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Population Association of Japan
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H. XOJIMA / Ceresidence ef Young Adults with TheiTParents inJapan: De Sib Size and Birth Order Matter? 15l
Coresidence of Young
Do Sib SizeAdults
with Their Parents
and Birth Order Matter?in
Japan:
Hiroshi KOJIMA
(Institute of Population Problems)
Sumrnary
This study examines the effects of sib size and birth order on the coresidence of
never-married youth with their parents in Japan, where eldest sons are eften expected
to live with their parents after marriage. Logistic regressions are perfoTmed using the
data from 1982 National Fertility Survey (Single-Youth Survey> conducted by the
Institute of Population Problems in Tokyo, While sib size has a significant and negative effect on prenuptial coresidence among
beth sexes, erdest-child status has a significant and positive eftect among males only.
The resuitsi support the hypotheses about more pressure toward daughters to stay home
before marriage and to leave home after marriage ; more pressure toward eldest children
to stay home before and after marriage; and more pressure from crowding toward
children of a larger family to Ieave home before marriage.
Logistic regressions are also perfermed en the determinants of postnuptial coresidence
plans, While the effect of etdest-child status is highly significant among maies, that of
sib size is not among either sex. This seems to suggest that the norrnative pressureteward eldest chiidren about the postnuptial coresidence may be stronger than the
pressure towaTd them about the prenuptial coresidence which can be affected by the
opposing pressure from crowding.
ll
li
1. Introduction '
A recent study of the U. S. by Bianchi (1987)found that children from smaller families and
later-born children are more likely te remain in
the parental heuseheld past age 181 Goldscheidep
and DaVanzo (1988) also found a negative effect
of sib size on staying home among High Scheol
Class of 1972. These effects were predicted by
the crowding hypothesis postulated by Masnickand Pitkin (1983). In Japan many young aduats live with their
parents until marriage and some of them
continue to live with them even after marriage.
In many parts of Japan it is usually the eldest
son who lives with their parents after marriage.
When parents do not have any sons, the e}dest
daughter and son-in-law often live with them
after rnarriage. Therefore, birth erder among the
same-sex children matters for postnuptial
coresidence in Japan. Sib size also affects
postnuptial coresidence through the availability
of ether children to replace the eldest son or
eldest daughter without any brothers (hereafter,[eferred to as
"eldest
daughter">. Actually, the
non-eldest child sometimes lives with parents
after marriage when the eldest child is not
available for coresidence for some reasen (e.g,,death, migration. conflict, etc,).
Norms are not se strong concerning which
adult chirdren stay or leave the parental homebefore marriage, but daughters are oiten dis-eouraged from leaving heme and the eldest chird
is often encouraged te stay home by parents
(See also Table 2). However, on the part of
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16 km# nv za(ac13e)1990.5
young adults, prenuptial coresidence may be a
matter of a life strategy to cope with highhousing cost and low income, a$ Morgan and
Hirosima (1983) suggest for postnuptial coresi-
dence. Although eldest sons may leave home
befere marriage, they are often expected to
return horne around or after the time of mar-
rlage.
Our previous study shews that there was a
decHne in the peycentage ei newly-wed couples
who livecl with parents immediately after
marriage in postwar years, but that it is levelingoff in recent years {Atoh and Kojima 1983),
Hirosima (1984) argues that this leveling off ispartly caused by increased propertion of eldest
children among youngeT generations and increa-sed ratio of parents to children due to the
postwar fertility and mortality decline. Itoh
(1984) suggests that non-eldest children are
more likely to leave heme even before marriage
and explains the recent decline ef migration in
terms of the decreased number and proportion
of "potential
life time outmigrants" (Le., non-
eldest children) among younger generations dueto the postwar fertility dec}ine. Therefore, it isprebable that parental fertility affects prenuptial
coresidence as well as postnuptial coresidence
through the effect of ratio between eldest
children and parents in japan. However, there does not seem to be any
empirical studies based on national sumple
survey which relate young adults' prenuptialliving arrangements to parental fertility variables
at the individual level in Japan. My recent study
(Ko]ima 1987b) ef married ceupSes has feund
that both elclest-child status and sib size of each
spouse have significant effects on coresidence
with parents irnmediately after marriage. Eldest-
son status and smaller sib size of husband have
positive effects on virilocal residence (coresi-dence with husband's parents) and negative
ones on uxoriiocal residence (coresidence with
wife's parents). Eldest-daughter status (thesewithout any brothers) and smaller sib size of
wife have the opposite effects on the postnup-
tial coresidence.'The result has led me to
hypothesize that the effect of sib size efi
prenuptial coresidence of young adults is in thesame direction in Japan as in the U. S. but thatof birth ordeT is in the opposite.
