Corpora in Language Education - Xiao

8/16/2019 Corpora in Language Education - Xiao

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Corpora in language education

Corpus Linguistics

Richard [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]





Corpus re!olution• An increasing interest since the early *++,s in

applying the -ndings of corpus #ased research tolanguage pedagogy*, &ell recei!ed #iennial international conferences

Teaching and Language Corpora $TaLC/ *++0 1,*1(At least 2, authored or edited #oo's/ co!ering a&ide range of issues concerning the use of corporain language pedagogy/ e.g. corpus #ased languagedescriptions/ corpus analysis in classroom/ andlearner corpus research

3ichmann et al $*++4(/ 5artington $*++6(/ 7ernardini $1,,,(/7urnard and 8c9nery $1,,,(/ ettemann and 8ar'o $1,,1/ 1,,;(/Aston $1,,*(/ <hadessy/ %enry/ and Rose#erry $1,,*(/ %unston$1,,1(/ <ranger et al $1,,1(/ Connor and pton $1,,1(/ Tan $1,,1(/"inclair $1,,2/ 1,,0(/ Aston et al $1,,0(/ 8ishan $1,,=(/ >esselhauf$1,,=(/ R?mer $1,,=(/ 7raun/ ohn and 8u'her ee $1,,;(/ <a!ioli$1,,;(/ "cott and Tri##le $1,,;(/ %idalgo/ uereda and "antana$1,,4(/ B eeDe/ 8cCarthy and Carter $1,,4(/ Ai mer $1,,+(/7ennett $1,*,(/ Campoy/ <ea !alor and 7elles Eortuno $1,*,(/Cunningham $1,*,(/ %arris and FaGn $1,*,(/ FaGn/Hal!erde and5Grez $1,*,(/ Reppen $1,*,(/ Holodina $1,*,(



Corpus re!olution

• 7oo's pu#lished in China – $1,,,(/ $1,,2(/$1,,0a/ 1,,0#(/$1,,=(/ / / $1,,=(/

$1,,=(/ / ! $1,,4(



Teaching and corpora: Acon!ergence

• Leech s $*++4( three focuses of the con!ergence – Indirect use of corpora in teaching $e.g. reference

pu#lishing/ materials de!elopment/ languagetesting/ and teacher training(

– )irect use of corpora in teaching $e.g. teachinga#out/ teaching to exploit/ and exploiting to teach( – )e!elopment of teaching oriented corpora $e.g.

L"5 and learner corpora(

• Corpus analysis can #e illuminating in !irtuallyall #ranches of linguistics or language learning$Leech *++4: +(



)irect !s. indirect uses• Indirect uses

– Largely relating to &hat to teach• )irect uses

– 5rimarily concerning ho& to teach• )e!elopment of teaching oriented

corpora – Can relate to #oth



Reference pu#lishing• Corpus re!olution in reference #oo's $at least for

9nglish( – >early unheard of for dictionaries and reference

grammars pu#lished since the *++,s not to claim to #e#ased on corpus dataJ e!en people &ho ha!e ne!er heardof a corpus are using the product of corpus research

• Corpus #ased dictionaries – Learner dictionaries – EreKuency dictionaries

• Corpus #ased reference grammars – Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English – Collins CB7 IL) series – %unston " Pattern Grammar



"ylla#us design and materialsde!elopment

• 5re!ious research has demonstrated that theuse of grammatical structures in T9ELtext#oo's diDers considera#ly from the use ofthese structures in nati!e 9nglish

– a 'ind of school 9nglish &hich does not seem toexist outside the foreign language classroom$8indt *++;: 121(

• The order in &hich those items are taught in

non corpus #ased sylla#i !ery often does notcorrespond to &hat one might reasona#lyexpect from corpus data of spo'en and&ritten 9nglish $i#id: 10= ;(




• Corpora can #e useful in this area a simple yetimportant role of corpora in language teaching is topro!ide more realistic examples of language usagere ecting the nuances and complexities of naturallanguage

• Corpora can also pro!ide data/ especiallyfreKuency data / &hich may further impact on &hatis taught/ and in &hat order

• Touchstone #oo' series $8cCarthy et al 1,,= 1,,;(

– 7ased on the Cam#ridge International Corpus – Aiming at presenting the !oca#ulary/ grammar/ and

language functions that students encounter most oftenin real life




• %unston $1,,1: *6+(: The experience of usingcorpora should lead to rather diDerent !ie&s ofsylla#us design.

