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Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Discussion of paper requirementsSocial CognitionEgocentrismTheory of mindPreschool Social WorldErikson’s Autonomy versus GuiltFrustration ToleranceDelay of gratificationSelf constancySex-typed behaviorGender-role conceptGender constancyPeer relations. FriendshipEmotional regulationAggression and prosocial behaviorPlay and role playingParent’s rolesCoherence and Behavioral Development
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Final paper will address the following:A summary of the claim(s) of the popular articleAn evaluation of the popular articles claims based on the research you reviewed. This should be a critical review. If the articles have contradictory results or differing conclusions, present hypotheses about why this might be soA proposal for the kind of additional research that should be done to increase our understanding of the topicReferences for all works cited in your paperWhen you turn in your final paper you will attach as appendices:Your analysis of the popular article or web site postingA grading sheet that is the second page of this document
Part 1 of paper Introduction
Introduce the major topic or area about which you are going to write
Describe the claims and conclusion from your popular article
Describe the plan of your paper
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
II. Review the methods and results of the research articles you read.
Evaluate the claims in the popular article based on the results from the research articles.
Propose the kind of research that you believe should be done in the future to advance our knowledge in this area.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1. Description of the area of developmental psychology that your paper addresses (10%) 2.
2. Description of popular article claims that you will be evaluating (10%) 3. 3. Summaries of at least 2 research articles (40%)
(, results, and conclusions, and connection to popular claims)
4. . Conclusions about the claims in the popular article (15%)
5. Proposal for future research (10%.) 6. Required addendum: First part of the paprer that
summarizes the popular article, this grading sheet (5%)
7. Quality of writing (10%)
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Understanding of the social world.
Social cognition:
• Deals with the impact of children's cognitive skills on their social relationships and the role of social interaction in supporting cognitive development.
• Children start to learn how other people think and feel, what their motives and intentions are, and what they are likely to do.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Egocentrism in Preschoolers
Egocentrism
Inability to understand others’ perspectives.
Perceptual egocentrism
Not differentiating one’s own perceptual experience from someone else’s.
Cognitive egocentrism
Failing to take into account someone else’s cognitive perspective.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Egocentrism in Preschoolers
Overcoming egocentrism Knowledge of existence: Realizing
other people have thoughts, viewpoints, & desires that differ from the child’s.
Awareness of need: Realizing it can be useful to consider another’s perspective.
Social inference: Reading another person’s actions and imagining that person’s point of view.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Child’s Theory of Mind
In developing a theory of mind, children come to understand 5 principles:
1. Minds exist.2. Minds have connections to the physical
world.3. Minds are separate and different from the
physical world.4. Minds can represent objects & events
accurately or inaccurately.5. Minds actively interpret reality &
emotional experiences.
Theory of mind:An understanding of the mind & mental operations.Theory of mind:An understanding of the mind & mental operations.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Communication and the Declineof Egocentrism
Egocentric speech is seen both when children talk to themselves while playing and in collective monologues.
Preschoolers often have difficulty communicating information to a listener in a nonegocentric way, especially abstract thoughts.
Preschoolers do show some evidence of adjusting their speech to the needs of their listeners under certain circumstances.
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Preschool Social & Emotional DevelopmentChildren between ages 21/2-5 experience:
Dramatically expanding world. Notable developments in self-
reliance, self-control, & self-regulation.
Exploration of adult roles.
A major theme of this chapter is the organization and coherence of preschoolers’ behavior.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Some Hallmarks of Early ChildhoodSocial & Emotional DevelopmentThe Child’s Expanding World Through day-care, nursery school, and
kindergarten experiences, children come into contact with peers.
Peer relationships formed in these settings play an important role in children's social and emotional development.
Sibling relationships become increasingly important during this period.
All of these new developments influence each other.
Erikson Autonomy versus Guilt
Child learning to be independent, on his or her own
Guilt, a response to growing internal standards
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Moving Toward Greater Self-Reliance
Greater self-reliance is supported by several capacities of 3- & 4-year-olds:
motor skills such as climbing & manipulating objects language & other cognitive abilities that enable
them to think, plan, solve problems growing ability to tolerate delays & frustrations emerging capacity for imagination & fantasy play
Initiative: A child’s sense of independent purposefulness (Erikson).
