Copyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Politics in Iran

Copyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Country Bio: Iran


World’s only theocracy◦ Government in which laws are grounded in

religion and express will of God, ◦ clergy exercises supreme power

Established in 1979◦ Overthrew Mohammad-Reza Shah Pahlavi – last

ruler of monarchy◦ Ruholla Khomeini – clerical leader, authored

blueprint for theoretic government, led 1979 revolution, opposed democracy on religious grounds

◦ Divine law, shari’a, interpreted and applied by ulema (religious scholars) precedence over laws made by legislators

Politics in Iran


First decade of Islamic Republic:◦ Some redistribution of wealth◦ Leadership mostly from middle-class backgrounds◦ Adopted populist policies, bettered poor◦ Poverty, inequality, underemployment continue

Job creation very inadequate Need to increase economic output: population

grows 600,000 a year Dissatisfaction with status quo among ethnic

minorities Corruption

Current Policy Challenges


United States & Iran Relationship Status

It’s complicated 1953 coup

US replaced the UK as “the Great Satan” US seen as the power behind the Shah’s

secularization, westernization & modernization policies Source of decadence & immorality

Partly responsible for weakening the Shah Carter’s human rights emphasis

1979 Revolution seizure of US embassy and the hostage crisis “Death to America”




It’s complicated 9/11

A member of “the axis of evil” Iran-Iraq War

“The enemy of our enemy is our friend” Support for Saddam Hussein

Operation Iraqi Freedom Iran supported Shiite militias against the US

Religious & nationalist competitions in the Middle East Sunni vs. Shia Saudi Arabia (et. al.) vs. Iran

Many US “friends” are Sunni Deepens Iranian suspicions about US motives/intentions




It’s complicated Iranian support for terrorist groups

Quds Force of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corp Hezbollah in Lebanon vs. Israel

The enemy of my friend is my enemy Support for Assad in Syria

Iran’s nuclear program US-led international sanctions due to nuclear program

The Rise of ISIS “The enemy of my enemy is my friend” Iran’s support for Shiite militias in Iraq against ISIS



Islam◦ More than 1 billion adherents◦ 2nd largest religion in the world◦ Means “submission to God”◦ One central tenet: There is only one God (Allah)

and Muhammad is his prophet◦ Two major branches

Sunni – “followers of tradition” Shi’ia – “partisans of Ali”

World’s only theocracy

Sunni◦ Majority (90%)

Shi’ia◦ Concentrated in Iran, southern Iraq, Bahrain,

eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan & southern Lebanon


Sunni & Shi’ia differences◦ Differ over who should have succeeded the

Prophet Muhammad◦ Sunnis favored choosing the caliph (leader) from

the accepted leadership (the Sunni)◦ Shi’ias argued that leadership should be

hereditary, and should pass to Muhammad’s son-in-law (Ali) Kept belief that the true heirs of Islam were the

descendants of Ali (called imans)


Sunni & Shi’ia differences continued◦ Shi’ias are also known as Twelvers, since they

follow the Twelve Imans The 12th iman disappeared in the 10th century Called the Mahdi or the Hidden Iman, who will return

to herald the end of the world In the absence of the 12th Iman, the authority to

interpret the shari’a (religious law) should be in the hands of the senior clerical scholars – the ayatollahs

Emphasis on “martyrdom” Some factions embrace apocalyptic views


Islam as a political theory/ideology◦ More than a religion◦ Complex interplay among Islamic law, social rules

and politics◦ No separation of religion (islam) and state (dawla) ◦ the followers of Islam are all part of a larger

community of the faithful that transcends race, language and national borders


Islam as a political theory/ideology◦ Provides theories of government and the state

and a comprehensive body of law that can guide the lives of its followers if properly applied A complete program for ordering society

