Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—1 Major Determinants of Performance Person: Ability—the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that a person

Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—7—11

Major Determinants of PerformanceMajor Determinants of Performance

Person:Person: Ability—the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to Ability—the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to

learning that a person brings to a task or job.learning that a person brings to a task or job. Knowledge is what a person knows.Knowledge is what a person knows. Skill is the capacity to perform an activity.Skill is the capacity to perform an activity. Receptiveness to learning is how quickly a person Receptiveness to learning is how quickly a person

acquires new knowledge.acquires new knowledge. Accurate role perceptions—how well individuals Accurate role perceptions—how well individuals

understand the behaviors they are expected to perform understand the behaviors they are expected to perform as members of the organization.as members of the organization.

The expected goals (outcomes) to be achieved.The expected goals (outcomes) to be achieved. How to go about achieving the goals.How to go about achieving the goals.


Major Determinants of PerformanceMajor Determinants of Performance

Person (cont’d):Person (cont’d): Motivation—an internal state that energizes, directs, and Motivation—an internal state that energizes, directs, and

sustains behavior; it is a consequence of:sustains behavior; it is a consequence of: The desire to fulfill unmet needs.The desire to fulfill unmet needs. The desire to resolve cognitive dissonance (conflicting The desire to resolve cognitive dissonance (conflicting

thoughts that produce anxiety).thoughts that produce anxiety). Work Motivation—the amount of effort a person will Work Motivation—the amount of effort a person will

exert to achieve a certain level of job performance.exert to achieve a certain level of job performance.

Situation:Situation: Performance environment—factors that impact Performance environment—factors that impact

employees’ performance but are essentially out of their employees’ performance but are essentially out of their control.control.


Motivation: Direction and IntensityMotivation: Direction and Intensity

DirectionDirection What (i.e., the target or goal) a person wants to achieve.What (i.e., the target or goal) a person wants to achieve.

Clarifying direction results in accurate role Clarifying direction results in accurate role perceptions.perceptions.

Differences in employee direction and organizational Differences in employee direction and organizational direction create conflicts between employees and the direction create conflicts between employees and the organization.organization.

IntensityIntensity The degree to which people try (make the effort) to The degree to which people try (make the effort) to

achieve their targets.achieve their targets. Lack of intensity results in employees who perform Lack of intensity results in employees who perform

poorly in attaining personal or organizational goals.poorly in attaining personal or organizational goals.


Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation

Content motivation theoriesContent motivation theories Theories that focus on the content of Theories that focus on the content of what factorswhat factors

(needs) motivate people.(needs) motivate people.

Process motivation theoriesProcess motivation theories Theories that address Theories that address how and why how and why people become people become

motivated.motivated.


NeedsNeeds

NeedNeed A human condition that becomes energized when A human condition that becomes energized when

people feel deficient in some respect.people feel deficient in some respect. Needs provide direction for motivation:Needs provide direction for motivation:

When a need is energized, people are motivated to When a need is energized, people are motivated to satisfy it; once satisfied, the need no longer motivates.satisfy it; once satisfied, the need no longer motivates.

HedonismHedonism Early motivation theory that assumes people are Early motivation theory that assumes people are

motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek pleasure, avoid pain).pleasure, avoid pain).


Content Theories of MotivationContent Theories of Motivation

Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)

Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

ERG Theory (Alderfer) ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg)Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)Self-Determination Theory (SDT)



Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)Manifest Needs Theory (Murray) The theory assumes that behavior is driven by the The theory assumes that behavior is driven by the

desire to satisfy manifest (most current) needs.desire to satisfy manifest (most current) needs. Latent needs—Latent needs—needs which an individual may have needs which an individual may have

but are not evident in their current behaviors.but are not evident in their current behaviors. Primary (instinctive) needs—Primary (instinctive) needs—physiological needs.physiological needs. Secondary (learned) needs—Secondary (learned) needs—psychological needs.psychological needs.



Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)Learned Needs Theory (McClelland) The theory assumes that people’s behavior in The theory assumes that people’s behavior in

organizations is based on three principal needs:organizations is based on three principal needs: Need for Achievement (nAch)—Need for Achievement (nAch)—the need to excel at the need to excel at

the tasks they are performing.the tasks they are performing. Need for Affiliation (nAff)—Need for Affiliation (nAff)—the need to establish and the need to establish and

maintain warm and friendly relationships with other maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people.people.

Need for power (nPow)—Need for power (nPow)—the need to control things, the need to control things, especially other people; reflects a motivation to especially other people; reflects a motivation to influence and be responsible for other people.influence and be responsible for other people.



Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow) The theory assumes that a higher order need is not The theory assumes that a higher order need is not

manifest and cannot remain manifest unless lower order manifest and cannot remain manifest unless lower order needs are satisfied.needs are satisfied.

Physiological needsPhysiological needs—air, water, food, sex, and sleep.—air, water, food, sex, and sleep. Safety and security needsSafety and security needs—freedom from danger.—freedom from danger. Social needs—Social needs—receive love and affection from others.receive love and affection from others. Ego and esteem needsEgo and esteem needs——to be respected by others.to be respected by others. Self-actualization—Self-actualization—the need for self-fulfillment.the need for self-fulfillment.


Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Egoand Esteem

SelfActualization

Social

Safety and Security

Physiological and Survival

FIGURE 7FIGURE 7–2–2Source: Based on A. H. Maslow. 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Bulletin 50:370–396.



Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory The theory compresses Maslow’s five need categories The theory compresses Maslow’s five need categories

into three: einto three: existence needs, rxistence needs, relatedness needs, growth elatedness needs, growth needs.needs.

Four components of motivationFour components of motivation Satisfaction progressionSatisfaction progression—moving to higher-order —moving to higher-order

needs as lower-order needs are satisfied.needs as lower-order needs are satisfied. FrustrationFrustration—failure to satisfy a need.—failure to satisfy a need. Frustration regressionFrustration regression—reverting to a previously —reverting to a previously

satisfied need after failing to satisfy another need.satisfied need after failing to satisfy another need. AspirationAspiration—satisfaction of the growth need increases —satisfaction of the growth need increases

its importance and the desire for more growth.its importance and the desire for more growth.


Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

Growth Needs1. Internal Self-Esteem Needs2. Self-Actualization Needs

Relatedness Needs1. Social Needs2. Social Esteem Needs3. Interpersonal Safety Needs

Existence Needs1. Physiological Needs2. Material Safety Needs

FIGURE 7FIGURE 7–3–3


SatisfyingSatisfyingExistence, Existence, RelatednesRelatedness, and s, and Growth Growth NeedsNeeds

Existence Opportunities• Heat • Air Conditioning • Clean Air• Lighting • Rest Rooms • Drinking Water• Base Salary • Cafeteria • Safe Conditions• Insurance • Job Security • No Layoffs• Retirement • Health Programs • Time Off

Relatedness Opportunities• Friendship • Quality Supervision• Interpersonal Security • Work Teams• Athletic Teams • Social Events• Social Recognition • Merit Pay

Growth Opportunities• Challenging Job • Autonomy• Creativity • Interesting Work• Organizational Advancement • Achievement• Responsibility • Participation

FIGURE 7FIGURE 7–4–4



Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene TheoryHerzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory The theory posits that there are two sets of needs The theory posits that there are two sets of needs

(motivators and hygienes) that affect individual (motivators and hygienes) that affect individual motivation and that they are not on a single continuum.motivation and that they are not on a single continuum.

Motivators (growth needs/satisfiers)Motivators (growth needs/satisfiers)—long-term needs —long-term needs related to job content; to having sense of achievement related to job content; to having sense of achievement (growth and self-actualization) from performing a job.(growth and self-actualization) from performing a job.

Hygienes (dissatisfiers)—job context needs that must Hygienes (dissatisfiers)—job context needs that must be met for an individual to avoid dissatisfaction; they be met for an individual to avoid dissatisfaction; they do not necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.do not necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.


Process Theories of MotivationProcess Theories of Motivation

Operant Conditioning TheoryOperant Conditioning Theory

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Goal TheoryGoal Theory

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory



Operant Conditioning TheoryOperant Conditioning Theory The theory posits that people learn to behave in a The theory posits that people learn to behave in a

particular fashion as a result of the consequences that particular fashion as a result of the consequences that have followed their past behaviors.have followed their past behaviors. Operant conditioningOperant conditioning——a learning process based on a learning process based on

the results produced by a person “operating on” the the results produced by a person “operating on” the environment. The reaction of the environment is to environment. The reaction of the environment is to reward, punish, or ignore the person.reward, punish, or ignore the person.

ReinforcementReinforcement——occurs when a consequence makes occurs when a consequence makes behavior more likely to be repeated.behavior more likely to be repeated.

Extinction—Extinction—occurs when a consequence or no occurs when a consequence or no consequence makes behavior less likely to be repeated.consequence makes behavior less likely to be repeated.



Operant Conditioning TheoryOperant Conditioning Theory Learning process steps:Learning process steps:

Stimulus (S)Stimulus (S)——any situation or perceived event to any situation or perceived event to which an individual responds.which an individual responds.

Response (R)Response (R)——any behavior or action taken in any behavior or action taken in reaction to a stimulus.reaction to a stimulus.

Consequence (C)Consequence (C)—any event (positive or negative) —any event (positive or negative) following a response that makes the response more (or following a response that makes the response more (or less) likely to recur.less) likely to recur.



Operant Conditioning Theory (cont’d)Operant Conditioning Theory (cont’d) Making a response more likely by:Making a response more likely by:

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement Avoidance learningAvoidance learning

Making a response less likely by:Making a response less likely by: PunishmentPunishment NonreinforcementNonreinforcement



Equity TheoryEquity Theory Theory states that motivation is affected by the an Theory states that motivation is affected by the an

individual’s perception of the equity (“fairness”) of the individual’s perception of the equity (“fairness”) of the outcomes (rewards) they receive in return for their outcomes (rewards) they receive in return for their inputs (efforts), compared to the outcomes and inputs inputs (efforts), compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people (referent others).of other people (referent others).

Referent other ratio comparisons:Referent other ratio comparisons: State of equityState of equity—ratio comparison is satisfactory.—ratio comparison is satisfactory. OverrewardOverreward—ratio comparison favors the individual.—ratio comparison favors the individual. UnderrewardUnderreward—ratio comparison favors the referent —ratio comparison favors the referent

other.other.



Goal TheoryGoal Theory The theory states that people will perform better if they The theory states that people will perform better if they

have difficult, specific accepted performance goals or have difficult, specific accepted performance goals or objectives.objectives.

People will attempt to achieve those goals that they People will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend to achieve.intend to achieve.

Difficult goals result in better performance than easy Difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals.goals.

Specific goals are better than vague goals.Specific goals are better than vague goals. People must accept goals as their own if they are to People must accept goals as their own if they are to

work toward achieving them.work toward achieving them. People must commit to goals to achieve them.People must commit to goals to achieve them.



Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory The theory posits that rational people will exert high The theory posits that rational people will exert high

levels of effort to perform at high levels so they can levels of effort to perform at high levels so they can obtain valued outcomes.obtain valued outcomes.

DirectionDirection——which alternative to choose?which alternative to choose? Intensity—Intensity—how much effort to implement the how much effort to implement the

alternative?alternative? Valence—Valence—the degree to which a person perceives an the degree to which a person perceives an

outcome as being desirable, neutral, or undesirable.outcome as being desirable, neutral, or undesirable. Organizations must make outcomes contingent upon Organizations must make outcomes contingent upon

performance and they should also equitably distribute performance and they should also equitably distribute outcomes based on performance.outcomes based on performance.

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Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—1 Major Determinants of Performance Person: Ability—the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that a person