Corporate sector practice informs online workforce …Corporate sector practice informs online workforce training 305 Australian experience, it is useful to look at the training practice

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 51, Number 2, July 2011

Corporate sector practice informs online workforce training for Australian government

agencies: Towards effective educational-learning systems design

Elspeth McKay and Cenie VilelaSchool of Business Information Technology and Logistics

RMIT University

The purpose of this paper is to outline government online training practice. We searched individual research domains of the human-dimensions of Human Computer Interaction (HCI), information and communications technologies (ICT) and instructional design for evidence of either corporate sector or government training practices. We overlapped these domains to investigate primary research outcomes. Corporate sector and government employees encounter barriers to their adoption of web-mediated training. One such barrier is a lack of enthusiasm, possibly due to ineffective instructional design, which in turn affects motivation towards online learning. Although the Australian Government offers training incentives to the general community, a negative attitude towards online training persists in the community, particularly throughout

Corporate sector practice informs online workforce training 303

the government sector. Adoption of effective ICT training tools is a critical issue for the corporate sector and government agencies worldwide. This paper presents a compelling case for courseware designers to develop sound instructional design principles to enhance web-mediated learning programmes. Keywords: corporate sector, government agencies, online training, instructional systems design, human-computer interaction, workforce training.

Introduction

Thefirstconceptsofonlinelearningweredevelopedinthe1960sattheUniversityofIllinoisthroughthecreationofacomputer-basededucationenvironmentcalledPLATO(ProgrammedLogicforAutomaticTeachingOperations),designedfordeliverytouniversitystudents.SomesayPLATOpavedthewayformuchoftheonlineinteractionseentoday(Woolley1994),includingdiscussionforums,messageboards,interactivetesting,e-mail,chatrooms,picturelanguages,instantmessaging,remotescreensharingandmulti-playergaming.Inmanyplacesaroundtheworld,theonlinelearningenvironmentisnowintegraltohighereducationandtrainingsectors.Whileonlinelearningisyettoreachsomecountries,thenumberofinstitutionsandindividualsaccessingweb-mediatedlearningresourcesisincreasingexponentially(Anderson2008).Flowingfromthisconnection,onemayexpectthatonlinetrainingwouldoccurasanaturalconsequenceinworkforceskilldevelopmentpractice.

ThemainaimofthispaperistoinvestigateonlinetrainingadoptioninAustraliangovernmentagencies.Toinitiateourgovernment-fundedresearch,weexaminedtheliteraturetoprovideacriticalanalysisofcurrente-learning/trainingpracticeinthecorporatesector—withaviewtoinformgovernmentagency

304 Elspeth McKay and Cenie Vilela

workforcetraining.Thepaperunravelssimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweengovernmentagenciesandthecorporatesector.

First,weanalysegovernmentreportsandcorporatesectorresearch,beforeoutliningtheimportanceofpriordomainknowledgeandindividualpreferencesinadultlearning.Toclarifyouruseoftheterm‘priordomainknowledge’,wesimplymeanthatpeoplemayknowrelevantknowledgewithinoneparticularareaofthespecifiedlearningcontent.Forafulldescriptionoftheconceptofpriordomainknowledgeandhowitmayinteractwiththecognitiveperformanceoutcomesofeducational-learningsystems,seeYu(2007)andYu,Jan,SimoffandDebenham(2007).Wepresentthecruxofourargumentthroughthehuman-dimensionsofhuman-computerinteraction(HCI)(McKay2008)andinstructionalsystemsdesign.Toidentifypossiblebarrierstotheadoptionofe-learning,weexaminethisconceptatanorganisationlevelandanemployeelevel.Thepaperconcludeswithareviewofmodelsthatareusedtomeasuretrainingeffectiveness.

Current research

Government reports

Establishedin1996,theFlexibleLearningAdvisoryGroup(FLAG)isthekeyAustraliangovernmentadvisorygrouponnationaldirectionsandpriorities.Thisbodypublisheswidelyandpromotesinformationcommunicationstechnology(ICT)toolsinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)andinadultandcommunityeducation(ACE).TheAustralianFlexibleLearningFramework(theFramework)isoneofthekeyFLAGinitiativesthatleadscollaborativedevelopmentandprovisionofessentialnationalICTinfrastructure.Assuch,itevaluatesandprovidesadviceonemergingtechnologicalopportunities.Italsofacilitatesaccesstoe-learningproductsandpracticesthatenableaninnovative,flexibleandresponsivenationaltrainingsystem[http://www.flag.edu.au/].Tocomparethis


Australianexperience,itisusefultolookatthetrainingpracticeintheUK.

IntheUK,thereistheNationalSchoolofGovernment’sinitiativefore-learning—apartnershipwiththeMinistryofDefence,supportedbyagrowingsyndicateofdepartments.Itinstigatedamassivee-learningprogramentitledUnderstandingtheCivilService.Thisprogramincludesacomprehensivelistoftrainingmodulesforpolicyandcivilserviceprocesses(usedwithintheEuropeanUnionandthewiderUKcivilservice).Anexamplefromitslonglistofworkforceskilldevelopmentincludesfinanceandethics.Itsonlinetrainingmodulesaredesignedtoprovideasoundandcomprehensiveresourceofknowledgeacquisitionandfoundationskilldevelopment.