Islamism◦ Attempt to translate the original meaning of the

Quran into something like a constitution for a new political movement


Islamism◦ Western technology, political ideas, and moral

standards have corrupted Islam,◦ Have taken away the dignity of Muslims◦ And are used by their leaders to keep power by

force and deceit◦ Once Muslims go back to the basics of Islam,

everything will fall into place


Islamism◦ All laws must be grounded in religion and the

clergy exercises supreme power◦ Sharia (ulama) forms the basis of laws◦ Traditional/conventional interpretations reject

democratic principles of equality and natural rights


Islamism◦ Strong bias toward inequality

Men & women Muslims & non-Muslims Legitimate minorities (“peoples of the book” ) &

illegitimate (“unbelievers’) ◦ Rights do emanate from God BUT the individual is

subordinate to the larger religious community


Theology – a government in which political authority resides with religious leaders

An Islamic Republic?◦ A republic assumes that authority resides with the

representatives of the citizens◦ An oxymoron ?


Persian speakers are largest, half of population

Azeri Turks, Lurs, Baluchis, Arabs, Turkmens

Prerevolutionary elites defined nation as Persian

Post-revolution: Twelver Shiism as defining trait

Conflicts: ignoring of ethnic minorities and non-Twelver Shiites

Historical Legacy: Multiethnic Nation


1. Never colonized by European powers2. 1905 Revolution & Constitution 3. Mosadegh elected, then ousted in 1953 by

U.S. and Britain 4. Shah put in power until popular revolution

in 1979 5. War with Iraq in 1980 allowed Islamists to

consolidate power

History – Key Periods

Historical Legacy: Constitutionalism in Iran

1905-06: widespread dissatisfaction led to constitution

Believed citizenry had right to elect representative parliament

Ayatollah Muhammad-Husayn Na’inni: Twelfth Imam chose to remain in hiding, believers are his deputies

Reconciled Shiism’s beliefs with modern constitutionalism , legacy revolutionaries of 1979 could not ignore in creating Islamic state


1953 Mosadegh advocates nationalizing Iran’s oil

business The empire strikes back

◦ British & American intelligence services orchestrate a coup America becomes the Great Satan; UK a lesser Satan

◦ Shah reinstated with American support (through 1970s) Created a distrust of West – economic & cultural

◦ “They’re out to get us”; “They want our oil”; “The Shah is selling us out to the Americans”

Modern Iranian History

Shah institutes a “White Revolution”◦ “modernizing authoritarian”◦ Counter the “reds”◦ Buy land from large owners and sell to small

farmers◦ Secularized society by giving voting rights to

women and restricting polygamy; women allowed to work outside the home Angered religious traditionalists

◦ Authoritarian regime: SAVAK (secret police)


Iran transformed into a rentier state◦ Economy heavily supported by state expenditures◦ State receives “rent” from other countries by

selling oil◦ So much income that internal taxes are no longer

needed Regime doesn’t “need” the people anymore Some import substitution by encouraging domestic

industries


Islamic Revolution◦ Shah’s behavior

Totalitarian Secularized Iran too much too fast (clerical view) Ties to the west (especially USA)

Offended Iranian nationalists

◦ Divided political culture Modern (secular) vs. traditional ways

Clerical elite rose to oppose the shah, lead a revolution, and eventually take over the government


Oil prices decreased by about 10% at the same time that consumer prices increased by about 20%◦ “revolution of rising expectations”

US pressures on Shah to stop human rights abuses◦ Iran groups voice frustrations◦ Demonstrations with police overreaction

Unarmed demonstrators killed (Bloody Friday) Oil workers on strike Anti-regime rallies From his exile in Paris Khomeini audiotapes encouraged

unrest Shah leaves Iran for medical treatment

Sparks that Began the Crisis

1979 – return of religion and the market ◦ Iranian Revolution

Triumph of Islam; creation of world’s 1st modern theocracy (Islamic Republic)

◦ Deng Xiaoping begins to open-up China’s economy China modernizes & liberalizes the economy Maintains & (arguably) increases the power of the CCP

◦ Margaret Thatcher elected PM of UK Free markets & privitizatation

◦ Mujahideen rose up against the Soviets in Afghan Beginning of the end of the USSR? The road to “9/11” and beyond