• The Lexical Syllabus $3illis *++,(/ as implementedin the Collins CO !"L# English Course $3illis/

3illis and )a!ids *+66 *+6+( – Three focuses of a lexical sylla#us: $a( the

commonest &ord forms in a languageJ $#( thecentral patterns of usageJ $c( the com#inations&hich they usually form $"inclair and Renouf *+66(

– >ot a sylla#us for !oca#ulary items only/ #ut ratherco!ering all aspects of language/ diDering from acon!entional sylla#us only in that the centralconcept of organization is lexis $%unston 1,,1: *6+(



Language testing• An emerging area of language teaching &hich

has started to use the corpus #ased approach• Alderson $*++;( en!isaged the follo&ing

possi#le uses of corpora in language testing – test construction/ compilation and selection/ test

presentation/ response capture/ test scoring/ andcalculation and deli!ery of results

– The potential ad!antages of #asing our tests onreal language data/ of ma'ing data #ased

udgments a#out candidates a#ilities/ 'no&ledgeand performance are clear enough. A crucialKuestion is &hether the possi#le ad!antages are#orn out in practice $Alderson *++;: 1=6 1=+(



Language testing• The concern raised in Alderson s conclusion appears

to ha!e #een addressed satisfactorily *, years later – >o&adays/ computer #ased tests are considered to #e

compara#le to paper #ased tests $cf. Choi/ im and 7oo 1,,2(/as exempli-ed #y computer #ased !ersions of TBE9L tests

• 8a or test ser!ice pro!iders li'e CL9" ha!e recentlyused corpora in testing $cf. 7all 1,,*J %unston 1,,1:1,=( – As an archi!e of examination scripts – To de!elop test materials – To optimize test procedures – To impro!e the Kuality of test mar'ing – To !alidate tests – To standardize tests



Teacher de!elopment• Corpora ha!e #een used recently in language

teacher training to enhance teachers languagea&areness and research s'ills – Rationale: Eor students to #ene-t from the use of

corpora/ teachers must -rst of all #e eKuipped &ith a

sound 'no&ledge of the corpus #ased approach• The integration of corpus studies in language

teacher training is only a Kuite recentphenomenon $cf. Cham#ers 1,,4(

– It may ta'e more time/ and perhaps a ne&generation of teachers/ for corpora to -nd their &ayinto the language classroom in secondary education$7raun 1,,4: 2,6(



)irect uses of corpora• Leech s $*++4( three direct uses of corpora in teaching

– *( Teaching a#out• Teaching corpus linguistics as an academic su# ect – 5art of the curricula for linguistics and language related degree

programs at #oth postgraduate and undergraduate le!el

– 1( Teaching to exploit

• 5ro!iding students &ith hands on 'no& ho& so thatthey can exploit corpora as student centred learningacti!ities

– 2( 9xploiting to teach• sing the corpus #ased approach to teaching language

and linguistics courses/ &hich &ould other&ise #etaught using non corpus #ased methods

• $*( and $2( are mainly associated &ith language Mlinguistics programmes





)ata dri!en learning $))L(• )irect use of corpora in pedagogy is essentially ))L• Fohns $*++*(: research is too serious to #e left to the

researchers – The language learner should #e encouraged to

#ecome a research &or'er &hose learning needs to

#e dri!en #y access to linguistic data $Fohns *++*(• Fohns $*++4: *,*( compares the learner to a

language detecti!e: 9!ery student a "herloc'%olmesO

• %is ))L &e#site gi!es some !ery good examples ofdata dri!en learning – &&&.lancs.ac.u'MfassMpro ectsMcorpusM i##itzersM i##itzer

s.ch&

http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/corpus/Kibbitzers/Kibbitzers.chw






)ata dri!en learning $))L(• The ))L approach in!ol!es three stages of

inducti!e reasoning &ith corpora $Fohns *++*( – B#ser!ation $of concordanced e!idence( – Classi-cation $of salient features(

– <eneralization $of rules(• Roughly corresponding to Carter and

8cCarthy s $*++=( three I s in the exploratorycorpus #ased approach/ #ut fundamentally

diDerent from the traditional three 5 approach – Three 5 approach: top do&n deduction – Three I M ))L approach: #ottom up induction



