SPECIALRESEARCHREPORT

CORONAVIRUSWhat to do in Pandemic Situations

New and mysterious illnesses are a catalyst for panic and unrest in society, and it is fear of the unknown that exacerbates these feelings. The 2019 Novel Coronavirus, now officially called SARS-CoV-2, and the disease it causes, called COVID-19, are the culprit behind rising levels of fear and unease on a global scale. People wonder how bad it will really get, if they will be impacted, how the government will respond, and what it will look like in the United States. The media sensationalizes these types of situations, capitalizing on widespread uncertainty and lack of knowledge, and throwing around alarming words that cause far-reaching public panic. The over-saturation of fervent media coverage often provides more questions than answers at a time when anxious people cling to whatever shreds of information they can find. Rather than being reassured with reputable information from legitimate sources, people are often pushed further into distress by the frenzy they see across various media platforms.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) a pandemic is defined as the uncontrollable “worldwide spread” of a new disease. The last reported pandemic before COVID-19 was the 2009 H1N1 or “Swine Flu,” which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives internationally. In the medical community, definitions of what constitutes the label of pandemic are subjective, however, as of March 11, 2020, the outbreak of COVID-19

While making international headlines currently, coronavirus is not unfamiliar to the medical community, and in some forms, this family of viruses are responsible for diseases such as the common cold.

has officially been labeled a pandemic by the WHO. Past pandemics date back several thousand years. The first recorded plague pandemic occurred in the year 541 A.D., killing approximately 100 million people. Perhaps the most well-known pandemic is the plague pandemic of 1347, which wiped out a quarter of Europe’s population. During this pandemic, the first recorded use of quarantine practices occurred. Quarantine is still used today to combat the spread of communicable diseases. During the Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918, 675,000 people in the U.S. died. During this outbreak however, U.S. public health authorities began to use hygiene protocols like handwashing, disinfection, and banning large public gatherings to stop the spread of the disease, techniques still used today.

While making international headlines currently, coronavirus is not unfamiliar to the medical community, and in some forms, this family of viruses are responsible for diseases such as the common cold. What many people don’t realize, is that coronaviruses have made their way into news headlines in the past. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), responsible for 774 deaths in 2003, and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), which has caused 858 deaths since 2012, are both types of coronaviruses. It is worth noting that these viruses have much higher mortality rates than

The mortality rate of SARS was approximately...

percent, however, experts have stated that COVID-19 has a

mortality rate of...

10

2-3%

COVID-19. The mortality rate of SARS was approximately ten percent, and MERS has an estimated thirty to thirty-five percent mortality rate. The WHO has estimated that COVID-19 has a mortality rate of 3.4%, but also notes that certain demographics like age will cause the number to fluctuate. (https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-coronaviruses).

In 2020, the United States has modern medicine and the best healthcare system in the world on its side. Vaccines, antivirals, antibiotics, and a wide variety of other treatments proven effective await at the hint of a sniffle or sore throat. But what happens when a new virus pops up? One that has no proven treatment, vaccine, or cure? COVID-19 has been rapidly ingraining itself into the increasingly unsettled minds of Americans. People observed as the virus first began to take hold in China, and as it made its way onto American soil, the panic level soared. Now, medical masks, gloves, hand sanitizer, and other similar products are sold out in stores and online as Americans fall victim to the media frenzy and prepare for the worst. Law Enforcement officers will play a crucial role in managing the stream of panic and misinformation. Education is key. Law Enforcement Officers should know how to prevent the spread of the illness, and what do to if they encounter COVID-19 while in the field. It is also important that agencies have plans in place for pandemic-level outbreaks of the disease. Above all, education and preparation are the best tools that anyone, especially law enforcement officers, can have to fight diseases like COVID-19.

Background: Cases of a mysterious respiratory illness began to emerge in December of 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. Wuhan is a large city of 11 million people located in central China, and is an important commercial, industrial, education, and transportation hub. The first cases of the new virus have been linked to a large seafood and live animal market that sold exotic animals. It is believed that this new strain of coronavirus originated in bats or another small mammal before it ultimately spread from person-to-person. The cases started popping up during the Chinese Lunar New Year Celebrations, a time of year when many people from around the world travel throughout China to join in on the festivities. Experts believe that the flood of people traveling around China at the time when the virus first appeared exacerbated its rapid spread. Cases of COVID-19 swiftly spread around the populous city, promptly moving into other provinces around China. While the city of Wuhan was eventually locked down, the virus’s global spread was inevitable in a world so connected in the twenty-first century, where a flight can take you across the ocean in less than a day.

All About COVID-19

How it Spreads + How to Prevent it: As cases reached the United States, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began publishing information about the virus detailing what symptoms to look for, travel precautions, what to do if you become sick, and how the virus spreads. The symptoms of COVID-19 can range from mild to severe, with the worst cases requiring hospitalization, stays in the intensive care unit, and mechanical ventilation. The CDC says that 80% of cases are mild, and the more severe cases typically impact the elderly and those with weakened immune systems. Symptoms include:

The virus spreads in a few different ways. People can be exposed through prolonged close person-to-person contact (usually within six feet or less) from an infected person’s respiratory droplets. When a sick person sneezes or coughs, these droplets can enter the mucous membranes (eyes, nose, mouth) of people close to them. COVID-19 can also spread through contact with infected surfaces. Touching an infected surface such as a doorknob or phone then touching the nose, mouth, or eyes can easily spread the virus. The CDC has also made it clear that the virus can spread before symptoms start, an especially troubling piece of information that has undoubtedly contributed to the swift spread of COVID-19. The incubation period, or the time between exposure and when symptoms start is anywhere from 2-14 days. People may have the virus and be contagious before they show symptoms, and a small percentage of people may have the virus and never show symptoms at all. People are most contagious, however, at the height of their illness and when they are sickest. There is currently no vaccine for COVID-19, however, there are things people can do to decrease their chances of contracting the virus.

FeverCough

Shortness of BreathDiarrhea (some cases)

Nausea/Vomiting (some cases)

Don’t touch eyes, nose, or mouth

Stay at home if you are sick

Avoid close contact with sick people

Clean surfaces regularly

Cover your mouth and nose when you cough and sneeze using your elbow or a tissue

Wash hands frequently with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds

COVID-19

(PREFERABLY N95)

The CDC has several tips for what to do if you are sick. All of the information is

What to Do if You are Sick:

Stay home unless seeking medical attention

Clean surfaces regularly

Wear a mask to limit spreading the disease

Separate yourself from people + animals in your home + use a separate bathroom if possible

Wash hands frequently with soap + warm water for at least 20 seconds

Call ahead before visiting the doctor to tell them you might have COVID-19

Cover your mouth and nose when you cough and sneeze using your elbow or a tissue

Monitor symptoms + seek medical attention if they get worse

Steps the Government is TakingAs cases of COVID-19 continue to make their way around the world, the U.S. government has been taking steps to minimize its impact here. The CDC has deployed almost 500 staff members to 39 locations around the world that include U.S. ports of entry, state and local health departments, military bases, and quarantine locations. CDC personnel are also working with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) at eleven U.S. airports, where all flights from China have been diverted for passenger screening. The Federal Government announced that flights from Europe will be banned for 30 days starting on March 13. Universities and school districts across the U.S. have moved to online class, attempting to slow the spread of COVID-19. All sports leagues have cancelled their seasons, and gatherings such as parades and concerts have faced widespread cancellation. As the pandemic goes on, states have issued stricter measures like closing bars and limiting restaurants to take-out only. Some states have even imposed curfews. The U.S. president declared a national emergency, which will allow billions of dollars in federal funds to go toward fighting COVID-19. It also sets FEMA in motion. The declaration allows more supplies and personnel to go toward COVID-19. Many governors have also issued state of emergency orders in their states, which generally give them more flexibility to respond in the best way possible.

COVID-19 by the Numbers*All numbers are as of March 20, 2020

247,400

14,250

total casesworldwide

cases in the U.S.

9,115total deaths worldwide

163spread to

countries

205121

deaths

recoveries

In the United States, there has been...

meant to limit the spread of the virus. They urge people to:

During an uncertain time when many Americans have fears and questions about COVID-19, it is more important than ever before that law enforcement officers become educated about responding to communicable diseases. Each agency should have a plan in place which prepares officers for the event of widespread COVID-19 outbreaks. (FEMA) has examples of what an agency’s response plan should include. (FEMA Pandemic Information for Law Enforcement).

Officers should also be trained regarding the proper use of personal protective equipment. As a part of their pandemic/emergency response plan, agencies should have a “point person” who handles such procedures. Agencies like the CDC and FEMA can be great resources for agencies to find information they need. It is suggested that the person designated to share information with the agency visit these sites and then share this information with their peers. This can be in the form of emails, meetings to discuss procedures, or posters hung up throughout the agency.

Agencies need to be aware of quarantine protocols and be ready to provide their services to local, state, and federal governments as deemed necessary. Officers should also make note of various scams that have been surfacing as criminals take advantage of desperate and anxious people.

Personal Protective Equipment: The CDC recommends very specific personal protective equipment (PPE) for first responders and those who are closely interacting with the public on a day-to-day basis. Law enforcement officers may be more likely to encounter those with COVID-19 as they perform daily duties, and if the outbreak becomes more widespread, health officials may give officers specific duties that place them directly on the front lines of the outbreak. It is imperative that officers not only have the proper equipment, but also know how to use it. The CDC recommends nitrile or latex gloves, eye protection, and an N95 mask for those with prolonged exposure and close contact to COVID-19 patients. Regular paper surgical masks are not tight enough to protect the wearer against microscopic airborne droplets. N95 masks should be fit-tested to ensure the seal is tight enough by placing both hands over the mask, inhaling, and seeing if the mask is tight to the face, then users should exhale and feel for any air leakage.

What Officers Need to Know

Click links below to see more detailed diagrams regarding properly putting on, testing, and removing an N95 mask, and removing contaminated gloves:

Using, Testing, + Removing an N95 RespiratorDifference Between Surgical Mask + N95 Respirator Safely Removing Gloves

234567

1

Officer training + understanding of airborne diseases and how COVID-19 spreads from person to person

Educate officers on proper hand washing and make cleaning common surfaces a regular practice

Prepare supplies for your agency such as latex/nitrile gloves, N95 masks, and eye goggles. It is also a good idea to have plenty of hand sanitizer and other disinfectant on hand

Agencies should make a pandemic response plan with specific guidelines for possible issues related to the virus Expect that your agency may be called to perform certain duties such as crowd control, protecting health care supplies, etc.

Officers in each agency should speak with their family members and have a plan for their household in the event that the officer gets called to perform outbreak-specific duties and cannot be at home

It is a good idea for law enforcement agencies to have working relationships with local health departments and healthcare leaders so that they can all work together effectively during unpredictable situations

The Center for Domestic Preparedness (CDP) recommends that agencies promote social distancing, hold meetings via video conference, reduce non-essential travel, and postpone events and gatherings

Steps to make your Agency Ready

8

Screening Questions to Ask:

If the individual answers “yes” to any of the questions above, a mask should be worn by the individual. Officers should alert the receiving hospital so that they can be prepared.

Quarantine + Isolation: In situations of widespread communicable disease outbreak, federal isolation and quarantine orders can be issued through the CDC, who has federal authority granted by the U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to carry out and enforce isolation and quarantine orders, including the authority to detain and medically examine persons as they see fit. The U.S. president, at the recommendation of the HHS Secretary, may issue an executive order to amend the list of diseases for which quarantines and isolations can be issued. Isolation is a situation that involves sick people being separated from healthy people to limit the spread of disease. A quarantine is a situation where the movements of people who were exposed to a disease are restricted to see if they become ill. Isolation and quarantine are described as “police power” functions, which give states the right to take actions for the benefit of society as a whole. Local and state health and government officials will carry out isolation and quarantine orders issued within their borders at the direction of the CDC. There are penalties for violating such orders that states have the power to carry out. A fine of up to $1,000 and/or up to a year of imprisonment may be imposed for individuals who violate quarantine orders. Law enforcement agencies may be asked to help enforce mandatory quarantine and isolation orders if the individual does not

During a pandemic situation, public health officials at all levels (local, state, federal) may seek assistance from law enforcement agencies in enforcing the rule of law.

Does the individual have a respiratory illness with a cough?

Does the individual have a fever?

Has the individual been in contact with a confirmed or suspected case of COVID-19?

voluntarily comply. Recently in Kentucky, an individual who tested positive for COVID-19 was ordered to self-quarantine but ignored the order. The governor called on law enforcement personnel to be stationed outside the person’s home for the duration of the quarantine order. In New Jersey, a woman gave the hospital a fake name and address and left after testing positive for the virus. She was later found by law enforcement. In situations where people violate orders, law enforcement officers play a key role in mitigating public health threats. Law enforcement officers can help the public and hopefully curb violators by communicating the seriousness of quarantine orders.

During a pandemic situation, public health officials at all levels (local, state, federal) may seek assistance from law enforcement agencies in enforcing the rule of law. Law enforcement officers can be a vital resource to the public during situations of panic and chaos by managing public fear through calm and accurate information sharing. Officers may possibly need to help with crowd and riot control during tense pandemic situations. Another important duty law enforcement officers may be asked to perform is protecting hospitals, medical supplies, and medications which are crucial during these times, but often in short supply. Resources and medications may be rationed during a pandemic, contributing to public frustration. Pandemics can last for many months, and as they stretch longer and longer, the public may become dissatisfied with public health management, leading to unrest. As the pandemic goes on, dwindling supplies, increasing infection rates, and forced social distancing will take their toll on the public. Demonstrations and protests will inevitably become more aggressive and intense. Once peaceful demonstrations will become violent as people take out their anger on the perceived sources of problems such as medical facilities, government buildings, and sources of vital supplies.

Law enforcement officers can be a vital resource to the public during situations of panic and chaos by managing public fear through calm and accurate information sharing.

Crowd + Riot Control:

Crowd + Riot Control:

Riots may break out surrounding critically necessary medical equipment, and officers may be needed to facilitate and protect supplies and medical workers from angry citizens. Recently, grocery stores have been the epicenter of panic, where uncertain situations bring out the worst in people. As the pandemic has worsened and people give into the media fervor, they have rushed to grocery stores, clearing the shelves of essential grocery items and toilet paper. It is quite possible that as the pandemic spreads and more restrictions on regular activities go into place that law enforcement personnel will need to play an increasingly hands-on role in maintaining order amidst the chaos. As supplies like toilet paper and hand sanitizer become less and less available, officers should expect to be involved with controlling angry grocery shoppers. Be prepared for the possibility that frustrated consumers could resort to attacking supply trucks if the pandemic continues to expand. Riots may form as people take on a mob mentality, aligning their actions with that of a crowd and doing things they normally wouldn’t. During times like these full of stress and tensions, normally non-aggressive people may turn violent if involved with a riot. This type of situation becomes dangerous for both officers and the public. During a riot situation, the crowd will act as one mind, following each other, and use anything in the vicinity as makeshift weapons. Riot crowds that develop during a pandemic situation will be different than those that officers typically are asked to control, such as crowds of political or labor protestors. Traditional crowds will typically have organization and a plan in place and are usually made up of people of similar demographic backgrounds. Pandemic crowds can be more dangerous because they are disorganized, unprepared, and largely driven from fear. The demographics of pandemic crowds may vary across race, age, and socioeconomic status. The unpredictable nature of pandemic crowds makes them unstable and more difficult to contain. Officers should also be aware of how certain types of PPE may impact their ability to respond quickly in a riot situation. PPE may cause excessive heat or make it more difficult to access service weapons. It should be noted that as a pandemic wears on, law enforcement agencies, especially smaller agencies, will have absent personnel as employees fall ill and have to miss work. Law enforcement should be prepared to handle increasingly angry crowds under less than ideal conditions with smaller numbers of officers. A good way to handle smaller numbers of staff is to reach out to other agencies and team up for multi-jurisdictional operations. The more officers there are to handle these riot situations, the easier it will be to contain and control the crowd.

The best way to handle a riot situation is to cooperate with fellow officers, maintain good communication with each other, and have strength in numbers. Containing the crowd as much as possible is key to stifling their activities. The energy of the crowd begins to die out when contained. Non-lethal crowd control measures could include the use of beanbag rounds, rubber bullets, tear gas, or pepper balls. Non-lethal measures are a good way to subdue a crowd and reduce the numbers. Officers need to act quickly to identify and eliminate the biggest threats during such situations so that the crowd loses its power. As the threats are subdued and the numbers reduced, the crowd will be less dangerous, and many people will lose the mob mentality. As numbers dwindle, it will also be easier to contain remaining rioters. Officers should attempt to cut off the movements of the crowd

Crowd + Riot Control (Continued):

by blocking streets along their path. When the crowd has nowhere left to go and its movement is halted, many will stop and come to their senses, beginning to act independently again.

Riots during tense pandemic situations are often inevitable, but law enforcement officers can do their part to limit public frustration that causes such situations. Open communication goes a long way. Officers should work with public health and political officials to inform the public of updates and critical information. Officers should reassure the public about the efforts personnel are taking to maintain safety and normal operations. As the pandemic situation progresses and social distancing becomes forced rather than voluntary, the public will understandably become upset. Knowing these threats beforehand is the best way to be prepared to handle them better. Agencies who are aware of the areas most at risk for riots can then work with officials to mitigate the threats. Having plans in place to station personnel at hospitals, pharmacies, grocery stores, and other high-risk areas can alleviate the potential for serious events.

As mentioned earlier, many states have begun banning gatherings of more than ten people, and some have even given their citizens curfews. As these types of unprecedented restrictions go into place, people will become frustrated and may rebel. Officers need to be ready to assist state and local governments in enforcing curfews and social distancing.

Crowd + Riot Control (Continued):

The best way to handle a riot situation is to cooperate with fellow officers, maintain good communication with each other, and have strength in numbers.

Scams: Unfortunately, criminals have found many ways to take advantage of frightened people during a tumultuous time, targeting those that are uninformed and do not know any better. Several different scams relating to the COVID-19 outbreak have been popping up across the country. There have been reports of emails circulating that are made to look like official CDC correspondence containing “critical” information about COVID-19. The emails contain a link to what appears to be

The best way to handle a riot situation is to cooperate with fellow officers, maintain good communication with each other, and have strength in numbers.

the CDC website, but when clicked, steal the user’s personal information. The Better Business Bureau has cautioned the public against individuals who attempt to sell fraudulent medical products for outrageous prices. Counterfeit respirators or medications claiming to be a cure for the virus have popped up on sites like Amazon and Walmart, who are now attempting to crack down on scammers. If an agency has a case of online fraud or phishing, ROCIC can offer valuable resources. ROCIC Criminal Intelligence Unit (CIU) Intel Specialists can help run comprehensive reports on any individuals suspected of committing these types of crimes. Intelligence Specialists can offer unique services to officers during the pandemic. Intelligence Specialists can help officers locate any resources they might need during this time. Audio/ Video Specialists can enhance surveillance footage or interview tapes obtained during these types of investigations. Computer Forensics Analysts can work with computers from both suspects and victims to trace cyber crimes and gather more evidence. Analytical Specialists can provide cellphone tower mapping. The Publications Department at ROCIC can also be a great resource for disseminating information about specific crimes. Despite a challenging and uncertain time, ROCIC is always here to serve members in any way possible.

New Response Protocols: During the pandemic the world is currently facing, agencies should take precautions to protect their officers from COVID-19. Day-to-day operations may look different as the pandemic goes on. Some agencies have come up with new operating and response protocols that strive to protect officers and still serve the public. Officers can start by triaging non-emergency and non-violent calls to determine whether a report can be taken over the phone or if it needs to be in

According to many top medical officials from organizations like the CDC and the WHO, the most important thing anyone can do to combat COVID-19 is to be prepared and avoid panicking. Preparedness allows officers to be a calming, stabilizing presence for the unsettled public.

person. Agencies should use their discretion and what works best for them. Examples of reports that can be taken over the phone could include:

Agencies should reassure the public that officers will still respond to serious calls that involve ongoing threats or harm. Agencies should use their discretion to determine what works best for them. Examples include:

New Response Protocols (continued):

ConclusionAccording to many top medical officials from organizations like the CDC and the WHO, the most important thing anyone can do to combat COVID-19 is to be prepared and avoid panicking. This is especially important for law enforcement agencies, who have the potential to be seen as authority figures to the public during the midst of an outbreak. Preparedness allows officers to be a calming, stabilizing presence for the unsettled public. Through this pandemic outbreak of COVID-19, the public will look for guidance and reassurance, and law enforcement officers have a great opportunity to provide that.

An on-going or immediate threat involving bodily injury

Ongoing or active criminal activity

Calls where evidence collection or photographs are required

Motor vehicle thefts/recoveries

Juvenile runaways or those who escape juvenile confinement

Non-injury vehicle crashes where there is no disturbances to other drivers, no blocking of a roadway, and no driver impairment

Lost property excluding firearms or narcotics

Identity theft with no physical evidence

Shoplifting, yard thefts, construction site thefts, storage facility thefts, etc. where the loss is less than $5,000 and there is no physical evidence

Thefts from vehicles, excluding firearms, where there is no recoverable evidence

Vandalism and property damage where perpetrator is not present and loss is less than $5,000

ResourcesCenter for Domestic Preparednesshttps://cdp.dhs.gov/

Offers in-person and online training to law enforcement and other first responders

FEMA Pandemic Informationhttps://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/dhs-comprehensive-first-responder-pandemic-guide-pandemic.pdf

Gives in-depth information about how agencies can make plans for pandemic situations

CDC COVID-19 Websitehttps://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/faq.html

A website with accurate and up-to-date information about the spread of COVDI-19 and what people need to know about it

WHO COVID-19 Website

https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019

Similar to the CDC website, this website is regularly updated with legitimate facts and vital statistics

Johns Hopkins Global Interactive Map

https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html

An interactive map with worldwide COVID-19 statistics

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A U D I O / V I D E Oanalytical@rocic.riss.net

D I G I TA L F O R E N S I C Sanalytical@rocic.riss.net

https://www.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6

https://www.policeone.com/police-products/infection-control/articles/5-things-cops-need-to-know-about-the-2019-novel-coronavirus-zjD3BBUWffiWQpkc/

https://www.policeone.com/police-products/apparel/gloves/articles/why-police-officers-need-ppe-that-serves-and-protects-9HIeXdGfbimDSEU9/

https://dshs.texas.gov/coronavirus/

https://jmvh.org/article/the-history-of-plague-part-1-the-three-great-pandemics/

https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/middle-east-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus-(mers-cov)

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-pandemic-h1n1.html

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/national-strategy/index.html

https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/middle-east-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus-(mers-cov)

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-new-wuhan-coronavirus-stacks-up-against-sars-mers

https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/faq.html

hhttps://www.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6ttps://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6908e1.htm

https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/25/health/what-is-a-pandemic-explainer/index.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/01/23/wuhan-chinese-mega-city-center-coronavirus-outbreak/

https://wwmt.com/news/local/michigan-health-officials-warn-of-scams-related-to-coronavirus

https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/pdf/poster-how-to-remove-gloves.pdf

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/pdfs/UnderstandDifferenceInfographic-508.pdf

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2010-133/pdfs/2010-133.pdf

https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/respirator-use-faq.html

https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/dhs-comprehensive-first-responder-pandemic-guide-pandemic.pdf

https://www.domesticpreparedness.com/preparedness/crowd-control-challenges-in-pandemic-emergencies/

https://rocic.riss.net/publications/Special%20Reports/pandemic.pdf

https://rocic.riss.net/publications/Special%20Reports/crowd_control.pdf

https://rocic.riss.net/publications/Special%20Reports/communicable-diseases.pdf

Sources

This project was supported by Grant #2018-RS-CX-0005 awarded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance. The Bureau of Justice Assistance is a component of the Department of Justice’s Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, the Office for Victims of Crime, and the SMART Office. Points of view or opinions in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.