquorsquo Yet in the 1970s ` corporateidentityrsquorsquo grew in popularity and to some degree was used in preference to` corporate imagersquorsquo The corporate identityconcept was not only used as asurrogate for ` image managementrsquorsquo but has been viewed by some authors suchas Dowling (1994) as being fundamentally concerned with visual identityOthers saw the concept as embracing the distinct characteristics of anorganisation (Van Riel and Balmer 1997) In recent years reference to the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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286
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Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
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Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
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Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
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Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
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Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
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Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
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Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
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290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
268
` corporate brandrsquorsquo or what is sometimes termed ` service brandingrsquorsquo (cf Balmer1995 De Chernatony 1999) has replaced reference to ` corporate identityrsquorsquo Ofparticular note is corporate reputation which as a concept has been in theascendant over recent years and has almost eclipsed references to the corporateimage in the literature and in management parlance What is apparent is thattoo many practitioners and some scholars have tended to regard the emergenceof a new concept as a replacement to what has gone before rather thanconsidering each new concept for its potential in building on what preceded itand furthering therefore the general understanding of the creationmanagement and saliency of business identity
Tenth explanation for the fog the inappropriateness of the positivistic researchparadigm in the initial stage of theory generation vis-aAacute-vis identityUndue attention has been given to measuring the outcomes and benefits ofeffective business identity management Providing a firm foundation regardingthe nature andor driving forces of business identity will do much to lift the fogsurrounding the area In this regard the research paradigm of naturalism isperhaps more appropriate than positivism in explaining a phenomenon such ascorporate identity which has not previously been subjected to a great deal ofempirical research viz Van Mannen (1985) Case studies can also be usefulwith regard to theory building research in the field of corporate identity Oliver(1997) argued the importance of case study research albeit in relation tocorporate communication and stated that formal theories do develop from casestudies Oliver is supported in her view by others including Gill and Johnson(1991) and Yin (1984)
While some caution needs to be applied to the maxim found in VirgilrsquosAeneid ` ab uno disce omnesrsquorsquo (from one learn all) it would perhaps be equallyperverse to suggest the opposite that nothing is gained from the findings ofcase studies This is after all the modus operandi underpinning HarvardBusiness Schoolrsquos pedagogical approach
Deshpande (1983) notes that quantitative methods are more suitable fortheory testing than theory generation Vankatesh (1985 p 62) commented thatthe emphasis on empirical research data analysis and quantitative modellingoffers little potential for theory generation As such the author argues thatmarketing scholars should give a greater emphasis to qualitative and casestudy research
Eleventh explanation for the fog the paucity of empirical academic researchThree reasons are postulated by the writer as to why there has been a lack ofpublished empirical research
(1) Until recently the traditional lack of interest from all but a fewmanagement academics
(2) The difficulty in getting published in mainstream management journals
(3) The difficulty in undertaking research into corporate identity
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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286
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Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
269
Invariably business identity issues encompass issues that are of particularsensitivity and have fundamental importance to organisations and their seniormanagement Therefore researchers are likely to experience acute difficulty inresearching changes of business identity which probe into the quintessence ofan organisationrsquos existence and which can propel to the fore issues of greatsensitivity and political importance In addition new scholars are likely to havethe wherewithall to extrapolate data and disseminate their findings throughlearned journals
Although this traditionally has been the case it is difficult to say whetherthis is a cause or effect vis-aAacute -vis points (1) to (3) Perhaps all elements have madea contribution What is encouraging is that more scholars are embarking onresearch into this business identity and this is represented in the burgeoningnumber of candidates embarking upon doctoral research in corporate identitySignificant empirical research to date includes that by Balmer and Wilson(1998) relating to the BBC and a major UK high street bank Dutton andDukerichrsquos (1991) research on the New York port authority Elsbach andKramerrsquos (1996) research in US universities Gioia and Thomasrsquos (1996)investigation relating to universities and Van Rekomrsquos (1997) study focusing ona sector of the Dutch tourism industry
Twelfth explanation for the fog undue focus being accorded to the businessidentities of holding companiesparent organisationsThe literature reveals a bias towards the identities of holding or parentcompanies with insufficient attention being given to the identities ofsubsidiaries as well as to industrial identities alliances licensing arrangementsand to federal types of organisational structures An exception to the latter wasBalmerrsquos (1996) research which focused on BBC Scotland plusmn a subsidiary of theBBC The emphasis accorded to the identities of parent organisations hasperhaps resulted in a far too simplistic categorisation regarding therelationship between subsidiaries business units and the holding companyThis can be seen in Olinsrsquos (1978) highly influential tripartite categorisation ofbusiness identities which he calls monolithic endorsed and brandedAlthough this is a useful basic classification it disguises the fact that parent-subsidiary relationships are invariably more complicated as evinced byKammerer (1989) Furthermore insufficient attention is given to the industry-wide generic identities with the exception of Balmer and Wilkinson (1991) andWilkinson and Balmer (1996)
Upon reflection there are other identity types such as the identity ofalliances including the ` Starrsquorsquo ` One Worldrsquorsquo and ` Wingsrsquorsquo airline alliances theidentity of consortiums such as the European Airbus and the sharing of abrand name by several important companies Examples include the Hiltonbrand name which is shared by Hilton Hotel of the USA and Ladbrokes of theUK the Rolls-Royce brand licensed to car manufacturers VWBMW(Germany) by the UK aero-engines group Rolls-Royce the multiplicity ofidentities subsumed beneath the umbrella of the Virgin brand and the Co-op
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
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Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
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Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
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Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
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Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
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Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
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Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
270
brand in the UK which serves as an umbrella brand for its labyrinthicorganisational structure The simplistic approach to organisational structureand strategy outlined above and the graphic design bias has in the authorrsquosopinion served to obfuscate business identityrsquos palpable affinity with corporatestrategy
Thirteenth explanation for the fog the emphasis assigned to Anglo-Saxonforms of business structuresFor the main the various literatures of business identity focus on Anglo-Saxonforms of business identity which is characterised by short termism and whereshareholders are accorded particular importance Little has appeared inEuropean journals with regard to non Anglo-Saxon forms of businessidentities As such it would appear that undue emphasis is accorded to verticalrather than to horizontal organisational structures
