COPERNICUS RISING

An Actor’s Guide

Susan Patrick Benson, DirectorMichael A. Rose, PlaywrightNeal Ryan Shaw, Dramaturg

Table of Contents

Scenic Breakdown of Copernicus Rising 1

Character Biographies 5Nicolas Copernicus 5George Rheticus 7Tycho Brahe 8Andreas Osiander 9Galileo Galilei 10Albert Einstein 11Simone de Beauvoir 13

Glossary 17

Polish History 21A Brief History of Poland 21A Brief History of Church in Poland 23

Astronomy 27Medieval-Renaissance Astronomy 27Copernican Astronomy 34Galileo and Astronomy 38Tycho Brahe's Observations 42

Existentialism 45Existentialism 45Simone de Beauvoir, Philosopher of the Self 49Existential Primer: Jean-Paul Sartre 54

Fun Stuff 58Ten Obscure Factoids Concerning Albert Einstein 58Tycho Brahe's Nose And The Story Of His Pet Moose 59Fun Astronomy Facts 61Quotes by Galileo 62Quotes by Simone de Beauvoir 63"Einstein and Copernicus" 64

Scenic Breakdown of Copernicus Rising

I.ii

1543. Copernicus' deathbed, Frauenberg.Copernicus demands to speak with Rheticus.Rheticus is a professor at Wittenberg now (historical fudging: in

reality he was at the University of Leipzig by now).

(flashback to:)

1539, May. Frauenberg.George Rheticus comes from Wittenberg to study with Copernicus.

(shift to:)

The Dreamscape.Copernicus meets Galileo, who attempts to convince him that his

influence on the future is at stake.

(shift back to:)

Deathbed.Copernicus tells Doctor to pass some letters along to Rheticus.

I.ii

1543. Johann Petreius' print shop, Nurnberg. (More fudging: this reallytook place in 1541.)

Rheticus brings Copernicus' De Revolutionibus to Petreius' shop tobe printed.

Because he has other obligations, Petreius entrusts the job toAndreas Osiander.

(shift to:)

1543. Copernicus deathbed, Frauenberg.The Doctor and Nurse discover that Copernicus has fallen into a

coma.

(shift to:)

The Dreamscape.Copernicus and Galileo meet Tycho Brahe, who historically

~ 1 ~

challenged the views of Copernicus. Here Brahe ridiculeshim for being so incompetent.

They duel.Galileo leads Copernicus further into the future.

I.iii

Some time between 1539-41. Copernicus' observation room.Copernicus and Rheticus discuss the difficulties of being a

visionary.

(shift to:)

The Dreamscape.Galileo and Copernicus meet Einstein, who historically was indebted

to Copernicus for his (Einstein's) Special Theory of Relativity.Einstein leads them through the "time stream".

(shift to:)

Late 1570's. Public forum. (This never really took place. Rheticus haddied by this point, anyway.)

Copernicus, Galileo and Einstein witness a lecture given by TychoBrahe.

The lecture is interrupted by Rheticus, who defends Copernicus.

(shift back to:)

The Dreamscape.Einstein shows Copernicus the negative effect that progress can

have on society, in the example of the atom bomb.

II.i

1543 (More fudging: really '41). Petreius' shop, Nurnberg.Petreius hands over to Osiander the task of printing Copernicus'

manuscript. Osiander replaces Copernicus' preface with hisown, less controversial, unsigned introduction, as well aschanges the title.

Rheticus returns to collect the copies, and notices the new addition.Argues with Petreius over it. Petreius admits ignorance.

(shift to:)

~ 2 ~

The Dreamscape. The Stream of Consciousness.Copernicus, Galileo and Einstein meet the explorer, who is

navigating the stream.

II.ii

Some time between 1539-41. Copernicus' observatory.While Copernicus and Rheticus are working, they are called upon by

two Papal Guards, who pass along orders for Copernicus tocease his controversial investigations.

(shift to:)

The Dreamscape.Copernicus, Galileo, Einstein and the Explorer enter the Collective

Unconscious, where they meet Simone de Beauvoir.De Beauvoir informs Copernicus that he is the master of his own

destiny; she also demostrates the power of the CollectiveUnconscious.

II.iii

1542. Rheticus' room.Rheticus writes a letter discussing Copernicus' methods.Copernicus enters, and Rheticus confronts him with the idea of

finally publishing his work.Copernicus imagines three different ways he could make the

decision.Copernicus reveals to Rheticus a letter he received from Cardinal

Schonberg of Capua, entreating him to communicate hisideas to the public.

Rheticus volunteers to take the manuscript to the press himself.

(shift to:)

The Dreamscape.Copernicus, Galilieo, Einstein, Simone and Tycho Brahe discuss

what Copernicus will do next, now that he has decided topublish.

II.iv

1543. Copernicus' deathbed, Frauenberg.Rheticus returns with the printed copies of De Revolutionibus.

~ 3 ~

Copernicus wakes from his coma, aware of his place in theuniverse.

Rheticus shows him the books; Copernicus notices the additions.Nevertheless, he accepts the copies, and implores Rheticus to carry

on his legacy.Copernicus dies.

~ 4 ~

Character Biographies

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

Copernicus is said to be the founder of modernastronomy. He was born in Poland, and eventually wassent off to Cracow University, there to studymathematics and optics; at Bologna, canon law.Returning from his studies in Italy, Copernicus, throughthe influence of his uncle, was appointed as a canon inthe cathedral of Frauenburg where he spent a shelteredand academic life for the rest of his days. Because ofhis clerical position, Copernicus moved in the highestcircles of power; but a student he remained. For relaxation Copernicuspainted and translated Greek poetry into Latin. His interest in astronomygradually grew to be one in which he had a primary interest. Hisinvestigations were carried on quietly and alone, without help orconsultation. He made his celestial observations from a turret situated onthe protective wall around the cathedral, observations were made "bareeyeball," so to speak, as a hundred more years were to pass before theinvention of the telescope. In 1530, Copernicus completed and gave tothe world his great work De Revolutionibus, which asserted that the earthrotated on its axis once daily and traveled around the sun once yearly: afantastic concept for the times. Up to the time of Copernicus the thinkersof the western world believed in the Ptolemiac theory that the universewas a closed space bounded by a spherical envelope beyond which therewas nothing. Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian living in Alexandria, at about150 A.D., gathered and organized the thoughts of the earlier thinkers. (Itis to be noted that one of the ancient Greek astronomers, Aristarchus, didhave ideas similar to those more fully developed by Copernicus but theywere rejected in favour of the geocentric or earth-centered scheme aswas espoused by Aristotle.) Ptolemy's findings were that the earth was afixed, inert, immovable mass, located at the center of the universe, andall celestial bodies, including the sun and the fixed stars, revolved aroundit. It was a theory that appealed to human nature. It fit with the casualobservations that a person might want to make in the field; and second,it fed man's ego.

Copernicus was in no hurry to publish his theory, though parts of hiswork were circulated among a few of the astronomers that were givingthe matter some thought; indeed, Copernicus' work might not have everreached the printing press if it had not been for a young man who soughtout the master in 1539. George Rheticus was a 25 year old Germanmathematics professor who was attracted to the 66 year old cleric, having

~ 5 ~

read one of his papers. Intending to spend a few weeks with Copernicus,Rheticus ended up staying as a house guest for two years, so fascinatedwas he with Copernicus and his theories. Now, up to this time,Copernicus was reluctant to publish, -- not so much that he wasconcerned with what the church might say about his novel theory (DeRevolutionibus was placed on the Index in 1616 and only removed in1835), but rather because he was a perfectionist and he never thought,even after working on it for thirty years, that his complete work wasready, -- there were, as far as Copernicus was concerned, observationsto be checked and rechecked.

(Interestingly, Copernicus' original manuscript, lost to the world for 300years, was located in Prague in the middle of the 19th century; it showsCopernicus' pen was, it would appear, continually in motion with revisionafter revision; all in Latin as was the vogue for scholarly writings in thosedays.)

Copernicus died in 1543 and was never to know what a stir his work hadcaused. It went against the philosophical and religious beliefs that hadbeen held during the medieval times. Man, it was believed (and stillbelieved by some) was made by God in His image, man was the nextthing to God, and, as such, superior, especially in his best part, his soul,to all creatures, indeed this part was not even part of the natural world (aphilosophy which has proved disastrous to the earth's environment asany casual observer of the 20th century might confirm by simply lookingabout). Copernicus' theories might well lead men to think that they aresimply part of nature and not superior to it and that ran counter to thetheories of the politically powerful churchmen of the time.

Two other Italian scientists of the time, Galileo and Bruno, embraced theCopernican theory unreservedly and as a result suffered much personalinjury at the hands of the powerful church inquisitors. Giordano Brunohad the audacity to even go beyond Copernicus, and, dared to suggest,that space was boundless and that the sun was and its planets were butone of any number of similar systems: Why! -- there even might be otherinhabited worlds with rational beings equal or possibly superior toourselves. For such blasphemy, Bruno was tried before the Inquisition,condemned and burned at the stake in 1600. Galileo was broughtforward in 1633, and, there, in front of his "betters," he was, under thethreat of torture and death, forced to his knees to renounce all belief inCopernican theories, and was thereafter sentenced to imprisonment forthe remainder of his days.

~ 6 ~

The most important aspect of Copernicus' work is that it forever changedthe place of man in the cosmos; no longer could man legitimately thinkhis significance greater than his fellow creatures; with Copernicus' work,man could now take his place among that which exists all about him, andnot of necessity take that premier position which had been assignedimmodestly to him by the theologians.

"Of all discoveries and opinions, none may have exerted agreater effect on the human spirit than the doctrine ofCopernicus. The world had scarcely become known as roundand complete in itself when it was asked to waive thetremendous privilege of being the center of the universe.Never, perhaps, was a greater demand made on mankind -for by this admission so many things vanished in mist andsmoke! What became of our Eden, our world of innocence,piety and poetry; the testimony of the senses; the convictionof a poetic - religious faith? No wonder his contemporariesdid not wish to let all this go and offered every possibleresistance to a doctrine which in its converts authorized anddemanded a freedom of view and greatness of thought so farunknown, indeed not even dreamed of." [Goethe.]

(http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Science/Copernicus.htm)

George Rheticus

RHETICUS, or RHAETICUS (1514-1576), a surname given to GEORGEJOACHIM, German astronomer and mathematician, from his birth atFeldkirch in that part of Tirol which was anciently the territory of theRhaeti. Born on the 15th of February 1514, he studied at Tiguri withOswald Mycone, and afterwards went to Wittenberg where he wasappointed professor of mathematics in 1537. Being greatly attracted bythe new Copernican theory, he resigned the professorship in 1539, andwent to Frauenberg to associate himself with Copernicus, andsuperintended the printing of the De Orbium Revolutione which he hadpersuaded Copernicus to complete. Rheticus now began his greattreatise, Opus Palatinum de Triangulis, and continued to work at it whilehe occupied his old chair at Wittenberg, and indeed up to his death atCassovia in Hungary, on the 4th of December 1576. The Opus Palatinumof Rheticus was published by Valentine Otho, mathematician to theelectoral prince palatine, in 1596. It gives tables of sines and cosines,tangents, &c., for every to seconds, calculated to ten places. He hadprojected a table of the same kind to fifteen places, but did not live to

~ 7 ~

complete it. The sine table, however, was afterwards published on thisscale under the name of Thesaurus Mathematicus (Frankfort, 1613) by B.Pitiscus (1561-1613), who himself carried the calculation of a few of theearlier sines to twenty-two places. He also published Narratio de LibrisRevolutionum Copernici (Gedenum, 1540), which was subsequentlyadded to editions of Copernicus's works; and Ephemerides until 1551,which were founded on the Copernican doctrines. He projected numerousother works, as is shown by a letter to Peter Ramus in 1568, which AdrianRomanus inserted in the preface to his Idea of Mathematics.

(http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rheticus)

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe is probably the most famous observationalastronomer of the sixteenth-century, although it is notalways clear whether he is better remembered for the factthat his data provided the basis for the work of JohannesKepler (1571-1630), or because of the more colourfulaspects of his life and death. Born into the high nobility ofhis native Denmark in 1546, he was groomed by hisfamily for a career at court, but from an early age showed

greater interest in astronomy than law, the discipline of choice foraspiring royal councillors and administrators. After three years at theUniversity of Copenhagen, he spent much of the period from 1562 to1576 travelling in Germany, studying at the Universities of Leipzig,Wittenberg, and Rostock, and working with other scholars in Basle,Augsburg, and Kassel. It was in Rostock in 1566 that he lost part of hisnose in a duel, and subsequently wore a prosthesis.

The appearance in 1572 of a "new star" (in fact a supernova) promptedTycho's first publication, which was issued by a Copenhagen printer in1573. In 1574, he gave some lectures on astronomy at the University ofCopenhagen. Already he was of the opinion that the world-system ofCopernicus was mathematically superior to that of Ptolemy, but physicallyabsurd. In 1576, his permanent relocation to Basle, which he consideredthe most suitable place for him to continue his astronomical studies, wasforestalled by King Frederick II, who offered him in fief the island of Hvenin the Danish Sound. With generous royal support, Tycho constructedthere a domicile and observatory which he called Uraniborg, anddeveloped a range of instruments of remarkable size and precision whichhe used, with the aide of numerous assistants and students, to observecomets, stars, and planets.