FoundationskillshavebeenexaminedinAustraliathroughtheAdultLiteracyandLifeSkillsSurvey(ALL),toassistindividuals,educators,employersandotherdecision-makers.TheALLsurveycollectedindividuals’dataontheirfamiliaritywithICTtoolusage.Thissurveyinvolvedaseriesofself-assessmentquestionsonperceptionsanddegreeofcomfortinusingthesetools.ThefinaloutcomesexploredtherelationshipbetweentheuseofICTtoolsandassociatedcomputer-literacyskills(StatisticsCanada&OECD2005).Whilethisresearchconcentratedonbasicknowledgeandunderstanding,anotherCanadianresearchteamattheAthabascaUniversitycontinuedtoreviewthetheoryandpracticeofonlinelearning(Anderson2008).

Whilethereisaplethoraofresearchforalleducationlevels(Anderson2008),the(Australian-based)FrameworkfrequentlyreportsthatthepopulationisaginginWesterncountries.Consequently,thisphenomenoniscreatingworldwideinterestinlifelonglearningstrategiestomaintaincurrentworkforceskilllevels(Palmieri2007).Oneofthewaysthisskillretentioncanbeachievedistoacknowledgethespecialneedsofanagingworkforce.AccordingtoBowmanandKearns(2007:1):


• manyolderworkerswanttogoonlearningandearning,butinwaysthatsuittheirlifestylepreferences;

• thisinterestinlearningofteninvolvespart-timeworkandpart-timecommunityserviceorvolunteering;and

• thedesireamongmanyolderworkerstokeeplearning,includinglearningaboutcomputersandothertechnologies.

Infacilitatingeffectiveandefficienttrainingforanaging/matureworkforce—ontheonehand,itismoredifficultforresearcherstoestablishacommonviewongovernmenttrainingthanitisforthecorporatesector.Often,thegovernmentagencydatamayonlyappearinareportappendixlistingasorganisationsvisitedorinterviewedwithnofurtherdetail.Whenthislackofpublishedinformationoccurs,theresearchercannotspecifydetaileddataduetoprivacylaws(Benninck2004).However,viablepartnershipsaredevelopinginAustraliabetweenVETorganisations,privateindustryoperatorsandgovernmententerprises(AFLF2006)thatenablesagrowthofexpertiseintrainingpractise.

Unfortunately,therearemanyinstanceswhenmarketingcompaniesseizetheopportunitytolinke-learningtoknowledgemanagementtoattractgovernmentagencysponsorship.Theunderstandableattractionfortheindustryoperatorstosuchinitiativesappearstobeintheiropportunitytocashinontheprocurementofgovernmentweb-servicesandmediasupport(Schofield2002:88).Thisisthepoint,webelieve,wheretheAustraliangovernmentinitiativestopromotee-learningsuccessfullynegotiateacrossthegovernment/corporatesectordivide.Byseizingtheselucrativeprospectsandsecuringgovernmentcontracts—thecorporatesectorappearstotreatworkforcetrainingasastand-aloneskillsdevelopmentissue,disconnectedfromthewidercompetitivenatureofcorporatesectorbusinessstrategies.


Corporate sector

Wefoundthatcorporatesectorresearchismorelikelytoidentifybarrierstoonlinetrainingthangovernmentagencyresearchreports.Unlikethetendencyforgovernmentagenciesnottoreportpubliclyontheirtrainingpractice,thecorporatesectormaintainsamoreopen,transparentattitudetoitsonlinetrainingpractices.Murray(2001)describedafour-stagede-learningplanningprocesssheobservedinherresearchintothecorporatesectorthatinvolvedplanning,building,integrationandimprovement.Murrayarguedthatforward-thinkingCanadianemployerswerestartingtoembracee-learningtobecomemoreproductiveandinnovative,regardlessofthesize,resourcesorsectoroftheirorganisation.Murray(2001)furtherstatedthatatthesametimetheseemployerswereusinge-learningtocreateself-directed,lifelonglearnersamongtheiremployees—andtosavemoney.ThissentimentissharedbytheAustralianVETcommunity.

In2001,networkingmembersoftheVETcommunitydevelopedaFrameworkinitiativeknownasTheKnowledgeTree.Thisnetworkencouragesthesharingofresearchandlearninginnovationinrelationtotheprofessionalpracticeofe-learningdevelopment.Moreover,thegroup’se-journalisseenasausefulresourceforanyonelookingtoidentifyandunderstandbestpractice.Thecommonthreadbetweenthegovernmentreportsandthecorporatesector’sresearchpublicationsistheirfocusonskillsdevelopmentandtheirconsiderationforadultlearning(AFLF2007,Benninck2004).Nevertheless,facilitatinge-learningforanadulttraineecohortrequiresspecialistfacilitation.