There is prima facie case to suggest that existing Anglo-Saxon theories ofbusiness identity are inappropriate to certain organisational structuresoperating in other countries due to cultural and economic reasons This canperhaps be most clearly seen in Japan and Korea The traditional Japanesekeiretsu structure which encompasses well known brand names such asMitsubishi Mitsui and Sumitomo differ from their Anglo-Saxon counterpartsin that they invariably include financial services companies that can providefinance to other members of the keiretsu Typically each keiretsu structurecontains
a commercial bank a trust bank and a life insurance company
each group contains a trading company which supports other membersof the group through the provision of such things as intelligence andproject management
there is cross-shareholdings of such groups which makes it difficult fora member of the group to be threatened with an aggressive take-over
in times of crisis members of the kieretsu group will provide supportfinancial or service to the beleaguered company and finally
there is a leading group of companies
The Korean chaebol structure is similar to the Japanese keiretsu structure withthe exception that first members of the founding family still in some instancesmanage the company and second the chaebol does not contain powerfulfinancial institutions or trading companies
What is clear from the above illustration is that Eastern businessrelationships are more complicated than those witnessed in many Anglo-Saxoncompanies that the visualbranding structure is invariably applied to a familyof more or less autonomous companies rather than to a single commercialconcern that the notion of internal communications takes on a particularlyimportant role vis-aAacute -vis communication between members of the kieretsuchaebol and that the external communication is more complicated This is
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
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286
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
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Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
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Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
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Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
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Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
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Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
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Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
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Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
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Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
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Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
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289
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Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
271
because each company of the group not only needs to support its own corporatecommunication efforts and reputation but also that of the group Here thegrouprsquos reputation will appear to act as a powerful control mechanismBalmerrsquos (1998) DEAR Model (Decisions are Evaluated Against theorganisationrsquosgrouprsquos Reputation) may be of use in this regard
It is important to recall that there are other forms of organisational structureoperating in the West other than Anglo-Saxon structures One approachprevalent in southern Europe and termed ` the Latin approachrsquorsquo is according toCova and Aubert-Gamet (1997) based on the view that marketing institutionsare less effective than proximate communities influencing peoplesrsquo behaviourCova coined the term ` societingrsquorsquo to encapsulate this approach A case in pointis the Rhine model of organisations which for obvious reasons is prevalent inthose nations bordering the Rhine Here there are flatter more community-focused structures
In Germany businesses are not dominated by big brand names In a 1989survey for Business Week Germany accounted for only 3 per cent of the worldrsquos1000 largest companies Germanyrsquos strength (and also that of Northern Italy)rests in its Mittelstand These are small to medium-sized family businesses InGermany the characteristics of such companies are
family owned
financiers or investors are not owners or controllers of the companies
the objective is long term survival and
stakeholdersrsquo groupings cannot so easily be broken down into internaland external stakeholders
Interestingly concern is shown to stakeholders of the future Table IV providesa summation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Rhine and Asian approaches
Fourteenth explanation of the fog weaknesses in early traditional marketingmodels of corporate identitycorporate image management and formationThe fourteenth weakness identified by the writer is the weaknesses in many ofthe more influential conceptual models of corporate imageidentityreputationformation (Abratt 1989 Dowling 1986 1993 and Kennedy 1977) It wouldappear that in some of these models the writers confuse corporate identity withcorporate image While the writer is critical of some of the models each of themmakes a valuable contribution to the debate on the area Certainly several ofthese models were at the cutting edge of the debate on the area at the time theywere published These four models will be examined in turn
Abrattrsquos model (1989)Abrattrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model has the objective of explaining thecorporate image management process and adopts an ` outside inrsquorsquo focus (animage reputation focus) rather than an inside out (an identity personalityfocus) Abrattrsquos model is most useful in that it attempts to integrate the
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
272
problematic concepts of corporate personality identity and image This
appears to be the first time that this has been done The writer shares Abrattrsquos
view that an understanding of the three concepts is useful in determining the
nature and importance of corporate identity management
Table IVDifferences betweenAnglo-Saxon businessidentities and others asconceptualised by theauthor
Characteristics Anglo-Saxon approachesRhine kieretsu and chaebolapproaches
Objective Profit maximisation Business survival and businesslongevity
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Change of ownership Potentially variablevolatile Inherently stable
Responsibility Management boards Principles of subsidiaritya
Organisationalstructure
Hierarchicalvertical Federal-horizontal
Desiredorganizational size
Medium-to-large Small-to-medium
Managementphilosophy
To serve interests of currentshareholders
To serve interests of current andfuture owners (family) andemployees
Philosophy offinancial institutionswith a residualinterest
Maximising their investmentrights over the short term
Adopting long-term investorpartnerships
Philosophy redistribution ofprofits
Maximise dividend payout Greater emphasis onre-investment
Shareholdercharacteristics
Emphasis on current investorscustomers and other internal-external groups Based on thenotion that there exist clearlydefined stakeholder groups
Blurring of boundaries betweeninternalexternal stakeholdersAlso concerned with futuremembers of stakeholder groupsand networks
Identity structures Emphasis on corporaterelationship between holdingcompanysubsidiaryincreasing ` top downrsquorsquo
Emphasis on group identityMutual concern with the familyof autonomous companiesSharing of brand name
Communication focus Two dimensionaland horizontalInternalexternal Emphasis on
external groups
Three dimensional and horizontaland vertical Internalexternalgroups and networks
Total corporatecommunicationfocus
Horizontal communicationconsisting through currentcommunication channels
Horizontal and verticalcommunications consistency recurrent past and futurecommunication channels
Note a See Pius X Pope (1931) Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno ` It is an injustice and atthe same time a great evil and disturbance of right order to transfer to the larger and highercollectivity functions which can be performed and provided for by lesser and subordinatebodiesrsquorsquo This structural approach of the church has not only been adopted by businessorganisations but is an espoused philosophy of the European Union
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
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Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
273