◦ Pope John Paul II visits Poland

A Bird Walk Through History

The Islamic Republic◦ Khomeini as Supreme Leader

consolidation of power and purges

occupation of US embassy Iran-Iraq war increased levels of repression

within Iran

The Evolution of the Iranian State

History Review: The Islamic Revolution

Shah began liberalizing Iran’s political system Groups pushed for greater reforms Revolutionary uprising: Khomeini best organized 1979 New Constitution

Parliament elected by universal suffrage Shah replaced by elected president

1979 to 1981◦ Secular moderates, competition for power◦ Khomeini gained upper hand, began instituting

Islamic law in all spheres of public life


Islamic Revolution◦ Charismatic leader: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Defended Islamic fundamentalism Quran, social conservatives, political tradionalists

Articulated resentments against elites and USA Redefined old Shia term “velayat-e faqih”

Jurists guardianship Originally gave senior clergy broad authority over

unfortunate people (widows, orphans, etc.) New: clerical authority over entire Shia community


Khomeini returns Islamic Republic established April 1979 New constitution by Assembly of Religious

Experts◦ Adopted through referendum

75% turnout; 99% yes US hostage crisis Consolidation of power by clerics

◦ Khomeini’s charisma and popularity◦ Irag’s invasion – rallied Iranian people to protect

country against a common enemy◦ Oil prices back up

Sparks that Began the Crisis

The Iranian Revolution was the first contemporary revolution in which dominant ideology, forms of organization, leadership cadres, and proclaimed goals were religious in form and aspiration.◦ A revolution led by the clergy, financed by the

bazaaris (traditional merchants), and fought by the urban poor, it led to the establishment of the 1st revolutionary theocracy in the modern era. While Western revolutions were all against church

and state, in Iran it was only directed against the state.

Comparing Characteristics and Outcomes of Some Revolutions

The ascendency of clerics to political power in Iran in 1979◦ Financial independence from the state◦ Strong communication networks◦ Legal centers of mobilization (mosques, seminaries,

religious foundations, etc.)◦ Numerous religious occasions◦ Historical/mythical figures◦ A centralized leadership w/ a well-defined

hierarchical structure◦ A ready blueprint for action◦ Shah’s regime suppressed the leftist competition


The Iranian Revolution remains the only modern social revolution in which the peasantry and rural guerilla warfare played a marginal role

Just like in China, the new revolutionary elites in Iran started a campaign of “cultural revolution” to purge their enemies◦ Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution◦ Iranian “cultural revolution” (1980-82)

“Hezbollahis” targeted leftist forces (communists) and liberal intellectuals (non-loyal and undesirable elements)

◦ Revolutionary zeal more important that technocratic expertise

◦ Educational systems came to a standstill


The leaders of both the Chinese and the Iranian revolutions (Mao and Khomeini) personified charismatic authority.

The founding fathers of the Russian and the Iranian revolutions (Lenin and Khomeini) each spent many years in exile.

Lenin & Khomeini both developed political theories that included the concept of “guardianship” (by the party; by the clergy)

Deng Xiaoping, Gorbachev, and Khatami were three reformist leaders who ventured to change the direction of a state born through revolution.


Historical Legacy: Iran-Iraq War

Khomeini began calling for overthrow of Iraq’s Saddam Hussein, provoked attack

War enabled revolutionary regime to consolidate power, means for suppressing dissent

Created “war” generation of veterans calling for social order, more political participation


Mixture of theocracy and democracy◦ “vox dei” & “vox populi”

Clerical authority AND popular sovereignty “divine right” of clergy AND rights of the

people◦ People have constitutional rights to speech,

assembly, etc. “within the criteria of Islam” Regular elections for presidency and Majles

(parliament) Clerically dominated Guardian Council

determined who can run for elected office

The Islamic Republic of Iran

◦ The Iranian state Elected Institutions

president Assembly of Experts Majlis

The People and Politics

◦ The Iranian state Unelected elements

Supreme Leader: controls military, media, judiciary, and clerical hierarchy

Guardian Council: approves all candidates and legislation

Expediency Council: mediates between majlis and Guardian Council

judiciaray



Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s guardianship) The principle instituted by Khomeini of

overarching authority for different government institutions:◦ Supreme Leader◦ Guardian Council◦ Assembly of Religious Experts◦ Expediency Council

