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CONTROL
CONFIDENCE
GOAL SETTING, IMAGERY, SELF TALK
Sport Scotland CPD
WHAT EMOTIONS ARE MOST OFTEN DISPLAYED BY:
ATHLETES?COACHES?
SIGNIFICANT OTHERS?
Control
Emotions
Can impact on performance
Consideration of two aspects – coach and athlete displays of emotion
Coach: Do you consider how your own emotions show around
your athletes? Do you have any dominant emotions that you express?
Athlete Emotions
Anxiety a common and debilitative emotion
Linked with increases in physiological arousal
Athletes need to be able to control arousal: Increasing arousal (i.e., psyching up) Decreasing (i.e., increased pressure leading to anxiety
and nervousness)
Coping – Social Support
Support from others can help athletes cope in sport
Social support has 4 dimensions: Emotional support - being there for comfort and security Esteem support – bolstering person’s sense of competence of self-
belief Informational support – providing advice or guidance Tangible support – concrete instrumental assistance
Matching support type to needs of athlete at that time important
Important that support does not undermine autonomy, competence and relatedness!
Pep Talks
Guidelines for a coach’s successful pregame talk Give them a plan. Make them believe they can win. Do not lie. Be yourself. Use humor.
“Getting the Butterflies to Fly in Formation”
Is arousal/anxiety debilitative or facilitative?
Helping athletes understand arousal and its impact is important
Regular reviews of performances
Controlling strategies: Relaxation techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation) Imagery Self talk
What Is Coping?
Coping is a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Researchers differentiate between two types of coping: Problem-focused and emotion focused coping.
Coping Categories
Problem-focused coping: Efforts to alter or manage the problems that are causing stress (e.g., time management, problem solving)
Emotion-focused coping: Regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes the stress (e.g., through relaxation, mediation).
(continued)
Coping Categories
Major problem-focused categories Information gathering Precompetition and competition plans Goal setting Time management skills Problem solving
(continued)
Coping Categories
Major problem-focused categories Increasing effort Self-talk Adhering to injury rehabilitation program
(continued)
Coping Categories
Major emotion-focused categories Meditation Relaxation Wishful thinking Reappraisal Self-blame, mental and behavioral withdrawal Cognitive efforts to change the meaning (but not the
actual problem or environment) of the situation
Coping in Sport
Coping strategies frequently used by athletes Task focus Rational thinking and self-talk Positive focus and orientation Social support Mental preparation and anxiety management Time management Training hard and smart
Resiliency: Bouncing Back from Adversity
Mental toughness and personal resources (e.g., determination, competitiveness, commitment) are keys for resilient performers to cope with adversity.
Sociocultural influences such as social support (or lack of it) were seen as critical to being resilient.
Coping in Sport
Gender, age, and pubertal status can influence both the type of coping strategy employed and its perceived effectiveness.
Coping appears to be situation specific.There are great individual differences in
coping strategies, and each athlete has to find what works best for him or her in specific situations.
Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Self-statement modification: Change negative to positive statements.
Imagery: Cope with negative emotions or use positive emotions.
(continued)
Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Socratic dialogue Thought-provoking questions are asked so athletes
can reevaluate their self-defeating thoughts.
Corrective experiences Athlete makes a conscious decision to engage in the
behavior that is of concern, which can reduce anxiety and correct past mistakes.
(continued)
Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Vicarious learning: Modeling appropriate behaviors makes it more likely
that behavior will be produced.
Self-analysis: Monitor emotions in sport and thus increase self-
awareness.
Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Storytelling, metaphors, and poetry: Literary techniques encourage athletes to consider
alternative ways of viewing and dealing with the situation (e.g., quotes or stories from sport stars).
Reframing: Perspective taking involves viewing an important
competition as just another game.
Keys to Generalizing Coping Strategies
Recognition of stimulus generality: Understand that certain coping skills transfer to other
life situations.
Broad application of coping skills: Some skills are likely to generalize to non-sport
situations, such as stress inoculation training and progressive relaxation.
(continued)
Keys to Generalizing Coping Strategies
Personal significance of coping application: Coping skills that are important to an individual will typically
transfer to other situations.
Internal locus of control of coping skill: Coping skills become more transferable when an athlete claims
ownership of the skill.
Learned resourcefulness: Resourceful individuals realize that coping skills can apply to
different aspects of life.
On-Site Relaxation Tips
Smile when you feel tension coming on.
Have fun—enjoy the situation.
Set up stressful situations in practice.
Slow down; take your time.
Stay focused on the present.
Come prepared with a good game plan.
Signs of Underarousal
Moving slowly, not getting set
Mind wandering, being easily distracted
Lack of concern about how one will perform
Lack of anticipation or enthusiasm
Heavy feeling in legs, no bounce
Arousal-Inducing Techniques
The goal is to get athletes at an optimal level of arousal.
Often things such as pep talks and motivational speeches can over-arouse athletes.
If arousal is to be raised, it should be done in a deliberate fashion with awareness of optimal arousal states.
(continued)
Arousal-Inducing Techniques (continued)
Increase breathing rate.
Act energized.
Use mood words and positive statements.
Listen to music.
Use energizing imagery.
Complete a pre-competition workout.
“Flow”
When experience is just right, athlete can have psychological experience which both results in high performance and personal ecstasy.
9 defining characteristics of flow: Challenge/skill balance Merging of action and awareness (sense of automaticity and
spontaneity) Goals are clearly defined Clear, unambiguous feedback Total concentration on the skill being performed Sense of being in control without trying to be in control Loss of self-awareness Loss of time awareness Autotelic experience (end result of all the above)
“Flow”
Facilitative of flow: Development of positive mental attitude Positive precompetitive affect Positive competitive affect Maintaining appropriate attentional focus Physical readiness Unity with team mates and/or coach
Debilitative of flow: Experience physical problems and mistakes Inability to maintain appropriate attentional focus Negative mental attitude Lack of audience response
WHAT DOES A CONFIDENT PERSON LOOK LIKE?
Confidence
Confidence
Self-confidence definition: “the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour”
(Wienberg & Gould, 2011)
State-like and trait-like Confidence can change depending on the proximity to certain
events Some people more predisposed to confidence
Self-fulfilling prophecy If you think something will go wrong it will Example of overcoming this – Roger Bannister breaking the 4
minute mile
Sources of Confidence
Different types of sport-confidence: Confidence about ability to execute physical skills Confidence about one’s ability to use psychological
skills Confidence to use perceptual skills (e.g. Decision
making) Confidence in one’s level of physical fitness Confidence in one’s learning potential
Where does this confidence come from?
Where Does My Confidence Come From?
Type of Confidence Sources
•Fitness •Training (improvements)•Warm up and cool down routines•Proper Equipment•Appropriate Rest
•Technique •Fitness•Training•Coach feedback•Previous performances
•Equipment •Recommendations – coaches and other athletes•Improvements in performance•Comfort
How Would I Rate My Confidence, and Why?
Type Sources Rating (1-10) Reasons
Fitness •Training (improvements)•Warm up and cool down routines•Proper Equipment•Appropriate Rest
6 •Recent injury•No set routines during training•Not enough training
Technique •Fitness•Training•Coach feedback•Previous performances
7 •Performances improving•Positive feedback from coach•Always room for improvement
Equipment •Recommendations – coaches and other athletes•Improvements in performance•Comfort
9 •Improvements in performance since changing equipment•Recommended by coach and colleagues•Equipment feels great to run in!
What Can I Do To Improve My Confidence?
Type Sources Rating (1-10)
Reasons What Can I Do?
Fitness •Training (improvements)•Warm up and cool down routines•Proper Equipment•Appropriate Rest
6 •Recent injury•No set routines during training•Not enough training
•See Physiotherapist about injury•Plan routines for warming up and cooling down, and use in training•Set training plan for coming months (goal setting)
Technique •Fitness•Training•Coach feedback•Previous performances
7 •Performances improving•Positive feedback from coach•Always room for improvement
•Increased training•Get more coach feedback – ask more questions•Review previous performances
Equipment •Recommendations – coaches and other athletes•Improvements in performance•Comfort
9 •Improvements in performance since changing equipment•Recommended by coach and colleagues•Equipment feels great to run in!
•Maintain equipment as best as possible•Continue enjoying equipment•Keep up to date with possible new equipment
Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977)
Situation-specific form of self-confidence Belief in one’s ability to perform a specific task
Underlying assumptions If someone has required ability and sufficient motivation,
defining aspect of performance is self-efficacy High self effacious athletes tend to persevere, particularly
under tough conditions Self-efficacy is task-specific, but can generalise to other
similar skills or situations Self-efficacy is linked to goal setting – those who have
high self efficacy tend to set more challenging goals
Sources of Self Efficacy
Athletic Performance
Efficacy Expectations
Performance Accomplishment
s
Vicarious Experience
Verbal Persuasion
Imaginal Experiences
Physiological States
Emotional States
Psychological Skills
Goal Setting
“A GOAL SET PROPERLY IS HALFWAY REACHED”
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
Goal Setting
“...success and failure are not concrete events, they are psychological states consequent on perception of reaching or not reaching goals...”
(Maehr & Nichols, 1980)
Goal Setting
In your groups:
Define goal setting and goals
List 5 different goals for the next year that your athletes have set
What are goals?
“What and individual is trying to accomplish”
“ The object or aim of an action”
Goals motivate individuals to take action by: Focussing attention Increasing effort and intensity Prompting development of new problem
solving strategies Encouraging persistence in the face of failure
What is goal setting?
Theory of motivation that energises athletes to become more productive and effective
Objective vs. Subjective Goals
Objective goals: Focus on achieving something within a certain time E.g., reaching a certain weight in a certain amount of
time
Subjective goals: General statements of intent E.g., “I want to do well”
1. I want to win this tennis match
2. I will keep my arms straight during my handstand
3. I want to run this 100m sprint in 12.9s
4. I want to make this hole in 3 shots
5. I want to beat this boxer
6. I want to keep my elbow high through the stroke
7. I want to score a hatrick
8. I want the club to follow through after the shot
9. I want to win this marathon
3 Types of Objective Goals (Kingston & Hardy, 1997)
Outcome goals Focus on outcome of events Usually involve comparisons with others
Performance goals End product of performance Independent of others
Process goals Specific behaviours exhibited during performance Skill and technique related
Which Goal Type is Better?
Outcome goals: May increase motivation away from competition Can increase anxiety just before, or during,
competition
Performance and process goals Easier to adjust than outcome goals Depend less on performance of others
Multiple Goal Strategy
Multiple Goal
Strategy
Outcome Goals: Focus on winning
Performance Goals:
Focus on skill achievement
Process Goals:Focus on skill
technique
Why Does Goal Setting Work?
Four basic ways goal setting influences performance (Locke et al, 1981)
Directed attention Focuses athlete attention on task
Effort mobilisation Once attention is directed, athlete knows where to place their effort
Persistence Goal setting helps athletes direct their effort over long periods of
time
Development of new learning strategies Setting new goals allows athlete to develop new methods of
achieving these
Effective Goal Setting
1. Make goals specific and measurable
2. Set moderately difficult, but realistic, goals
3. Set long and short term goals
4. Write down goals and monitor progress regularly
Effective Goal Setting
1. Use a mix of process, performance and outcome goals
2. Use short-range goals to achieve long-range goals
3. Set practice as well as competition goals
4. Make sure goals are internalised
SMART goals
Specific
Measurable
Action-orientated
Realistic
Timely
SMARTER Goals
Specific
Measurable
Action-orientated
Realistic
Timely
Elastic
Repeatable
Goal Setting Pitfalls
Poorly written goal statements i.e., not using SMART goals
Failure to develop a goal-attainment strategy
Failure to follow goal-attainment strategy
Setting too many goals too soon
Failure to adjust goals Due to injury especially
Usefulness of Goal Setting
Motivation: Athlete given ownership over training – AUTONOMY Athlete achieves goals – COMPETENCE Athlete sets goals with team mates/coach – RELATEDNESS
Confidence: Athlete achieves goals – performance accomplishment
Flow Clear goals – facilitative of flow
Control & concentration Ability to refocus on task – coping mechanism
Imagery
What is imagery? Image can be created in the mind in the absence
of any external stimuli
Imagery involves one or all of the senses: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, olfactory
Imagery involves moods and emotions
Imagery
Psycho neuromuscular Theory
Imagery results in subliminal neuromuscular patterns identical to patterns used during actual movement
Neuromuscular system “practices” movement
Research has shown increased electrical activity in passive muscles associated with imagery (Jowdy & Harris, 1990; Slade et al, 2002; Smith & Collins, 2004)
Most plausible explanation of why imagery facilitates physical performance and learning (Cox, 2007)
Why does imagery work?
Symbolic learning theory:
Imagery works because the individual plans their actions in advance
Attention and arousal set theory:
Imagery improves performance in 2 ways: Imagery may help athlete attend to task at hand
(cognitive) Imagery may help athlete adjust arousal level for
optimal performance (physiological)
Why does imagery work?
Internal vs. external perspective
Internal perspective◦ Athlete imagines executing skill from within
their own body◦ Very natural, as we see the world this way
External perspective◦ Athlete imagining self from outside their body –
like watching a video of self◦ Less natural, but offers good opportunity to
observe technique and form
Imagery Perspective
Visual imagery◦ Related to the visual processing of information◦ “Seeing movement”
Kinaesthetic Imagery◦ Refers to sensory information from receptors
throughout body ◦ Information about body-part location and
movement, objects in contact with body, movement of muscles, joints and tendons (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004)
◦ “Feeling movement”
Imagery Modality
Cox (1998) suggests: “internal imagery is considered to be primarily
kinaesthetic in nature, as opposed to visual” (p176)
“external imagery is considered to be primarily visual in nature” (p176)
Callow and Hardy (2004) Internal imagery considered superior to external
due to association with kinaesthetic imagery
Perspective and Modality
Callow and Hardy (2004)
◦ Used VMIQ (Isaac et al, 1986) to measure internal/external imagery
◦ Used MIQ (Hall et al, 1985) to measure visual/kinaesthetic imagery
◦ Study 1 Significant correlation between imagery perspective and imagery
modality
◦ Study 2 External imagery significantly correlated with kinaesthetic imagery,
internal was not!
◦ Conclusion: External imagery has a stronger association with kinaesthetic
imagery for tasks where form is important
Perspective and Modality
Athletes can form kinaesthetic imagery equally well from both internal and external perspectives (Gates et al, 2003; Hardy & Callow, 1999)
Advanced performers capable of switching between perspectives, and speed of change may lead to athletes experiencing both perspectives at once (Holmes & Collins, 2001)
New focus of research◦ External imagery perspective angle (Roberts et al,
2009)
Perspective and Modality
Paivio’s Two-Dimensional Model of Imagery (1985)◦ Imagery has both cognitive and motivational functions
◦ 5 independent types of imagery: Motivational Specific (MS) – athlete imagines self in specific
sport setting that is highly motivating Motivational General – Mastery (MG-M) – athlete imagines
self exhibiting ability to remain focussed Motivational General – Arousal (MG-A) – athlete imagines self
exhibiting ability to control anxiety Cognitive Specific (CS) – athlete imagines self correctly
executing specific skills Cognitive General (CG) – athlete imagines self correctly
executing strategies and game plans
Models of Imagery
Four Ws
Where and When?◦ Most imagery takes place during training and competition
(Munroe et al, 2000)◦ Imagery used both in-season and during off-season,
(Cummings and Hall, 2002)
What?◦ Smith and Holmes (2004) contrasted
Written script of successful putting Watching video of self successfully putting Hearing ball dropping into hole Control condition
◦ Found – watching self most effective
Models of Imagery
Four Ws
What (cont)◦ Direction of imagery – positive vs. negative
Nordin & Cumming (2005) – debilitative imagery causes decrease in self-efficacy and performance
◦ Imagery and motivation Wilson et al. (2003) – exercisers motivated for external
rewards do not use imagery for improving technique, improving appearance or increasing energy
◦ Imagery and goal perspective Harwood et al (2003) – athletes high on task and ego
orientation exhibit highest imagery use for 5 types of imagery
Models of Imagery
Four Ws
What (cont)◦ Imagery speed
Calmels and Fournier (2001) – imaged gymnastics routines shorter than actual practiced routines
Reed (2002) – diver imagery speeds: Intermediate divers > novice divers > elite divers
McCann (2009) – slow motion/real time/fast motion No impact on confidence or affect Slow motion lead to better timing of performance
Models of Imagery
Four Ws
Why?
◦ Improving performance (Nordin & Cumming, 2005)◦ Also shown to improve:
Anxiety control, confidence and motivation amongst elite rugby players (Evans et al, 2004)
Anxiety control and self-efficacy of novice rock climbers (Jones et al, 2002)
Confidence of high-level badminton players (Callow et al, 2001)
Attention abilities of softball players (Calmels et al, 2004)◦ Cyclical relationship – more confident individuals use
imagery more (Abma et al, 2002)
Models of Imagery
Skill learning and practice: Skill acquisition, skill practice, error detection
and correction
Tactical and game skills Strategy development, strategy learning,
strategy practice, problem solving
Competition and performance Familiarisation of location, mental warm-up, pre-
performance routine, preview, review
Uses of Imagery
Psychological skills Arousal and anxiety control, improving
concentration and attention Increasing self-awareness, building confidence
and self-efficacy Increasing motivation, developing interpersonal
skills
Coping with injury Coping with pain and injury, dealing with long
term injury, recovering from injury
Uses of Imagery
PETTLEP (Holmes & Collins, 2001)◦ Physical nature of task – what imagery is for◦ Environment – use of stimulus materials that mimic
real environment◦ Task – imagery represents the nature of skill to be
performed and reflects level of imager◦ Timing – imagery being performed in real time◦ Learning – imagery content reviewed and revised as
new skills are learned◦ Emotion – necessity for inclusion of emotional
component to imagery◦ Perspective – prioritises internal, but external used
when appropriate
Imagery Interventions
Key components (Morris et al, 2005)◦ Vivid and controllable◦ Involve all senses◦ Realism ◦ Positive performance and outcome focus◦ Base images on memories◦ Use stimulus and response propositions
Stimulus propositions – references to the environment, equipment, performance actions (e.g. tempo), performance setting
Response propositions – responses to the environment, e.g. heart / breathing rate, muscular fatigue, sweating, etc
Imagery Interventions
Developing an Imagery Script
Usefulness of Imagery
Motivation Imagery used to preview/review performance – competence Athlete responsible for image – autonomy
Confidence Athlete imagining perfect performance – performance
accomplishment Athlete ‘seeing’ others – vicarious experience Imaginal experiences
Concentration and control Imagery used as pre-performance routine – athlete getting into zone,
or increasing arousal Psychological tool for use during play – maintaining or regaining
focus
Internal vs. ExternalMotivational vs.
Instructional
Internal Talking to yourself in
your own head People do it all the time!
External Speaking out loud to
yourself E.g. Andy Murray
Motivational Come on!!
Instructional To do with technique Dealing with
distractions – focus!
Self Talk