With hindsight scholars may question a number of aspects of the model Forinstance culture is regarded as one component of the corporate personalityrather than enjoying a more important and central role in corporate identityformation The roAtildele of culture has been highlighted in the recent literature vizBalmer and Wilson (1998) and Hatch and Schultz (1997)
The model also appears to assign too much importance to formalcommunications and visual symbolism in image formation It does not includea feedback mechanism between the third and the second part of the modelsuggesting that the management philosophy is not altered in response tofeedback from personnel It also fails to show the effect of environmental forcesand regards corporate image(s) as the ultimate goal of identity management
An important feature of this conceptual model is the articulated corporateimageinterface which has been an influential concept (cf Balmer 1998bStuart 1998b) Abrattrsquos model has been highly influential and has beendeveloped as a basis for other models (see Stuart 1998b) The model containsseveral salient elements that have withstood the test of time and still informsthe current debate relating to corporate identity Without doubt Abrattrsquos workmarked a watershed in the field of business identity studies However Hatchand Schultz (1997) have presented a cogent argument questionning the saliencyof interface concept They argue that internalexternal boundaries have becomeblurred owing to increased interaction among internal and external groups andalso due to the fact that individuals belong to multiple stakeholder groups andnetworks However many marketing scholars would concur with Abratt thatthe interface concept is salient Indeed Balmer and Soenen (1999) built onAbrattrsquos interface in developing `The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2rsquorsquo[3]
Dowlingrsquos model (1993)Dowlingrsquos conceptual and prescriptive model whose principal focus is again onthe ` outside inrsquorsquo accords particular emphasis to corporate image (in effect arevised version of his 1986 model) As with Abratt this model has beenparticularly influential in Commonwealth countries The model appears todraw a good deal from Kennedyrsquos (1977) model At the heart of Dowlingrsquoscorporate image formation process is a corporate vision statement whichimpacts upon the organisationrsquos strategy and organisational culture Dowlingunlike Abratt assigns a greater importance to culture
Dowling postulates that image formation is not only dependent on themultifaceted way an organisation communicates but is also influenced bysuper and subordinate images He cites the examples of country-of-origin andthe image of an organisationrsquos brands
There are several weaknesses with Dowlingrsquos model in that there is someinconsistency between the title of his paper ` Developing your company imageinto a corporate assetrsquorsquo and his model which refers to the creation of corporateimages Second Dowlingrsquos approach to culture which he regards as a singleentity and as the glue which holds the organisation together has been
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
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288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
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marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
274
challenged by Hatch and Schultz (1997) and by Balmer and Wilson (1998)Recent empirical research by Balmer and Wilson (1998) revealed that anorganisationrsquos identity comprises a mix of sub cultures plusmn professional nationalas well as corporate What is a little surprising is that Dowling makes noreference to corporate identity What is clear is that Dowlingrsquos work has helpedto keep ` corporate identityrsquorsquo on the agenda of management and marketingscholars As such his work is of inestimable value
Kennedyrsquos model (1977)Kennedyrsquos model may in one regard be seen to be of greater researchsignificance than the two aforementioned models since it was in part derivedfrom empirical research Kennedyrsquos model replicates her findings that staff areof crucial importance in corporate image formation She concludes that anemployeersquos perception of a company will be influenced by such things ascompany policy company products and pay structures The lack of reference tothe concept of the corporate identity in the model is attributable to the fact thatthe concept of the corporate identity was not in common usage at that time
In retrospect Kennedyrsquos model can however be criticised She does notaddress the question as to whether consistency of perception and actionsamong senior managers is necessary This would appear to be a prerequisitebefore any attempt can be made to ` managersquorsquo the image of personnel What israther sad is that the content of Kennedyrsquos article was not embraced by otherscholars
The models in perspectiveThe traditional marketing models replicate many of the causes for the ` fogrsquorsquooutlined in this article In summary the major weaknesses with many of themodels referred to above and indeed many other models are that they
are conceptual (with the exception of Kennedy)
assign inordinate attention to visual symbolism and to corporatecommunications
do not give enough attention to questions of culture and where they dothe approach is often simplistic
do not give enough attention to the effects of the external environment(political economic ethical social and technological) and the influenceof various super and subordinate reputation types including those ofthe industry and country-of-origin
are concerned with image-formation rather than with identity-formation
regard the acquisition of a favourite perception of the corporation asbeing an end in itself with the assumption that this will be sufficient toensure profitability business advantage and survival rather than acrucial variable underpinning the above
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
Aaker DA (1996) Building Strong Brands The Free Press New York NY
Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
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Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
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Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
275
fail to note that a resultant corporate image may be negative unwantedas well as favourable (also applies to reputation)
do not deal with the question of company profile
assume that there will be a singly held corporate image among allstakeholder groups and by implication networks
the earlier models make no reference to reputation or to corporatebranding and in some cases to corporate identity
adopt a narrow perspective regarding the objective of identityimagemanagement or process and fail to adopt a broader approach whichencompasses business advantage profitability and survival asobjectives
for the main adopt a narrow marketing perspective on the area
do not accord sufficient importance to corporate structure and the factthat organisations often are subsidiaries with recognisable identities orand belong to supraorganisational groups with distinct structures
are based on the notion that it is possible to control the entire corporateidentity formation process relatively easily quickly and by managementdictat
do not take into account business to business relationships
emphasise linearity and simplicity rather than intricacy and complexity
Of note is Stuart (1999b) who provides a comprehensive overview of corporateimage and corporate identity models From her examination of existing modelsshe devised a more definitive model of the corporate identity managementprocess
Fifteenth explanation a failure to make a distinction between the actualcommunicated conceived ideal and desired identitiesRecent research undertaken by Balmer and Soenen (1999) within British andNorth American identity consultancies[2] revealed that most identity changeprogrammes adopted a narrow ` vision-drivenrsquorsquo approach Most identity changeprogrammes reflected the vision of the CEO The research showed that identitychange programmes had an overtly corporate communication and graphicdesign emphasis This appears to reflect the view that original identities can bechanged quickly easily and by management fiat
The researchers concluded that consultants practitioners and scholarsshould identify several identity types
In this article the lead author and researcher has given greater prominenceto perception (image and reputation) than was originally the case As such anew category type ` conceived identityrsquorsquo has been introduced thus making atotal of five identity types The revised approach detailed below has been called` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Testrsquorsquo2[3]
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
276
(1) the actual identity (internal values organisational behaviour activitiesmarket scope performance and positioning)