This authority is all-encompassing and is over whole community based on their ability to understand shari’a and their commitment to champion the rights of the people

Institutions of the Islamic Republic An Honestly Undemocratic Constitution

◦ Elected reformers can be blocked by other not-elected political actors using powers included in the constitution

Multiple Power Centers◦ 1. Not content with purging state institutions of

individuals they deemed counterrevolutionary, revolutionaries built new ones whose competency overlapped with the old established ones.

◦ 2. The idea was that the old institutions would more or less carry on with business as usual, while the new institutions would actively pursue the realization and defense of the new Islamic order.


Attempted synthesis of the divine and popular sovereignty

Institutions were created by the revolutionaries to supplement the activities of the traditional state institutions In 1979, the revolutionaries inherited administrative

personnel whose commitment to the new ideology they did not trust

They created new institutions which would actively pursue the realization and defense of the new Islamic order while overlapping with the old established ones, who would carry on more or less with business as usual.

Multiple Power Centers

Examples◦ Office of the Revolutionary Prosecutor runs

parallel to the Ministry of Justice◦ The komitehs (revolutionary committees whose

members enforce aspects of the regime’s moral codes) parallel the police

◦ The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC or Pasdaran) originally safeguarded the revolution but has, in time, developed into a parallel army and even air force & navy.


In the 1990s, some state institutions came under the control of the reformists

Conservatives created new parallel institutions under the authority of the Supreme Leader◦ When the Ministry of Information/secret police

came to be staffed with reformists, the Judiciary (whose head is names by the Supreme Leader), set up a parallel secret police

Greatly complicate policymaking


Institutions of the Islamic Republic Leader

◦ Highest authority in Islamic Republic Combines religious, temporal

authority ◦ Assembly of Experts Choose Leader

President◦ Elected by universal suffrage every four years◦ Must be Twelver Shiite and male ◦ Does not have to be cleric


The constitution gives him wide-ranging powers

Functions as the vital link between the three branches◦ Mediates between the legislature, the executive,

and the judiciary “Determine the interests of Islam” “Supervise the implementation of general

policy” “Set political guidelines for the Islamic

Republic”

The Leader

Can eliminate presidential candidates Can dismiss the duly elected president Can grant amnesty As commander in chief, he can mobilize the

armed forces, declare war & peace, and convene the Supreme Military Council

He can appoint and dismiss the commanders of the Revolutionary Guards, as well as those of the regular army. Navy, and air force

The Leader

Nominate and remove the chief judge, the chief prosecutor, and the revolutionary tribunals

Nominates 6 clerics to the 12-man Guardian Council◦ Can veto parliamentary bills◦ Review all candidates for elected office

Appoints the Expediency Council◦ Resolves disputes between the Guardian Council

and the Majles◦ Can initiate laws on its own

The Leader

Fills a number of important non-governmental posts◦ Preachers at the main city mosques◦ Director of the radio-television network◦ Heads of the main religious endowments

(bonyads), Especially, the Foundation of the Oppressed

Cannot be dismissed (newest interpretation) Selected by the Assembly of Religious

Experts

The Leader

Chief executive 4-year term; two-term limit Conducts internal and external policies

◦ Signs all international treaties, laws, and agreements

◦ Chairs the National Security Council Responsible for defense

◦ Selects vice presidents and cabinet ministers◦ Appoints provincial governors, town mayors, and

ambassadors

The President

President is the formal head of executive branch◦ But, he can be overruled, even dismissed , by the

chief cleric (the Leader or Supreme Leader) President appoints the minister of justice

◦ Whole judiciary is under the supervision of the chief judge, who is appointed by the Leader


Institutions of the Islamic Republic

Parliament◦ Unicameral, the Majles: 290 members◦ Must be Muslims but Constitution provides for 5

members to represent Christians (3), Jews (1), Zoroastrians (1)