Initiative: A child’s sense of independent purposefulness (Erikson).
Self-efficacy:The sense of being able to do things effectively on one’s own (Bandura).
Self-efficacy:The sense of being able to do things effectively on one’s own (Bandura).
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Self-Control & Self-RegulationEffortful control:Ability to suppress some strong behavior, such as: slowing down when running talking more quietly
Self-regulation includes: effortful control ability to direct their own activities adjusting behavior & emotional
expression to fit the situation
Luria studies Press one bulb if green light, a second if
red light. Press/don’t press Mother may I game
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Delay of Gratification One candy now, more if the child waits Individual differences Stevenson study of reflective/impulsive
kids as a function of SES/ethnicity
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Developing SelfChanges in Self-Understanding more comprehensive sense of self observe their own behavior have trouble understanding they’re the
same person when they feel different
Self-constancy:A sense that the self endures despite
temporary disruptions in relationships.
Self-constancy:A sense that the self endures despite
temporary disruptions in relationships.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Gender and the Self
Sex-typed behavior:Actions that conform
to cultural expectations about what is appropriate for boys and for girls.
Gender-role concept:
Knowledge of cultural stereotypes regarding males and females.
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Changes in Sex-Typed Behavior Sex-typed behavior develops gradually. By age 2, children show gender-related
preferences in toys. By age 3 to 4, sex-typed behavior
increases. Parents and peers generally support
gender-”appropriate” play and show disapproval of gender-”inappropriate” play during this time.
Mothers are often more accepting of “cross-gender” play.
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Developing Gender-Role Concepts By 4-5, children start learning more
abstract cultural beliefs about gender -- gender-role concepts.
The male role is more instrumental and the female role is more expressive.
Gender segregation appears in the preschool classroom and among friends.
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Gender constancy:
Understanding that gender is permanent despite superficial changes.
related to concepts of conservation
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Examining Sex-Typed Behaviorand Gender-Role Development
Social learning theorists explain these developments partly in terms of rewards and punishments for appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
Cognitive theorists see gender-role learning as one example of children’s emerging understanding of categories, scripts, and schemas.
Gender schema theory: combines elements of cognitive and social learning
theory holds that children form concept or schema or male
and female characteristics, with content based on the child’s social and learning history.
Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes developmental changes in relationships with parents.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Social Development:The New World of Peers
Competence with PeersDuring the preschool period children
begin to interact: sustained coordinated highly complex
Social competence = good peer relations.
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Early Friendships By about age 4, children have the
capacity to maintain friendships through their own efforts.
Children who are friends behave differently with each other than they do with non-friends. More frequent positive exchanges More cooperative in problem-solving tasks Disagree more often Conflicts are less heated, result in fairer
solutions, and do not lead to separation
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Importance of Peer Relationships
The peer group helps children learn about concepts of fairness, reciprocity, and cooperation.
Learn to manage interpersonal aggression
Cultural norms and values Greatly affects self-concept and future
interactions.
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Emotional DevelopmentYoung Children’s Understanding of
EmotionBy age 6, children understand:
good sad jealous proud embarrassed miserable
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The Growth of Emotional RegulationEmotional regulation
Capacities to: control & direct emotional expression maintain organized behavior be guided by emotional experiences
Delay of gratification
Ability to forego an immediate reward in favor of a better reward at a later time.
Ego resiliency
Ability to modify self-restraint to adapt to changing circumstances.
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Internalizing Standards Once the child internalizes standards, he
or she will comply with parents’ prohibitions even when parents aren’t present.
By age 4, children view moral transgressions (e.g., hitting or not sharing) as more serious than conventional transgressions (e.g., eating ice cream with your fingers).
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Self-Evaluative Emotions
Guilt and pride involve evaluating the self against internalized standards.
Guilt no longer arises only from fear of punishment.
True pride is distinguished from toddlers’ joy in mastery because it is based on self-evaluation.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Emotional Development, Aggression,and Prosocial Behavior
Aggression:Negative acts intended to harm
others or their possessions.
Prosocial Behavior:Positive feelings & acts toward
others, with intention of benefiting them.