(2) the communicated identity (the various organisational messagesconveyed via primary secondary and tertiary communications ` totalcorporate communicationrsquorsquo)
(3) the conceived identity (the imagesrepresentations reputational profileheld of the organisation by stakeholder groups and networks)
(4) the ideal identity (the optimum positioning for the organisation in agiven time frame) and
(5) the desired identity (the vision as articulated by corporate founder andorthe chief executive and management board)
Ideally the five identity types should be in close alignment If they are not inalignment then some form of identity change will be required (cf Balmer 1995)The above may be viewed as a new methodology for corporate identity changeprogrammes This new approach marshals the distinct disciplinaryperspectives which are crucial to an understanding of a business identitynamely business activities scope culture and performance communicationperception strategy and leadership The original as well as the expandedversion of the various identities usefully form the mnemonic ACIDACCIDBoth approaches are respectively called ` The ACID Test of Corporate IdentityManagement2Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] plusmn which is outlined below Aswith any acid test the aim here was to craft a vigorous and conclusive test toestablish worth and value
The point to note from this final explanation for the fog is that organisationsare shaped by multiple identities ` Dr Balmerrsquos AC2ID Test2rsquorsquo[3] reveals onelens by which multiple identities may be revealed Another is the researchundertaken by Balmer and Wilson (1998) Their research revealed thatorganisations consist of an amalgam of organisational professional nationaland other forms of identity The implication flowing from the above is thatrevealing examining and managing a business identity is a complex and time-consuming activity
Seeing through and avoiding the fogThe irony of The Times headline ` Fog in channel plusmn Europe isolatedrsquorsquo is not somuch that Europe was isolated or that England was isolated but that manysides were cut off Using the fog metaphor for business identity studies itbecomes apparent many scholars have to date been cut off from otherdisciplinary philosophical and national schools relating to business identity
There is the additional danger that identity scholars might become ` cut offrsquorsquoby failing to draw on the relevant literature which has existed since the 1950sOver time the business identity literature has the potential to acquire increasedbreadth and depth Table V reflects the above point It shows how many of the
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
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Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
277
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
1T
erm
inol
ogy
Yes
C
once
pts
refe
rto
the
nat
ure
ob
ject
ives
an
dm
anag
emen
tof
iden
tity
Yes
P
arti
cula
rly
wit
hre
gar
dto
mar
ket
ing
and
organ
isat
ional
beh
avio
ur
The
nee
dto
tran
scen
ddis
ciplinar
ybou
ndar
ies
Yes
T
he
nat
ure
re
lati
onsh
ipan
dm
anag
emen
tof
the
dom
ain
vis-
aAacute-v
isin
div
idual
conce
pts
2P
arad
igm
atic
vie
ws
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Var
ious
plusmnre
flec
tsth
etr
adit
ions
ofin
div
idual
rese
arch
par
adig
ms
3M
ult
ifar
ious
dis
ciplinar
yper
spec
tives
Yes
Id
enti
tyis
sues
oper
ate
atdif
fere
nt
level
sw
ithin
organ
isat
ions
and
are
ofeq
ual
conce
rnto
gra
phic
des
igner
sas
wel
las
toC
EO
s
Yes
F
igure
1is
self
-expla
nat
ory
The
salien
cyan
dce
ntr
alit
yof
the
iden
tity
conce
pts
Yes
4E
lem
ents
ofa
busi
nes
sid
enti
tyvi
s-aAacute-v
isth
eel
emen
tsre
quir
edof
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
Yes
The
fundam
enta
ldif
fere
nce
bet
wee
n(a
)th
eel
emen
tsco
mpri
sing
anid
enti
ty(b
)th
eel
emen
tsto
be
consi
der
edre
its
man
agem
ent
Yes
P
rovid
estw
ofu
ndam
enta
lre
sear
chfo
ci
5D
iffe
ring
obje
ctiv
esY
esY
esD
isci
plinar
yap
pro
aches
tend
tobe
nar
row
lyco
nce
ived
The
var
ious
types
ofch
ance
pro
gra
mm
ean
ddis
ciplinar
yco
nce
pts
reth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
Yes
Sal
iency
ofth
eid
enti
tyco
nce
pts
toa
var
iety
ofor
gan
isat
ional
conce
pts
6A
nglo
phon
ean
dnon
-Anglo
phon
edia
logue
Yes
Yes
D
isti
nct
appro
aches
found
invar
ious
nat
ional
gro
upin
gs
for
inst
ance
the
nat
ions
ofth
eol
dC
omm
onw
ealt
h
Pra
ctit
ioner
dis
ciplinar
ym
ethod
olog
ical
and
ped
agog
ical
insi
ghts
Yes
M
arsh
allingb
uildin
gon
thes
edis
tinct
trad
itio
ns
appro
aches
(con
tinued
)
Table VThe 15 ways of seeing
through the fog rebusiness identity
corporate marketing
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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286
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Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
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Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
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Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
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Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
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289
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Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
278R
easo
nIn
dic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
7D
iffe
rent
dis
ciplines
Yes
Yes
Sal
iency
ofco
nce
pts
Yes
M
ult
i-dis
ciplinar
y
collab
orat
ive
rese
arch
8G
raphic
des
ign
(im
por
tance
ofhum
anse
nse
s)
Yes
W
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
that
all
the
sense
sar
eim
por
tant
Yes
A
sper
colu
mn
1T
he
indiv
idual
impor
tance
ofth
ese
nse
sto
var
ious
organ
isat
ional
types
Yes
P
ossi
bilit
ies
reth
eroAtilde
le(s
)of
indiv
idual
sense
sre
busi
nes
sid
enti
ty9
Eff
ect
offa
shio
nN
oN
oN
oY
esU
nder
stan
din
gth
efa
ctor
sw
hic
hca
use
pra
ctit
ioner
sto
embra
ce
dro
pa
conce
pt
10P
osit
ivis
tic
rese
arch
par
adig
mN
AN
AU
niv
ersa
lla
ws
rebusi
nes
sid
enti
tyY
esB
uildin
gon
case
-stu
dy
rese
arch
and
other
`qual
itat
iversquo
rsquoap
pro
aches
11P
auci
tyof
empir
ical
rese
arch
Yes
D
iffi
cult
ingai
nin
gac
cess
indic
ativ
eof
the
sensi
tivit
y
pol
itic
alnat
ure
ofid
enti
tych
ange
pro
gra
mm
es
NA
NA
Yes
12F
ocus
onhol
din
gco
mpan
ies
Yes
T
he
var
ious
form
sof
busi
nes
sid
enti
ties
NA
Var
ious
types
ofbusi
nes
sid
enti
ties
plusmnsu
bsi
dia
ryan
dsu
per
organ
isat
ional
T
hei
rnat
ure
st
ruct
ure
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
13A
nglo
-Sax
onem
phas
isY
es
Lit
tle
atte
nti
ongiv
ento
non
Anglo
-Sax
onbusi
nes
sst
ruct
ure
s
NA
The
salien
cyof
the
iden
tity
conce
pt
philos
ophy
ina
glo
bal
conte
xt
Adap
ting
the
iden
tity
iden
tity
mix
acco
rdin
gly
Yes
plusmnver
yw
ide
(con
tinued
)
Table V
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
Aaker DA (1996) Building Strong Brands The Free Press New York NY
Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
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Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
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Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
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Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
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Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
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Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
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Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
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Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
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Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
279
Rea
son
Indic
ativ
eof
com
ple
xit
yra
ther
than
confu
sion
Indic
ativ
eof
am
ult
idis
ciplinar
yap
pro
ach
Insi
ghts
wit
hre
gar
dto
Res
earc
hpos
sibilit
ies
14M
odel
sY
esP
oten
tial
lyw
hen
pla
ced
inth
eco
nte
xt
ofth
eem
ergen
tlite
ratu
re
Yes
plusmnas
per
colu
mn
1C
omple
xit
yan
dm
ult
idis
ciplinar
ynat
ure
ofid
enti
tyit
sfo
rmat
ion
and
man
agem
ent
Yes
M
ost
mod
els
are
conce
ptu
al
15A
ctual
com
munic
ated
co
nce
ived
id
eal
and
des
ired
iden
titi
es
Yes
R
evea
lsth
eco
mple
xit
yof
iden
tity
chan
ge
pro
gra
mm
esplusmn
sever
aldif
fere
nt
iden
tity
types
nee
dto
be
revea
led
All
iden
tity
types
shou
ldbe
inal
ignm
ent
Yes
The
nee
dto
revea
lth
efi
ve
iden
tity
types
asper
colu
mn
1
Yes
W
ith
regar
dto
oper
atio
nal
isin
g`D
rB
alm
errsquos
AC
2ID
test
2[3
]C
ase
study
wor
kw
ould
seem
tobe
appro
pri
ate
Table V
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
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Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
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thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
280