Tothisend,Schofield(2002:88)waspromptedbythreefactorstoconductresearchintoonlinelearninginthecorporatesector.ThefirstrelatestotheunilateralweaknessesintheVETsystemtodaythataredisconnectedfromthebroaderbusinesssurvivalobjectives.Thesecondfactoristhatcorporationsplayamajorroleinworkforceskillsformation,alongsideeducationandtraininginstitutions.Thethirdis


thescarcityofindependentresearchoncorporatee-learning.Instead,whatweknowislargelyprovidedbycompaniesthathaveaninterestinsellinge-learningsolutions.Evenwhentheinformationtheyprovideisobjective,reliableandcredible,perceptionsofaconflictofinterestremain.Withthisinmind,DeRouin,Barbara,FritzscheandSalas(2005)cautionreadersabouttheuseofindependentsurveyresults,acknowledgingthatindustrypartnersmayhaveaconflictofinterestwithregardtofindings.Moreover,theyidentifyaneedforascienceofe-learningthatinformscorporationsonhowtodesign,deliverandevaluatee-learningsystems.

Inkeepingwiththeconcernforevaluation,inaUS-baseduniversityreport,Mungania(2003)employedaweb-basedsurveytocollectdatawiththeaimofdemonstratingtheviabilityofweb-basedsurveysasaneffectivetool.Herresearchidentifiedthechallengesfacingallstakeholderswhichresultfromtheincreasingdemandsplacedonemployees.Thus,thepressuretoimproveonlinetrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentwilllikelyincrease,andconsequentlytherewillbeincreasedinvestmentsintime,peopleandfinancialresourcesdesignatedfore-learning.

YetcoursewarecreationisintegralwiththeavailabilityofappropriateICTtools.Eklund,KayandLynch(2003)reviewedtheliteraturetoexaminearangeofissuescoveringtechnology,teachingandlearning,andorganisationalissues.TheyofferedgeneralrecommendationsonprioritiesthatwillpromotethesuccessfuldeploymentofICTtoolsinVET.Theyarguedthatorganisationsmustconsiderfactorsanddevelopmentsofatechnical,organisationalandpedagogicalnaturethatarelikelytogeneratechangeintheuseoftechnologiesineducationandtraining.

Morerecently,Jasinski(2007)conductedappliedresearchonembeddinginnovativepracticeine-learning.Theaimsofherresearchwereto:


• identifyfactorsthatcontributetoembeddinginnovativepractices;

• informfuturedecision-makerswithregardtotheconsiderationsandpotentialimpactofembeddinginnovativepractices;and

• developmodelsforongoingembeddingofinnovativepracticestobeutilisedbyfutureVETproviders.

AccordingtoJasinski(2007:57),therearehealthysignsofprogresstowardsembeddinginnovativee-learning.Inhersurvey,86%ofrespondentsconsideredtheyweresomewhatmoreinnovativethantheaverageperson,and44.7%believedtheyweredeliveringinnovativee-learningpracticesandtechniquestoahighorveryhighextent.While53.1%believedtheirorganisationwasextremelyorsomewhatinnovative,respondentsbelievedtheirorganisationwasusingonly25.7%ofe-learninginnovationstoahighorveryhighextent.Thisdisappointingresultmeansthatbecauseorganisationsarefailingtoimplementinnovativee-learningpractice,itisasignthatthey(organisationalmanagement)reflectapoorunderstandingoftheimportancethatadultsplaceonhavingappropriateopportunitiesforpractice(Reigeluth&Carr-Chellman2009).

Ourinvestigationofgovernmentreportsandcorporatesectorresearchhasrevealedthereismoreevidencefromthelattertostimulateandsupportgovernmentsectortraining.WereviewedvaluablescholarlycontributionsfromCanadaandtheUKtohighlightthecollaborativenatureofthecorporatesectortowardsgovernmentsectortraininginteractions.Wealsoidentifiedtwoothermajorareasofinter-relatedresearchthatarerelevanttoourinvestigationofonlinetrainingadoptioninAustraliangovernmentagencies.Theyinvolvethehuman-dimensionsofHCIandinstructionalsystemsdesign.Wethereforedrawonboththeseimportantaspectstohighlightthespecialneedsofadultlearners/governmenttrainees.Thentoteaseoutwheretheproblemsmaylie,wereviewtheorganisationalbarrierstowardsadoptinge-learningandfinishthe


discussionbypresentingmodelsthatareusedtomeasuretrainingeffectiveness.

Adult learning

Knowinghowtolearnnewskillsissomethingthatimprovesaswegrowolder.Forthemostpartaswetravelalongourlifelonglearningpath,itbecomeseasiertodifferentiatewhichinstructionalstrategiesarelikelytosuitusbest.Thedifficultieswearelikelytoface,especiallywhenlearninginweb-mediatedinstructionalenvironments,willdependonwhetherthereareanyfast-trackingoptionsforthelearningtasks.Itiswellknownthatnovicelearnersrequirethefullrangeofrulesandinformationrelatedtolearningsomethingnew,whereasanexperiencedlearnermightonlyrequireaquickrevision(McKay2008).Novicelearnerswillthereforerespondbesttomeasuredamountsofguidance—throughprogressivelymorecomplexinstructional/learningcontent—withstrategicopportunitiesforinteractivepracticeexamplesalongtheway(Tennyson&Bagley1991).Alternatively,apersonpossessingamorecompletegraspofthetaskwilllikelywanttoexperimentfirst,preferringtorefertotherulesandbasicinformationonlywhentheyneedthem.Unfortunately,therearemanyweb-mediatedinstructionalstrategiesthatdonotcaterforbothmodesoflearning.Wheninstructionalsystemscannotadapttothisimportantrequirement,theyruntheriskofdemotivatingbothgroupsoflearners(Tennyson&Bagley1991).Theresultmaybeconfusionfornovicelearnerswhentheprimaryrulesandexamplesarenotsufficientlyexplicit,andboredomandfrustrationfortheexperiencedlearnerwhoisforcedintofollowingthecomplete,step-by-step,instructionalstrategy.