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Developmental Changes in Aggression
During late preschool and early elementary school years, overall level of physical aggressiveness declines because of a drop in instrumental aggression.
Instrumental aggression
Aggression used as a means to get something.
Hostile aggression
Aggression aimed solely at hurting someone else.Clip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Development of Empathy & Altruism
Empathy underlies altruism. When empathy is aroused, children
are more willing to be helpful to others.
Empathy Ability to experience the emotions of another person.
Altruism Acting unselfishly to aid someone else.
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The Development of Empathy & Altruism
Phases in empathy & altruism1. Primitive capacity for empathy (infancy)
2. More purposeful helping behaviors (toddlerhood)
3. Capacity to take others’ perspectives and respond to others’ needs (early childhood)
Preschool children's prosocial behavior is greatly influenced by their parents' style of caregiving.
Considerations include:– Consequences for the victim
– Principles and expectations regarding kindness
– Conveying the entire message with intensity of feeling about the issues involved
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The Role of Play inPreschool Development
Play serves a variety of cognitive, emotional, & social functions, providing opportunities for:
dealing with conflict and fear working through developmental
issues trying out social roles
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Play and Mastery of Conflict
Play becomes the child’s tool for: dealing with conflict mastering what is frightening or
painful working through ongoing
developmental issues confronting problems actively
Stages in the Development of Play Solitary play Onlooker behavior Parallel play Cooperative play (dramatic play)
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Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Role Playing
Role playing provides opportunities to:
try out social roles try out cultural values play as mommies, daddies, doctors,
police officers, or robbers act out aspirations as well as fears
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The Parents’ Role inEarly Childhood Development
Important Aspects of Parenting in the Preschool Period: Consistency in the parents' approach to
discipline Agreement between the parents concerning
child-rearing practices Gradually giving the child more responsibility,
while still being available to help if needed Displaying clear roles and values in their own
action Showing the flexible self-control they hope to
promote in their child
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Authoritative parenting
A parenting style in which the parents are nurturant, responsive, and supportive, yet set firm limits for their children.
Permissive parenting
A parenting style in which parents fail to set firm limits or to require appropriately mature behavior of their children.
Authoritarian parenting
A parenting style in which parents are unresponsive, inflexible, and harsh in controlling behavior.
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Identification with Parents
Identification:The process by which children strive to be
like their parents in thoughts and feelings as well as in actions.
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Psychoanalytic theory holds that children strive to be like their parents in actions, thoughts, and feelings.
Allows children to internalize control previously provided by parents, along with parental values and other characteristics.
Cannot take place until the child has the cognitive ability to understand parents' feelings and attitudes.
Security of attachment during infancy and toddlerhood is important.
Coercive techniques may get child to comply, but more positive approaches bring more enthusiastic cooperation.
Identification with Parents
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The Coherence ofBehavior & DevelopmentThe Coherence of the Self Children's behavior reflects a coherent
underlying self. Clusters of characteristics tend to go
together in a logical, consistent way. Self-esteem Self-control Empathy
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The Coherence of Behavior Over Time
Preschoolers with a history of secure attachment in infancy tend to have certain positive patterns of behavior.
Very different, negative behavioral profiles are associated with preschoolers with a history of anxious/resistant attachment.
Those with anxious/avoidant attachment are often hostile and aggressive toward others or emotionally isolated.
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Explaining Developmental Coherence Children are becoming consistent forces
in their own development. They tend to elicit certain reactions from
others. Those reactions reinforce how the child
tends to think and act.
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Explaining Developmental Coherence
Preschool teachers tend to: Respond in ways that reinforce the emerging
personalities of young children. Be warm and accepting with well-managed, self-reliant,
and sociable children. They directly promote the acceptance of these children by
peers. Be quite controlling of children who are timid or
impulsive, and are more likely to make allowances.
In other words, they tend to reinforce the behavior pattern a child already showed.
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Stability & Change in Individual Behavior
Secure attachment promotes self-worth and abiding sense of relatedness or connectedness to others, which Erikson calls basic trust.
Subsequently, parents of securely attached children develop a control system for exerting control over their children without stifling exploration and autonomy.
Fundamental change in children is always possible.
However, it becomes more difficult as personality increasingly stabilizes.