15 reasons for the fog outlined in this article may upon further reflection beindicative of business identityrsquos complexity and multidisciplinary nature
In addition many of the 15 explanations offer insights regarding thesaliency of the identity concept to various management disciplines Anglo-Saxon European and Asian business structures and organisations of everyhue This includes virtual organisationsbrands such as airline alliancesTable V also outlines the various research possibilities afforded by each of the15 points What is clear is that the 15 points in their totality reveal theimportance of the identity concept and bring to mind Gioiarsquos remark (1998p 17) that
The concept of identity which is germane to conceiving what it is to be human also is centralto conceptualisation of one of the most complex and fascinating of human creations the workorganisation
What is a business identity What is a corporate brandSo what is business identity and how does it relate to or differ from anorganisationrsquos corporate brand Drawing on Table IV and the thirdexplanation outlined earlier the following definition is offered vis-aAacute -vis thecharacteristics of identity
An organisationrsquos identity is a summation of those tangible and intangible elements thatmake any corporate entity distinct It is shaped by the actions of corporate founders andleaders by tradition and the environment At its core is the mix of employeesrsquo values whichare expressed in terms of their affinities to corporate professional national and otheridentities It is multidisciplinary in scope and is a melding of strategy structurecommunication and culture It is manifested through multifarious communications channelsencapsulating product and organisational performance employee communication andbehaviour controlled communication and stakeholder and network discourse
The above definition may be seen to complement the influential view of Albertand Whetten (1985) who noted the saliency of identity in that it is centraldistinctive and enduring (CDE) In the authorrsquos estimation the driving forcesof identity are ` L V T Ersquorsquo
L plusmn Leadership (CEO and board-level)
V plusmn Values
T plusmn Tradition
E plusmn Environment
With regard to Albert and Whettenrsquos definition it is felt that the word` evolvingrsquorsquo might perhaps replace ` enduringrsquorsquo Albert and Whettenrsquos definitionis perhaps a too rigid interpretation of the concept The authorrsquos perspectivealso mirrors the view of Gioia and Thomas (1996) who took issue with Albertand Whettenrsquos view that a business identity was enduring These authors alsohad doubts as to whether identity was distinctive It appears that most scholarsagree that identity is a central concept to organisations of every type
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
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Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
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Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
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Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
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Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
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Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
281
With relation to the defining characteristics of a corporate brand and itsrelationship to corporate identity the following explanation is offered
A corporate brand involves the conscious decision by senior management to distil and makeknown the attributes of the organisationrsquos identity in the form of a clearly defined brandingproposition This proposition underpins organisational efforts to communicate differentiateand enhance the brand vis-aAacute -vis key stakeholder groups and networks A corporate brandproposition requires total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels ofpersonnel It requires senior management fealty and financial support On going managementof the corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within theremit of the traditional directorate of marketing
The three virtues of corporate brands are that they
(1) C = Communicate
(2) D = Differentiate
(3) E = Enhance
The corporate brand proposition may be used as a template for evaluating anorganisationrsquos activities in line with the corporate brand proposition
Table VI compares the attributes of corporate brands with product brandsthere are crucial differences between the two major branding categories and itis important to note the differences
Rethinking marketing who are the organisationrsquos customersFrom a marketing perspective it becomes apparent that the traditional focuson the external environment controlled communications branding visualidentification and image-research have for the main part focused on product-level rather than on corporate-level concerns
However over recent years marketing scholars have begun to focus oncorporate concerns to a greater degree than hitherto Along with such moveshas been recognition of the importance of personnel and more importantly theimportance of culture As with other scholars the question of culture hasconfronted marketing scholars with important epistemological and ontologicalissues
A shift towards corporate level concerns is evinced by several ascendantareas of marketing such as relationship marketing services marketing
Table VIA comparison betweencorporate and product
brands
Product brands Corporate brands
Management Middle manager CEOResponsibility Middle manager All personnelCognate discipline(s) Marketing Strategymulti disciplinaryCommunications mix Marketing communicator Total corporate communicationsFocus Mainly customer Multiple Internal and external
stakeholder groups and networksValues Mainly contrived Those of founder(s) + mix of
corporate + other sub-cultures
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
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es)
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y(f
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mm
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atio
n)
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iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
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)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
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marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
282
international marketing marketing for non-profits integrated marketingcommunications corporate public relations and more acutely in relation tocorporate and to services branding The author is of the view that thesedevelopments may point the way to the emergence of a new marketing andmanagement paradigm entitled corporate marketing studies
It is worth noting that implicit and explicit references to corporate marketing(organisational marketing) in the marketing literature is far from new Wellover 30 years ago Kotler and Levy (1969) concluded that the marketing conceptshould be broadened to cover any entity In a more recent article by Kotler andMindak (1978) it was argued that there should be a marriage betweenmarketing and public relations
The later article provided means by which marketing could beaccommodated at the corporate level Kotler has also been concerned with whathe calls a companyrsquos marketing image which he argued improved attitudestowards an organisation by stakeholder groups (Barich and Kotler 1991)British writers have also mirrored their North American colleagues inemphasising the importance of corporate concern
One author of note with regard to corporate marketing is the Englishcorporate communications writer and consultant David Bernstein Bernstein(1984 pp 146-55) concluded that the integration of corporate philosophyidentity and image would form the basis of a new area which he calledorganisational marketing
Several leading UK marketing scholars have also focussed on corporateconcerns in relation to ` excellentrsquorsquo companies and stakeholder relations Theneed for organisations to engage in relationships with a plethora ofstakeholders was the focus of research undertaken by Greenley and Foxall(1996) Doyle (1992) commenting on the nature of excellent companiesobserved that there is a tendency to over-simplify the question of shareholdervalue and to confuse the de jure and de facto ownership of a business Heargued that the long-running success and viability of an organisation dependsupon the capacity to satisfy a coalition of stakeholders Doylersquos conclusion maybe regarded as one of the key objectives of corporate marketing managementWhat is becoming increasingly apparent is that an organisationrsquos customersare not simply the end users of products plusmn they include other constituencies andeven in the estimation of the author include those stakeholder groups of thefuture who are not yet born The recent statement by the Anglo-Dutch ShellGroup reflects the broader perspective regarding organisational customers