◦ Two features of political system limit the Majle’s legislative role: Many policies, rules, regulations are set by unelected

specialized bodies All bills subject to veto of Council of Guardians


Legislature (Majles) makes laws◦ But bills do not become law unless the Guardian

Council deems them compatible with Islam and the Islamic Constitution

Contemporary Iranian politics resonates with both◦ Vox dei (voice of God) and◦ Vov populi (voice of the people)◦ 2009 election was exception to above



Institutions of the Islamic Republic Council of Guardians

◦ 6 members of ulema, 6 lay Muslim lawyers◦ Ulema appointed by Leader, lawyers nominated

by Judiciary, approved by Parliament Expediency Council: for determination of what

is in interest of regime◦ Collective body for arbitration of conflict◦ Leader appoints 30 members of council◦ Helps leader formulate policy

An Honestly Undemocratic Constitution Multiple Power Centers


It has become an upper chamber to the Majles

Meets in secret Accountable only to the Leader

◦ 32 members including president, chief judge, speaker of the Majles, ministers of intelligence, oil, culture & foreign affairs, commander of the Revolutionary Guard, chief of the General Staff, and others

Expediency Council

Largely controlled by the Supreme Leader◦ Appoints the head of the judiciary

Who in turn appoints the head of the supreme court and chief public prosecutor

Public courts deal with civil and criminal cases

“Revolutionary” courts try crimes against national security, narcotics smuggling, and acts that undermine the Islamic Republic◦ Decisions cannot be appealed

The Judiciary

Laws are supposed to conform to religious law – shari’a

The principle of jurist’s guardianship means that the Supreme Leader, the Guardian Council, and the Assembly of Religious Experts have the final say regarding interpretation of law

Two types of law◦ Shari’a and Qunun

The Judiciary

Shari’a◦ Considered the foundation of all Islamic

civilization◦ Divine law derived from God◦ Meant to embody a vision of a community in

which all Muslims are brothers and sisters and subscribe to the same moral values

◦ Foundation of Iran’s political systems rest in the belief that shari’a supersedes all other types of law

◦ And its interpretation is the most important of all responsibilities for political and religious leaders

The Judiciary

Qanun◦ No sacred basis◦ Body of statutes made by legislative bodies◦ Must not contradict shari’a

Function of Guardian Council and the Supreme Leader to review work of legislature

Judicial review does exist in Iran However, ultimate legal authority does not

exist in the constitution, but in shari’a law itself

The Judiciary

The judicial system itself has been Islamized all the way down to the district courts

Created a penal code (Retribution Law) based on “an eye for an eye…”◦ Permitted families to demand “blood money” in

compensation◦ Extensive use of death penalty , including “moral

transgressions” Divided the population into male & female

and Muslims & non-Muslims and treated them unequally

The Judiciary

Iran:• Tradition of rule of law:▫ Rule by Shah▫ Sharia law adopted in 1979 Constitution

• Measurement:▫ Freedom House: PR-6, CL-6▫ World Bank Governance Percentile Rank: 23

• Institutions:▫ Chief Judge, Minister of Justice▫ Supreme Court, special courts (revolutionary, clerical)

Culture and Islamic Guidance◦ Controlling the media and enforcing “proper

conduct” in public life Intelligence Heavy Industries

◦ Manages the nationalized factors Reconstruction

◦ Expanding social services◦ Take “true Islam” into the countryside

Dominated by clergy

The Bureaucracy

Policy Formulation

State Institutions Mentioned in the Constitution◦ No state policy may contradict Islam

Leader Expediency Council National Security Council Council of Guardians Executive branch and parliament

State Institutions not Mentioned in the Constitution◦ Supreme Council for the Cultural Revolution

Power Centers and the Difficulty of Coordination◦ Multiple power centers, policies often not

coordinated◦ Judiciary, Revolutionary Guards


A. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps◦ Pasdaran in Persian◦ Military force (125,000 troops including ground

forces, navy, air force, intelligence & special forces) Controls the paramilitary Basij (Mobilization of the

Oppressed) Shock troops called out to use force to suppress dissent

◦ Growing political power

Retired officers taking on executive roles in government Head of key ministries: oil, energy, interior, defense New job – manage intelligence for Iran; report directly

to the Leader

Semi-Public Institutions

A. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps◦ “A business conglomerate with guns.”