)ata dri!en learning $))L(• Can #e either teacher directed or learner led $i.e.

disco!ery learning ( to suit the needs of learnersat diDerent le!els/ #ut #asically learner centred• Leech $*++4: *,(: The autonomous learning process gi!es

the student the realistic expectation of #rea'ing ne& groundas a PresearcherQ/ doing something &hich is a uniKue and

indi!idual contri#ution• This is true of ad!anced learners onlyO

• The 'ey to successful data dri!en learning is theappropriate le!el of pedagogical mediation

depending on the learners age/ experience/ andpro-ciency le!el/ etco A corpus is not a simple o# ect/ and it is ust as easy to

deri!e nonsensical conclusions from the e!idence asinsightful ones $"inclair 1,,0: 1(



)irect uses: Currentsituation• "o far con-ned largely to learning at more

ad!anced le!els/ especially in tertiary education• Almost a#sent in general 9LT classroom/ e.g.

secondary education $and in the teaching ofother foreign languages at all le!els( – Learners age/ le!el and experience – Time constraints and curricular reKuirements – no&ledge and s'ills reKuired of teachers for corpus

analysis and pedagogical mediation

– Access to appropriate resources such as corpora andtools

– or indeed pro#a#ly a com#ination of all of thesefactors



L"5 corpora !s. professionalcommunication

• Third focus of con!ergence: )e!elopment of teachingoriented corpora: L"5/ parallel/ and learner corpora

• Teaching of language for speci-c purposes andprofessional communication can #ene-t greatly fromdomain or genre speci-c specialized corpora #oth

directly and indirectly/ e.g. – Coxhead s $1,,,( Academic 3ord List $A3L( – 5aul >ation s Range and <"LMA3L

• http:MM&&&.!ictoria.ac.nzMlalsMa#outMstaDMpaul nation – 7i#er s $1,,;( comprehensi!e analysis of uni!ersity language

#ased on the TB9EL 1,,, "po'en and 3ritten AcademicLanguage Corpus

– 8cCarthy and %andford s $1,,0( exploration of pedagogicalimplications regarding spo'en #usiness 9nglish on the #asis ofthe Cam#ridge and >ottingham "po'en 7usiness 9nglish Corpus$CA>79C(

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/paul-nation

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/paul-nation



L"5 corpora !s. professionalcommunication

• "pecialized corpora in translation teaching – Large corpora concordancing $LCC( can help

students to de!elop a&areness / re ecti!enessand resourcefulness / the s'ills that distinguish atranslator from those uns'illed amateurs $7ernardini

*++4( – Corpora help trainee translators #ecome a&are of

general patterns and preferred &ays of expressingthings in the target language/ get #ettercomprehension of source language texts andimpro!e production s'ills $Sanettin *++6(

– Compara#le and parallel corpora in translationstudies



5arallel concordancing

• 5arallel corpora and parallelconcordancing are particularly usefulin translation teaching

• They can also aid the so calledreciprocal learning $Fohns *++4( – i.e. t&o language learners &ith diDerent

L* #ac'grounds are paired to help eachother learn their language



Learner corpora• 3elcomed as one of the most exciting recent

de!elopments in corpus #ased languagestudies

• Eor indirect use/ they ha!e #een explored to

inform curriculum design/ materialsde!elopment and teaching methodology $cf.ec' 1,,0(

• Eor direct use/ they pro!ide a #ottom up

approach to language teaching and learning as opposed to the top do&n approach &ithnati!e corpora of the target language $Bs#orne1,,1(



Learner corpora• Can also pro!ide indirect/ o#ser!a#le/ and

empirical e!idence for the in!isi#le mentalprocess of language acKuisition and ser!e as atest #ed for hypotheses generated using thepsycholinguistic approach in "LA research

• 5ro!ide an empirical #asis ena#ling the -ndingspre!iously made on the #asis of limited data ofa handful of informants to #e generalized

• %a!e &idened the scope of "LA research so

that interlanguage research no&adays treatslearner performance data in its o&n right ratherthan as decontextualised errors in traditionalerror analysis $cf. <ranger *++6: ;(