We cannot be accountable solely to our shareholders or customers Our business touches toomany lives for us to evade our wider roAtildele in society We must communicate our values anddemonstrate that we live up to them in our business practices (in Lewis 2000)
The above quote may be seen to mirror some of the key attributes of effectivebusiness identity and corporate identity articulated earlier and alsoencapsulates the basic philosophy underpinning corporate marketing asenvisaged by the author This will be discussed in the next section
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
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Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
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Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
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Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
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Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
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Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
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Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
283
Rethinking marketing rethinking the corporate marketing mixAt this point in time with the lifting of the fog it is possible to see a bridging ofthe divide between management disciplines This is leading to the cross-fertilisation of ideas and insights between disciplinary national and ontologicaltraditions The same process appears to be taking place within marketingQuestions of corporate brand and corporate reputation management haveemerged as major concerns for organisations and their senior management
There is renewed interest in stakeholder theory and an increased emphasisin corporate rather than marketing communications There is also a broadeningof the marketing concept Table VII contrasts the conceptualisations ofcorporate marketing with McGee and Spirorsquos (1990) conceptualisation ofmarketing
Marketing and communication scholars have mirrored these developmentsIn recent years there have emerged distinct corporate identity corporatecommunication (total corporate communication) mixes The corporatemarketing mix has received little attention with the exception of Balmer(1999a) Balmer extended McCarthyrsquos (1960) four Ps to ten Ps so as toencompass the myriad elements which need to be orchestrated when themarketing concept is applied at the corporate level (see Appendix 2) Howeverthere is a problem with this mix in that unlike McCarthys four Ps the ten Ps aredifficult to recall
Table VIIThe major components
of marketing andcorporate marketing
Major components of marketing(McGee and Spiro 1990)
Major components of corporatemarketing (authorrsquos conceptualisation)
Orientation CustomerUnderstanding customer wantsneeds and behaviours
StakeholdersUnderstanding present and futurestakeholdersrsquo wants needs andbehaviours
Organisationalsupport
Co-ordinated organisationalactivitiesUndertaken to support customerorientation elicited above
Co-ordinated organisational activitiesUndertaken to support stakeholderorientation elicited above
End focus Profit orientationFocus on profit rather than onsales (needs to be adapted fornot-for-profit organisations)
Value creationProfit maximisation is a primary butis not the only focus also includesbusiness survival as well as temperingthe above where appropriate inmeeting
Societalobligations
Community welfareAn obligation to meet consumersrsquoand societyrsquos long term interests
Future stakeholder and societal needsBalancing current stakeholder andsociety needs with those of the futureshowing sensitivity to organisationalinheritance where applicable (mutualspartnerships etc)
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
Aaker DA (1996) Building Strong Brands The Free Press New York NY
Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
284
Table VIIIHEADS2 plusmn a newcorporate marketingmix
HE
AD
S2
Applica
ble
conce
pts
Ori
gin
alco
rpor
ate
mar
ket
ing
mix
elem
ents
`10P
srsquorsquo
Lis
tof
elem
ents
Hplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
HA
SC
orpor
ate
iden
tity
Philos
ophy
Org
anis
atio
nal
stru
cture
vis-
aAacute-v
issu
bsi
dia
ries
busi
nes
sunit
sH
isto
ryplusmn
legac
yA
llia
nce
san
dpar
tner
ship
spro
per
tyan
deq
uip
men
tco
rpor
ate
subsi
dia
ries
and
corp
orat
e(a
nd
corp
orat
ebra
nds)
re
puta
tion
pro
duct
bra
nds
stak
ehol
der
(com
pan
y)
inte
rest
inot
her
com
pan
ies
Eplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
EX
PR
ESSE
S
(a)
Inte
gra
ted
mar
ket
ing
com
munic
atio
ns
(b)
Cor
por
ate
com
munic
atio
ns
(c)
Tot
alC
orpor
ate
Com
munic
atio
ns
(d)
Cor
por
ate
PR
Pro
mot
ion
Inte
gra
ting
pri
mar
y(p
roduct
sse
rvic
es)
seco
ndar
y(f
orm
alco
mm
unic
atio
n)
tert
iary
com
munic
atio
ns
(wor
dof
mou
ths
pin
)
Aplusmn
What
are
the
dom
inan
tm
ixof
AF
FIN
ITIE
Shel
dby
emplo
yee
gro
ups
(a)
Org
anis
atio
nal
iden
tity
iden
tifi
cati
on(b
)C
orpor
ate
per
sonal
ity
(c)
Dif
fere
nti
ated
vie
wof
corp
orat
ecu
lture
(som
etim
essu
bsu
med
wit
hin
corp
orat
eid
enti
ty)
(See
`Hrsquorsquo
abov
e)
Peo
ple
a
Per
sonal
ity
Var
ious
sub
cult
ura
lgro
ups
incl
udin
gco
rpor
ate
(old
new
as
cendan
tsu
bsi
dia
rydep
artm
enta
l)
Nat
ional
reg
ional
loc
alan
dpro
fess
ional
su
bcu
lture
san
dso
on
Dplusmn
What
the
organ
isat
ion
DO
ES
(a)
Cor
por
ate
iden
tity
(b)
Cor
por
ate
pro
file
Pro
duct
P
rice
P
lace
P
erfo
rman
ceIn
cludes
all
elem
ents
ofM
cCar
thyrsquos
mix
wit
hth
eex
cepti
onof
per
form
ance
M
ixel
emen
tsre
quir
ea
radic
alre
thin
kin
gso
asto
enco
mpas
sor
gan
isat
ional
conce
rns
Splusmn
How
the
organ
isat
ion
isSE
EN
by
key
ST
AK
EH
OL
DE
Rgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
(a)
Cor
por
ate
imag
e(b
)C
orpor
ate
reputa
tion
(c)
Cor
por
ate
bra
nd
(d)
Sta
keh
older
theo
ryP
erce
pti
onP
osit
ionin
gP
eople
a
Incl
udes
(a)
dat
are
curr
ent
per
cepti
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(im
age)
and
organ
isat
ional
awar
enes
s(p
rofi
le)
amon
gkey
stak
ehol
der
s(b
)dat
are
pas
tper
form
ance
know
ledge
bel
iefs
and
expec
tati
ons
ofth
eor
gan
isat
ion
(rep
uta
tion
)an
dper
cepti
ons
ofth
esa
lien
cyval
ue
ofth
eco
rpor
ate
bra
ndIn
div
idual
sgro
ups
and
net
wor
ks
whic
htr
ansc
end
trad
itio
nal
inte
rnal
exte
rnal
organ
isat
ional
bou
ndar
ies
Note
aP
eople
=fa
lls
into
two
cate
gor
ies
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
Aaker DA (1996) Building Strong Brands The Free Press New York NY
Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
285
They are in many regards fundamentally different than the original four Ps inthat typically each P is broader in scope As a means of circumventing thisproblem and with the didactic needs of marketing faculty in mind a new mixhas been created forming the mnemonic HEADS2 (S encompasses twoelements) Table VIII outlines the six elements forming the HEADS2 mnemonicand places this alongside Balmerrsquos original ten Ps it also shows theinterdisciplinary nature of corporate marketing The author is in no doubt thatthe corporate marketing mix will require further reflection and re-working
ConclusionTo date the horizons of business identity and corporate marketing studieshave appeared to be fuzzy and obscured by fog It is hoped that this article willenable scholars to be aware of the reasons for the fog and perhaps to continueto account for this in their quest to see the vast and imposing sky whichrepresents the domain of corporate marketing studies What is clear from theliterature is that a growing number of management scholars no longer viewbusiness identity as a chimera but rather as a crucial research activity which isof strategic import in that it helps to comprehend an entityrsquos quintessence
The author hopes that this article has made a contribution to the generaldiscussion regarding business identity and corporate marketing Clearly thereis scope for further debate As Churchill (1942) remarked this is not the endbut is perhaps the end of the beginning
Notes
1 The Thunderer the traditional nickname assigned to The Times of London newspaper
2 The research was undertaken as part of `The Transatlantic Identity Studyrsquorsquo which wassponsored by the Anglo-American branding consultancy Enterprise IG The ACID Test ofCorporate Identity Management2 has been successfully used on a number of majorcorporate branding projects see Allen (2000)The author gratefully acknowledges the support given by Enterprise IG and the
assistance given by his research assistant Mr Guillaume Soenen The author is alsoindebted to Professor Stephen A Greyser (Harvard Business School) who generouslyserved as special advisor to this study
3 The ACID Test of Corporate Identity Management2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1998 Dr BalmerrsquosAC2ID Test2 plusmn JMT Balmer 1999
References
Aaker DA (1996) Building Strong Brands The Free Press New York NY