Yetbecausesomepeople’sabilitytoimmediatelyrecallpriordomainknowledgemayslowastheyage,weincludecontributionsherefromcognitivepsychologyresearchtoenhanceourargumentforbetterunderstandingofcognitiveperformance.


RepovsandBaddeley(2006)havecontributedavaluablebodyofworkonpeople’sworkingmemory.Theysaythatworkingmemoryhasproventobeanimportantpartofthehumancognitivesystem,providingtheabilitytomaintainandmanipulateinformationintheprocessofguidingandexecutingcomplexcognitivetasks.Cognitivetasksthatincludepastexperiencesareencodedandheldinourmemoryasretrievableinformation.AccordingtoKalyuga(2005),animportantprincipleofacquiringappropriatepriordomainknowledgeisthattheinstructionalstrategyisintegratedintoourworkingmemory,whiletheinformationwereceive(Riding&Cheema1991)isheldinourlong-termmemory.Therefore,thedesignofinstructionalmaterialsforonlinedeliverymustincludeconsiderationofthelearners’levelofexpertise(priordomainknowledge).Researchshowsthatadultsoftenhaverelevantexperiencesthateitherdrivethem(ordemotivatethem)tolearn,andthat,whenthecontentanddesignofinstructionalmaterialsdonotchallengeorinterestthem,theycanbecomedemotivated(Tennyson&Bagley1991).

Regardlessofthefactthatanadultmayrequirespecialstrategiestoassistthemwiththeirrecallofpriordomainknowledgeforeverydayevents,wemustask:whatisknownabouttheinteractiveeffectofindividuallearningpreferencesandadultcognitiveperformance,whenengagedwithe-learningprograms?

The human-dimensions of HCI

Whilemanyorganisationshavee-learningwebsitesthatincludecoursewareandotheronlinelearningartefacts,thesesitesoftenlackacoherentandeffectivebroad-based,e-learningstrategy(Rosenberg2001).Wearesuggestingthatthehuman-dimensionsofHCIofferthestrategic‘glue’forsuccessfulonlinetrainingwhichRosenberghasnotedislacking.Assuch,thehuman-dimensionsofHCIarebutonepieceofthecomplicatedcomputer-usabilityor‘techno’puzzlethatinvolvestwodistinctcontexts(McKay2008).Onerelatestothehuman-dimensionorsocialcontextofcomputing,whiletheother


relatestothemachine-side,wherepeople’sperspectivesareshapedbytheperformanceofthetechnicalcomputingcomponents.Theliteraturedealsmoreoftenwiththelatter.Itisonlyinrecenttimesthatvoicehasbeengiventocomputer-usabilityissuesthatinvolvethehumandimensions.

ThehumandimensionsofHCIprovideausefulframeworkforunderstandinghowadultlearnersprefertoparticipateinonlinetraining.Attentiontopriordomainknowledgeincreasesalearner’swillingnesstotakepart.Itisessentialtoofferfast-trackingopportunitiesasdiscussedabove.Yetdespitetheampleevidencethatthecorporatecoursewarecreatorsincludesomeoftheprinciplesofinstructionaldesign(Merrill2002),thereislittleevidencethatthegovernmentsector’sonlineprogramsencourageapositiveattitudetowardssuchlearner-centredparticipation.Wediscusssomeoftheseissuesbelow.

Instructional systems design

Beforewedothis,itisimportanttodifferentiatebetweenlearningtheoriesandinstructionaldesigntheories.Theformerareaboutthe(internal)processesofthelearning,whilethelattercoverthemethod(external)natureoftheinstruction(Reigeluth1983).OurdiscussiononinstructionalsystemsdesignprinciplesthereforedrawsontheviewsofestablishedexpertssuchasMerrill,ReigeluthandTennyson.Thelong-standingprinciplesdevelopedbytheseexpertsareapplicabletobothtraditionalandcomputer-enablededucationalsystems(Anderson2008).Asbefore,webaseourdiscussiononthemultimedialearningprinciplesrecommendedbytheexpertsfromtransdisciplinarydomains,whichincludeadultlearningwithICT-mediatedtools.

Itwillbeadvantageoustoeducational-learningsystems’designifthecoursewarecreatorsadheretotheprinciplesofinstructionaldesign(Merrill2002).Forexample,Merrill’sFirstPrinciplesofInstruction


involvefiveprinciplesthatpromotelearning.Thesewell-knownstrategiesareeffectivetoolsforcoursewarecreatorstonotewhenconsideringhowtocaterforlearnercharacteristics(Merrill2002).Moreover,whendevelopingtrainingmaterials,theseprincipleshelptodeterminethesequencingofthelearningcontent.