Bngoing de#ate: EreKuency authenticity

• Bften considered as t&o of the mostimportant ad!antages of using corpora

• Also the targets of criticism from languagepedagogy researchers

– Corpus data impo!erishes language learning #ygi!ing undue prominence to &hat is simplyfreKuent at the expense of rarer #ut moreeDecti!e or salient expressions $Coo' *++6(

– Corpus data is authentic only in a !ery limitedsense in that it is de contextualized N genuine#ut not authentic $3iddo&son *++,/ 1,,,/ 1,,2(

– a&ed arguments



EreKuency• sing corpus data not only increases the chances of

learners #eing confronted &ith relati!ely infreKuentinstances of language use/ #ut also of their #eing a#leto see in &hat &ay such uses are atypical/ in &hatcontexts they do appear/ and ho& they -t in &ith the

pattern of more prototypical uses $Bs#orne 1,,*:06;(• EreKuency ran'ing &ill #e a parameter for seKuencing

and grading learning materials #ecause freKuency isa measure of probability of usefulness and highfreKuency &ords constitute a core !oca#ulary that isuseful a#o!e the incidental choice of text of oneteacher or text#oo' author $<oethals 1,,2: 010(





EreKuency• EreKuency should #e only one of the criteria

used to in uence instruction J the facts a#outlanguage and language use &hich emerge fromcorpus analyses should ne!er #e allo&ed to#ecome a #urden for pedagogy $ ennedy*++6: 1+,( – o!erall teaching o# ecti!es – learners concrete situations – cogniti!e salience – learna#ility – generati!e !alue – teachers intuitions



EreKuency• It &ould #e inappropriate for language teachers/

sylla#us designers/ and materials &riters to ignorecompelling freKuency e!idence already a!aila#le$Leech *++4: *;( – 3hate!er the imperfections of the simple eKuation Pmost

freKuentQ W Pmost important to learnQ/ it is diVcult to denythat freKuency information #ecoming a!aila#le from corporahas an important empirical input to language learningmaterials .

– Lech/ <. $1,**( 3hy freKuency can no longer #& ignored in9LT . " #$% 1,**$*(.

• EreKuency can at least help sylla#us designers/materials &riters and teachers ali'e to make better-informed and more carefully motivateddecisions $cf. <a!ioli and Aston 1,,*: 12+(







Authenticity

• 5roduct $text( !s. process $discourse( – Interesting #ut not al&ays useful – sing product as e!idence for process may not

#e less relia#leJ sometimes this is the only

practical &ay of -nding a#out process $cf. "tu##s1,,*(• "tu##s $1,,*( dra&s a parallel #et&een corpora

in corpus linguistics and roc's in geology

– #oth assume a relation #et&een process andproduct. 7y and large/ the processes arein!isi#le/ and must #e inferred from theproducts.



Authenticity

• Li'e geologists &ho study roc's$products( #ecause they areinterested in geological processes$e.g. earthKua'es/ !olcanoes( to&hich they do not ha!e direct access /"LA researchers can analyze learnerperformance data $products( to inferthe inaccessi#le mental process of"LA



Authenticity

• If &e do follo& 3iddo&son s distinction – <enuine: attested – Authentic: occurring in real communicati!e

context

• are the imaginary situations con ured upfor classroom teaching authenticU – )o they occur in real communicati!e contextU – 3hen students are learning and practising a

shopping discourse / are they actually doingshoppingU



Authenticity• Eurthermore/ in!ented examples often do not

re ect nuances and complexities of real usage$Eox *+64( – "tudents &ho ha!e #een taught school

9nglish cannot readily cope &ith 9nglish used#y nati!e spea'ers in real life $8indt *++;:121(

• The preference for PauthenticQ texts reKuires#oth learners and teachers to cope &ithlanguage &hich the text#oo's do not predict$3ichmann *++4: x!i( – Corpora are useful for this purpose





Erom today to tomorro&

• If corpora are to #e further popularised tomore general language teaching context/there are t&o priorities in near future – Corpus linguists must create and facilitate access

to corpora that are pedagogically moti!ated / in#oth design and content/ to meet pedagogicalneeds and curricular reKuirements so thatcorpus #ased learning acti!ities #ecome anintegral part / rather than an additional option/ ofthe o!erall language curriculum

– Language teachers should #e pro!ided/ throughpre ser!ice training or continued professionalde!elopment/ &ith the reKuired 'no&ledge ands'ills for corpus analysis and pedagogicalmediation of corpus #ased learning acti!ities