Aberg L (1990) ` Theoretical model and praxis of total communicationsrsquorsquo International PublicRelations Review Vol 13 No 2
Abratt R (1989) `A new approach to the corporate image management processrsquorsquo Journal of MarketingManagement Vol 5 No 1 pp 63-76
Albert S and Whetten D (1985) ` Organisational identityrsquorsquo in Cummings LC and Staw BM (Eds)Research in Organisational Behaviour Vol 7 JAI Press Greenwich CT pp 263-95
Allen D (2000) ` The ACID Test2 plusmn a communications tool for leadership teams who want to interactwith the whole organisationrsquorsquo The Journal of Brand Management Vol 7 No 4 pp 257-66
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
286
Ashforth BE and Mael F (1989) ` Social identity theory and the organisationrsquorsquo Academy ofManagement Review Vol 14 pp 20-39
Baker MJ and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Visual identity trappings or substancersquorsquo special edition onCorporate Identity of the European Journal of Marketing Vol 5 and 6 No 3 pp 366-82
Balmer JMT (1995) ` Corporate branding and connoisseurshiprsquorsquo Journal of General ManagementVol 21 No 1 pp 24-46
Balmer JMT (1996) ` The nature of corporate identity an exploratory study undertaken with BBCScotlandrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (1998) ` Corporate identity and advent of corporate marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 4 pp 963-96
Balmer JMT (1999a) ` Corporate identityrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Marketing IEBMthomson business Press London pp 732-46
Balmer JMT (1999b) ` Corporate brands avoiding the deadly sinsrsquorsquo working paper InternationalCentre for Corporate Identity Studies Department of Marketing University of Strathclyde
Balmer JMT (2000) ` The seven deadly sins of corporate brand managementrsquorsquo unpublished keynoteaddress CBI Seminar on Branding and Identity Bradford Management Centre 24 February
Balmer JMT and Gray ER (1999) ` Corporate identity and corporate communication creating astrategic advantagersquorsquo Corporate Communications An International Journal Vol 4 No 4pp 171-6
Balmer JMT and Soenen GB (1999) ` The acid test of corporate identity management2rsquorsquo Journal of
Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 69-92
Balmer JMT and Stotvig S (1997) ` Corporate identity and private banking a review and casestudyrsquorsquo International Journal of Banking special edition on Corporate identity in financialservices Vol 15 No 5 pp 169-84
Balmer JMT and Wilkinson A (1991) ` Building societies change strategy and corporate identityrsquorsquoJournal of General Management Winter Vol 17 No 2 pp 20-33
Balmer JMT and Wilson A (1998) ` Corporate identity there is more to it than meets the eyersquorsquoInternational Studies of Management and Organisations Vol 28 No 3 pp 12-31
Barich H and Kotler P (1991) `A framework for marketing image managementrsquorsquo Sloan Management
Review Winter pp 94-104
Bernstein D (1984) Company Image and Reality Rinehart and Winston Eastbourne
Birkigt K and Stadler M (1986) Corporate Identity Grundiagen Funktionen und Beispoelen VerlagModerne Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Boorstein DJ (1961) The Image Pelican Gretna LA
Boulding K (1956) The Image University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor MI
Bristol LH (1960) Developing the Corporate Image A Management Guide to Public RelationsScribner New York NY
Bromley DB (1993) Reputation Image and Impression Management John Wiley amp Sons ChichesterSussex
Brown TJ (1998) Corporate associations in marketing antecedents and consequencesrsquorsquo Corporate
Reputation Review Vol 1 No 3 pp 215-33
Budd J (1969) `A mirror on the corporate imagersquorsquo SAM Advanced Management Journal Vol 34January pp 45-50
Caruana A and Chircop S (2000) `Measuring corporate reputation a case examplersquorsquo CorporateReputation Review Vol 3 No 1 pp 43-57
Chajet C and Schachtman T (1998) Image by Design 2nd ed McGraw-Hill New York NY
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
287
Cheney G and Christensen LT (1999) ` Identity at issue linkages between internal and externalorganisational communicationrsquorsquo in Jablin FM and Putnam LL (Eds) New Handbook ofOrganisational Communication Sage Thousand Oaks CA
de Chernatony L (1999) ` Brand management through narrowing the gap between brand identity andbrand reputationrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 15 Nos 1-3 pp 157-80
Churchill W (1942) ` Speech on the progress of the war 10 Decemberrsquorsquo in Rees N (1995) Phrases andSayings Bloomsbury Publishing London p 48
Cova B and Aubert-Gamet V (1997) Exit voice loyalty and twist Consumer behaviour in search ofthe subject EIASM workshop on Integrated Consumer Research April Oxford England
Craven P (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15 No 2May
Deshpande R (1983) ` Paradigms lost on theory and method in research in marketingrsquorsquo Journal ofMarketing Vol 47 pp 79-89
Dowling GR (1986) ` Managing your corporate imagesrsquorsquo Industrial Marketing Management Vol 15No 2 May
Dowling GR (1993) ` Developing your image into a corporate assetrsquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 26No 2 pp 101-9
Dowling GR (1994) Corporate Reputations Strategies for Developing the Corporate Brand KoganPage London
Doyle P (1992) `What are the excellent companiesrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 18 No 2pp 101-16
Dutton J and Dukerich J (1991) ` Keeping an eye on the mirror image and identity in organizationaladaptationrsquorsquo Academy of Management Journal Vol 34 pp 517-54
Dutton JE Dukerich JM and Harquil VV (1994) ` Organisational images and memberidentificationrsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 2 June pp 239-63
Elsbach KD and Kramer RM (1996) ` Members responses to organisational identity threatsencountering and countering the business weeks rankingrsquorsquo Administrative Science QuarterlyVol 41 pp 442-76
Fiol CM Hatch MJ and Golden-Biddle K (1999) ` Organisational culture and identity whatrsquos thedifference anywayrsquorsquo in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Fombrun C (1996) Reputation Realising Value from the Corporate Image Harvard Business SchoolPress Boston MA
Fombrun C and Van Riel CBM (1997) ` The reputational landscapersquorsquo Corporate Reputation ReviewVol 1 Nos 1 and 2 pp 5-13
Gill J and Johnson P (1991) Research Methods for Managers Paul Chapman London
Gioia DA (1998) in Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (Eds) Identity in Organisations SagePublications Thousand Oaks CA
Gioia DA and Thomas JB (1996) ` Image identity and issue interpretation sensemaking duringstrategic change in academiarsquorsquo Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 40 pp 370-403
Gray ER and Balmer JMT (1998) `Managing corporate image and corporate reputationrsquorsquo Long
Range Planning Vol 31 No 5 pp 695-702
Gray ER and Smeltzer LR (1985) ` Corporate image plusmn an integral part of strategyrsquorsquo Sloan
Management Review Vol 26 No 4 pp 73-8
Gray J (1986) Managing the Corporate Image Quorum Books London
Greenley GE and Foxall GR (1996) ` Consumer and non-consumer stakeholder orientation in UKcompaniesrsquorsquo Journal of Business Research Vol 35 No 2 pp 105-16
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
288
Gregory JR (1997) Leveraging the Corporate Brand NTC Business Books Lincolnwood IL
Greyser S (1999) in Corporate Communications an International Journal Vol 4 No 4 special editionon Corporate Identity pp 177-81
Grunig JE (1993) ` Image and substance from symbolic to behavioural relationshipsrsquorsquo PublicRelations Review Vol 19 No 2 pp 121-39
Hatch MJ and Schultz M (1997) ` Relations between organisational culture identity and imagersquorsquoEuropean Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 No 56 pp 356-65
Henrion and Parkin (1967) Design Co-ordination and Corporate Image Studio Vosta London
Ind N (1992) The Corporate Image Kogan Page London
Ind N (1996) The Corporate Brand Macmillan London
Jenkins N (1991) The Business of Image Kogan Page London
Johansson JK and Hirano M (1999) ` Brand reality the Japanese perspectiversquorsquo Journal of Marketing
Management Vol 13 Nos 1-3 pp 93-106
Kammerer J (1989) Bietrag der Produkpolink Zur Corporate Identity GBI-Verlag MuEgravenchen
Kapferer JN (1992) Strategic Brand Management Kogan Page London
Kennedy SH (1977) ` Nurturing corporate images plusmn total communications or ego triprsquorsquo EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol 11 pp 120-64
King S (1991) ` Brand building in the 1990srsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Management Vol 7 No 1 pp 3-13
Kotler P and Levy SJ (1969) ` Broadening the concept of marketingrsquorsquo Journal of Marketing Januarypp 10-15
Kotler P and Mindak W (1978) `Marketing and public relations plusmn should they be partners or rivalsrsquorsquoJournal of Marketing Vol 42 October pp 13-20