Ties to over 100 companies that control roughly $12 billion in construction & engineering capital

Khatam al-Anbiya: holding company with control of more than 812 registered companies inside or outside Iran; recipient of 1700 gov’t contracts (often “no bid” under Ahmadinejad)

Majority stake in the main telcom company Thought to control around 1/3 of Iran’s economy

University labs, arms companies, car manufacturer


A. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps◦ Exercise additional control through:

B. Bonyads (Charitable Foundations)◦ See Briefing Paper pp. 42-43◦ Run by religious authorities◦ Often in competition with IRGC◦ Case study: “Inside Iran’s Holy Money Machine”

(WSJ, 2007) The Shrine of Imam Reza

C. Parastatels


Modern middle class Educated women Students

◦ Recent “protests” (1999, 2002, 2009?) Revolutionary Guard Basij Bonyads Bazaari Merchants

Important Political Groups

A. Overlaps and duplications leading to contradictions

B. Fatwas (religious edicts) by the leader C. Expediency Council to decide when to

override religious law D. Supreme Council for the Cultural

Revolution See Briefing Paper pp 38-42, 43-51

State policymaking

Policy Formulation Economic Policymaking: most contentious

topic 1980s liberal approach: private sector, market

mechanisms Mixed results, led to hardship, faced opposition

Under Ahmadinejad: Populist rhetoric of redistribution,

privatization Uses government contracts to reward allies

Spreading Progress and Prosperity◦ State educational system good◦ Birth control, health care◦ Roads, basic services


Recruiting the Political Elite

What kinds of people govern Iran?◦ Under Shah:

Small class of educated, secular Iranians who had personal loyalty to monarch

◦ Under Islamic Republic: Personalism Revolutionary pedigrees Clergy recruited into state Nonclerical parliamentarians, ministers emerge from

educational, military institutions Many new elite have come from ranks of Islamic

Revolutionary Guard Corps and Basij Kinship ties


A. Formerly based on revolutionary credentials

B. Currently based on selection from newly Islamicized universities, Islamic Revolutionary Guard, and Basij

Recruitment of political elites

Elections and Parties

The Prerevolutionary Legacy◦ Limited competitive elections◦ Suffrage for women◦ Parties weak

Postrevolutionary Parties◦ Islamic Republican Party (IRP)

Factionalism: ideological differences Conservatives Pragmatists Reformers

◦ 1990s: Khatami’s election, more parties appeared on scene, alliances are fluid


Personalized, not “catch-all” Not legalized until 1998

◦ Early stages of developing a party system◦ The Iranian “party system” resembles the party

system of …. ? Why? “… resemble professional groupings

engaged in political ventures rather than full-fledged groups of full-time activists.”◦ Briefing Paper pg 24◦ Overhead listing of pre-2005 parties

Political Parties

See Briefing Paper pg 25 Competitive & Institutionalized Majority needed for election The Majles election of 2004

◦ The conservations push back The Presidential election of 2005

◦ Why Ahmadinezhad (“The Accidental President”) won

The stolen election of 2009 “A New Hope?” Rouhani in 2013

Elections

Elections and Parties Parliamentary Elections

◦ Multimember constituencies Voter names as many candidates as there are seats

in constituency Top vote-getters in each constituency are elected, if

receive 50% of total vote Elections of 2004

Council of Guardians disallowed Reformist candidates

Call for boycott of election, 50% of population went to polls

◦ Elections of 2008 Reformist candidates disallowed, turnout again high New outspoken critics of Ahmadinejad