Reigeluth(2008)presentskeymarkersforchangeineducational-learningsystemsbycontrastingtheindustrial-agewithknowledge-ageorganisations.Thesekeymarkersprovideageneralconceptualisationofthewaysinwhich‘learningsystems—andtheinstructionaltheoriesandstrategiesthatguidetheirdesign—needtochange’ (Reigeluth2008:209).Herecommendsfivefactorsthatpointtotheneedforchangeininstructionaltheories:thegrowingcomplexityoftasks;theincreasingrelianceoncollaborationinperformingtasks;thegrowthofweb-basedlearning;theincreasingpowerofperformancesupportsystems;andtheemergenceofpersonaltutorialsystems.Reigeluthalsopointsoutthatdevelopinganindividual’slearningcapacitymustincludeequippingthemwithskillsthatenablethemtoadapttodevelopmentsineducational-learningtechnologies.

Tennyson(2008)recommendsthatinstructionaltheorybeusable,valid,theoreticalandlinkedtolearningtheory.By‘usable’hemeansthatinstructionaltheoryshouldbestatedwithsufficientclaritytoallowsuccessfulimplementation.Avalidinstructionaltheoryshouldundergoempiricaltestingandpracticalevaluation.Suchtheoryshouldexplainhowaparticularinstructionalprocedureworks.Theliteraturehighlightstheimportanceofunderstandinglearningtheoriesandinstructionaldesignforimprovingorganisationaltraining.

Wehaveseenthatadultlearningrequirescoursewarecreatorstopayattentiontolearners’specialneeds.Thismeansthate-learningartefactsandinstructionalstrategiesshouldbeflexibleenoughtopromotechoiceofknowledgenavigation(lockedintoastep-by-step


skilldevelopmentpathforanovice)orhavingtheabilitytopickandchoosewhattodonext(brushinguponrustypriordomainknowledge).Havingsaidallthis,fromourreviewoftheresearchliterature,wehaveidentifiedparticularcategoriesof‘resistance’towardsadoptinge-learningforworkforcetraininginthecorporatesector.

The way forward

Barriers

Acommonthreadobservedintheliteratureisconcernedwith(perceived)barrierstotheadoptionofonlinetraininginthecorporatesector.Wearesuggestingthatonemethodtoovercomesuchbarriersastheymaypertaintogovernmentagenciesistogainanunderstandingofhowthesebarriersareaffectingworkforcetraininginthecorporatesector.Wecategorisesuchbarrierstowardsadoptionofe-learningintwolevels:theorganisationlevel(Table1)andtheemployeelevel(Table2).Attheorganisationlevel,thebarriersincludecosts,relevance,trainingeffectivenessandtechnicalsupport,whiletime,contentandtrainingeffectivenessarethemainbarriersidentifiedbyemployees.

Wenoticedthesebarriersarerelatedtotheeconomics,trainingrelevance,policies,regulations,compliance—the(lackof)IS-relatedstandardsseemtobefactorsthatdeterorganisationsfromachievingtheirtraininggoals.Foremployees,thebarriersarerelatedtothelearningcontentandassessment,technicalandprofessionalsupport,limitedtimeandaccesswhichmaypreventparticipation,andachievingqualitylearningoutcomes.Ourgeneralimpressionarisingfromtheliteraturereviewisonethatcoursewarecreatorsincorporateorganisations(andgovernmentagencies)needtoovercomeallthesebarriers,aswebelievetheyaffectthesuccessfuldeliveryandimplementationofe-learningprograms.


Organisation-level issues

Costisanissueamongsmallandmediumenterprises(Murray2001).Theinitialcostsincurredindevelopingtrainingmaterialsandpurchasingtherequisiteinfrastructurecanbeprohibitive.Thisfinancialburdencanbefurtherexacerbatedonceane-learninginterventionisintroduced.Itthenbecomesanongoingcostingissueduetotheimplementationandmaintenanceoftheeducational-learningsystem(Murray2001).However,inlargeorganisations,costisnotseenasbeingsomuchofaproblem,becausethevalueofe-learningisrecognised(Schofield2002).Yetsomeorganisationsareconcernedaboutreturnoninvestment(ROI)issues(AFLF2006).

Table 1: Organisation‑level barriers

Adopting online training—organisation level

Barriers Source Description

Cost AFLF(2006,2007)Brownetal.(2006)Murray(2001)

Infrastructurecost,developmentofe-learningmaterials,implementationcost,ROI

Relevance AFLF(2006,2007)Benninck(2004)Callan(2009),Murray(2001)

Relevancetobusiness,relevanceoftrainingcontent,benefittoorganisation,limitedunderstandingofe-learning,compliance

Trainingeffectiveness

AFLF(2007)Grant&Danziger(2005)Schofield(2002)

Trainingoutcome,meetingtrainingexpectations

Technicalsupport AFLF(2006),Benninck(2004)

Lackofaccesstoindustrypartners,unavailabilityofin-houseexpert

Therelevanceofthee-learningoutcomestoorganisationsisanotherissueidentifiedintheliterature(Benninck2004).Benninck


assertsthatoneoftheissuesfacedbyorganisationsistheirlimitedunderstandingofthe(educative)natureofe-learning,andwhatbenefitstheymaygainfromsuchinitiatives.Thisdilemmaisapparentinsmallandmediumenterprises,astheydonotfinde-learningtoberelevanttotheirneeds(AFLF2006).However,e-learningisemergingasapromisingindustry(Rosenberg2001).Thus,organisationsmaysuccumbtothepersuasivemarketingproposalsmadebye-learningproductvendors,astheypromisebettersolutionstotrainingprograms(Benninck2004).Thistypeofpersuasivebehaviourpresentsadilemma, asorganisationsmaybevulnerabletosuchfalseclaimsthataparticular(genericoroff-the-shelf)e-learningcourseisrelevanttotheirspecifictrainingneed.Inreality,someemployersmaynotfindanappropriatee-learningprogramontheopenmarket.Evenwhenthedesiredlearningcontentseemstobeavailable,theinstructionalmodulesareusuallydesignedfortraditionalmethodsofdelivery(thatmeansface-to-face),andassuchareunsuitablefore-learning(Murray2001).