Corpus #ased pedagogy: Tomorro&

• If these t&o tas's are accomplished/ itis my !ie& that corpora &ill not onlyre!olutionize the teaching of grammar

in the 1*st

century as Conrad $1,,,:=0+( has predicted/ they &ill alsofundamentally change/ &ith the aid of ane& generation of teachers/ the &ays&e approach language teaching/including #oth &hat is taught and ho&it is taught



sing CCL to inform "LA

• Introducing Contrasti!e Corpus Linguistics $CCL(

• 5resenting a #rief summary of the rele!ant

-ndings in a corpus #ased contrasti!e study ofpassi!es in 9nglish and Chinese $Xiao/ 8c9neryand ian 1,,;(

• 9xploring passi!es in the Chinese learner 9nglishCorpus $CL9C( in comparison &ith a compara#lenati!e 9nglish corpus



Contrasti!e corpuslinguistics• Contrasti!e analysis $CA(

– Recognised as an important part of foreign languageteaching methodology follo&ing 33II

– )ominant throughout the *+;,s – 7ut soon lost ground to more learner oriented

approaches such as error analysis/ performanceanalysis and interlanguage analysis – Re!i!ed in the *++,s

• largely than's to the ad!ances of the corpus methodology/&hich is inherently comparati!e in nature $"al'i 1,,1/ Xiao

1,**(• Contrasti!e Corpus Linguistics #rings together the

strengths of contrasti!e analysis and corpusanalysis

C t ti!



Contrasti!e corpuslinguistics

•5arallel !s. compara#le corpora – 5arallel corpus: source texts plus translations – Compara#le corpus: diDerent nati!e

languages sampled &ith compara#le

sampling criteria and similar #alance• Can parallel corpora #e used in contrasti!e

studiesU – translation eKui!alence is the #est a!aila#le #asis of

comparison $Fames *+6,: *46( – studies #ased on real translations are the only soundmethod for contrasti!e analysis $"antos *++;: i(




• Translated language is merely anunrepresentati!e special !ariant of the targetnati!e language &hich is percepti#lyin uenced #y the source language...unrelia#le

for contrasti!e analysis if relied upon alone – 7a'er *++2J <ellerstam *++;J Teu#ert *++;J

La!iosa *++4J 8c9nery and 3ilson 1,,*J 8c9neryand Xiao 1,,1J 8c9nery and Xiao 1,,4J Xiao and

ue 1,,+/ Xiao 1,*,/ 1,**/ 1,*1• In contrast/ compara#le corpora are &ellsuited for contrasti!e study as they areunaDected #y translationese

Contrasti!e corpus








9nglish !s. Chinese passi!es$*(

• Ten times as freKuentin 9nglish as inChinese – )ynamicity

– 5ragmatic meaning – )iDerent ha#itual

tendency – nmar'ed notional

passi!es• Chinese learners of

9nglish are !ery li'elyto underuse passi!esin their interlanguage

9 gli h ! Chi i!



9nglish !s. Chinese passi!es$1(

• 5assi!e formation – 9nglish passi!es

• Auxiliary be$get follo&ed #y a past participial !er#

– Chinese passi!es• 5assi!ised !er#s do not in ect morphologically

• Also the notion of auxiliary !er#s is less salient in Chinese• "yntactic passi!es $e.g. & / ' / ( (• Lexical passi!es $e.g. ) / *+,- / .+,- (• nmar'ed notional passi!e and topic sentences $topic Y

comment(

• "pecial structures $e.g. disposal / and predicati!e 0 … 1 (• Choice of correct auxiliaries and proper in ectional

forms of passi!ised !er#s can constitute a diVcultarea for Chinese learners to acKuire 9nglish passi!es



9nglish !s. Chinese passi!es$2(

• Long !s. short passi!es• "hort passi!es are predominant in 9nglish $o!er +,Zin speech and &riting( – Bften used as a strategy that allo&s one to a!oid

mentioning the agent &hen it cannot or must not #ementioned

• 2 out of = syntactic passi!e mar'ers in Chinese $ 2 …

3 / ' / ( ( only occur in long passi!es• Eor & and 4 passi!es/ proportions of short forms

$;,.4Z and =4.=Z respecti!ely( are signi-cantly

lo&er than in 9nglish – The agent must normally #e spelt out at early stages ofChinese/ though the constraints ha!e #ecome more relaxed