Lewis S (2000) ` Letrsquos get this in perspectiversquorsquo unpublished presentation given by MORI at theConfederation of British Industry Seminar on Corporate Branding and Identity held at TheUniversity of Bradford Management Centre UK 24 February
Lindquist J (1974-1975) `Meaning of imagersquorsquo Journal of Retailing Vol 50 No 4 Winter pp 29-38
Lux PGC (1997) ` Zur DurchfuEgravehrung von Corporate Identity Programmenrsquorsquo in Birkigt K andStadler M (Eds) Corporate Identity Grundlagen Funktionen und Beispielen Verlag Moderne
Industrie Landsberg am Lech
Macrae C (Ed) (1999) Journal of Marketing Management special edition on Brand reality Vol 15Nos 1-3
McCarthy EJ (1960) Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach Dow Jones Irwin Homewood IL
McGee LW and Spiro RK (1990) ` The marketing concept in perspectiversquorsquo Business Horizons Vol 31No 3 pp 40-5
Maathuis O (1999) ` Corporate branding the value of the corporate brand to customers andmanagersrsquorsquo unpublished PhD thesis Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mael F and Ashforth BE (1992) `Alumni and their Alma Mater a partial test of the reformulatedmodel of organisational identificationrsquorsquo Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 13 pp 103-23
Markwick N and Fill C (1997) ` Towards a framework for managing corporate identityrsquorsquo European
Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Martineau P (1958) ` Sharper focus for the corporate imagersquorsquo Harvard Business Review NovemberDecember pp 49-58
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1998) ` Global corporate visual identity systems standardizationcontrol and benefitsrsquorsquo International Marketing Review Vol 15 No 4 pp 291-308
Melewar TC and Saunders J (1999) ` International global visual identity standardisation orlocalisationrsquorsquo Journal of International Business Studies Vol 31 No 3 pp 583-98
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
289
Mitsubishi Model of Corporate Identity (nd) Mitsubishi Japan
Moingeon B and Ramanantsoa D (1997) ` Corporate identity understanding the French school of
thoughtrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5and 6 pp 383-95
Morison I (1997) ` Breaking the monolithic mouldrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing specialedition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5 pp 153-62
Napoles V (1988) Corporate Identity Design Van Nostrand Reinhold New York NY
Olins W (1978) The Corporate Personality An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity DesignCouncil London
Olins W (1979) ` Corporate identity the myth and the realityrsquorsquo Advertising Summer No 60 pp 16-25
Olins W (1995) The New Guide to Identity Design Council Gower Aldershot
Oliver S (1997) Corporate Communication Kogan Page London
Pilditch J (1971) Communication by Design A Study in Corporate Identity McGraw-Hill Maidenhead
Schmidt C (1995) The Quest for Identity Cassell London
Selame E and Selame J (1975) The Company Image John Wiley amp Sons New York NY
Simpson N (1979) Corporate Identity Name and Perception The Conference Board New York NY
Smith PR (1993) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach Kogan Page London
Sobol MG and Farrell Y (1988) ` Corporate reputation a function of relative size or financialperformancersquorsquo Review of Business and Economic Research Vol 24 No 1 pp 45-59
Spector AJ (1961) ` Basic dimensions of the corporate imagersquorsquo Journal of Marketing Vol 25 pp 47-51
Steidl P and Emory G (1997) Corporate Image and Identity Strategies Designing the Corporate
Future Business amp Professional Publishing Warriewood Australia
Stewart K (1991) ` Corporate identity a strategic marketing issuersquorsquo International Journal of Bank
Marketing Vol 9 No 1 pp 32-9
Stuart H (1998a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquo paperpresented at the 2nd International Conference on Corporate Reputation Identity and
Competitiveness Amsterdam
Stuart H (1998b) ` Exploring the corporate identitycorporate image interface an empirical study ofaccountancy firmsrsquorsquo Journal of Communication Management Vol 2 No 4 pp 357-71
Stuart H (1999a) ` The effect of organisational structure on corporate identity managementrsquorsquoCorporate Reputation Review Vol 2 No 2 pp 151-64
Stuart H (1999b) ` Towards a definitive model of the corporate identity management processrsquorsquoCorporate Communications an International Journal special edition on Corporate identity
Vol 4 No 4 pp 200-7
Tagiuri R (1982) ` The role of top management in identity managementrsquorsquo working paper Harvard
Business School
Tyrrell T (1995) `Managing corporate identityrsquorsquo in Crainer J (Ed) The Financial Times Handbook of
Management FT Pitman Publishing London pp 442-50
Van Heerden CH and Puth G (1995) ` Factors that determine the corporate image of South Africanbanking institutions an explanatory investigationrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing
Vol 31 pp 340-55
Vankatesh A (1985) ` Is marketing ready for Kuhnrsquorsquo in Dholakia N and Arndt J (Eds) Changing the
Course of Marketing Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory (Research in
Marketing Supplement 2) JAI Press Greenwich CT
Van Mannen (1985) Qualitative Methodology Sage London
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
EuropeanJournal ofMarketing3534
290
Van Rekom J (1997) ` Deriving an operational measure of corporate identityrsquorsquo European Journal ofMarketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6 pp 410-22
Van Riel CBM (1995) Principles of Corporate Communications Prentice-Hall London
Van Riel CBM and Balmer JMT (1997) ` Corporate identity the concept its measurement andmanagementrsquorsquo European Journal of Marketing special edition on Corporate identity Vol 31Nos 5 and 6 pp 340-55
Watershoot Van W (1995) ` The marketing mixrsquorsquo in Baker MJ (Ed) Companion Encyclopaedia ofMarketing Routledge London pp 433-49
Weigelt K and Camerer C (1988) ` Reputation and corporate strategy a review of recent theory andapplicationsrsquorsquo Strategic Management Journal pp 433-55
Whetten DA and Godfrey PC (1998) Identity in Organisation Sage Publications Thousand OaksCA
Wiedmann KP (1988) Corporate Identity als Unternehmensstrategie Weist 5 pp 236-42
Wilkinson A and Balmer JMT (1996) ` Corporate and generic identities lessons from theCo-operative Bankrsquorsquo International Journal of Bank Marketing Vol 14 No 4 pp 22-35
Worcester RM (1986) ` Corporate imagersquorsquo in Worcester B and Downham J (Eds) Consumer MarketResearch Handbook McGraw-Hill London pp 601-16
Worcester RM (1997) `Managing the image of your bank the glue that bindsrsquorsquo The InternationalJournal of Bank Marketing special edition on Corporate identity in financial services Vol 15No 5 pp 146-52
Yin R (1984) ` Case study researchrsquorsquo in Gummesson E (Ed) (1991) Qualitative Methods inManagement Research Sage Publications London and Beverly Hills CA
Further reading
Academy of Management Review (2000) special edition on Identity and employee identification
Balmer JMT (Ed) (1999) Corporate Communications an International Journal special edition onCorporate identity Vol 4 No 4
Balmer JMT and Baker MJ (Eds) (1997) International Journal of Bank Marketing special edition onCorporate identity in financial services Vol 15 No 5
Balmer JMT and Van Riel CBM (Eds) (1997) European Journal of Marketing special edition onCorporate identity Vol 31 Nos 5 and 6
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix
Corporate identitybranding and
marketing
291
Appendix 1 The ICIGrsquoS statement on corporate identity
Appendix 2 The ten Ps of the corporate marketing mix
Table AIThe Strathclyde
Statement
Every organisation has an identityIt articulates the corporate ethos aims and values and presents a sense of individuality
that can help to differentiate the organisation within its competitive environment
When well managed corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating themany disciplines and activities essential to an organisationrsquos success It can also providethe visual cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherentwith each other and result in an image consistent with the organisationrsquos defining ethos
and character
By effectively managing its corporate identity an organisation can build understandingand commitment among its diverse stakeholders This can be manifested in an ability
to attract and retain customers achieve strategic alliances gain the support of financialmarkets and generate a sense of direction and purpose
Corporate Identity is a strategic issue
Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with allof an organisationrsquos stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organisation
communicates
(This is a revised version of the original statement penned by the author along withother identity scholars and practitioners at Strachur Loch Fyne Argyl Scotland UK
on 17 and 18 February 1995)
Figure A1The ten Ps of the
corporate marketing mix