Intermsoftrainingeffectiveness,organisationswanttobeassuredthattheirinvestmentsintrainingwillbeworthwhileandwillachievetheirbusinessgoals(AFLF2007,Schofield2002).Hence,itisnecessarytoquantifythegeneraltrainingandoverallcourseeffectiveness.InastudybyGrantandDanziger(2005),theyprovidesuchanexampleusingDonaldKirkpatrick’sfour-levelmodelthatwasfirstdevelopedin1959(wedescribethismodellaterinthepaper).Theyexploredthetangibleandintangiblebenefits(whetherrealisedornot)ofe-learninginfourlargecompanies.GrantandDanzigerrevealevidencethatthecorporationspaidattentiontoemployeesatisfactionwiththee-learningcourseware,yettheindicatorstheyemployedtomeasuresatisfactiontendedtobeinformalandunreliable.Bettermodelsthatareusedtomeasuretrainingeffectivenessaredescribedseparatelybelow.


Alackoftechnicalsupport(AFLF2006,Benninck2004)isalsoshowntobeabarrierforsomeorganisations.Theyfinditdifficulttoimplemente-learningprograms,especiallyifthetrainingpertainstotechnical(i.e.ICT)issues.Itisclearthatsuchorganisationsneedassistancefromasubject-matterexperttooffertechnicalsupportandindependentadvice(Benninck2004).

Employee-level issues

Oneoftheproblemswithe-learningthatemployeeshighlightistheamountoftimetheyareexpectedtospendontraining(AFLF2007,Murray2001).Employeesreportthattheydonothaveenoughtimetodevotetoworkplacelearning.Tothisend,Mungania(2003)rankedsituationalbarriersfacingemployeescontemplatinge-learning.Accordingtothisresearcher,situationalbarriersrelatetoanemployee’senvironmentandlifecircumstances.Morespecifically,thesebarriersresultfromalackoftimeforstudy,timemanagementproblems,over-commitmenttomultiplerolesandresponsibilities,andinterruptionsduringstudy.Similarly,Jasinski(2007)findsthatavailabletimeandcompetingprioritiesarelimitingfactorsforengagingwithe-learning.


Table 2: Employee-level barriers

Adopting online training—employee level

Barriers Source Description

Time AFLF(2007)Jasinski(2007),Murray(2001)

Lackoftime,situational,timemanagement,availability,priorities

Content AFLF(2007)Benninck(2004)BowmanandKearns(2007)Callan(2009),Jasinski(2007)Mungania(2003)Murray(2001)

Relevance,suitability,quality,designissues

Trainingeffectiveness

AFLF(2007)Brownetal.(2006)BergeandGiles(2008)Grant&Danziger(2005)Mungania(2003)Schofield(2002)

Learningstyle,instructional,learningmotivation,personal,dispositional,organisational,deliverymedia(preferenceforblendedlearning)

Technicalissues

Mungania(2003) LackofICTskills,cultural

Lowqualitye-learningcontentiscitedbyemployeesasproblematic(seeTable2).Thesenigglingissuesinclude:relevance,quality,designandsuitabilityofthematerials.‘Therewaslittleunderstandingofthehumanelementthatisneededtodesigneffectivelearningactivitiestobeusedinconjunctionwithrelevanttechnology.Technologyaloneismeaninglessanduseless’(Benninck2004:3).However,e-learningisthoughttobeparticularlyrelevanttothelearningandskillsdevelopmentalneedsofolderworkers,forexample,‘whenusedinappropriatestrategies,andwhencarefullymanagedtotakeaccountofthediverseneedsandpreferencesofmatureageworkers’(Bowman&


Kearns2007:30).Thesespecialrequirementscallforthecustomiseddesignofrelevantlearningmaterialsthataresuitableandengagingforadultlearners.

Trainingeffectivenessisalsoidentifiedasabarrierforemployees(AFLF2007,Brownetal.2006).Employeeswanttoperformbetterandviewe-learningasaskillsbuildingtool.Yetmanypeoplestillfeelunabletoadopte-learningprogramsatworktoimprovetheirskillsandperformance(Murray2001).

Itisreportedthatmature-ageemployeesencounterdifficultieslinkedtotechnicalissuesasbarriers(Mungania2003).Oddlyenough,theseolderworkersaredescribedaspeopleover45yearsofage(Bowman&Kearns2007)—accordingtothisresearch,mostmature-ageemployeeshavedifficultycopingwiththeuseofcomputersfortraining.FrequentlytheylackICTandcomputerliteracyskillsthatarenecessaryfordealingwithe-learningprograms.Furthermore,thoseemployeeswhohavebroaderorganisational,managerialresponsibilitiesoftenfaceculturalbarrierscausedbystereotypingbasedontheirageorthedifferingattitudesthatemanatefromemployersandyoungerworkers(Bowman&Kearns2007).Itisthereforeimportanttoreducethedifficultiesexperiencedbymature-ageemployees.Designingcomputerinterfacesthatareeasytofollowmayhelpolderworkerstoenjoyusinge-learningprograms.Anotherbenefitistoimprovetheirunderstandingofthetechnology, whilemaintainingtheirproductivityandusefulnessintheworkplace.