~ 8 ~

In 1588, Tycho issued from his press a work on the comet which hadappeared, causing a flurry of other publications, in 1577. The eighthchapter of this book also contained Tycho's system of the world, whichretained the earth as the unmoving centre of the universe but renderedthe other planets satellites of the Sun. In 1596 he published a volume ofhis correspondence with another noble-astronomer, Wilhelm IV of Hesse-Kassel, and Wilhelm's mathematician Christoph Rothmann. The latter wasa committed Copernican, and Tycho's forceful arguments for thesuperiority of his own cosmology was one reason for his publication ofthe letters. Other works begun on Hven were the Astronomiae instaurataemechanica (1598), an illustrated account of his instruments andobservatories, and the Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata (1602),which contained his theory of lunar and solar motions, part of hiscatalogue of stars, and a more detailed analysis of the supernova of1572. However, the erosion of Tycho's funding and standing followingKing Christian IV's attainment of his majority caused the astronomer toleave Denmark in 1597. In 1599 he settled near Prague, having beenappointed Imperial Mathematician by Emperor Rudolph II, and was joinedby Johannes Kepler the following year. He died of uraemia in 1601.

(http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/tycho.html)

Andreas Osiander

ANDREAS OSIANDER (1498-1552), German reformer, was born atGunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, on the 19th of December 1498. HisGerman name was Heiligmann, or, according to others, Hosemann. Afterstudying at Leipzig, Altenburg and Ingolstadt, he was ordained priest in1520 and appointed Hebrew tutor in the Augustinian convent atNuremberg. Two years afterwards he was appointed preacher in the StLorenz Kirche, and about the same time he publicly joined the Lutheranparty, taking a prominent part in the discussion which ultimately led tothe adoption of the Reformation by the city. He married in 1525. He waspresent at the Marburg conference in 1529, at the Augsburg diet in 1530and at the signing of the Schmalkald articles in 1537, and took part inother public transactions of importance in the history of the Reformation;that he had an exceptionally large number of personal enemies was dueto his vehemence, coarseness and arrogance in controversy. Theintroduction of the Augsburg Interim in 1548 necessitated his departurefrom Nuremberg; he went first to Breslau, and afterwards settled atKonigsberg as professor in its new university at the call of Duke Albert ofPrussia. Here in 1550 he published two disputations, the one De lege etevangelio and the other De justifications, which aroused a controversystill unclosed at his death on the 17th of October 1552. While he was

~ 9 ~

fundamentally at one with Luther in opposing both Romanism andCalvinism, his mysticism led him to interpret justification by faith as notan imputation but an infusion of the essential righteousness or divinenature of Christ. His party was afterwards led by his son-in-law JohannFunck, but disappeared after the latter's execution for high treason in1566. Osiander's son Lukas (1534-1604), and grandsons Andreas (1562-1617) and Lukas (1571-1638), were well-known theologians.

Osiander, besides a number of controversial writings, published acorrected edition of the Vulgate, with notes, in 1522, and a Harmony ofthe Gospels - the first work of its kind - in 1537. The best-known workof his son Lukas was an Epitome of the Magdeburg Centuries. See the Lifeby W. Moller (Elberfeld, 1870).

(http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Andreas_Osiander)

Galileo Galilei

Italian scientist and philosopher. Galileo was a trueRenaissance man, excelling at many different endeavors,including lute playing and painting. He attended medicalschool in Padua. While in a cathedral, he noticed that achandelier was swinging with the same period as timedby his pulse, regardless of its amplitude. He began tostudy the isochronism of the pendulum in 1581, as wellas the motion of bodies. Using an inclined plane, heshowed that all bodies fall at the same rate. He alsoinvestigated cohesion, and concluded that a waterfall breaks when theweight of the water becomes too great, the same reason that waterpumps could only raise water by 34 feet.

Galileo described his views on dynamics and statics in Dialog on theTwo New Sciences, which emphasized mathematics over rhetoricalarguments. Galileo was one of the earliest to propose abstract dynamicaltheories which were ideal and would not be observed under less thanideal circumstances. Galileo observed the supernova of 1604 and triedunsuccessfully to measure its parallax. According to Copernicus's theory,the Earth's motion must produce a parallax, but no such parallax wasfound until Bessel. Galileo grew interested in the heavens, and built hisown telescope in 1609 after the discovery of lenses was reported fromHolland. Galileo used his 30 power telescope to discover craters on theMoon, sunspots which rotated with the Sun, the four largest satellitesof Jupiter, and phases of Venus. This last observation demonstrated thatthe Copernican theory was correct, since phases would only be observed

~ 10 ~

if Venus were always closer to the sun than to the Earth. Galileopublished his observations in Siderius Nuncius (The Starry Messenger)(1611). For some famous quotes and diagrams from Siderius Nuncius,see MacRobert (1990). A complete translation is contained in van Helden(1989).

Galileo also proposed Galilean relativity, which states that the samedefinitions of motion are valid everywhere. The resultant Galileantransformation is correct for low speeds, but must be replaced by theLorentz transformation for relativistic speeds. Galileo also said thatmotion is continuous and can only be altered by the application of aforce. Galileo enunciated the law of fall (which states that distancetraveled is proportional to the square of time) and the time law (whichstates that velocity is proportional to time). There is an apocryphal storythat Galileo dropped two balls of different masses simultaneously fromthe leaning tower of Pisa to demonstrate that bodies fall at the same rate.Galileo lay down the chief elements of his mechanics in Dialog on theTwo Chief Systems of the World (1632), which was supposed to be anobjective debate between the Copernican and Ptolemaic system.Unfortunately, Galileo put the Pope's favorite argument in the mouth ofone of the characters, then proceeded to ridicule it. Galileo suddenly lostfavor with the church, and was forced to recant his Copernican views andput under house arrest. Misner et al. (1973 p. 38) give some quotes byGalileo. One of the most telling is "In questions of science, the authorityof a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual"(1632). A very similar twentieth century quote is attributed to Einstein.

(http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Galileo.html)

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg,Germany, on March 14, 1879.

Six weeks later the family moved to Munich and he beganhis schooling there at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later,they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education atAarau, Switzerland.

In 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to betrained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year hegained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unableto find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant inthe Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

~ 11 ~

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he producedmuch of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozentin Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in thefollowing year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director ofthe Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University ofBerlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons andemigrated to America to take the position of Professor of TheoreticalPhysics at Princeton. He became a United States citizen in 1940 andretired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World GovernmentMovement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which hedeclined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishingthe Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physicsand the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own andwas able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regardedhis major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies ofNewtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed froman attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of theelectromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statisticalmechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantumtheory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement ofmolecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a lowradiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photontheory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correctinterpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theoryof gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theoryof relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of thetheory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified fieldtheories, although he continued to work on the probabilisticinterpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work inAmerica. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development ofthe quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplishedvaluable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and

~ 12 ~

relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of thebasic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation,to the majority of physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his moreimportant works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity(English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity(1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and TheEvolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, AboutZionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of MyLater Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicineand philosophy from many European and American universities. Duringthe 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he wasawarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientificacademies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards inrecognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Societyof London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectualsolitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life.

He married Mileva Maritsch in 1901 and they had two sons; theirmarriage was dissolved and in 1917 he married his cousin, Elsa Einstein,who died in 1936.

He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

(http://skumar.mitindia.net/success/albert.htm)

Simone de Beauvoir

1908 -- 1986

We best remember Simone de Beauvoir for her 1949 studyentitled The Second Sex, which quickly turned into afeminist compendium for women all around the world.Over the years, as women have improved their situation,some of Beauvoir's ideas have come under attack whileothers apply as much today as they did 50 years ago. With

~ 13 ~

less emphasis now being placed on The Second Sex, critics have begun toreassess Beauvoir's many other works of fiction and nonfiction.

Many of Beauvoir's works deal with her own experiences, sometimesconcealed in fictional terms, sometimes revealed in her autobiography.This is how, in Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter, we learn of her growing upin a bourgeois Parisian family. Her childhood and adolescence seem tohave been quite happy although she does not share any intimate details,only that she commanded her younger sister Helène (called Poupette) andher other playmates. Her attachment to Elizabeth Le Coin--called Zaza inher memoirs--set a pattern for the many important friendships withwomen Beauvoir would maintain throughout her life.

Beauvoir excelled in school, and her father at first supported herintellectual aspirations. Later he resented her success, and Beauvoireventually began to rebel against the constraints of her bourgeoisupbringing. She also rejected her mother's Catholicism. Her parentsexpected Beauvoir to get married as other girls from her social class did,but she insisted on attending university and becoming a teacher so thatshe would be able to support herself. While preparing for her finalexaminations, she met Jean-Paul Sartre and associated with his friends, agroup of young philosophers who appreciated Beauvoir's specializationon Leibniz. As Toril Moi points out, Beauvoir was "a pioneering woman inher own time" when, as only the ninth woman and the youngest studentever, she completed the impressive final examination in philosophy. Shepassed the exam with flying colors and took second place to Sartre. Herprofessors admitted that they arrived at this final ranking only with greatdifficulty. After graduation, Beauvoir began a teaching career at variouslycées, where she was much admired by her students for herunconventional approach and fascinating lectures. She, thus, establishedher professional independence by working outside the home. All her lifeshe cherished her individuality and travelled extensively.

While the extent of her impact on contemporary women may be disputed,Beauvoir, nonetheless, managed to model the persona of a successful,professional woman writer. She also believed that such work constituteda valid alternative to motherhood. Beauvoir's writing was first publishedduring the 1940s and elaborated her philosophical ideas in fictional form.Otherwise uninvolved in the political events of the day, in Letters toSartre she describes, in detail, the German Occupation and displays herfears for Sartre's safety during his internment as a prisoner-of-war inGermany. It was only after the war that her thinking became morepoliticized.

~ 14 ~

In The Ethics of Ambiguity, Beauvoir would clarify various points ofSartre's existentialism for a post-war world. As Kate and EdwardFullbrook argue in Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre: TheRemaking of a 20th-Century Legend (1994), Sartre may actually havebeen influenced by Beauvoir's ideas before he formulated his philosophy.Soon after the war, Beauvoir also went on a long lecture tour of theUnited States where she met the novelist Nelson Algren, with whom shehad a long-distance relationship for nearly 15 years. Both Beauvoir andSartre, despite their lifelong "essential" relationship, continued to seeother people in "contingent" relationships, because they rejectedmarriage as an outdated and oppressive bourgeois institution.

Her long novel, The Mandarins--usually considered a key tounderstanding the leftist intelligentsia's experience of the postwaryears--features characters reminiscent of Beauvoir, Sartre, Algren, andAlbert Camus. In great detail, Beauvoir describes how various characterstry to reconfigure their lives and relationships after the war. Focusing ontwo characters, Henri Perron and Anne Dubreuilh, Beauvoir alternatestheir accounts of the events, letting them overlap at times and, thus,affording the reader two perspectives of the same incident. Despite somestylistic flaws, the novel received the Prix Goncourt because of itsphilosophical depth and political and historical significance.

Despite her literary success, Beauvoir suddenly became aware of hersituation as a woman in a male world and decided to explore this idea inThe Second Sex. The study employs existentialist philosophy and anhistorical approach in an effort to explain women's secondary socialstatus. Man sees woman as "a sexual being" and imposes many of hisideas and dreams on his image of woman, making her his other. Beauvoirexplains that woman "is defined and differentiated with reference to manand not he with reference to her." Thus, all women, become "The SecondSex."

She traces this evolution from prehistory and classical antiquity, throughthe Middle Ages and the Enlightenment into our own time. Particularlyinteresting are her insights into mythology and her close analysis ofimages of women in the works of Montherlant, D. H. Lawrence, Claudel,Breton, and Stendhal. The work's greatest significance rests on thepremise that woman is not biologically predetermined to become motherand wife but free to determine her own fate. Contemporary critics pointto flaws in Beauvoir's argument: hasty generalization resulting frominsufficient and dated evidence, for instance. They also deplore hernegative attitude toward the female body and motherhood. Furthermore,many have deemed her whole approach Eurocentric and phallocentric.

~ 15 ~

Although Beauvoir had previously described women in her novels, TheSecond Sex marked a turning point in her writing career: The WomanDestroyed and Les Belles Images would discuss women's issue even moreovertly. Until her death in 1986, Beauvoir continued her political andphilosophical pursuits. A lifelong opponent of colonialism, she supportedthe independence of both French Indochina and Algeria. In DjamilaBoupacha (1962), she exposed the torture of an Algerian girl by theFrench military. The Long March is a detailed account of CommunistChina in the late 1950s. Several of her last works discussed the impact ofold age and death.

Despite her many other accomplishments, we remember Beauvoir as apioneering feminist. This reputation originated in The Second Sex andcontinued with her involvement in the French women's struggle for equalrights and greater participation in the politic arena. She also took a firmstand in favor of abortion. Due to the current interest in post-structuraland post-modern criticism and dismissal of existentialist ideas, Frenchfeminists such as Julia Kristeva and Hélène Cixous have dismissedBeauvoir's ideas as well. Publication of Beauvoir's correspondence andnotebooks has, however, opened up new possibilities for the study of theSartre-Beauvoir relationship and Beauvoir's gender identity. A survey ofrecent feminist writing reveals that many authors, indeed, owe a greatdeal to Simone de Beauvoir--even if it is only their efforts in rejecting herideas.

(http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/biographies/MainBiographies/D/DeBeauvoir/DeBeauvoir.htm)

~ 16 ~

Glossary

Absinthe, 3. An alcoholic liqueur originally distilled from wine mixedwith wormwood, but said now often to contain none. Also used of acolour resembling the green of absinthe. (OED)

Axiom, 1. A proposition that commends itself to general acceptance; awell-established or universally-conceded principle; a maxim, rule, law.(OED)

Benedictine, 1. One of the order of monks, also known, from the colourof their dress, as ‘Black Monks,’ founded by St. Benedict about the year529. (OED)

Chicanery, 1. Legal trickery, pettifogging, abuse of legal forms; the use ofsubterfuge and trickery in debate or action; quibbling, sophistry, trickery.(OED)

De Humani Corporis Fabrica, De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (Onthe fabric of the human body in seven books) is a textbook of humananatomy written by Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) in 1543. (Wikipedia)

Echinacea, or purple coneflower, is a perennial herb of the Compositefamily, commonly known as the daisy family. Most often referred to asthe purple coneflower, this hardy plant also known as Sampson root,Missouri snakeroot, and rudbeckia. The prominent, bristly seed headinspired the generic name of the plant, taken from the Greek wordechinos meaning hedgehog. (Enotes.com)

Epicycle, 1. A small circle, having its centre on the circumference of agreater circle. (OED)

Etymologically, (etymology), 1. a. The process of tracing out anddescribing the elements of a word with their modifications of form andsense. (OED)

Freud, Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856–September 23, 1939; was anAustrian neurologist and the founder of the psychoanalytic school ofpsychology. (Wikipedia)

Geostatics pl., ‘the statics of rigid bodies’ (OED)

Heliocentric, 1. Referred to the sun as centre; considered as viewed fromthe centre of the sun: as the heliocentric latitude, longitude, place, etc. of

~ 17 ~

a planet, i.e. that in which it would appear to an observer placed at thecentre of the sun. (OED)

Heretic, 1. One who maintains theological or religious opinions atvariance with the ‘catholic’ or orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church,or, by extension, that of any church or religious system, considered asorthodox. Also transf. with reference to non-Christian religions. (OED)

Humor, b. spec. In ancient and mediæval physiology, one of the fourchief fluids (cardinal humours) of the body (blood, phlegm, choler, andmelancholy or black choler), by the relative proportions of which aperson's physical and mental qualities and disposition were held to bedetermined (OED)

Iota, The least, or a very small, particle or quantity; an atom. (OED)

Jung, Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) was a Swisspsychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology. (Wikipedia)

Little Commentary, Narratia Prima or Little Commentary included these 7axioms:

1. There is no one center in the universe.2. The Earth's center is not the center of the universe.3. The center of the universe is near the Sun.4. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is imperceptiblecompared with the distance to the stars.5. The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily rotationof the stars.6. The apparent annual cycle of movements of the Sun is caused bythe Earth revolving round it.7. The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by themotion of the Earth from which one observes.(http://www.op97.k12.il.us/LAB/mm/astronomy/copernicus.html)

Luminary, 3. fig. A source of intellectual, moral, or spiritual light (nowonly of persons, formerly also occas. of things); a person of ‘light andleading’. (OED)

Machiavelli, Niccolò di Bernado dei Machiavelli (May 3, 1469 – June 21,1527) Florentine political philosopher, musician, poet, and romanticcomedic playwright. Machiavelli was also a key figure in the Renaissanceand the development of realist political theory. (Wikipedia)

~ 18 ~

Melanchthon, Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) (February16, 1497 - April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian, a keyleader of the Lutheran Reformation, and a friend and associate of MartinLuther. (Wikipedia)

Papacy, 2. The system of ecclesiastical or political government headed bythe Pope; the papal government or administration. (OED)

Parallax, 1. a. Difference or change in the apparent position or directionof an object as seen from two different points; (Astron.) such a differenceor change in the position of a celestial object as seen from differentpoints on the earth's surface or from opposite points in the earth's orbitaround the sun. Also: (half of) the angular amount of such a difference orchange; (Astron.) the angle subtended at a celestial object by the radiusof the earth's orbit, giving a measure of its distance from the earth; anyof various similar measures of distance calculated by methodsincorporating the motion of the sun relative to the local region of thegalaxy, the proper motion of the observed body, the motions of a clusterof bodies having similar distances and speeds, etc. (OED)

Phrenology, 2. The theory that the mental powers or characteristics of anindividual consist of separate faculties, each of which has its location inan organ found in a definite region of the surface of the brain, the size ordevelopment of which is commensurate with the development of theparticular faculty; the study of the external conformation of the craniumas an index to the position and degree of development of the variousfaculties. Cf. earlier CRANIOLOGY n. Now hist. (OED)

Pragmatic, 5. Practical; dealing with practice; matter-of-fact (OED)

Predilection, A mental preference or partiality; a favourablepredisposition or prepossession. (OED)

Ptolmic (Ptolemaic), 1. Of or pertaining to Ptolemy, a celebratedastronomer who lived at Alexandria in the second century A.D. (OED)

Reticent, Reserved; disinclined to speak freely; given to silence orconcealment. (OED)

Rhetoric, 1. a. The art of using language so as to persuade or influenceothers; the body of rules to be observed by a speaker or writer in orderthat he may express himself with eloquence. (OED)

Jean-Paul Sartre, Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (June 21, 1905 – April

~ 19 ~

15, 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, dramatist, novelist andcritic.

Traipse, 1. a. intr. To walk in a trailing or untidy way; e.g. to walk or ‘trail’through the mud; to walk with the dress trailing or bedraggled; to walkabout aimlessly or needlessly. (Usually said of a woman or child.) Also ingen. use, to tramp or trudge, to go about. (OED)

Trencher, 3. A slice of bread used instead of a plate or platter. 4. a. Atrencher and that which it bears; a supply of food;

Vasari, Giorgio Vasari (July 30, 1511 - June 27, 1574) was an Italianpainter and architect, known for his famous biographies of Italian artists.(Wikipedia)

Woolf, Virginia Woolf (née Stephen) (25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941) isby reputation one of the foremost modernist literary figures of thetwentieth century. Though she is commonly regarded by many asfeminist, it should be noted that she herself deplored the term, as shefelt it suggested an obsession with women and womens' concerns. Shepreferred to be referred to as a "humanist" (see Three Guineas).(Wikipedia)

~ 20 ~

Polish History

A Brief History of Poland

Renaissance culture was reaching Poland since the late 15th century,through trips by young noblemen for studies, diplomatic contacts,dynastic relations and trade.

The 16th century saw a particularly great development of the PolishRenaissance. It had a fairly large audience made up of well- educatednoblemen and burghers. That development was further assisted by thepatronage of the king and magnates. Krakow remained the hub of Polishculture as the city hosted the royal court and the University, had goodprinters, sculpture shops and architectural studios.

The Krakow Renaissance, radiating all over the land was developingunder the influence of the Italian one. The Wawel Royal Castle wasreconstructed by the Italians in the years 1507-1536. The RenaissanceChapel of the Sigismunds and the tombstones of Sigismund the Old andSigismund Augustus became the examples to follow for similartombstones throughout the Republic. Renaissance townhalls were beingerected in towns.

New towns were developed according to the ideas of the Renaissance.The most excellent example was Zamosc, built by Bernardo Morando forJan Zamoyski. The northern Renaissance prevailed in Royal Prussia, whereit was brought thanks to the numerous trade contacts between Gdansk,Torun and Elblag with the Netherlands. A unique synthesis of Polish,Ruthenian and Armenian cultures was created in Lwow. A similar functionof an ethnic-cultural conglomerate was played by Wilno [now calledVilnius].

~ 21 ~

The best achievements of literature were the works by Jan Kochanowski(1530- 1584), his epigrams (fraszki), Songs and Threnodies after thedeath of his daughter. The Reformation stimulated the development ofpolitical literature.

Lutheranism spread primarily in Royal Prussia, while Calvinism becamethe religion of part of the gentry in Little Poland and Lithuania. However,the majority of Polish and Lithuanian gentry remained Catholic, withOrthodox religion prevailing in Ruthenia. King Sigismund Augustus usedto say, "I do not want to be the master of your conscience." Polishreligious tolerance of the time allowed for the emergence of radicalmovements: the Arians--Polish and Bohemian brethren. Each of thosereligions tried to expand its influence through schooling andpropaganda. Hence, there was development of education and printing, aswell as several translations of the Bible into Polish.

Counter-Reformation also used education, especially Jesuit, for itspurpose. The first gymnasiums were founded by the Jesuits in the 1560sand 1570s. The teaching at their secondary schools was on a very highlevel. The Jesuit College in Wilno developed into a university (1576)thanks to the financial support of King Stefan Batory.

A university, which became the center of Lutheranism, was established inKrolewiec (Koenigsberg).

Polish science developed in close contact with that of Europe. Especiallyadvanced was astronomy, to mention only Mikolaj Kopernik (NicholasCopernicus, 1473-1543), the author of "De revolutionibus orbiumcoelestium" [On the Revolution of the Earth and Sky"]. Also developingwere cartography, surveying, medicine, law, and natural and agriculturalsciences.

The greatest accomplishment of political science was Andrzej FryczModrzewski's "Commentarium de republica emendanda" ["Commentaryon Reforms of the Polish Republic"]. The sermons in the Sejm [Parliament]by the royal preacher, Piotr Skarga, in a fine way combined propagandaand literary style.

Interest in national and world history resulted in numerous works, suchas the Polish-language "Chronicle of the World" by Marcin Bielski (1556)and "De duabus Sarmatiis" by Maciej Miechowita (1517). The latter workreflected the growing conviction of the gentry that their ancestorsdiffered from those of the peasants and burghers. According to theirviewpoint, they, the nobles, traced their descent to the ancient tribe of

~ 22 ~

the Sarmatas. That view gained particular currency in the latter half of the16th century and in the 17th century. The attractiveness of the nobility'sculture exerted much influence upon the rest of the social strata in theRepublic. It was also attractive to their neighbors.

(http://www.poloniatoday.com/history6.htm)

A Brief History of Church in Poland

Poland was christianized in 966, as the Prince Mieszko the First (baptizedonApril 14th, 996) ruled Poland. A few years later the first archdiocesehas been established in Gniezno, on the grave of the bishop martyr SaintWojciech who died as a missionary in Prussia on April 23rd, 997, The firstarchbishop of Gniezno was his brother, Blessed Radzim-Gaudenty. Church played an important role in the integration of the country and inits spiritual, economical, administrative and scientific development.Church institutions founded primary schools and universities (e.g. thefirst university in central, northern and eastern Europe: the Cracow - laterJagellonian - University, 1364, and later the University of Vilnus), taughtthe peasants (by-that-time) modern methods of farming. Churchadministration of the country was a model for modern stateadministration. The Church sponsored scientific research in mathematicsand natural sciences: just to mention Mikol`aj Kopernik, Marcin Polakfrom Opawa, Witelo Ciol`ek from Wrocl`aw. Also arts were supported bythe Church, both builders of beautiful churches and composers likeWacl`aw from Szamotul`y, Marcin Lwowczyk, and Mikol`aj Gomo`l`ka. Rulers of Poland recognized the importance of Catholicism for spiritualand economical development of Poland, though they frequently didn'twant to subordinate themselves to Christian teaching of morality. Thisgave rise to various conflicts between kings and the Church, killing of thebishop of Cracow, Saint Stanislaw, XIth century, by a king who couldn'tstand the criticism of his unfaithfulness towards his wife, was one ofprominent examples. In 12th century the bishops of Poland made strongstatements in defence of peasants threthening with excommunication tothose big land owners that oppressed the peasants.

The office of Primate of Poland (bound to archbishops of Gniezno),established in the XVth century, has been the symbol of continuity ofPolish state, especially in the time of elected kings, as the Primate wasthe interreggio after the death of a king and before the next one hasbeen elected. Intrinsic Catholicism in Poland protected the country fromreligious wars and religious intolerance. The teaching on unconditionallove of the neighbour resulted in intrinsically equal treatment of all thenations living in the multinational state, including various national

~ 23 ~

minorities escaping from western Europe because of their prosecution inthose countries. In 1410, Polish army defeated a united west europeanarmy of fanatics that wanted to exterminate prussian and lithuaniantribes because they were still not baptised. Polish bishops insisted on andpassed through the doctrine that the christian faith can only be spread bypeaceful means of arguments and not using military force (during TridentCouncil, 1545-1543). Two priests acting in Poland after that Council areworth mentioning: Jakub Wujek, the first translator of the whole Bible intoPolish, and Piotr Skarga, engaged in improving moral qualities of thepoliticians of that time. The spirit of intrinsic christianity in Poland causedthat even after the first partition of Poland (XVIIIth century) Jews wererunning away from Austrian, German and Russian occupation zones tothe still free part of Poland because Poland offered them religiousfreedom. It is worth mentioning that the Pope Klemens XIV protestedagainst the partition of Poland.

During partition of Poland (1795-1918), as Poland stopped existing onthe maps of the wworld, the office of the Primate of Poland was retainedby the Holy See making the occupying powers angry. Polish has beenretained as the language of prayers in churches and of religious teachingin partitioned Poland. The occupying powers considered Catholic Churchas the main enemy and numerous priests and even bishops wereimprisoned, sent to Siberia. Churches were closed or destroyed. Ordinarypeople were ill-treated to force them to change their confession, at leasthundreds have been murdered for holding to Catholic Church (oneexample are the martyrs of Pratulin 1874). Publication of religious bookswas hampered and sometimes forbidden. The Church was one of majorfactors in reunification of Poland in 1918 after defeat of occupyingpowers in world war one. The Catholic Church in Poland had to suffermost during the second world war from the German nazi state. In manydioeceses more than 90% of all Catholic priests have been killed - inGerman death camps and in the street. Symbols of that time are martyrsBlessed bishop Michal` Kozal and the Saint priest Maksymilian Kolbe.Still, under these terror conditions, the oppressed Church madetremendous efforts to save life of hundreds of thousands of oppressedpeople, especially Jews, who got from the Church new identity papers(hiding their Jewish origin) or even found shelter in monasteries andpriest schools - all at risk of losing life by clergymen. The people foundspiritual strength to survive psychologically that awful time only byattending Church services and by prayers. It has been reported that onChristmas Eves during the war some people went to occupant soldiers inthe street with Christmas wafers wishing them merry and peacefulChristmas. Germans were both surprised and moved by this gesture of aChristian nation. The importance of the Church for Polish identity grew in

~ 24 ~

communist times (1945-1989). Countless priests have been murderedand numerous bishops (including Stefan Cardinal Wyszyn`ski, thePrimate of Poland) have been imprisoned in 1950s. Publication ofCatholic journals and newspapers was banned. Catholic organizationswere dissolved. Bishops were not allowed to do their job as dioceseshepherds. Catholics were not allowed to hold any higher rankingadministrative positions, to be military officers, factory directors etc.Though later Poland had a prominent period of religious freedom, severalmore priests have been murdered (The case of priest Jerzy Popiel`uszkois best known, but not the only one). After 1989, the Catholic Churchremains a sign of contradiction. Dozens of priests have been killed andtheir murderers never found. Hundreds of Catholic cemeteries are beingdestroyed, churches robbed out, profaned, set on fire, and the banditsare never punished.

It should be mentioned that not only Poland benefited from teachings ofCatholic Church, but it also contributed much in support of universalmission of the Church. Polish army defended the freedom of faith ofCatholics all over Europe by stopping Tartar (Battle of Legnica, 1241),Swedish (Defense of Jasna Gora, 1656), Turkish (Battle of Vienna, 1683)and Soviet (Battle of Vistula, 1920) floods. Polish Catholics made efforts,though with partial success only, to reunite the splitted christianity: theystarted religious dialog both with the protestant churches and theorthodox churches. In 1596, the so-called Brzes`c`/Brest Union wasachieved between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church (theGreek Catholic Church has been established). Many orthodox bishops andlarge numbers of parishes in Poland, Lithuania and Russia joined theCatholic Church by recognizing the Pope as the head of the Church whilekeeping their liturgic and legal traditions. Regrettedly ambitions ofpoliticians who used even military force to prevent people from joiningthe Catholic Church made the further progress of reuniting christianityimpossible. Also in the 17th century a union of Ormians living in Polandwith the Catholic Church was achieved.

Over the last two centuries Polish missionaries carried the Good News tothe nations of Africa, Asia, and America. They brought there also generaland professional education, health care, frequently sacrificing their liveskilled by enemies of the church and by illnesses the people suffered fromin those poor countries. The missionary engagement outside of Europestarted already in the 17th century with jesuit friars Andrzej Rudomin,Mikol`aj Smogulecki and Michal` Boym, and the martyr WojciechMe`cin`ski worked in the Far East. This engagement is continued tillpresent day. On of the outstanding examples is the recently nominatedAdam Cardinal Kozlowiecki , who acts as a missionary in Zambia for

~ 25 ~

several decades now. Poland gave the Church many Saints, martyrs forthe faith. The current Pope, John Paul II, the great Pope of this century,grew up in Poland and suffered here from the "strengths" of capitalism(during the big economical crisis of 1930ies) the hitlerian socialism(during nazi occupation 1939-45) and the stalinist socialism (1940iesand 1950ies) and experienced the strong Catholic faith the people herehad as the only weapon to handle these dreadful times. Whenever HisHoliness writes encyclicals in defense of human dignity, against povertyand mishandling of people, calling for conversion to Catholic faith, forpraying and trusting God, He is not making any political propaganda, butis speaking from His personal experience. The Church benevolentorganization Caritas Poland, legalized anew after 1989, is engaged inbringing relief to many nations plagued by hunger and shortage ofmedical care all over the world. Poland was the place of several Churchevents of world-wide importance and with world-wide attendance. JasnaGo`ra, the major Marian sanctuary of Poland, for centuries already visitedby pilgrims from countless European countries, hosted in 1991 the WorldYouth Day, attended by the Pope. Wrocl`aw, a city in western part ofPoland, is the place of the 46th International Eucharistic Congress in theyear 1997.

Nowadays the administrative structure of the Catholic Church in Poland(since 1993) consists of 13 archdioceses and of 29 dioceses. There is afield diocese and an archdiocese and a diocese for Bysanthic-UkrainianRythus. We have over 150 bishops and archbishops, some 20,000 priests,more than 90% of the population has been baptized in Catholic Church.More than 20% of people go to church regularly (every Sunday).In this world of hatred against the Church, vicious capaigns againstvarious sections of the society, against other nations, the Church holdsfirm to the teaching of Jesus Christ, preaches love and forgiving of crimesof others against us, teaches us how to love our country, teaches toshake hands in a gesture of peace and forgiveness with our neighboursboth from the west, and the east, and the south and the north. Sheteaches us on Christian common roots of all the Europe, but also not torestrict our love to the white race but rather lets us care for the well-being of all the mankind.

(http://beatchen.www1.50megs.com/ksjacek/rcc_in_p.htm#History)

~ 26 ~

Astronomy

Medieval & Renaissance Astronomy

Medieval Astronomy

Contrary to common misconception the period between the end of theclassical era and the start of the Renaissance was not devoid of scientificprogress. Islamic scholars translated many of the surviving writings fromGreek or Syriac into Arabic from the late 700's onwards. Thesetranslations in turn were transported into Islamic Spain where theyeventually fell into Christian hands and were translated into Latin. Islamicastronomers such as Muhammad al-Battani (c. 850 - 929) refinedPtolemy's model and their published works and tables were later used byWestern astronomers. Even today the influence of Islamic astronomers isfound in the names of many of the bright stars such as Betelgeuse (αOri), Alnitak (ζ Ori) and Zubenelgenubi (α Lib).

Nicole Oresme

As Western scholars studied the Latin translations of the classicalphilosophers they incorporated many aspects of their work into theprevailing theology and world view. Aristotle's physics described themotion of objects and the refined model of Ptolemy was used to studythe night sky. The Frenchman, Nicole Oresme (1320 - 82) applied anearly concept of the centre of gravity, used mathematics to argue againstastrology and even suggested the existence of other inhabited worlds inspace. Nicolas of Cusa (born c. 1401) supported this idea and rejectedthe concept of a static Earth at the centre of all motions.

Georg Puerbach (1423 - 61) refined the Almagest and wrote a populartextbook on it. This prompted a renewal of interest in the need foraccurate observations. His pupil, Regiomontanus (1436 - 76) highlightedproblems with Ptolemy's work based on observations made at hispurpose-built observatory. He published his own and other writings onastronomy and the increasing availability of printed books did much tospread ideas among scholars. In 1482 he observed a bright comet thatwas later identified as one of the visits of Comet Halley and was mostlikely working towards a heliocentric model influenced by Aristarchus atthe time of his death.

~ 27 ~

The Renaissance

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543)

Copernicus studied classics and mathematics at Krakow in his nativePoland, canon law in Bologna and Ferrara and medicine at Padua in Italy.His keen interest in astronomy was fostered in Italy and developed backin Poland where he was canon at the cathedral in Frauenberg (nowFrombeck) where he spent most of his life.

A conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 1504 was observed to differ by 10days from the predictions of tables based on Ptolemy's work. This,combined with Copernicus' abhorrence of the equant drove him todevelop an improved model. Influenced by the work of Regiomontanus(thus also Aristarchus) and neoplatonism (which viewed the Sun as theGodhead and source of all knowledge) he produced his own model. Hewithheld publication due to his conservative nature and fear of ridiculebut was eventually persuaded by Rheticus. Allegedly he received the firstcopy of his work De revolutionibus orbium (On the revolution of theheavenly spheres) on his deathbed in 1543.

Manuscript example of Copernicus' model.

In Copernicus' model a spherical Earth rotates daily on it axis whilst itand the other planets each orbit the Sun. The period of the planets' orbitsincreases with increasing distance from the Sun. The Sun was not exactlyat the centre of the planetary orbits thus strictly speaking the model isheliostatic rather than heliocentric.

~ 28 ~

There were several advantages of Copernicus' model over that of Ptolemy:

1.It could predict planetary positions to within 2°, the same as thatof Ptolemy.2.Retrograde motion of planets was explained by the relativemotion between them and the Earth.3.Distances between planets and the Sun could be accuratelydetermined in units of the Earth-Sun distance (ie AstronomicalUnits).4.Orbital periods could be accurately determined.5.It explained the difference between the inferior planets (Mercuryand Venus) that were always observed close to the Sun and thesuperior ones (Mars, Jupiter and Saturn).6.It preserved the concept of uniform circular motion without theneed for equants.7.It preserved Aristotle's concept of real spheres nestled inside oneanother.8.Unlike Ptolemy's model it did not require the Moon to change insize.

Copernicus' model also had several problems which contributed to itsfailure to immediately supplant Ptolemy's model:

No annual stellar parallax could be detected. Copernicus explainedthis as due to the fact that the stars were a vast distance hence anyparallax would be very small and difficult to detect.It required a moving Earth, This would contradict Aristotelianphysics and Copernicus presented no new laws of motion toreplace Aristotle.By removing the Earth from its natural place it was philosophicallyand theologically unacceptable to many scholars.It was no more accurate than Ptolemy's in predicting planetarypositions.It was actually more complicated then Ptolemy's model. In hisefforts to avoid the equant but retain uniform circular motion hehad to introduce more devices to fit his observations.

Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601)

Tycho Brahe, of Danish noble stock, was probably the greatestastronomical observer of the pre-telescope era. Early observations in the560's revealed inaccuracies with existing tables and spurred him ontomaking systematic, long-term observations and records. This task wouldoccupy the rest of his life. With generous funding from the King of

~ 29 ~

Denmark he established a dedicated observatory, Uraniborg, on theisland of Hven (now Ven). He built large instruments such as quadrantsfrom wood and brass that improved on earlier designs. Themeasurements he made were up to ten times more accurate than anypreceding ones and were at the limit of that obtainable by the unaidedeye. The investment by the Danish King amounted to 5% of his totalincome, still a record for investment on scientific research. Braheeventually fell out with the Danish court and moved to Prague for his finalyears.

In November 1572 a new star appeared in the constellation Cassiopeia.Brahe's observations showed that it was motionless relative to nearbystars suggesting to him that it was in fact a star and not a tail-lesscomet. Five years later he observed a bright comet and discerned noparallax and placed it at least six times further from Earth than the Moon.Both of these observations challenged the Aristotelian orthodoxy. Thestars were supposed to be changeless and perfect whilst comets weresupposed to be confined to the sub-lunary sphere, that is between theEarth and Moon. Further observations revealed that the comet wouldmove through the solid crystalline spheres of an Aristotelian Universe.

To reconcile his observations with his philosophy Brahe developed hisown model, incorporating some aspects of Copernicus' but rejecting theidea of a moving Earth. Although his hybrid model enjoyed a brief periodof popularity it was soon replaced by the work of his assistant, JohannesKepler.

~ 30 ~

Brahe's Model:Brahe's model was somewhat of a hybrid and drew upon Herakleide'searlier concepts. It had a static Earth at the centre of the Universe withthe Moon orbiting it. A rotating sphere of fixed stars also revolved

around the Earth once every 24 hours. The planets however orbited aboutthe Sun which itself orbited the Earth. It utilised epicycles, deferents andequants. In his model there is no need for stellar parallax. The diagram

above shows a simplified representation.

Brahe's lasting legacy was his long-term and meticulous observations ofplanetary motions, especially those of Mars. This data was used after hisdeath by Kepler, who worked as his assistant during Brahe's last year.Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630)

Johannes Kepler

Best known for his key works on astronomy, Johannes Kepler madevaluable contributions in other fields. In his works on optics he examinedthe refraction of light, correctly explained the working of the eye for thefirst time and provided a theoretical basis for telescopes with suggestedmeans of improving them. His explanation on the new Napierianlogarithms did much to encourage their wide acceptance. Given achallenge to calculate volumes of wine casks he ended up developing anapproach to infinitesimal calculus well ahead of the ideas of Liebniz andNewton. Kepler had studied under the renowned astronomer MichaelMaestlin, one of the first proponents of Copernicus' work.

~ 31 ~

In his first astronomical work, Mysterium cosmographicum (The cosmicmystery) in 1596, Kepler upheld his belief in the Copernican system. Healso discovered a geometrical relationship for the orbits of the planetsaround the Sun. Between the sphere of each planet's orbit he found hecould place one of the five regular solids, for example a cube betweenJupiter and Saturn, so that the six planets were separated by five regularsolids. This system reflects the influence on Kepler of the Platonic-Pythagorean tradition of matching order in nature with the regularities ofmathematics. Of greater long-term importance however was hissuggestion that the Sun somehow affected the orbits of the planets,perhaps by magnetism.

Kepler's geometrical relationship in the Solar System as shown in hisMysterium cosmographicum of 1596.

Kepler tried to fit Brahe's data to the Copernican model but consistentlyarrived at errors of at least eight seconds of arc, small but notinsignificant. He was finally forced to abandon the concept of uniformcircular orbital paths but it was to take him several years of painstaking,methodical calculations before he arrived at an alternate model that fittedBrahe's 20 years of data on Mars. The results were published in 1609 inhis work Astronomica nova (New Astronomy). In it he explained what arenow known as his first two laws of planetary motion.

~ 32 ~

Kepler's 1st Law: The Law of Ellipses.All planets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits with the Sun as one commonfocus. Note the eccentricity of the ellipse has been greatly exaggerated inthe above diagram. For most planets their orbits are almost circular.

Kepler's 2nd Law: The Law of Equal Areas.The line between a planet and the Sun (the radius vector) sweeps out

equal areas in equal periods of time.In the diagram, the time interval t2-t1 = t4-t3 so the areas swept through

in equal times are equal,that is A1 = A2.

This effect is very noticeable in comets such as Comet Halley that havehighly elliptical orbits. When in the inner Solar System, close to the Sun at

perihelion, they move much faster than when far from the Sun ataphelion.

Kepler actually formulated the law of equal areas first and it then led himto the law of ellipses. His third law was not published until 1618 inHarmonice mundi (The Harmony of the World). This resulted from hisattempts to find a relationship between the distance of a planet from theSun and its orbital period.

~ 33 ~

Kepler's Third Law: The Law of Periods or the Harmonic Law*. The squareof a planet's period, T, is directly proportional to the cube of its averagedistance from the Sun, r.

Mathematically this can be expressed as:

T2 ∝ r3or T2/r3 = k (1.1)

where k is a constant and the same for all planets or orbital bodies (suchas comets) in a given system.

If T is measured in Earth years and r in astronomical units (AU) then forthe Earth, T = 1 and r = 1 so:

T2/r3 = k∴ 1/1 = kie. k =1

The implication of Kepler's Third Law is that planets more distant fromthe Sun take longer to orbit the Sun. Let us see how this can be used todetermine the mean distance of Mars from the Sun if its orbital period is1.88 Earth years.

If T2/r3 = k (1.1)Then rewriting for r

r3 = T2/kr = ((1.88)2/1)1/3so r = 1.524 AU

So Mars is 1.524 astronomical units from the Sun.

Kepler's laws of planetary motion were empirical, they could predict whatwould occur but could not account for why planets behaved in such amanner. His Rudolphine tables of planetary motion published in 1627were more accurate than nay previous ones. He came close to uncoveringthe concept of gravitation and corresponded with Galileo and was awareof his telescopic discoveries.

(http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/cosmicengine/renaissanceastro.html)

Copernican Astronomy

The Copernican Model:A Sun-Centered Solar System

~ 34 ~

The Earth-centered Universe of Aristotle and Ptolemy held sway onWestern thinking for almost 2000 years. Then, in the 16th century a newidea was proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicolai Copernicus (1473-1543).

The Heliocentric System

In a book called On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (that waspublished as Copernicus lay on his deathbed), Copernicus proposed thatthe Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the Solar System. Such a modelis called a heliocentric system. The ordering of the planets known toCopernicus in this new system is illustrated in the following figure, whichwe recognize as the modern ordering of those planets.

The Copernican Universe

In this new ordering the Earth is just another planet (the third outwardfrom the Sun), and the Moon is in orbit around the Earth, not the Sun.The stars are distant objects that do not revolve around the Sun. Instead,the Earth is assumed to rotate once in 24 hours, causing the stars toappear to revolve around the Earth in the opposite direction.Retrograde Motion and Varying Brightness of the PlanetsThe Copernican system by banishing the idea that the Earth was the

~ 35 ~

center of the Solar System, immediately led to a simple explanation ofboth the varying brightness of the planets and retrograde motion:

The planets in such a system naturally vary in brightness because theyare not always the same distance from the Earth.

Copernicus and the Need for Epicycles

There is a common misconception that the Copernican model did awaywith the need for epicycles. This is not true, because Copernicus was ableto rid himself of the long-held notion that the Earth was the center of theSolar system, but he did not question the assumption of uniform circularmotion. Thus, in the Copernican model the Sun was at the center, but theplanets still executed uniform circular motion about it. As we shall seelater, the orbits of the planets are not circles, they are actually ellipses.As a consequence, the Copernican model, with it assumption of uniformcircular motion, still could not explain all the details of planetary motionon the celestial sphere without epicycles. The difference was that theCopernican system required many fewer epicycles than the Ptolemaicsystem because it moved the Sun to the center.

The Copernican Revolution

We noted earlier that 3 incorrect ideas held back the development ofmodern astronomy from the time of Aristotle until the 16th and 17thcenturies: (1) the assumption that the Earth was the center of theUniverse, (2) the assumption of uniform circular motion in the heavens,and (3) the assumption that objects in the heavens were made from aperfect, unchanging substance not found on the Earth.

Copernicus challenged assumption 1, but not assumption 2. We may alsonote that the Copernican model implicitly questions the third tenet thatthe objects in the sky were made of special unchanging stuff. Since theEarth is just another planet, there will eventually be a natural progressionto the idea that the planets are made from the same stuff that we find onthe Earth.

Copernicus was an unlikely revolutionary. It is believed by many that hisbook was only published at the end of his life because he feared ridiculeand disfavor: by his peers and by the Church, which had elevated theideas of Aristotle to the level of religious dogma. However, this reluctantrevolutionary set in motion a chain of events that would eventually (longafter his lifetime) produce the greatest revolution in thinking that Westerncivilization has seen. His ideas remained rather obscure for about 100

~ 36 ~

years after his death. But, in the 17th century the work of Kepler, Galileo,and Newton would build on the heliocentric Universe of Copernicus andproduce the revolution that would sweep away completely the ideas ofAristotle and replace them with the modern view of astronomy andnatural science. This sequence is commonly called the CopernicanRevolution.

Been There, Done That: Aristarchus of Samos

The idea of Copernicus was not really new! A sun-centered Solar Systemhad been proposed as early as about 200 B.C. by Aristarchus of Samos(Samos is an island off the coast of what is now Turkey). However, it didnot survive long under the weight of Aristotle's influence and "commonsense":

(1)If the Earth actually spun on an axis (as required in a heliocentricsystem to explain the diurnal motion of the sky), why didn't objectsfly off the spinning Earth?

(2)If the Earth was in motionaround the sun, why didn't it leavebehind the birds flying in the air?

(3)If the Earth were actually on anorbit around the sun, why wasn't aparallax effect observed? That is,as illustrated in the adjacent figure,stars should appear to change theirposition with the respect to theother background stars as theEarth moved about its orbit,because of viewing them from a different perspective (just asviewing an object first with one eye, and then the other, causes theapparent position of the object to change with respect to thebackground).

The first two objections were not valid because they represent aninadequate understanding of the physics of motion that would only becorrected in the 17th century. The third objection is valid, but failed toaccount for what we now know to be the enormous distances to the stars.As illustrated in the following figure, the amount of parallax decreaseswith distance.

~ 37 ~

Parallax is larger for closer objects

The parallax effect is there, but it is very small because the stars are sofar away that their parallax can only be observed with very preciseinstruments. Indeed, the parallax of stars was not measured conclusivelyuntil the year 1838. Thus, the heliocentric idea of Aristarchus was quicklyforgotten and Western thought stagnated for almost 2000 years as itwaited for Copernicus to revive the heliocentric theory.

(http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograde/copernican.html)

Galileo and Astronomy

Galileo Galilei

There was another man, working at around the same time as Kepler, whomade an even greater contribution to the dawn of modern astronomy andsingle-handedly pioneered modern mathematical physics. This was aman who laid down virtually all the groundwork for Newton and his namewas Galileo Galilei (usually referred to only as Galileo). He has been calledby some as the father of both modern astronomy and modern physicsand certainly his role as a pivotal figure in the development of both thesesciences is beyond question. On top of this he was also the pioneer ofmodern experimental scientific method.

It was Galileo that finally provided proof of the Copernican theory, andthus confirming Kepler's work to be correct. He also had time to lay downthe foundations of correct understanding of dynamics and of gravity.Butwe are getting ahead of ourselves here.

~ 38 ~

Galileo's Telescope

Before Galileo began so much of his ground breaking work in astronomyan invention was to come along and help him out, that invention was thetelescope and in the arms of Galileo it was the instrument that was torevolutionise the science of astronomy, allowing Galileo to peer into theheavens and see at a magnification many times what any human had seenbefore.

The discovery of the telescope is usually credited to Hans Lippershey in1608, although there is some evidence that there was one or possiblyeven two people before him to invent a telescope, but this evidenceremains very much inconclusive, so we shall not break from traditionhere!

Galileo and Astronomy

So back to Galileo, in 1609 (about the same time as Kepler was about topublish his first two laws) from only simple reports of this new invention,Galileo, using his skills, was able to construct a vastly superior model toLippershey's telescope and is said to be the first to use the refractingtelescope. Some of his early observations included:

➢The Moon was not smooth but actually covered in mountains andcraters.

➢The planets were discs not points of light.

➢The Milky Way was composed of an enormous number of stars (agreeingwith Copernicus' idea of the universe being much vaster than previouslythought, also destroying the only argument for the Taychoic system, byproviding reason for why, in a heliocentric system there would appear tobe no stellar parallax).

As a collective what these observations did was to raise the issue of thecredibility of the Ptolemaic system, how could Aristotle and Ptolemy'swork be trusted to be correct when there was so much of the universethey didn't know? Galileo's early observations convinced him of theaccuracy of the Copernican system and he began to argue strongly for it,basing his arguments on his observations with his telescope.

In this work there are 3 further observations in particular that deservespecial mention:

~ 39 ~

His observations of the Moons of Jupiter

Galileo used the so called Galilean moons to prove a major argumentagainst the Copernican system was incorrect.

The argument suggested that given the moon orbited the Earth, if theEarth then orbited the Sun, the Moon would be left behind. With thediscovery of the moons around Jupiter it was clear that a planet couldorbit a body without leaving behind any moons that were in turn orbitingit.

Observations of Sunspots

With the observation of Sunspots not only did Galileo prove that the Sunwas not perfect (remember at the time the held ideas continued to beAristotle's theory that God made all the celestial bodies and so theymust be perfect) but he also observed that these imperfections weremoving. This implied that the Sun was rotating on an axis which meant itwas more feasible for the earth to be rotating (the idea of the Earthrotating in the Copernican model was one of the greatest argumentsagainst it as such rotation could not be felt).

Galileo's view of Sunspots

From Galileo's own sketches

A 2001 view of Sunspots

Courtesy of SOHO/MDI

Observations of the Phases of Venus

Galileo's most important achievement in astronomy was demonstratingthat the planet Venus, as seen from the Earth, went through a completeset of phases just like the Moon, which he first noticed in 1610.

This wasn't just ground breaking it was earth shattering, it providedconclusive evidence that was consistent with the Copernican model butnot with the Ptolemaic model.

~ 40 ~

How? Well if the Earth was the centre of the Universe then due to theposition of the Earth, Venus and the Sun, we would only ever see Venusin crescent phases because Venus would always be between the Earthand the Sun (see Ptolemaic system below).

The Ptolemaic System The Copernican System

Galileo identified that Venus went through a full cycle of phases, asviewed from the Earth, which meant that sometimes Venus must be onthe opposite side of the Sun from Earth (see the Copernican systemabove), thus disproving the Geocentric theory of the Universe. So longafter Copernicus' discovery finally there was empirical evidence to allow adefinitive test, which proved Copernicus' and Kepler's work to be correctand the Ptolemaic model that had been held to be correct for 1500 yearsto be wrong!

Galileo Publishes His Work

In 1632 Galileo published his work Dialogue Concerning The TwoGreatest World Systems. This latest work, supporting the Copernicanmodel and proving the geocentric system wrong was not received well bythe Roman Catholic Church! Indeed they were incensed by this work as itwas contrary to scripture, contrary to the very foundations of religion. Ofcourse a century before Copernicus himself and delayed the publicationof his work for fear of the reprisal of the church, and it appears that hisfear was justified. In 1633 Galileo was summoned to Rome and quicklyconvicted of hearsay, he was forced to make a public confession of hiserror in judgement and withdraw his support for the Copernican model,he was also forbidden to publish any further work and sentenced to lifeimprisonment. Due to his age, however, he was permitted to serve hissentence under house arrest.

Galileo's 'Ears of Saturn'

~ 41 ~

As a point of interest Galileo also discovered what he called the 'ears' ofSaturn (of course we now know these to be rings but Galileo's telescopewas not powerful enough to determine this).

A chronology of how Galileo saw the rings of Saturn

All images are original Galileo sketches

(http://www.thespacesite.com/space_galileo_astronomy.html)

Tycho Brahe's Observations

It is important to remember that Tycho Brahe lived before the inventionof the telescope. Astronomical observation were made by the naked eye.Galilei invents the telescope 9 years after Tycho Brahe's death. Thedevices Tycho Brahe used and constructed are therefore mainly devicesfor measuring angles and positions. Also clocks were very limited at thattime, the pendulum clock was not invented either, so to measure time,Tycho usually chose to use the movements of the stars and planets, withadmirably accurate results.

In the evening of the 11th of November 1572, Tycho Brahe for the firsttime sees a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia. Tycho Braheobserves it carefully, and publishes his findings about the "new star",Stella Nova in latin, and becomes known as a respected astronomer.

~ 42 ~

Drawing of Cassipeia, with the position of the stars. "Nova Stella", thebrightest is marked as "I".

Two of Tycho Brahe's instruments.

The world system according to Tycho Brahe

Tycho believed that the earth was fixed in the center of the world. Aroundthe earth circulated the moon and the sun. Around the sun orbited therest of the planets. He based this view mostly on measurements of theapparent movement of Mars, and he did not think it was explained by thetraditional ptolemaic geocentric world system, where the earth was in thecenter and everything orbited around the earth.Tycho Brahe was bornthree years after Copernicus had publishes his revolutionary work, "DeRevolutionibus Orbium Coelestium", which put the sun in the center ofthe world, and all planets including the earth orbit around it. This iscalled a heliocentric world system. Tycho Brahe thought Copernicus was abrilliant astronomer, but he did not accept his world system, primarily forreligious reasons. The church stipulated that the earth was the center ofthe universe. Even if Tycho's world system was not widely accepted, it canbe said to be important in such a way, that when Tycho Brahe tried toprove his world system by observations, he made a table of planetarymovements. These tables were later completed and used by his assistantKepler to make his famous planetary laws, which showed that Copernicuswas right, the sun was the center and the planets moved around the sun.

~ 43 ~

But the planetary movements were elliptical not circular, something whichKepler first thought was absurd, but he to had to accept it, since Tycho'saccurate measurements confirmed this theory.

Picture of the Tychonic World System, including the known planets of thetime, with Saturnus being the furthest from the Sun. Inside the stars arethe twelve signs of the zodiac.

(http://www.nada.kth.se/~fred/tycho/index.html)

~ 44 ~

Existentialism

Existentialism

I INTRODUCTION

Existentialism, philosophical movement or tendency, emphasizingindividual existence, freedom, and choice, that influenced many diversewriters in the 19th and 20th centuries.

II MAJOR THEMES

Because of the diversity of positions associated with existentialism, theterm is impossible to define precisely. Certain themes common tovirtually all existentialist writers can, however, be identified. The termitself suggests one major theme: the stress on concrete individualexistence and, consequently, on subjectivity, individual freedom, andchoice.

A Moral Individualism

Most philosophers since Plato have held that the highest ethical good isthe same for everyone; insofar as one approaches moral perfection, oneresembles other morally perfect individuals. The 19th-century Danishphilosopher Søren Kierkegaard, who was the first writer to call himselfexistential, reacted against this tradition by insisting that the highestgood for the individual is to find his or her own unique vocation. As hewrote in his journal, “I must find a truth that is true for me . . . the ideafor which I can live or die.” Other existentialist writers have echoedKierkegaard's belief that one must choose one's own way without the aidof universal, objective standards. Against the traditional view that moralchoice involves an objective judgment of right and wrong, existentialistshave argued that no objective, rational basis can be found for moraldecisions. The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzschefurther contended that the individual must decide which situations are tocount as moral situations.

B Subjectivity

All existentialists have followed Kierkegaard in stressing the importanceof passionate individual action in deciding questions of both morality andtruth. They have insisted, accordingly, that personal experience andacting on one's own convictions are essential in arriving at the truth.Thus, the understanding of a situation by someone involved in that

~ 45 ~

situation is superior to that of a detached, objective observer. Thisemphasis on the perspective of the individual agent has also madeexistentialists suspicious of systematic reasoning. Kierkegaard,Nietzsche, and other existentialist writers have been deliberatelyunsystematic in the exposition of their philosophies, preferring toexpress themselves in aphorisms, dialogues, parables, and other literaryforms. Despite their antirationalist position, however, most existentialistscannot be said to be irrationalists in the sense of denying all validity torational thought. They have held that rational clarity is desirable whereverpossible, but that the most important questions in life are not accessibleto reason or science. Furthermore, they have argued that even science isnot as rational as is commonly supposed. Nietzsche, for instance,asserted that the scientific assumption of an orderly universe is for themost part a useful fiction.

C Choice andCommitment

Perhaps the most prominent theme in existentialist writing is that ofchoice. Humanity's primary distinction, in the view of most existentialists,is the freedom to choose. Existentialists have held that human beings donot have a fixed nature, or essence, as other animals and plants do; eachhuman being makes choices that create his or her own nature. In theformulation of the 20th-century French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre,existence precedes essence. Choice is therefore central to humanexistence, and it is inescapable; even the refusal to choose is a choice.Freedom of choice entails commitment and responsibility. Becauseindividuals are free to choose their own path, existentialists have argued,they must accept the risk and responsibility of following theircommitment wherever it leads.

D Dread and Anxiety

Kierkegaard held that it is spiritually crucial to recognize that oneexperiences not only a fear of specific objects but also a feeling ofgeneral apprehension, which he called dread. He interpreted it as God'sway of calling each individual to make a commitment to a personally validway of life. The word anxiety (German Angst) has a similarly crucial rolein the work of the 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger;anxiety leads to the individual's confrontation with nothingness and withthe impossibility of finding ultimate justification for the choices he or shemust make. In the philosophy of Sartre, the word nausea is used for theindividual's recognition of the pure contingency of the universe, and theword anguish is used for the recognition of the total freedom of choice

~ 46 ~

that confronts the individual at every moment.

III HISTORY

Existentialism as a distinct philosophical and literary movement belongsto the 19th and 20th centuries, but elements of existentialism can befound in the thought (and life) of Socrates, in the Bible, and in the workof many premodern philosophers and writers.

A Pascal

The first to anticipate the major concerns of modern existentialism wasthe 17th-century French philosopher Blaise Pascal. Pascal rejected therigorous rationalism of his contemporary René Descartes, asserting, inhis Pensées (1670), that a systematic philosophy that presumes toexplain God and humanity is a form of pride. Like later existentialistwriters, he saw human life in terms of paradoxes: The human self, whichcombines mind and body, is itself a paradox and contradiction.

B Kierkegaard

Kierkegaard, generally regarded as the founder of modern existentialism,reacted against the systematic absolute idealism of the 19th-centuryGerman philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who claimed to haveworked out a total rational understanding of humanity and history.Kierkegaard, on the contrary, stressed the ambiguity and absurdity of thehuman situation. The individual's response to this situation must be tolive a totally committed life, and this commitment can only be understoodby the individual who has made it. The individual therefore must alwaysbe prepared to defy the norms of society for the sake of the higherauthority of a personally valid way of life. Kierkegaard ultimatelyadvocated a “leap of faith” into a Christian way of life, which, althoughincomprehensible and full of risk, was the only commitment he believedcould save the individual from despair.

C Nietzsche

Nietzsche, who was not acquainted with the work of Kierkegaard,influenced subsequent existentialist thought through his criticism oftraditional metaphysical and moral assumptions and through his espousalof tragic pessimism and the life-affirming individual will that opposesitself to the moral conformity of the majority. In contrast to Kierkegaard,whose attack on conventional morality led him to advocate a radicallyindividualistic Christianity, Nietzsche proclaimed the “death of God” and

~ 47 ~

went on to reject the entire Judeo-Christian moral tradition in favor of aheroic pagan ideal.

D Heidegger

Heidegger, like Pascal and Kierkegaard, reacted against an attempt to putphilosophy on a conclusive rationalistic basis—in this case thephenomenology of the 20th-century German philosopher EdmundHusserl. Heidegger argued that humanity finds itself in anincomprehensible, indifferent world. Human beings can never hope tounderstand why they are here; instead, each individual must choose agoal and follow it with passionate conviction, aware of the certainty ofdeath and the ultimate meaninglessness of one's life. Heideggercontributed to existentialist thought an original emphasis on being andontology (see Metaphysics) as well as on language.

E Sartre

Sartre first gave the term existentialism general currency by using it forhis own philosophy and by becoming the leading figure of a distinctmovement in France that became internationally influential after WorldWar II. Sartre's philosophy is explicitly atheistic and pessimistic; hedeclared that human beings require a rational basis for their lives but areunable to achieve one, and thus human life is a “futile passion.” Sartrenevertheless insisted that his existentialism is a form of humanism, andhe strongly emphasized human freedom, choice, and responsibility. Heeventually tried to reconcile these existentialist concepts with a Marxistanalysis of society and history.

F Existentialism andTheology

Although existentialist thought encompasses the uncompromisingatheism of Nietzsche and Sartre and the agnosticism of Heidegger, itsorigin in the intensely religious philosophies of Pascal and Kierkegaardforeshadowed its profound influence on 20th-century theology. The20th-century German philosopher Karl Jaspers, although he rejectedexplicit religious doctrines, influenced contemporary theology throughhis preoccupation with transcendence and the limits of humanexperience. The German Protestant theologians Paul Tillich and RudolfBultmann, the French Roman Catholic theologian Gabriel Marcel, theRussian Orthodox philosopher Nikolay Berdyayev, and the German Jewishphilosopher Martin Buber inherited many of Kierkegaard's concerns,especially that a personal sense of authenticity and commitment is

~ 48 ~

essential to religious faith.

G Existentialism andLiterature

A number of existentialist philosophers used literary forms to conveytheir thought, and existentialism has been as vital and as extensive amovement in literature as in philosophy. The 19th-century Russiannovelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky is probably the greatest existentialist literaryfigure. In Notes from the Underground (1864), the alienated antiherorages against the optimistic assumptions of rationalist humanism. Theview of human nature that emerges in this and other novels ofDostoyevsky is that it is unpredictable and perversely self-destructive;only Christian love can save humanity from itself, but such love cannot beunderstood philosophically. As the character Alyosha says in TheBrothers Karamazov (1879-80), “We must love life more than themeaning of it.”

In the 20th century, the novels of the Austrian Jewish writer Franz Kafka,such as The Trial (1925; trans. 1937) and The Castle (1926; trans. 1930),present isolated men confronting vast, elusive, menacing bureaucracies;Kafka's themes of anxiety, guilt, and solitude reflect the influence ofKierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, and Nietzsche. The influence of Nietzsche isalso discernible in the novels of the French writers André Malraux and inthe plays of Sartre. The work of the French writer Albert Camus is usuallyassociated with existentialism because of the prominence in it of suchthemes as the apparent absurdity and futility of life, the indifference ofthe universe, and the necessity of engagement in a just cause.Existentialist themes are also reflected in the theater of the absurd,notably in the plays of Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco. In the UnitedStates, the influence of existentialism on literature has been moreindirect and diffuse, but traces of Kierkegaard's thought can be found inthe novels of Walker Percy and John Updike, and various existentialistthemes are apparent in the work of such diverse writers as NormanMailer, John Barth, and Arthur Miller.

(http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555530/Existentialism.html)

Simone de Beauvoir, Philosopher of the Self

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-86) had been almost totally excluded from thephilosophical canon until the 1980's, when a revival and reinterpretationof her work by mainly feminist philosophers began. For example, she isnot mentioned in Walter Kaufmann's Existentialism from Dostoevsky to

~ 49 ~

Sartre (1956) (nor is Maurice Merleau-Ponty, though Albert Camus* ismentioned). In Paul Edwards' comprehensive philosophical encyclopaedia,The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (1967), the only mention is of her Ethicsof Ambiguity (1948), which is said to be important in its own right but inrelation to Jean Paul Sartre. Yet there is no further amplification ordiscussion in that source of what is said to be an important work and howit was related to Sartre – a crucial issue. In general her putativephilosophical works are subsumed under or said to be derivative fromthose of Sartre, or they are recorded as "a kind of footnote to Sartre"(Kruks, 1990:84). In Christina Howells' (1995) The Cambridge Companionto Sartre, she is mentioned once only and that for providing biographicalmaterial on Sartre's reading of Husserl. Hazel Barnes, however, is a majorand early exception: "De Beauvoir is more than Sartre's interpreter"(1959:4). She is also more than a novelist. For biographical details seeClaude Francis and Simone Gontier (1989) and Deidre Bair (1990).

It would seem that until her death in 1986 Beauvoir aided and abetted inthis general interpretation, and in a number of sources. Some feministsmaintain that she created a myth about her own philosophicalcontributions to existentialism (for papers on this see the editedcollection of Simons, 1995). But this received position on theinterpretation of her philosophical work was not reopened until thepublication posthumously, by her adopted daughter Sylvie le Bon deBeauvoir in 1990, of her Letters to Sartre. Possibly it needed thepublication of these letters to question the received position.

The issue as to whether or not she was an original philosopher seems tohinge upon whether she had identified and articulated certain key ideaswhich Sartre was later to present as his, especially in the opening pagesof Being and Nothingness (1943), or whether she merely contributed toSartre's ideas and work. Arguably this is the case on the notion of theself. This issue can be pursued initially by a careful reading of her lettersto Sartre, and their war diaries during the period between October 1939and January 1941, when she was writing L'Inviteé (translated as She Cameto Stay). This, her first published novel, was completed in 1941 but notpublished until 1943. What must also be considered is the philosophicalimport of the first three chapters, especially the first eight pages of SheCame to Stay. Her second novel Le Sang des Autres (The Blood of Others)is also important here. She should be considered in her own right, not asan appendage to Sartre. We will look therefore look at some of thephilosophical ideas in her early novels – particularly the notions of selfand Other and freedom - and her approach to doing philosophy.

Beauvoir did not write academic philosophy. She had passed her

~ 50 ~

aggrégation and commenced teaching in lycées in 1929 (Latin initially,then literature, but philosophy by 1932 [Bair 1990:180]) but as early asage 18 she had began to write fiction. Some of this early fiction was to bepublished later (Beauvoir 1968;1982). Unlike Sartre, whose philosophicalworks (though not his philosophical novels and plays) were writtenabstractly, and who was seeking a grand totalising philosophical system,Beauvoir did not want to write so as to present philosophical ideas ineither an abstract manner or as divorced from actual or possible humanexperience. For her, literature presented and provided a way of relatingphilosophical ideas to experience (cf. Camus), particularly as it presenteda way of expressing her own experiences as part of a generalphilosophical framework. Her novels can be seen as metaphysical novels,as presenting a fictional narrative in which her own experience is drawnheavily upon, but through a philosophical or metaphysical grill (seefurther, Pilardi, 1999).

There can be little doubt that she did not abandon her philosophicalbackground and grounding, for she even extended it - for example, shenotes her "discovery" and extended reading of Hegel in 1940 in herletters to Sartre (eg, 13,14,16,19,24, 29 July; 29 October) to whom shewould explain Hegel in return for him reminding her of Husserl (13 July).The frontispiece of She Came to Stay features a quotation from Hegel(`Each consciousness pursues the death of the other'.) and she usessome of his ideas in The Second Sex, first published in 1949 ( eg, part I).However she expresses early doubts on Hegel for by 8 January 1941, he"no longer consoles me", though she begins to teach his ideas (23January). But without Sartre to talk to on such issues as Hegel, she says(ibid): "If I were condemned for long never to talk, I'd end up writingphilosophy, from the need to express myself." So doing philosophy wasstill important at a time when She Came to Stay was completed;philosophy in an oral dialogue was acceptable but writing it - asacademic philosophy - was for her a last resort. Writing it in some otherform, however, was far from being a last resort. For Beauvoir this meantinsight into her own life. As Hazel Barnes says of She Came to Stay(1959:122):

...the analysis of human relationships and personalities is morephilosophical than psychological. Perhaps de Beauvoir and her fictionalcounterpart [Françoise] are accustomed to think in this way aboutthemselves and their reactions, but most people are not as metaphysicallyacute.

Beauvoir believed then that human experience and problems of personallife should be presented to exemplify, or to show, philosophical ideas.Although she features or appears at points in her own novels, as do her

~ 51 ~

close friends, confidants and lovers, her narrative is not presented fromone personal viewpoint. The experiences and personal views of the majorcharacters are seen also from each of their viewpoints. In She Came toStay whilst her personal experiences form part of the viewpoint ofFrançoise (Beauvoir) she is not necessarily writing the novel from onepersonal viewpoint, for the viewpoint of each of the main characters ispresented in the first person. In The Blood of Others however whilst all ofthe viewpoints of the main characters are presented, only the viewpointof the main character, Jean Blomart, is presented in the first person, andthis was probably for stylistic reasons. Nevertheless in both novels theviewpoints of the Others are necessary for each character to be a self orsubject. The philosophical point is that the Other is necessary for theconstitution of the self or subject.

Beauvoir is to reject the notion of a solipsistic isolated self. Writing justprior to the outbreak of WW II she says:

Little by little I had abandoned the quasi-solipsism and illusionaryautonomy I cherished as a girl of twenty; though I had come to recognisethe fact of other people's existence, it was still my individual relationshipswith separate people that mattered most to me, and I still yearned fiercelyfor freedom. Then suddenly, History burst over me, and I dissolved intofragments. I woke to find myself scattered over the four corners of theglobe, linked by every nerve in me to each and every other individual(Beauvoir, 1965: 369)

In She Came to Stay the body is not a mere object or thing but is alwaysexperienced reality -"my heart is beating - I am here". Elsewhere andsome years later she is to say explicitly: "It is not the body-objectdescribed by biologists that actually exists but the body as lived in by thesubject" (Beauvoir, 1989: 38). So a human being exists not merely in abody as an object, but as a body subject to human institutions andconstraints so that the subject is both conscious of itself as a subject andobtains fulfilment. For her one can never be a mere biological body asthere is always a dimension of meaning. Thus:

...we must view the facts of biology in the light of an ontological,economic, social and psychological context...there is no true living realityexcept as manifested by the conscious individual through activities and inthe bosom of society (Beauvoir, 1989: 36f.).

In a nightclub scene in She Came to Stay she explores variouspossibilities for "experiencing" the body. First we can identify the notionof consciousness of the body as lived in by the subject when Xavière doesthings to her arm and, whilst touching her eyelashes, talks to herself.Then there is the body of a young women in feathers as perceived by her

~ 52 ~

male companion who has pounced on her hand, ie, the body as an objectfor the other subject. Her body is perceived by the other, the man, butshe rejects this "objectification" of her body as being part of herexperience of her body because it becomes a thing. And a young womantalking about flirting is perceiving the body of the man - she is staring athim - but at the same time rejecting the notion of her body as potentialobject for the other subjectivity. This is again the body as object for asubject. Now the reality of the subject's lived experience must includeboth the experience of the lived body as part of one's own subjectivity,and the experience of the lived body as object of another subjectivity. Todissociate or to deny this dual aspect of experience was to be in bad faithfor Beauvoir. (Sartre is later to use the girl in the feathers example as anillustration of bad faith, unacknowledged, in Being and Nothingnes).

The ideal coordination for the exemplification of good faith would takeplace when there was an identity between the two subjectivities - thebody as lived in and as part of one's own subjectivity, and the body as anobject belonging to another subjectivity. The young woman in featherspresents an example of a severe disjunction between the twosubjectivities. For Beauvoir the self is a fusion of mind and body andconsciousness is prereflective and intentional, directed to objects in theexternal world, including her body. But this consciousness does notrequire talk between subjects. The subject is aware of the other body asobject and is aware from the look of the other that her or his body is anobject of the other subject. The social Other sees both subjectivity andobjectivity in the other as a reciprocal relationship.This is not the Otheras alienated from the self as in the early Sartre.

In The Blood of Others Beauvoir develops similar themes on the self butthe situation of this novel is heightened because of the involvement ofthe main characters in the resistance. Beauvoir was disappointed thatthis, her second published novel, was to be interpreted as a resistancenovel. In other words, from my reading, the philosophical content on theself and the other was not seen as important. This is a metaphysical novelbut one which progresses from her first novel because the notion ofidentity must now include some political commitment which is not merelyintellectual and inert, for there must be some active participation inaccordance with that intellectual commitment.

At the end of the novel Hélène, the lover of Jean Blomart is dying fromwounds suffered in a resistance attack upon the German forces occupyingParis. As Jean sits with her in almost total silence as she is dying, he notonly recognises his love for her but also recognises from her, and in hersilence, that in order to establish his own identity he must commit

~ 53 ~

himself to the next planned resistance operation, that is, that he mustabandon forever his own intellectual but non-participatory stancetowards political matters, held because of a fatal accident caused to afriend in an earlier demonstration. In realising that her approbation ofhim is so important for his own identity, and for her identity too, as herecognises both his love for her and what he has to become, Jean defineshimself as both politically committed and actively involved in theresistance, even though the activities of the resistance will lead topointless reprisals upon innocent French people. To a certain extent thisrepresents existentialist angst, and to that extent the novel can be seenas both existentialist and philosophical. But any such restricted readingignores the metaphysical aspects in this novel which impinge upon thedefinition of the self and the other.

Was it Beauvoir then who had laid out some of the crucial philosophicalconcepts of "Sartrean" existentialism by at least 1940, for it is in the firstopening pages of her first novel that her own philosophical ideas are tobe found and outlined? And these ideas are repeated and furtherdeveloped in her second novel – The Blood of Others, and they continueinto The Mandarins and All Men are Mortal. No doubt it can be counteredthat it was Sartre's ideas that were developed for they had collaboratedfor several years by then, and Sartre had read and commented upon thedrafts her manuscript. And they were discussing Sartre's philosophicalideas (eg, The Prime of Life [Beauvoir, 1965:434). In any case it might beargued that what Beauvoir was later to develop in The Second Sex was anotion of the gendered self.

(http://www.vusst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/beauvoir.htm)

Existential Primer: Jean-Paul Sartre

Commentaries

Before commenting upon Jean-Paul Sartre's published works, it isimportant to offer some background information. Sartre's philosophicalposition evolved, along with his politics. Any attempt to place Sartre'sworks in context is likely to fail in the limited space available, due to hiscomplex nature. Further complicating matters, Sartre, like mostphilosophers, developed his own lexicon. While Sartre might use thesame terms as another writer, he often intended a unique definition. Themost important term promoted by Sartre was "existentialism," a termborrowed from Karl Jaspers.

Walter Kaufmann recognized Sartre's occasional lack of clarity, stating

~ 54 ~

that "at times he is misled by words and writes what is no longermeaningful." Maybe Sartre tried too hard to express his views in someinstances, in part due to an enthusiasm for philosophical debate.

Being misled is one matter. Misleading others is quite different. It isimportant to understand that Sartre alternately valued intentions, actions,and results; at least in his writings and lectures. Evidence exists,however, demonstrating a personal profound lack of respect forintentions and, at times, even the truth. Sartre found nothing wrong inlying or intentionally misrepresenting the theories of others. Among thevictims of Sartre's willingness to avoid facts were Martin Heidegger, KarlJaspers, and other philosophers. Sartre stated Jaspers was a Catholic,which he wasn't, and that Heidegger was an existential atheist, whichHeidegger denied in a series of angry letters. Sartre wanted so much tosolidify his own positions, that truth was sometimes sacrificed.

If he was not always honest, it was partly because honesty was a luxuryhe could not afford.- Sartre; Hayman, p. 13

Why was, and is, Sartre influential? As biographer Ronald Haymanexplains, it was not due to the quality of his literary works, even thoughSartre is usually considered a "writer" by most scholars.

As a playwright Sartre was highly successful but less innovative and lesssignificant than Beckett or Ionesco. As a novelist Sartre completed onlyone work, Nausea, his other three novels being parts of an unfinishedtetralogy. The bulk of his writing time was devoted to political journalismand biography, but he can hardly be called a journalist, while hisbiographies of Baudelaire, Genet, and Flaubert are not biographies in theusual sense of the term.... he had to earn his living as a schoolteacheruntil 1944, when he was almost forty. - Sartre; Hayman, p. 16

Sartre's fame and influence are the result of self-promotion. He was acelebrity, especially in France.

The Core of Sartre's Existentialism

Trying to define the core of Jean-Paul Sartre's existentialism is beyondmy abilities. Instead, I have chosen to rely upon the efforts of others. Aspreviously mentioned, I place the confusion concerning Sartre's works atthe philosopher's own feet -- I could easily tangle his various definitionsof "existentialism" into an incoherent mass of words. Still, Sartrepopularized the term. Sartre's influence upon the school of philosophybroadly known as "existentialism" has been summarized by professorWalter Kaufmann as follows:

~ 55 ~

It is mainly through the work of Jean-Paul Sartre that existentialism hascome to the attention of a wide international audience. Even Heidegger'sgreat prestige in Germany after the second World War is due, in no smallpart, to his tremendous impact on French Thought. Nevertheless, Sartre iswidely considered a mere littérateur, and in the nineteen hundred andfifties is has become much more fashionable to criticize him, or ratherdismiss him, than to take him seriously, let alone praise him. Oddly, it iswidely argued against him that he is in some way strikingly unacademic,as it academic existentialism were not a contradiction in terms.-Existentialism; Kaufmann, p. 40

What often troubles academic audiences is that Sartre definedexistentialism in a simplistic manner. One must question if somethingmust be complex to be accepted by this audience. However, the over-simplification of Sartre's own philosophical system is often apparent:

Existentialism maintains that in man, and in man alone, existencepreceded essence.

This simply means that man first is, and only subsequently is this or that.In a word, man must create his own essence: it is in throwing himself intothe world, suffering there, struggling there, that he gradually defineshimself. And the definition always remains open ended: we cannot saywhat this man is before he dies, or what mankind is before it hasdisappeared. - From "A propos de l'existentialisme: Mise au point," ActionMagazine, December 29, 1944

Many people wrongly quote "existence precedes essence" as if thatsummarizes existentialism. Sartre was merely stating that man, as theonly sentient being on earth, was forced to define who he was throughliving, while objects are what they are until destroyed. With our ability tothink, grow, and change, mankind is in the unique position of definingitself. We are each in charge of defining our own lives.

In a certain sense, Sartre's definition of existentialism simply radicalizes aview that is very common among most social scientists: that there are noinstincts that cause specific actions.

There are always alternatives to anything that counts as human action.For Sartre, this is always true, even when we feel that there are noalternatives. - Sartre for Beginners; Palmer, p. 26

In today's world of "New Age" beliefs and enthusiasm for Easternphilosophies, it is interesting that in 1956 Kaufmann compared Sartre'sexistentialism to the teachings of the Buddha. Not that the twopersonalities are alike, Kaufmann carefully noted. Sartre was never atpeace; he challenged anything and thought an existentialist must pursue

~ 56 ~

life. The Buddha's teachings are more disposed toward accepting life andadapting to it.

Nevertheless, the Buddha, too, opposed any reliance on the divinebecause he wanted men to realize their complete responsibility. His final,and perhaps most characteristic, words, according to tradition were:"Work out your own salvation with diligence." And if the diligence is ratheruncharacteristic of the existentialists, the Buddha's still more radicaldictum with which the Dhammapada opens is nothing less than thequintessence of Sartre's thought: "All that we are is the result of what wehave thought."

Few words in world literature equal the impact of this saying. All man'salibis are unacceptable: no gods are responsible for his condition; nooriginal sin; no heredity and no environment.... - Existentialism;Kaufmann, p. 46

If you can think, you have free will. Sartre viewed this as the humancondition. While concerned primarily with human beings -- or at leastsentient beings -- Sartre's existentialism does address other creaturesand objects. It is obvious that to understand humans one must firstunderstand other objects. Sartre's study of the universe grew from thephenomenology of Edmund Husserl. Take Sartre's notion that "in man,and in man alone" there is first the body, then an essence is definedthrough actions. Now, reverse this for all other objects and Sartre's viewof the universe is clear: essence precedes existence for all objects; theyhave meaning then form.

(http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/sartre.shtml)

~ 57 ~

Fun Stuff

Ten Obscure Factoids Concerning Albert Einstein

1. He Liked His Feet Naked

"When I was young, I found out that the big toe always ends up making ahole in the sock," he once said. "So I stopped wearing socks." Einstein wasalso a fanatical slob, refusing to "dress properly" for anyone. Eitherpeople knew him or they didn't, he reasoned - so it didn't matter eitherway.

2. He Hated Scrabble

Aside from his favourite past-time sailing ("the sport which demands theleast energy"), Einstein shunned any recreational activity that requiredmental agility. As he told the New York Times, "When I get through withwork I don't want anything that requires the working of the mind."

3. He Was A Rotten Speller

Although he lived for many years in the United States and was fullybilingual, Einstein claimed never to be able to write in English because of"the treacherous spelling". He never lost his distinctive German accenteither, summed up by his catch-phrase "I vill a little t'ink".

4. He Loathed Science Fiction

Lest it distort pure science and give people the false illusion of scientificunderstanding, he recommended complete abstinence from any type ofscience fiction. "I never think of the future. It comes soon enough." Healso thought people who claimed to have seen flying saucers should keepit to themselves.

5. He Smoked Like A Chimney

A life member of the Montreal Pipe Smokers Club, Einstein was quoted assaying: "Pipe smoking contributes to a somewhat calm and objectivejudgment of human affairs." He once fell into the water during a boatingexpedition but managed heroically to hold on to his pipe.

6. He Wasn't Much Of A Musician

Einstein would relax in his kitchen with his trusty violin, stubbornly trying

~ 58 ~

to improvise something of a tune. When that didn't work, he'd have acrack at Mozart.

7. Alcohol Was Not His Preferred Drug

At a press conference upon his arrival to New York in 1930, he saidjokingly of Prohibition: "I don't drink, so it's all the same to me." In fact,Einstein had been an outspoken critic of "passing laws which cannot beenforced".

8. He Equated Monogamy With Monotony

"All marriages are dangerous," he once told an interviewer. "Marriage isthe unsuccessful attempt to make something lasting out of an incident."He was notoriously unfaithful as a husband, prone to falling in love withsomebody else directly after the exchanging of vows.

9. His Memory Was Shot

Believing that birthdays were for children, his attitude is summed up in aletter he wrote to his girlfriend Mileva Maric: "My dear little sweetheart ...first, my belated cordial congratulations on your birthday yesterday,which I forgot once again."

10. His Cat Suffered Depression

Fond of animals, Einstein kept a housecat which tended to get depressedwhenever it rained. Ernst Straus recalls him saying to the melancholy cat:"I know what's wrong, dear fellow, but I don't know how to turn it off."

(http://www.scienceagogo.com/news/19980907140525data_trunc_sys.shtml)

Tycho Brahe's Nose And The Story Of His Pet Moose

Since the autumn 1566 Tycho Brahe was studying at the university ofRostock in Germany.

Here happened an accident that is very famous.

A part of the bridge of his nose was cut off in a duel by rapiers, and hehad a metal piece attached in its place.

This gave Tycho Brahe a very special look for the rest of his life.

~ 59 ~

A detailed account of the nose incident can also be found in the book"Tycho Brahe, the man and his work" (original in latin), by Pierre Gassendi1654. This book was translated to swedish and commented by WilhelmNorlind, 1951.

Gassendi writes:

"The 10th of december 1566 there was a dance at Lucas Bacmeistershouse in the connection to a wedding. Lucas Bacmeister was a professorof theology at the univeristy of Rostock where Tycho studied. Among theguests were Tycho Brahe and another danish nobleman, ManderupParsberg. They started an argument and they separated in anger. The27th of december this argument started again, and in the evening of the29th of december a duel was held. It was around 7 in the evening and indarkness. Parsberg gives Tycho a cut over his nose that took away almostthe front part of his nose. Tycho had an artificial nose made, not fromwax, but from an alloy of gold and silver[*] and put it on so skillfully, thatit looked like a real nose Wilhelm Janszoon Blaeu, who spent time withTycho for nearly two years, also said that Tycho used to carry a small boxwith a paste or glue, with which he often would put on the nose."

Gassendi also writes that Laurus (a professor in Perugia, and laterprotonotarius for the pope) gives the reason for the argument betweenTycho and Parsberg in one of his letters. The reason should have been anargument about who was most skilled in mathmatics. However, Norlindpoints out that Gassendi has either received a wrong account of thisletter, or misinterpreted it, because Laurus only writes that "Not so longago, Tycho Brahe and a danish nobleman had competed in studyingmathematics and other higher sciences". There is nothing mentionedhowever that this should have been the reason for the argument and laterthe duel. Gassendis statement that it was an argument about who was themost skilled mathematician has however been cited many times in laterbiographies.

The hostility between Tycho and Parsberg was however not lasting, andParsberg was one of Tychos supporters under the danish king ChristianIV.

[*] Per Sörbom adds in "Tycho Brahe - a passionate astronomer" (seelinks) that when Tycho Brahe's grave was opened June 24 1901, therewere clear green marks at the front of his cranium, so the metal piece ofhis artificial nose must have had a significant amount of copper also.

~ 60 ~

Tycho Brahe's Pet Moose

Another famous story about Tycho Brahe is about his tame moose.Gassendi is one of the biographers who writes about this. The followingis an edited translation from Gassendi.

Lantgrave Wilhelm of Kassel in Germany, with whom Tycho Brahe had anextensive mail correspondence and astronomical discussions, askedTycho in a letter 1591 about an animal he had heard about called "Rix",which was faster than a deer, but with smaller horns. Tycho replied thatsuch an animal did not exist, but maybe he meant the norwegian animalcalled reindeer. Tycho wrote that he would check further details aboutsuch animals and if he could perhaps send one. He wrote that he had ayoung moose, that he could send if the Lantgrave would like. TheLantgrave replied that he had owned reindeers before but they had diedof the heat, he also had a moose, which was tame and followed him like adog. He would gladly accept a tame moose from Tycho, and would insuch case reward Tycho with a riding horse for the trouble.

Tycho replies that he would order additional moose, and he would havesent his tame one, had it not died shortly before. It had been transportedto the castle of Landskrona, a city close to Hven, to entertain a noblemanthere. But it had happened that during the dinner, the moose hadascended the castle stairs and drunk of the beer in such amounts, that ithad fallen down the stairs, and broken a leg. Despite the best care, themoose had died shortly thereafter.

(http://www.nada.kth.se/~fred/tycho/index.html)

Fun Astronomy Facts

Humans have watched the skies since ancient times, engaging in an earlyform of astronomy since at least 2000 B.C.E. The earliest astronomerscame from Babylon, China, Greece, Italy, India, and Egypt, and observedthe skies solely with the naked eye.

Astronomers thought our solar system was the center of the universeuntil 1918, when American astronomer Harlow Shapley determined thiswas false by studying the distribution of star clusters. The existence ofother galaxies was not proved until 1924, when American astronomerEdwin Powell Hubble identified the Andromeda galaxy, and others, withthe aid of a powerful 100-inch telescope.

~ 61 ~

A star begins as a cloud of dust and gas, which condenses to form asingle star, a two-star system also known as a binary star, or a starcluster.

The first telescope was built in the early 1600s, by Dutch lens-grinderHans Lipperhey.

The first asteroid to be discovered was Ceres, in 1801. It is believed thereare millions of asteroids in our solar system, but only about 264,000have been identified, and only about 12,136 of those have been named.

A comet looks like a dirty snowball until it approaches the Sun--acomet’s nucleus only shines when reflecting the Sun’s light, and thecomet’s head and tail don’t form until the Sun’s heat causes dust and gasto evaporate.

According to some estimates, approximately 19,000 meteorites weighingabout 3.5 ounces each shower the Earth every day, but only about 10 arerecovered each year.

The first solar flares were recorded on Sept. 1, 1859, by scientistsRichard C. Carrington and Richard Hodgson.

The Sun is the largest object in the solar system, and constitutes over 99percent of the solar system’s mass.

A star’s color depends on its temperature: blue stars have the highesttemperatures, followed by yellow-white stars, and finally by red stars,which have the coolest temperatures.

(http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art42856.asp)

Quotes by Galileo

➢ I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed uswith sense, reason, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use.

➢ Wine is sunlight, held together by water.

➢ I have never met a man so ignorant that I couldn't learn somethingfrom him.

➢ In questions of science, the authority of a thousand is not worth thehumble reasoning of a single individual.

~ 62 ~

➢ All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point isto discover them.

➢ I would say here something that was heard from an ecclesiastic of themost eminent degree; 'That the intention of the Holy Ghost is to teachus how one goes to heaven, not how the heaven goes.'

➢ And yet ... it moves. Galileo (Attributed after signing a recantation ofthe theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solarsystem.

➢ Philosophy is written in this grand book - I mean the universe - whichstands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understoodunless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret thecharacters in which it is written. It is written in the language ofmathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and othergeometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible tounderstand a single word of it.

(http://chatna.com/author/galileo.htm)

Quotes by Simone de Beauvoir

➢ If her functioning as a female is not enough to define woman, if wedecline also to explain her through 'the eternal feminine', and ifnevertheless we admit, provisionally, that women do exist, then wemust face the question "what is a woman"?

➢ Thus it is that no group ever sets itself up as the One without at oncesetting up the Other over against itself. If three travellers chance tooccupy the same compartment, that is enough to make vaguely hostile'others' out of all the rest of the passengers on the train. In small-towneyes all persons not belonging to the village are 'strangers' andsuspect; to the native of a country all who inhabit other countries are'foreigners'; Jews are 'different' for the anti-Semite, Negroes are'inferior' for American racists, aborigines are 'natives' for colonists,proletarians are the 'lower class' for the privileged.

➢ The parallel drawn by Bebel between women and the proletariat is validin that neither ever formed a minority or a separate collective unit ofmankind. And instead of a single historical event it is in both cases ahistorical development that explains their status as a class andaccounts for the membership of particular individuals in that class. Butproletarians have not always existed, whereas there have always been

~ 63 ~

women. They are women in virtue of their anatomy and physiology.Throughout history they have always been subordinated to men, andhence their dependency is not the result of a historical event or a socialchange - it was not something that occurred. The reason whyotherness in this case seems to be an absolute is in part that it lacksthe contingent or incidental nature of historical facts.

➢ Legislators, priests, philosophers, writers, and scientists have strivento show that the subordinate position of woman is willed in heaven andadvantageous on earth. The religions invented by men reflect this wishfor domination. In the legends of Eve and Pandora men have taken uparms against women. They have made use of philosophy and theology,as the quotations from Aristotle and St Thomas have shown.

➢ .... yesterday night, I felt I was falling in the bottom of a dark deadly pitand I struggled for two hours in fever and anguish and a kind ofdispair...

➢ Woman's brain is smaller; yes, but it is relatively larger. Christ wasmade a man; yes, but perhaps for his greater humility. Each argumentat once suggests its opposite, and both are often fallacious.(the secondsex)

(http://www.thecry.com/existentialism/debeauvoir/beauquotes.html)

"Einstein and Copernicus"

Thomas Einstein liked to dabble in science. Although he spent his daysteaching fourth graders how to do long division and understandfractions, his nights were spent in his basement where he mixedsolutions, joined wires, solved 23-inch long mathematical problems, anddid all the other various scientific experiments necessary to be a famousinventor.

~ 64 ~

Einstein was currently working on his latest project, the time traveltelephone, when he heard the doorbell ring. He pushed a button, whichallowed Gertrude Copernicus, his fiancé, to enter. She found him minuteslater with his head draped over circuits and telephone wire.

"Einstein, do stop your inventing now, dear, and take me to dinner," shesaid. "It is way past our agreed upon time."

Einstein's head remained at the very same position, for in truth, he wasseriously wrapped up in his telephone wire.

"Einstein, dear, do come out from there," Copernicus insisted. With anelaborate sigh, she carefully extricated his head from the wire. She ledhim gently away from his basement lab and up into the world ofMcDonald's and food.

The two enjoyed their evening out, but were startled and horrified todiscover when they returned that a burglar had stolen all the plans for thealmost finished time travel telephone.

Einstein was calm. He tried to comfort poor Copernicus. "It's all right,dear. I don't mind," he said. "I had already solved all the telephone'sproblems!"

He patted Copernicus' shoulder. "Actually, it's quite lucky in fact. Now Ican start in at once on my spaceship capable of speed of light travel."

Copernicus began to cry harder. "But darling. You forget! The time traveltelephone was to have provided us with enough money to get married!"She gulped back another sob.

Einstein told her excitedly about his newest research into space travel. "Itwill make us rich. Don't worry, my darling."

At once he set to work. Poor Copernicus had to let herself out. She wasupset and frustrated, but she trusted Einstein.

Time passed. A man named Albert Edison invented the world's first timetraveling telephone. He grew rich on the proceeds. Gertrude Copernicusgrew suspicious.

Meanwhile, Einstein invented his spaceship capable of traveling fasterthan the speed of light. Copernicus was thrilled! Now they could getmarried!

~ 65 ~

That night they celebrated. When they returned, they found that thespaceship and all its plans had disappeared!

Copernicus was desolated! She knew Albert Edison was the spy who hadferreted out her beloved Einstein's plans.

That night while Einstein began work on his latest invention, the world'sfirst robotic cook, Copernicus set out to trap the horrid thief. She usedone of Einstein's previous inventions, the sonic beautifier to change herhair and eye coloring and to give her that special allure that all heroineshave. Then, quickly she rode her bicycle to Edison's house.

When she arrived, she knocked at the door. Edison opened it, and wasimmediately captivated by Copernicus' beauty and style. He invited her infor lemonade.

Copernicus sat down to chat. Within minutes Edison was under her spell.He could not keep his lips from dribbling out their secrets. Lost in love,he admitted to stealing the telephone and the space ship.

"I have chosen the life of the villain, Sweet Copernicus," he told her. "It istrue, all true." He wept on her shoulder, and then continued. "It isbecause, alas, I could never find a woman like you. I thought if I were richand famous that someone wonderful would finally love me."

~ 66 ~

Copernicus felt sorry for Edison, but she called the police, anyway. Theyarrived with their sirens screaming, their lights flashing, and theirofficiousness in residence. A tear fell from Copernicus' eyes as theycarted poor, wicked Edison off to jail.

When Einstein heard the whole story, he gladly traded his spaceship andtime traveling telephone to Edison in exchange for a promise that thevillain would never again do evil.

Due to such leniency (and the fact that all charges were dropped)Copernicus introduced Edison to her sister, Galileo, and the four of thembecame the best of friends (of course, the sisters were already friends).

The next day Einstein sold the new robotic cook. And just as he hadpromised, it brought Copernicus and Einstein so much money that theywere able to marry and live happily ever after.

(http://www.writing.com/main/view_item/item_id/596227)

~ 67 ~