In this study, I analyze cross-sectiona} data
based on the 1982 National Fertility Survey
(Single-Youth Survey) in order to clarify the
determinants of coresidence, as wel} as pians for
coresidence after marriage, among never-married
young adults fecusing on those related te
parental fertility. Before preceeding to the
multivariate analysis of cleterminants, I will
discuss the analytical framewerk, the data and
method, the patterns of prenuptial coresidence inrelation to sib size and birth position based on
cross-tabulations. ' ・
2. ARalytical Frarnework
The analytical framework used for the multi-
variate analysis of determinants of prenuptial
coresidence ancl postnuptial coresidence plans isa modified veJsion of the frameworks fordeterminants ef coresidence developed in my
previous papers CKojima l987a, 1987b), which
were extension of the framework proposed byKobrin and Goldscheider (1982). It was also an
application of the analytical framework for
determinants of timing and prevalence of
marriage devised by Dixon (1970). Kobrin and Geldscheider divide into three thefactors representing constraints and preferences
of adults who are not nuclear family members
at a certain phase of their life cycle : availability
of relatives, feasibility of living alone and
desirability of family extension. In their frame-work the nuciear family household is assumed to
be the reference category. It fequires modi-
ficatien for its application to Japan. Figure l shows the analytical framework forthe determinants of coresidence with parents
among never-marTied young aduits in Japan,Coresidence is determined by three interveningvariablesi availability of kin for coresidence,
feasibility of coresidence ancl desirability of
coresidence. Each of them is in turn determinedby a set of inclependent variables. All the
independent variables determining feasibility and
desirabiLity can be also regarded as control
variables because this study focuses on the
effeet ef parental fertility on coresidence.
Availability ef kin for coresidence is determi-necl by demographic characteristics of the youngadult and hisfher parents as well as norms
about choice of kin for coresidence, Thesecharacteristics inclucle sex, age, eldest-child
status and sib size. They affect availability and
thus coresidence in conjunction with norms
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H. KOJIMA , Coresidence ef Young
Figure l.Framework for Analysisce with Parents among
in Japan
Adults with Their Parents in Japan / De Sib Size and BiTth Order Matter?
of Determinants of Coresiden-Never-Married Young Adults
17
coresidence.
'
Age is associated with ma-
turity and thus more freedom
to choose living alone er with
non-kin. It is also positively
related to income and assets,
whieh affect feasibility of se-
parate Iiving. Therefore, age is
expected to have a negative
effect on coresidence.
Eldest-child status has been found te be one of the most
powerful determinants of post-
nuptial coresidence in my pre-
vious studies (Kojima 1987a, 1987b) due to the strong norm
about preference of the eldest
son or the eldest daughter for coresidence. It is hypothesized
to exert a positive influence on
prenuptial coresidence which is
Iikely to be a prelude to pest-
nuptial coresidence.
Sib size is expected to have
a negative effect on prenuptial
coresidence through the avai-
lability of ether siblings with
whom parents can coreside.
The mere siblings a never-
married persen has, the greater the chance of having a married
sibling, whose coresidence with
discourage his!her own coresi-
Sib size can also have a
coresidence through feasibility with crDwding
coresidence is determined by and financial status.
house is expectecl to have a
on coresidence, but the direct ts not available in thiseffect of crowding may bestze to some extent as mentio-
status is represented byof respendents, It is expected
associated with prenuptial
higher income makes
more affordable, As mentio-
may mcorporate some of the
coresidence is generally deter-
/
InterveningVariables
Independent (Control)Variables
Availability of Kin fDr
Coresidence
Feasibility
of Coresidence
Desirability
of Coresidence
Norms about Choice of Kin
for Coresidence*
Sex (Fernale +}
Age (-)Eldest-Chjld Status (Eldest +}
Sib Size (-)Housing Conditions (Crowding -)'
Financial Status (Low Incorne +) {Hlgh Incorne -)
Availability of Alternatives
Education (Lew -)
(High -)
Occupation (Self-Ernployed +)
<Non-Regularly Employed +)
Fathei's Occupation (Agriculture +)
{Other Seif-Emp, +}
UrbanlRura] Residence (Rural +)
(Metropolitan -}
Region (Extended +)
(Nuclear -)
Notes :+ Net to be epefatienalized.
Signs in pafentheses shew the expected diTection of effeat.
about cheice of kin. My previous framewerkshad other demographic variables determiningavailability, such as marital status and survival
and health status ef parents. But marital status
becomes irrelevant because the analysis isiestricted te never-married persons. Informationon other variables is not available, altheugh age
may incerporate some of the effects of migration
experience as well as parents' survival and
health. A part of the effect of migration iscaptured by urban!rural residence and region,
which are determined by desirabMty.
Sex affects coresidence through the norm
which encourages prenuptial coresidence of
daughters on the one hand ancl through the norm
which gives priority to sons with regard to
postnuptial eoresiclence en the other. It is not
clear to what extent the latteT affects prenup-
tial coresidence. Thus, being female is hypothe-
sized te have a positive influence on prenuptial
parents tends te
dence with parents.negative effect on
because it is positively associatedin the household.
Feasibility of
both housing conditions
Crowding in the
negative effect
information on housingdata set. Thecaptured by sib
ned above. Financialpersonal incomete be negatively
coresidence becauseinclependent livingned above, age
effects of feasibility
Desirability of
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18 YL m 7M ee
mined by norms and values concerning coresi-
dence, inheritance rules, and arrangements for
home-making and care of the agecl and youngchildren. These factors indicate the strength ef
social and eeonomic alternatives to coresidence.
In contemporary Japan they can be largely
represented by factors such as education,
occupation, urbanlrural residence and region,
although these variables also affect ceresidence
through availabiLity and feasibility. As for
never-married young adults, their father'soccupation should be included as an indepen-
dent variable, partly because some of them are
still students or out of regular employment and
partly because en}y a few of them are in
self-employecl occupations (which are often
associated with coresidence) due to changes in
occupational structure.
Educatien may not have linear. relation with
prenuptia} coresidence. On the one hand, college
students and recent college graduates tend te be
away from home because of the concentration
of major celleges and big business corporations
in major metropolitan areas as well as more
frequent transfer within these corperations. On
the other hand, those who completed only
compuisory education (jllnior high school) usually
have blue-collar jobs which are also often
!ecated in metropolitan areas and their vicinity.
Although some of these two kinds of peoplewho left home may return before marriage,
others may continue to stay away from home.Therefore, both high and low education are
expected to have negative effects on prenuptial
coresidence.
Among various occupations of young adults,
self-employed ones are expeeted to have a
positive effect en prenuptial and pestnuptialcoresidence because family workers generally
live together foi joint work on the same pre-mise, Even when a young adult is not engaged
in the family business owned by his father, he
or she is often expected to stay home foron-the-job training or part-time help as well as
for inheritance in the future, especially when heer she is the eldest child. Therefore, self-
employed occupation of father is expected to
have a pesitive effect en prenuptial coresidence,
Self-empleyment of father is divided into
agriculture and non-agriculture because my
previous studies found that the effect of self-
employment is not always in the same direction.
(ee13e)1990,5
On the other hand, when a young adult is not
regu!arly employed (in many cases a student), heor she is mere likely to be away from home.
Rural residence is hypothesized to encourage
prenuptial coresidence because encouragernent
to stay home is stronger due to more traditionalvalues and Iess available housing for rent in thevicinity. On the other hand, residence in metTo-
politan areas is expectecl to have a negative
effect on pren"ptial coresidence because those
areas attract migrants for education and empley-
ment.
Household formation and dissolution patterns
differ a lot by region within Japan. According to
Shimizu (1985) who analyzed clata from 1973 and1983 Basic Surveys for Health and WelfareAdministration Cconducted by the Department of
Statistics and Information, Ministry of Healthand Welfare), the difference can be more clearly
shown by the patterns of elderly's living arran-
gements : Tohoku and Hokuriku regions have
higher percentages of the aged in three-geneia-
tional family households while Hokkaido, sou-
thern Kanto (Tokyo metropolitan area), central
Kinki (Kyeto-Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area) and
seuthern Kyushu have lower percentages.
Therefoie, Tohoku and Hokuriku which havetraditionally been characterized by the extended
family hottsehold are expected to be associated
with a higher preva}ence of prenuptial coresi-
dence. Southern Kyushu, which has traditienally
been characterized by the nuclear family house-hold, and the other three regions, which are
largely urban, are hypothesized to have a lower
prevalence.
The effects ef these independent variables on
the p]ans for postnuptial coresidence are expec-
ted to be similar to those on prenuptial coresi-
dence, assuming the high ,correlation betweenthe two. However, the effect of sex can be inthe oppesite direction because most daughtersare expected to leave home at the time of
marrlage even though they are encouraged tostay home until marriage.
3. Data and Method ' '
a. Data
This study uses a data set derived from theEighth National Fertility Survey, Single-YouthSurvey (NFS8S) conducted by the Institute of
Population Problems in Tokyo in 1982, in
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H. KOJIMA , Coresidence of Young AduTts with Their
cooperatien with the Department of Statistics
and lnforrnation, Japanese Ministry of Health
and Welfare. The survey usecl a subsample of
subjects from the Department]s Basic Survey of
Health and Welfaie Administration. Two-stage
systematic and stratified sampling was applied
to all the ordinary census tracts in Japan. NFS8Sused self-enumerated questionnaires. NFS8S was conducted on single persons aged
between 18 and 34. 0ut of a sample of 5,807
single persons, there were 4,987 (86%) usable
questionnaires. The non-response rate seerns te
have been high among ma]es and those living
alone. The analysis is limited to never-married
persons, leaving 4,842 subjects (2,732 ma}es and
2,110 femaEes). The survey mainly asked ques-
tions on their attitudes toward marriage and
chilbearing, and on demographic and socie-
economic characteristics of respondents and
their father.
NFS8S includied a questien on current living
arrangement, for which respondents were to
cheose the answer among "coresidence
with
parents'', "separate
residence from parents" and
"other". Information on the survival of parents
was net collected, but those few persons
without any parents were expected to choose"other".
It also asked a question on plans forcoresidence after marriage to those who plannedto marry (97% of respondents). They were to
choose the answer among
"plan to coreside
immediately after marriage", plan to coresicle
some time after marriage", "plan
to coreside
when parents get' eld", "de
not plan to coreside"and
"other", For the analysis in this stucly only
the first answer is used because of its higher
prDbability of realization.
' b. Method and Meas"rement of Variables
For the analysis of determinants of prenuptialcoresidence as well as postnuptial coresidence
plans, logistic regressions have been estimated
(using the LR procedure in the BMDP package)to test the hypotheses sttmmarized in Figure 1.Legistic regression is a most suitable procedure
for dichotomous dependent variables. In this
procedure, the dependent variable is the log
odds ratio of coresidence and each regressien
coefficient represents the additive effect of each
variable on the Iog oclds, or, after exponentia-
tion, the multiplicative effect on the edds.
As in OLS regressions, the sign of coefficients
Parents in Japan , Do Sib Size and Birth Order Matter ? l9
fer each independent variable represents the
direction of effect, P-values for each indepen-
dent variable as well as the equation as a whole
are provided. Where the independent variables
are categorical, two or mere categories within
the variable are transformed into a set of
"design
variables", with one of the categories
chosen to be a reference category,
Arnong variables used for the analysis of
deteyminants of prenuptial coresidence and
pestnuptial coresidence plan, depenclent Variables
are, as mentiened above, the answer `icoresi-
den ¢ e with parents" to the question on current
living arrangements and the answeT "plan
to
coreside immediately after marriage]], and all the
other answers to each question are set as
reference categories.
Arnong indepenclent variables classified as
availability variables in Figure l, norms are not
operationaLized due to the lack of direct infor-
mation at the individual level but they are
incorporated into demographic variables. Sex is represented by a design variable for female, the reference category being male. Age is represen-
ted by age at last birthday. A design variable
for.eldest child is associated with eldest sons for
males and eldest daughters (without any bro-
thers) for females and the reference category is
all the other children, Sib size is represented by
the number of siblings inc}uding oneself.
Among feasibility variables, housing condi-
tions are not operatienalized due to the lack of
clirect inforrnation, Financial status is represen-
ted by personal income of respondents. Respon- dents were to choose ameng six categories of
inceme bracket, Fer the purpese of this analy-
sis, the two lewest brackets were combined as
"low
incorne" and the three highest brackets
were combined as "high
income", the reference
category being the fourth highest category.
Desirability variables are represented by
socioeconomic and geographic characteristics. A design variable for low education is asseciated
with these who graduated from only junior high
school (these who finishecl only compulsory
education), and a design variable for high
educatien with those who graduated from junior (two-year) or four-year college, while the
reference category consists of all others. As for
occupatien, net only the respondent's own
occupatlon but aiso the father's occupation has been usecl as a determinant, Design variables for
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own occupatien include self-employed and
non-regularly empleyed (students, part-time
workers, unemployed workers and other personsout of labor force), while the reference category
includes all others. Design variables for father's
occupation include that for agriculture and other
self-employed, the reference category being all
others.
Design variables for urban/rural residence
include rural and metropelitan. The fo:mer
consists of census tracts designated as non-DIDs
(Densely Inhabited Districts) and the latter thosedesignated as DIDs with half a million population
or more, while the reference category is DIDswith iess than half a million population. Designvariables for region consist of that for exten-
dect-family regions (those regions with a high
prevalence of extended family household among
the elderly) and that for nuclear-family region
(those with a low prevalence) as classified byShimizu (1985), while the reference category
consists ef all other regions.
4. Results
a. Cross-Tabulations
Table 1 shows the proportion of nevef-married
persons aged 18-34 coresiding with parents bysex and by sib size and birth position. Fo[cemparison, figures for the U.S. are copied frem
Bianchi's paper at the last column. It shoulcl be
noted, however, that the U.S. figures are for
coresidence of persons (of any marital status)
aged 18-24 with mother. Although the U.S.figures are for both sexes, the Japanese ones are
fer each sex because of expected sex differen-ces for reasons mentioned above. It should bealso noted that age is net controiled ln either
Japanese or American figures.
In this cross-tabular context, sib size does not
seern to have a Iinear relationship with the
proportion ceresiding, at least arneng males.
Ameng females there is an inverse relatienship
for persons from the family of two or mere. Forboth sexes persons from the two-child famiLyhave the highest propoTtions coresiding and
those from the one-child family have slightly
lower percentages. Severai reasons can bespeculated for this irregularity including data
problems and selectivity of one-child families ondemographic, socioeconomic and personal char-
acterlstlcs.
Table 1. Preportion of Never-Married Persons
Aged l8-34 Coresiding with Parents
by Sib Size and Birth Position
CPercent)
SibSize Sex U,s,**BirthPositlonMaleFemaleBothSexes
Total 70.3 82.5 51,O
(N) (2,732)(2,llO)One' 68.8 84.9 60.7・Two 73.9 86.0 .57.6
Oldest 75.6 88.4 56.6
Youngest 72.1 83.o 58.7
Three 68.1 80.5 52.4oldest 73.o 80.5 49.1Middle 60.2 78.9 50.5
Youngest 71.3 82.3 57.5Four 69.2 78.3 48.5'
OIGest 75.o 88.6 41.7Middle 73.9 73.6 50.e
Youngest 59.8 80.3 51.'1
Five 7e.2 75.3 46.1・Oldest 100.o 60.o* 42.6Middle 74.6 79,o 44.2Youngest 57.5 .73.7.52.6
SixoiMore52.9 71.9 43.3Oldest 83.3* 83.3\ 37.6Middle 57.1 67,6 40.9Youngest 40.6 76.2 49.5
Seurce: Eighth National Fertilitrv Survey rSingle-Yozath Surverv), 19S2, Institute ef Populatien PToblems,
and Bianchi (1987, Table 2 and 3},Note$/ *' Less than 20 cases.
** Coresidence of persens <of・ any marital status)
aged 18-24 with mether,
When attentien is directed to variation bybirth pesition, an inverse relationship betweenb{rth erder and proportion coresiding can befound among youngest children of both sexes.
This suggests that the pressure from crowding
encourages leaving home ef youngest children
rather than o]dest ones who are often eldest
sons and daughte[s thus enceuraged to stay
home, When percentages for oldest and non-
oldest children are compared, oldest chlldren
tend to have a higher proportion coresiding
partly because they are more oiten eldest sons
and daughters. Among the three birth positions in the familyof three or more children, middle children eften
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H. KOJIMA: Ceresidence of Young '
have the lowest proportion core-
siding. This is probably becauseoidest children are more likely to
stay home than middre ones
since they are often eldest chil-
dren rNhile youngest children are
mere like]y to stay home than
middle ones since they often
leave heme later due to their
younger age, But the situation
would differ from family to fam-
iry ciepending on the age, sex,
and maritai-status composition of
the children due to differences in
age at marriage between men
and women as well as to differ-
ential pressure te stay home bysex, eldest-child status and the
presence and marital status of'
other children.
In comparison with Japanesepatterns, American.ones aTe
much more regular. There is an
inverse relationship between sib
size and prepertion coresiding
with mother, suggesting
'
crowding, There is a
''
between birth order and
'
suggesting negative effects of
interesting to see if there are
ences in these patterns as in
The first two columns of
proportion of never-married
coresiding with parents by sex
and eldest-chi}d status. Among
children always have a higher
siding than non-eldest ones by
Ameng females this is not true of
three-child family and the
eldest and non-eldest children
srnall regardless of sib size. This
pressure toward daughters to
marriage as well as to negative
on coresiclence. Comparisen of
suggests that Japanese patterns
exp}ained in terms of eldest-child
than birth position. The last two columns of
preportion of young adults
with parents immediately after
is tabulated in the same way
three columns. There is not'
Adults with
Table 2.
Their Parents in Japan: De Sib Slze and Birth OFder Matter? 2i
Propoition of Never-Married Persons Aged 18-34 Coresiding with Parents and Planning to Coreside with Parents Immediately After Marriage by Sib Size and Eldest-Child Status (Percent)
SibSize Coresidence CoresidencePlanEldest-Child
Status MaleFernaleMale Female
Total 7e,3 82.5 26.9 ILO
(N) (2,732)(2,110)[2,620)(1,958)One 68.8 84.9 29.6 19.2
Two 73.9 86.e 25.7 10.9
Eldest 76.1 88.9 30.9 12.9
Non-EIdest 66.8 84.9 7.9 le.1
Three 68.1 80.5 27.3 9.0
Eldest 73.0 76.9 35.2 L9Non-Eldest 60,7 80.9 14.2 9.8
FourorMore 66.5 76.5 28.3 IL4
Eldest 79.1 100.0* 37.9 16.7*
Nen-Eldest 59.9 76.1 21.8 11.2
Source /
Notes/*
negatlve effects of
positive relationship
proportlon coresiding,
age. It weuld be
any sex differ-
Japan, Table 2 show the
persons aged 18-34
and by sib size
' males eldest
proportlon core-
9% er moire.
persons from differences between
are relatively
may be due to
stay home before
effects of age
Tables 1 and 2
can be. better
status rather
' '
Table 2 show the
planning to coreside
marriage, which
as in the first
mverse relationship
Eighth fVationat Fertility SzarveyInstltute ef PepuEatien Problems. Less than 20 cases.
rSingle-Youth Surveor), 1982,
between sib size and the proportion planning tocoreside, which can be expected from my
previous study (Kojima 1987b) on the postnup-
tial coresidence of married couples. On the
contrary, there is a positive relationship betweensib size and the preportion ameng both eldest
sons and nen-eldest sons of the family of twoor more children, However, eldest sons always
have higher proportion than non-eldest sons.
These patterns may be caused by the correration
of fertility and proportion coresiding, but this
type of analysis does not allow to separate
confounding effects. .
Among fernales, the patterns are quite
irregular. Not only is the difference between the
eldest and non-eldest daughters small, but the
proportion is much higher among non-eldest
daughters than eldest daughters of the farnily of
three chiidren. In ordeJ to examine the determi-nants of these irreguiarities, the following sectionwill present the analysis of determinants of
coresidence and that of determinants of post-
nuptial ceresidence plans for comparison, using
the same analytical frarnework,
b. Logisitic Regressions The figst three columns of Table 3 show the
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Table 3.Logistic Regression Coefficients for Determinants of Prenuptial CoresidencePostnuptial Coresidence Plan among Never-Married Persons Aged 18-34
and
Coresidence CoresidencePIanIndependentVariables BethSexes Ma]e Female BothSexes Ma}e Female
AvaitabilitblFernale *** ***
e.792 - - -O.828 - L(O.101) - - (O.124) - -
Age * ** *** ***
O.O02 O.034 -O.569 O.053 o.e61 O.031(O.O12) (O.O16) (O.020) (O.O14) (O.O16) (O.028)
EidestChild *** *** *** ***
O.435 O.552 O.165 O.977 1.263 O.120(O.101) (O.117) (O.205) (O,116) (O.141) (O.253)
SibSize *** ** **-O.151 -O.138 -O.180 -O.064 -e.o44 -O.177(O.038) (O.048) (O.062) (O.048) (O.055) (O.105)
FeasibitityIneome * **
1.Low O.181 O.257 O.154 -O.125 -O.095 -O.184(O.l12) (O.137) (O.201) (O.123) (O.137) (O.292)
2.High -O.316 -O.497 O.442 -O.523 -O.507 -O.581(O.174) (O.193) (O.449) (O.221) (O.233) (O.800)
DesirabilityEducation *** ** *
1.Low -O.462 -O.464 -O.844 o.e4s O,030 O.241(O.156) (O.186) (e.298) (O.168) (O.186) (O.414)
2.High -O.298 -O.375 -e.137 -O.229 -O.!91 -O.409(O.093) (O.120) (O,154) (O.112) (O.131) (O.232)
Occupation *** ***
1,Self-Employed1.131 1.332 O.110 O.377 O.398 O.343(O.222) (O.260) (O.425) (O.169) (O.185) (O.513)
2.Non-Regularly-O.513 -e,646 -O.112 -O.154 -O.159 -O.111Ernployed (O.126) (O.165) (O.216) (O,174) (O.205) (O.340)
Father'sOccupation *** *** *** * *
1.Agriculture -O.799 -O.665 -1.119 O.372 O.315 O.565(O.122) (O.155) (O,203) (e.124) (O.145) (O.246)
2.0therSelf- -O.040 -O.070 -O.029 e.o22 O.09! -O.219Employed (O.111) (O.143) (O.179) (O.I33) (O.156) (O.271)
UIRResidence *** *** *** *** ***
1.Rurai 1.151 1.255 O.920 O.612 O.683 O.434(e.118) (O.148) (e.198) (O.116) (O.135) CO.234)
2.MetTopolitan-e.4oo -O.355 -o.42e -O,105 -e.2o2 O.227(e.lol) (O.128) (o.ue) (O.144) (O.165) (e.299)
Region ** * *** *** **
1.Extended O.333 O.467 o.les O.380 O.493 O.021(O.156) (O.199) (O.257) (O.134) (O.158) (O.267)
2.Nuclear -O.157 -O.065 -e.372 -O,496 -O.388 -O.857(O.097) (e.121) (O.173) (O.113) (O.130) (O.244)
Constant O.882 -o.les 3.360 -2.955 -3.524 -2.540(O.344) (O.444) (e.544) (O,390) (O.461) (O.762)
LogLikelihood -1,7ng.3-1,074.0 -649.5-1,421.9-1O09.6, -398.2N 3,585 2,067 1518: 3,477 2e14, 1463,Mean% 75.6 71.0 81.8 18.4 25.7 8.4OddsRatie 3.092 2.445 4.seo O,226 O.346 O.092
Source 'Netes:Eighth National Fertitity SurveyReference categeries are ornitted.
Standard error in parentheses.* p<.05;** p<.Ol;*** p<.
rSingle-Yo"th
oel.
Surveor), 1982,Institute ofPepulatienPrebtems.
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H. KOJIMA : Coresidence ef Young Adults with Their
results of logistic regressiens for determinants of' coresidence among never-married young adults.
The first column is for both sexes and the
second and the third are for males and fema}es. The dependent variable used in the procedure is
the log odds ratio of coresidence. Mean values
of these odds are shown at the end of the
table. The antilog of each coefficient represents
the mvltiplicative effect of each variabae. For
exampie, the coefficient for being female in the
first colurnn is O.792, which means that female
young adults have [exponential (O.792> =:
2.208]
times higher odds than male counterparts.
In the regression on coresidence for both
sexes ali the independent variables but age are
significant. The direction of effects are as
expected except father's occupation. Age is not
significant in this regression because it combines
its negative effect arnong males and its positive
effect among females as shown by the following
two regressions, where it is signifgcant, As
suggested above in the section of cross-tabular
analysis, never-married men tend increasingly to
stay home as they age, while never-married
wemen tend to leave heme.
In contrast to the hypothesis about the effects
of father's occupation, both agriculture and
other self-employed occupation have a negative
effect on coresidence. This may be probably because yeung adults' own occupation captures
a large part ef the effects of self-employrnent.
on coresidence. The results suggest that those
who have a self-employed father tend te be
away from home, probably because they could
not find employrnent opportunities in their
family business or in the local Iabor market.
The results for males and females differ in
effects of other variables than age. First,
eldest-child status is not significant among
females, supporting, in cenjunction with the high
significance of being fernale, the hypothesis on
general encouragement fer daughters te stay
home. Secondly, inceme is not significant among
females, partly due to smaller variations of
income among them. Thirdly, occupation is not
significant among females. This is partly due to
the fact that there are fewer daughters than
sons efigaged in the family business because
daughters are not usually expected to inherit the
business. At the same time, this is partly due to
the fact that non-regularly employed women
include these who stay home and prepare for
Parentsin Japan: Do Sib Size ancl Birth Order Matter? 23
marriage with or without any specific plans formarriage. Fourthly, region is not significant
among fema}es, a}though nuclear-family region
is significant as a category.
In terms of parental fertility, all these suggest
that women in general are expeeted to stay
home before marriage, regardless of birth order
and sex composition ef siblings, while men's
coresidence is determined by birth erder in a
significant way, For both men and women sib
size is a significant determinant of coresidence,
supperting the crewding hypothesis. Cornpared with regressions on current coresi-
dence, those on postnuptial coresldence planshave somewhat different results as shown bythe last three columns of Tab}e 3. In the
regression for both sexes, many variables are
not significant any more, while age turns to bevery significant. The sign of being femalechanges to negative as expected, The signs of
father's seif-employed occupations turn to
pesitive, supporting the hypothesis on the
positive effect of prospective inheritance on
postnuptial coresidence plans. The results of regression ior males are similar
to those of the previeus one except that father'soccupation is not significant, arthough the
category for agriculture remains significant.
However, the results of regression for fernalesare different from those Qf the previous two,
Only fathet's occupation and regien is signifi-
cant. Moreover, the sign of other self-employed
category changes to negative. The results for
females suggest that they are net usualiy
expected to live with parents immediately after
marriage. Even eldest daughters are not signifi-
cantly different frem others in their plans.
Female young adults are more Iikely to plan to
live with their parents immediately after marri-
age'oniy when their father is a farrner or they
live in the regions which are traditionally
characterized by extendecl family househelds.
In terms ef variables related te parentalfertility, the effect of sib size is not significant
on postnuptial ceresidence plans for either sex
while the sign is negative as expected from my
p;evieus study (Kojima 1987b), The effect of
eldest-child status is significant for both sexes
primarily because of its significant effect formales.
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24 An#bl ee
5. Discussion
The results concerning availabi}ity variabies
seem to suppert the hypotheses about (1) more
pressure toward daughters to stay home beforemarriage and te leave home after marriage, (2)more pressure toward eldest children to stay
home before and after marriage, and (3) more
pressure from crowding toward children of a
larger family to Ieave home before marriage. A
preliminary analysis based on the Eighth Natio-
nai Fertility Survey, Marriecl-Couple Survey
(NFS8M) shows that both sib size and eldest-
child status, as well as most other equivalent
variables, have the same effects on prenuptial
coresidence of husband and wife as they do inthis study. The direction of effect of sib size is the same
in Japan as in the U, S., suggesting the univer-
sal impact of crowcling. But the effect of birth
order dees not seern to be linear in Japan as in
the U.S,, probably because of normative prefe-
rences of eldest sons for postnuptial coresiden-
ce. The results of regressions on postnuptial
coresidence plans seem to support this argu-
ment because the effect of eldest-child status is
highly significant among ma!es, but that of the
effect of sib size is not significant among either
sex.
The latter result is in contrast to the result of
my recent study (Kejima 1987b) on gctualpostnuptial coresidence of newly-mar[ied ceuples
based on NFS8M: sib size of husband has a
significant and negative effect on virilocal
residence (coresidence with husband's parents)
and that of wife has a significant and negative
effect on uxorileca] residence (coresidence with
wife's parents), A couple of reasens for this
difference can be speculated. First, the attitude
about the future coresidence behavior may bedifferent from the actual behavior partly because
the latter is subject to the influence of other
concerned parties including parents, spouse and
parents-in-Iaw. My previous study (Koiima1983) found that eldest sons and eldest daugh-
ters tend not to marry each other, possibly
because they try to avoid conflicts, in advance,
concerning which parents to live with. Secondly,sib size may be becorning less meaningful
among more recent cohorts because the majority
of them belong to the two-child family and thus
(ee13e) 1990.5
the majority of males are eldest sons. ..
Although there seems to be differences between Japan and the U.S, in the effect ef
birth order on coresidence of young adults,
similarities with Japan may be found in Euro-
pean societies. A table of percentages coresiding
of adult chi}dren by birth position in a nine-
teenth century English community presented by
Wall (1978) shows a low percentage ameng
middle children which is similar to the pattern among males presented in Table 1.
The effects of sib size and birth order on
coresidence may be more complex. And the
effects of composition of coresiding and non-
coresidlng siblings sheuld be taken'into account
in a more elaberate way. The eldest-child status
in this study is a peculiar combination of birth
order and sex composition. As Young (1975) found for Australia, there rnay be a difference in
the patterns of leaving heme by sex composition
of siblings.
It is probable that age composition as well as
marita!-status composition of siblings also affect
coresidence ef never-married young adults. My
previous study (Kojima 1986) based on 1985 national household survey found the tendency
for parents to Iive with single aduit children as
long as they have one even when they have
married children. Another study (Kojima 1987a) based on the multivariate analysis of the same
data set showed that the absence of single
children has a significant and positive effect on
the ceresidence ef household head with a
married child. The future research on coresiden-
ce should examine effects of detailed cemposition
of siblings as welL as that ef other relatives,
Acknewledgements
This is a gevised and shortened version of the paper
presented at the Annual Meeting Df the Population AssDciation of Amerlca, New Orleans, April 21-23, l988. The author would like to thank, for helpful
comments and suggestions, Dr. Susan De Vos,
University of Wisconsin, and DTs. Frances Kobrin-
Goldscheider ancl john Castefline, Brown University as
welL as referees and editorial associates for Jinkogaku
Kenfeyu. Thanks are also due to the Population
Studies and Training Center, Brown University where
most of the research for this article was eonclucted.
Bibliography
Atoh, M, N., and H. Kejima 1983
"Attitudes toward Marriage' among the Unmar-
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Tied Japanese Youth'', Jinko Mondai Kenfey=,
168, pp. 30-57 (in Japanese).Bianchi, SM.I987
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gernents in the 1980s", Paper presented at the
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Association, Chicago, August.Dixon, R. B.1970
"The Social and Demographic Determinants of
Marital Pestponement and Cetibacy/ A Corn- parative Study", Unpublished Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of California, Befkeley,
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Adulthood/ Magriage, Serniautonomy, and
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Kojirna, H.1983
"Sphere of Mate Seiection", Ateh, M.N. ed.,
Marriage and Chitdbearing of the JaPanese CouPles: RePort of the Eighth Fertility Szarvey (1982), Part I ,
Tokye, Institute of Pepulation
Problems, pp. 34-41 (in Japanese),1986
"Coresidence oi Househald Heads with Children
and Parents", Kono, S. ed., RePort of the
DemograPhic Survey on Changes in the Familpt Life Course and ffousehold Structure, Tokyo, Institute of Popuiation Prablems, pp.69-88 (in Japanese).1987a
"Parent-Child Coresidence in the Japanese
Household", Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association ef
America, Chicago, May.198Tb
"Correlates
of Postnuptial Coresidence in
Japan", Paper presentecl at the IUSSP Serninar
on New Forms of Familial Life in MDC's,
Vaucresson, Octeber,
Masnick, G. S., and Pitkin, J. R.1983
"The Baby Boorn and the Squeeze on Muiti-
generationaJ Households", Paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Population Associa- tion of Ameriea, PittsbuTgh, April.
MoTgan, S. P., and Hirosima, K.
1983 "The
Persistenee of Extended Family Residence in Japan/ Anachronism er Alternative Stra-
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pp. 269-281,Shimizu, H,l985
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26 人 口 学 研 究 (第13号 )1990.5
日 本 に お け る 独 身 青 年 層 の 親 と の 同 居
一 兄 弟姉妹数 と出生順 位 の 効果 を 中心 に
小 島 宏
(人 口 問題研究所)
〔要 旨〕
本 稿 は 日本 に お け る 独身青年層の 親 との 同居 に 対す る 兄弟姉妹 数 と出生 順位 の 効果を 検討す る こ とを
目的 とす るが、こ れ は 結婚後 に つ い て は 長男が親 と同居す る こ とが しぼ しば期待 され て い る の に 対 して 、
結 婚 前 に つ い て は 必 ず し もは っ き り して い な い tcめ で ある 。そ こ で .1田2年 に 人 口問 題研 究所に よ っ て
実施 され た 「第 8次 出産力調査 ・独 身者調査」 の デー
タ (未婚者の み) を用 い て ロジ ス テ a ッ ク回 帰分
析 を行 っ た。
兄 弟姉妹数は 男女 い ずれ に お い て も結婚前 の 親 との 同居 に 対 し て 有意な 負の 効果 を もつ が、長男 ・長
女 (あ とつ ぎ)の 続柄 は男子に お い て の み 有意 な 正 の 効果を もつ 。こ れ らの 結果 は 娘 に 対 して 結婚前
は 親 と同居 し、結 婚後 は 親 と別 居す る よ うに との 圧 力が強 くか か り、 長男 ・長女 に 対 して 結婚前 も結
婚 後 も親 と 同居 す る よ うに との 圧力が 強 くか か り、 子供数が 多い 家庭の 子供 に 対 して混 雑 の た め、結
婚前 に 親 と別 居す る よ うに と の 圧力 が 強 くか か る、とい う三 つ の 仮説 を 裏付け て い る。
結婚直後 の 親 との 同居予定 の 決定要因 に つ い て も ロ ジ ス テ ィ ッ ク 回 帰分析が 行わ れ た 。長男 ・長女の
続柄は 男子 に お い て非常に 有意 な効果を もつ が、兄弟姉妹数 は 男女 い ずれに お い て も有意な効果 をもた
な い 。こ の こ と は 長 男 ・長女 へ の 結婚後の 親 との 同居に 関す る規 範的 圧 力 が、混雑 に よる逆 方 向 の 圧 力
に 左右 され る こ と が ある 結婚前 の 親 との 同居に 関す る圧 力 よ りも強 い こ とを 示 す よ うで あ る。
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