Wehavediscussedwhethertherearesimilaritiesbetweentheperspectivesoftheorganisationandtheemployeestowardsadoptionofe-learningintwolevels.Attheorganisationlevel,thebarriersappeartodenoteawiderbusinessstrategicattituderelatingtocosts,relevance,trainingeffectivenessandtechnicalsupport.Withanemphasismoretowardsinstruction/learning,time,contentandtrainingeffectivenesswereidentifiedasbarriersbyemployees.


However,arealissueforconcerniswhetherwecantellifthee-learning/trainingiseffectiveornot.

Models used to measure training effectiveness

Theliteraturerevealsthatresearchersdousearangeofmodelsandapproachestomeasuretheeffectivenessoftraining.AmongthesemodelsareKirkpatrick’sfour-levelapproach,Phillips’sFive-LevelROIFramework,theIBMACEModelandthePEL-IRTmodel.

AccordingtoAguinisandKraiger(2009),Kirkpatrick’sfour-levelapproachisthemostpopularevaluationmethodusedbyresearcherstomeasuretrainingeffectivenessincorporateorganisations.Thefourlevelsrelatetoreaction,learning,transferandresults(Kirkpatrick1998).LevelI—Reaction—measuresparticipants’reactionstolearning,andquestionsthemaboutwhattheythinkoftheprogram.LevelII—Learning—referstothelearningthatisgainedandmeasureshowmuchadditionalknowledgeisacquiredthroughthetrainingandwhetherparticipantshavelearnedtodosomethingdifferently.LevelIII—Transfer—concernstheapplication/transferofthelearningintoanewenvironment,providingawayoftrackingwhetherpeoplewhohavebeentrainedimprovebyusinge-learningtechniquesandmaybeabletosharetheirlearningwithotherpeople.LevelIV—Results—measurestheimpactoflearningandwhetheritcontributestoimprovementofthe(corporate)business.Insummary,theKirkpatrickmodelisfocusedonthelearningeventitselfanditseffectiveness.

SomemodificationstoKirkpatrick’smodelhavebeenintroduced.Forinstance,PhillipsextendedKirkpatrick’smodeltoLevelV—ROI(Kramer2008,Phillips2003),andthisisknownasthePhillipsFive-LevelROIFramework.Nevertheless,forIBM,theirlatestinnovationeffectivenessmodelgoesbeyondthatofKirkpatrick(Tai2008).Assuch,itisknownastheIBMACEModel(ACEstandsforaccountability,contextandeffectiveness).Thisaccountability


modelreflectsthatmotivationanddiligencetolearnshouldbetheresponsibilityofthelearner,identifyingfourpartnerswhosharetheaccountabilityforalearningprogram:thelearner,thedesigneroftheprogram,theinstructororfacilitatorwhodeliverstheprogram,andthemanagerwhosupportstheprogram(Tai2008).Contextinvolvestheorganisation’slearningthatsupportstheemployees’needs.Effectivenessisachievedwhenemployeesaregiventrainingthatisfocusedonandrelevanttotheirworkenvironment,accordingtoTai(2008).

Chenetal.(2005)personalisetheire-learningsystembasedontheItemResponseTheory(IRT)—callingitPEL-IRT.Thismodelestimatestheperformanceabilitiesofonlinelearnersandrecommendsappropriatecoursematerialsforthem.Experimentalresultsshowthatthisadaptive,educational-learningsystemcanprovidepersonalisedcoursematerialrecommendationsforonlineimplementationbasedonlearnerabilities.AccordingtoChenetal.(2005),thislearner-centricfeatureacceleratesthelearner’slearningefficiencyandeffectiveness.Itprovideslearnerswithadaptiveandpersonalised,web-based,instructionalstrategiesaccordingtothecoursematerialsthatarevisitedbyeachindividuallearnerandhis/herresponses.

Thestudiesmentionedaboveindicatethattheeffectivenessoftrainingcanbemeasuredusingdifferentmethodsandmodels.Moreover,inmeasuringtrainingoutcomes,itisimportanttoquantifytheeffectivenessofthetraining.Evenso,therestillremainsaneedtoenhancetheeffectivenessoftheinstructionalstrategiesthatareoftenemployed.Wesuggestthatthisimprovementcanunlockthecorporateknowledgeofadultlearners(DeLong2004),whichalltoooftenliesdormant.Weareproposingthat,duetotheunresolvedbarrierstotheadoptionofe-learningdescribedearlierinthispaper, thesuccessofonlinetrainingiscurrentlyrathertenuous.YetwealsoseethereisnoreasonwhyefficientandeffectiveICTtrainingtools


cannotprovidethenecessaryadaptiveandflexible,learner-centred,e-learningthatisrequiredbyadulttrainees.