• Chinese learners of 9nglish are expected to o!eruselong passi!es and underuse short passi!es



Interlanguage of Chinese



Interlanguage of Chineselearners

• CL9C $learn data(: the Chinese Learner EnglishCorpus – Bne million &ords – 9ssays – Ei!e pro-ciency le!els $high school students and

uni!ersity students( – Eully annotated &ith learner errors using a tagset of;* error types clustered in ** categories

• LBC>9"" $control data(: the Lo u!ain Corpus ofN ati!e English 9 ss ays – ca. 2,,/,,, &ords

– 9ssays – 7ritish A Le!el children and 7ritish and American

uni!ersity students• Roughly compara#le in terms of tas' type/ learner

age and sampling period





Long !s. short passi!es• As can #e expected from the contrasti!e

analysis/ in comparison &ith nati!e 9nglish&riting/ long passi!es are more freKuent inChinese learner 9nglish – Long passi!es in CL9C

• +.*0Z : 666 out of +/4**

– Long passi!es in LBC>9""• 6.00Z : 0;* out of =/0;=

• ...the diDerence is marginal and notstatistically signi-cant – LLW1.*60/ * d.f./ pW,.*2+



5ragmatic meanings•

5assi!es are morefreKuently negati!e inChinese learner9nglish – CL9C

• Negative: 2 !"#• 5ositi!e: =.+Z• >eutral: ;6.0Z

– LBC>9""• Negative: $%!&#• 5ositi!e: 0.0Z

• >eutral: 46.6Z – LLW4.0/ 1 d.f./

p'(!(2• Consistent &ith

earlier -nding $=,.=Z!s. *=Z(

5assi!e errors !s learner



5assi!e errors !s. learnerle!els









8isformation errors

• 5ossi#ly a result of L* interference• Related to morphological in ections

– 5assi!ised !er#s do not in ect in Chinese

• Chinese learners tend to use unin ected!er#s or misspelt past participles inpassi!es/ e.g. – %is relati!es can not stop him/ #ecause his

choice is protect #y the la&s. $"T;( – "ince the 5eople s Repu#lic of china [sic

China\ &as found on Bcto#er */ *+0+ $"T1(



Auxiliary errors• Related to omission and misuse of auxiliaries• A result of L* interference

– Auxiliaries are not a salient linguistic feature inChinese

• Chinese is not a morphologically in ectional language• Chinese learners tend to omit or misuse

auxiliaries in passi!es/ e.g. – In China/ since the ne& China [sic &as\

esta#lished/ people s life has goten [sic gotten\#etter and #etter. $"T2( – I am not a smo'er/ #ut &hy do [sic are\ &e

forced to #e a second hand smo'erU $"T=(



Case study summary• The learner s performance in interlanguage can #epredicted/ diagnosed/ and accounted for from the

perspecti!e of Contrasti!e Corpus Linguistics• The integrated approach that com#ines contrasti!e

analysis $CA( and contrasti!e interlanguage analysis$CIA( is an indispensa#le tool in "LA research – <ranger $*++6: *0(: if &e &ant to #e a#le to ma'e -rm

pronouncements a#out transfer related phenomena/ it isessential to com#ine CA and CIA approaches.

• :;# <"= . "= 1,,6$=(• :;> <" 1?@ . AB C $D EFG (1,*,$;(

La#: semantic prosody and



La#: semantic prosody and))L

• "entence $a( &as produced #y a Chinese spea'ingpostgraduate of tourism/ &hich Tim Fohns suggestedre!ising as $#(. 3hyU Can you pro!ide e!idence froma!aila#le corpora to support your ans&er and re!ise $c e(from CL9CU – $a( Although economic impro!ement may #e caused #y tourism/ the

in!estment and operational costs of tourism must also #e considered. – $#( Although tourism may lead to economic impro!ement/ the

in!estment and operational costs of tourism must also #e considered. – $c( The city caused him great interest/ caused all citizens to grasp

time and chances/ to &or' for a #etter life. – $d( [...\ there are a lot of ad!antages are caused #y them. – $e( )uring the past -fty years/ the political/ economic/ and social

changes in China ha!e caused dramatic changes in people s li!es.

• 7>C&e# $collocation( or ELB7

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Corpora in Language Education - Xiao