Elections and Parties: Presidential Elections

◦ 1980 first ever presidential election

◦ Next four elections: Khomeini associates

◦ Khatami: Outsider, appealed to those

who had been humiliated by regime

Promised greater cultural openness, personal freedom

2005 & 2009 elections: conservative mayor of Tehran, Mahud Ahmadinejad

2013 Rouhani (moderate? reformer?)



The Islamic Republic◦ Rafsanjani’s presidency

Rasanjani a pragmatist Khameini (new Supreme Leader) more

conservative Khatami’s presidency: moderate stressing

development of civil society Khameini’s (& Conservatives) reassertion of

power 2004 majlis election 2005, 2009 elections of Ahmadinejad “Green Movement” Protests

The Evolution of the Iranian State

Elections and Parties: Local Elections

◦ 1906 Constitution provided for elected local government councils, never constituted

◦ Similar provision, 1979 Constitution, began 1999 Iranians (first time) elected city, town, village councils Reformists won control over most councils

Elections 2003: low turnout Mostly conservatives, result: very conservative

councils December 2006: new elections

Participation increased Ahmadinejad conservatives won only a few

seats Rebuke for president’s handling of economy


◦ Political Culture no homogeneous political culture Social cleavages

Religion Ethnicity Social class

division between rural and urban poor and urban middle class and wealthy

Reformers and conservatives See Briefing Paper pp 28-30

unpredictable evolution of huge youth cohort


Political Culture System level

◦ Iranian nationalism, ancient Persia◦ Vanguard of Islamic world’s struggle against

Western domination◦ Ethic nationalism has become stronger among

Iran’s non-Persian populations◦ Right to develop nuclear energy Government used issue to shore up

legitimacy


Political Culture

Process level◦ Islamic revolution increased participation in

politics◦ Some disaffected◦ Extreme individualism◦ Lack of trust of government◦ Periodic emergence of charismatic leaders◦ Factionalism

See handout: “Iran Presidential Poll: Issues & Divisions”

Note: “Green Movement” of 2009


Factions in The Islamic Republic

Anti- Ahmadinejad coalition (pro-Khamene’i)◦ Captured approximately 75% of the seats

Pro-Ahmadinejad coalition = approximately 15-20%

Others – 5-10% Reformists – boycotted election

2012 Majiles election

Political Culture

Policy level◦ Oil: Iranians expect state to provide welfare,

material well-being for everybody, alleviate gap between rich and poor

◦ Corruption◦ Suspicion of private enterprise◦ Populism


Political Socialization

Education System: first to be Islamicized Military and Veterans: conscription Religion and Religious Institutions: more

divisive than unifying


Shi’ite Islam plays a role in political socialization – through mosques

Schools ◦ “secularized” under Shah◦ Return to religion after Islamic Revolution

Established pro-regime volunteer organizations to monitor and contend with political activities of students◦ See Briefing paper pg 30◦ Universities subject to periodic attempts to “cleanse”

and “purify” recent examples as reported in the news


A. Public role pronounced, but state unable to monopolize religious belief and practice

1. Divisive role of religion 2. Local variations in religious observance 3. Satellite dishes and the Internet 4. University-educated younger generation

Role of religion

Policy Outcomes

Islamization of Society◦ Alcohol banned except for non-Muslim

minorities◦ Veiling enforced in public spaces◦ State committed to minimizing contact

between unrelated men, women◦ Religious content of education vastly expanded◦ Gruesome physical punishment to adulterers,

homosexuals, offenders of religious morality◦ Outwardly a success, underneath surface:

bootlegging, prostitution, drugs, corruption◦ Religious practice has become more private



Mass Media: role is unifying and divisive Family and Social Groups: family dynamic

changing, popular voices no influence


Feedback: media independent but heavily regulated by government◦ See Briefing Paper pg 31◦ Criminal offense to use “pen and speech” against

the government (1981)◦ Radio and TV are government run

Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) Head is directly appointed by the Leader

◦ Newspapers and magazines are privately owned

Mass Media

Media has some function to criticize the government◦ But not directly

Exact rules for the media are vague Rules change depending on who’s in charge Satellite dishes are illegal, but many