Conclusion

Corporateorganisationswishingtoinvolvetheiremployeesinonlinetrainingrequireathoroughunderstandingofthee-learningparadigm.Whenorganisationsembracee-learning,theydoneedtobeassuredofthequalityoftrainingthattheeducational-learningsystemofferstotheiremployees—forexample,thatthetrainingwillassistthebusinesstoachieveitsgoalsandimprovecustomerservice.Inthemajorityofstudiesreviewedinthispaper,itwasnotedthatthebarrierstoadoptinge-learningthatweremostfrequentlyidentifiedbyemployeeswerelearningcontentandqualityofdeliverytechniques.Thesebarriersmustbereducedifnoteliminated—particularlyinlightofthesignificantinvestmentsine-learningmadebysuchorganisations.Bothgovernmentandcorporateorganisationsinvestlargeamountsoffunds,resourcesandemployeetimeintovariousformsoftraining.Clearly,thereisalackofevidenceregardingwhichstrategiesareeffectiveindifferentenvironmentstosupportonlinetrainingindiversegovernmentagencycontexts(McKayetal.2007).

Contentandqualityofe-learninginstructionsalsoneedtobedesignedwiththeutmostconsiderationfortheeffectivenessofthetrainingoutcomes.Toachievethisworthyimpact,itisperhapsusefultothinkthatthe‘e’ine-learningrefersto‘how’anonlinecourseisdigitised,whilethe‘learning’refersto‘what’thecoursecontentinvolves.Theinstructionalstrategiesshouldbecarefullyexaminedtoensuretheyachievetheexpectedtrainingoutcomes.Furthermore,the‘why’isabouthelpingindividualsachievetheireducationalgoalsorassistingorganisationstoimproveemployeeskillsandworkforceperformance(Clark&Mayer2008).

Weproposethatemployees/corporatetraineesengagemoreintuitivelywithe-learning.Itisimportantforcoursewarecreators


toconsiderthelearningneedsofadultlearners,andtoeffectivelymeasuretheirlearningoutcomes.Jasinski(2007)assertsthate-learningmayfacilitatehighlyvaluabletrainingandskillsdevelopment.Evenso,ifthelearningachievementisnotmeasuredaccurately,employersandemployeeswillbelessinclinedtoparticipate(orbelievein)thepotentialofadoptinge-learning.Duetotheverbal/visualnatureoftheonlinelearningenvironment,measuringtheeffectivenessofe-learningcanbedifficult(McKay2000); however,thisisaneducational-learningsystems’usabilitygoalandbydefaultisadesignchallengethatissharedbyothertypesoftrainingandworkplacestrategies(Jasinski2007)andshouldnotbebypassed.

Webelievethatcreatingalearner-centred,flexibleandadaptiveonlinetrainingprogramthatintegratesthepowerofICTmultimediatoolswillimprovethedeliveryofe-learningprograms.Alongwiththis,itmightalsoaddresstheneedsoforganisationswhichseektobecomemorecompetitivebybuildingawell-trained,skills-enhancedworkforce.Moreover,wealsosaythatauser-centred,flexibleandadaptivetrainingprogramreliesheavilyongoodinstructionaldesignandalearner-friendlyinterface.Apoorlydesignede-learninginterfacemeansthatthelearnerswillspendmoretimeon‘learningthematerials’thanonmasteringtheinformationandknowledgeprovided(Arditoetal.2006).Finally,wesaythatthedifficultyencounteredinadjustingtoapoorlydesigned,e-learninginterfacewillrenderthewholelearningexperienceineffective,delayingtheinevitablegroundswellagainstimplementinggoodqualitye-learningingovernmentagenciesandcorporatetrainingrooms.

Acknowledgements

Thisresearchprojectwasfundedbythe2009–2011AustralianResearchCouncil(ARC)IndustryLinkageProject(AnIntelligentSoftware-AGENT:InnovatesAdaptiveWorkplaceeTrainingTools)


andindustrysponsorsGovernmentSkillsAustraliaandNetEffectiveMediaGroup.ChiefInvestigatorswereAssociateProfessorElspethMcKay(RMITUniversity,SchoolofBusinessITandLogistics,andAdjunctProfessorJohnIzard(RMITUniversity,Education)andAustralianPostgraduateAwardIndustry–InformationTechnologyandCommunicationsscholar,CenieVilela-Malabanan.

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About the authors

Associate Professor Elspeth McKay is passionate about designing effective e-learning resources for the education sector and industry training/reskilling programmes. Her research interests involve investigations of how individuals interpret text and graphics within Web-mediated learning environments. This research involves developing specialist e-learning tools implemented through rich internet applications that include an advanced repurposing pilot system (ARPS) that she has developed for an ARC Linkage research project.

Cenie Vilela is currently undertaking her PhD in Business Computing at the RMIT School of Business Information Technology and Logistics. Cenie was awarded an Australian Postgraduate Award Industry Scholarship to work with Associate Professor McKay on the ARC Linkage project entitled: ‘An intelligent software-AGENT: innovates adaptive workplace e-training needs’.

Contact details

School of Business Information Technology and Logistics, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476V, Melbourne, Victoria 3106Tel: +613 99255978 and +613 9925 1509Fax: +613 9841 5996Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

Documents

Corporate sector practice informs online workforce …Corporate sector practice informs online workforce training 305 Australian experience, it is useful to look at the training practice