Iranians have them anyway◦ Examples of media controls in the news◦ See Freedom House analysis

Mass Media

Protest and challenges to the Islamic Republic◦ 1999, 2003, and 2007 (mostly students)◦ no organized democratic movement

Elections and the prospects for Democracy◦ freest electoral system in Middle East

eight presidential and seven legislative elections

dozens of parties unelected Guardian Council blocks

democracy


Conclusion: Uncertainty◦ internal and external forces ambiguous◦ reaction of huge youth cohort to change or lack

of change unpredictable◦ attitudes of leadership uncertain

Interest Articulation and Aggregation

Forms of interest articulation and aggregation◦ Noninstitutional Clientelism and patron-client

networks◦ Institutionalized Voting, weakness of party

organizations Institutional Groups and Professional

Organizations Nonassociational Social Groups Demonstrations and Public Protests


Elections Patron-client relations Personalistic relations

Interest Aggregation & Articulation

Interest articulation◦ Interest Groups◦ Political parties are ill-defined◦ Difficult to draw the lines between parties and

interest groups◦ Groups register with the government◦ Examples

Islamic Association of Women Green Coalition Workers House

Factory workers Political party = Islamic Labor Party Published own newspaper

Linkage Institutions

A. Women B. Bazaari merchants

◦ Political backing has been important◦ Have lost some power recently◦ Go on strike to protest proposed government

actions; e.g. tax increases ◦ See Briefing Paper pg. 42

C. War veterans D. Families of martyrs and those disabled in

Iran-Iraq war

Autonomous associations

G. Policy failures—unable to spread Islamic moral values

1. prostitution 2. drug addiction 3. bootlegging 4. corruption H. Inability to aggregate interests

successfully

State policymaking


Policy Outcomes

Gender Relations ◦ Legal restrictions on women’s rights◦ Discriminations instituted by Islamic Republic◦ Fields of study closed to women◦ Sports restricted, attire incompatible with

veiling◦ Compete in sports, at locations men not

admitted◦ Women increasing participation in public life◦ Many working outside home◦ Universities’ restrictions on studies being lifted◦ Mal-veiling◦ Islamic feminism


Faith and gender◦ theocracy◦ treatment of women is a telling sign of state of

affairs The Economy

◦ average wealth equal to Mexico or Russia◦ dependence on export of oil◦ poverty, inflation, and unemployment of youth are

unsolved problems◦ bonyads, created from seized property of former

regime leaders and powerful economic influence

Public Policy

E. Results—centralized control and totalitarianism untenable

F. Policy successes—◦ state educational system, ◦ improving lot of the poor,◦ lowering birth rates, ◦ improving healthcare, and ◦ improving the countryside and general provision

of services to citizens

State policymaking

Policy Outcomes

Foreign Policy ◦ Under Shah - US an ally◦ Now – neither East nor West

1990s: national interest rather than exporting revolution dominated

Third World desire to escape hegemony of West Regional trade in goods, services with Middle East Emboldened Kurds of Iran Main issue confronting Iranian diplomacy is

nuclear program◦ International Atomic Energy Agency monitoring◦ Sanctions


A. Transition from exporting Islamic Revolution to protect national interest

B. Continued international isolation due to anti-Western policies, nuclear program, and support of Hizballah in Lebanon

C. Schism with Sunni Muslims likely to limit influence on Islamists worldwide

Foreign policy and position in the world

A. Conspiracy theories B. Lack of trust towards media C. Socialization through schools and military D. Cleansing of universities of

“counterrevolutionary elements” E. Role of family and neighborhood as areas

for debate

Effects of position in international system

Iran and the United States: Toward the Next War?

◦ US involvement since ’53 coup◦ hostile policies from US

attacks during embassy occupation opposition during Iran-Iraq war “axis of evil” label

◦ ambiguity of nuclear power/weapons program◦ economic influence

Public Policy

Conclusion

Faced many challenges and survived

Reopening of debate: What is the proper relation between religion and politics in Iran?


Documents

Copyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved