Control + 1 – Block Headingsopen-evidence.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.com/...N… · Web viewTheir Shea evidence list multiple alt causes to high food prices, it says quote

document.docx Dartmouth 20121

River Locks Negative

Several disadvantages- Accidents DA (fixing locks increases chances of accidents, which causes chain reaction that overfloods the locks)- River-Agro DA - Freight Train DA (plan trades off with burgeoning freight train system that’s good)- US Ag Bad (river locks boost subsidized corn and ag exports to other countries which results in unrest and rels collapse

and those countries becoming protectionist which turns their ag impacts)- Non-river locks modernization is bad because of environmental/tradeoff disads and a PIC out of sacramento other west

coast rivers with crazy reverttonaturalstate stuff- mississippi states cp with corps of engineers bad

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*** Defense1NC Agriculture – All

Their Shea evidence list multiple alt causes to high food prices, it says quote “A rising world population combined with probable rising oil prices and global warming’s effect in destroying arable land will all effect the world’s food markets and none of them will lower the price.” And so does their Brown evidence “a rapidly expanding population, crop-withering temperature increases, and irrigation wells running dry”

Severe US drought causing record high prices nowFarchy and Meyer 7/19 (Jack and Gregory, “World braced for new food crisis” 7/19/12, www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9989dc80-d1c5-11e1-badb-00144feabdc0.html#ixzz21YSupe9I)

The world is facing a new food crisis as the worst US drought in more than 50 years pushes agricultural commodity prices to record highs . Corn and soyabean prices surged to record highs on Thursday, surpassing the peaks of the 2007-08 crisis that sparked food riots in more than 30 countries. Wheat prices are not yet at record levels but have rallied more than 50 per cent in five weeks, exceeding prices reached in the wake of Russia’s 2010 export ban. The drought in the US, which supplies nearly half the world’s exports of corn and much of its soyabeans and wheat, will reverberate well beyond its borders, affecting consumers from Egypt to China. “I’ve been in the business more than 30 years and this is by far and away the most serious weather issue and supply and demand problem that I have seen by a mile,” said a senior executive at a trading house. “It’s not even comparable to 2007-08.”

Their impact in non-unique – their UN Committee on Transport evidence says that the price of rice – the main staple food in Asia – tripled from 2007 to 2008 and “food prices are likely to remain high in the years to come”

Price fluctuations inevitable – higher prices don’t cause your impactBiopact 08 [unites specialists in several disciplines related to bioenergy—an economic anthropologist, a bio-engineer, a professor in chemistry, a tropical agronomist, a sociologist with expertise on Central-Africa, and a development economist, Jun 17, “Wageningen UR: biofuels not to blame for high food prices; decline in world food prices to continue”]

Unpredictable movements in food prices can still provide problems in the future. With high prices, the consequences in terms of hunger or malnutrition especially in poor urban areas will surface. But with low prices, the consequence for poor farmers will be large. Until recently , hundreds of millions of farmers could not lift themselves out of poverty because of low food prices. Seventy-five percent of the world's hungry people are still living in rural areas and are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. Over time, high prices should benefit them.

And, the DA’s impact turns the advantages – their Smith evidence concedes that quote “political instability (such as wars or other forms of civil strife) can influence food security” – it specifically states that wars are just as likely to cause food insecurity as the other way around and gives the empirical example of Indonesia

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Food scarcity inevitableEconomist 10 [Climate change How to live with climate change Nov 25th 2010 | from PRINT EDITION http://www.economist.com/node/17575027/print]

Food security will become a crucial issue. Drought-resistant seeds are needed; and, given that the farmers least able to pay will require the hardiest varieties, seed companies’ efforts should be supplemented by state-funded research. Since genetic modification would help with this, it would be handy if people abandoned their prejudice against it. Even with better crops, better soil conservation, better planting patterns and better weather forecasts, all of which are needed , there will still be regional calamities . To ensure that food is always available, the global food market will have to be deeper and more resilient than it is now. That means abandoning the protectionism that bedevils ag riculture today.

Their Kwa evidence literally cuts off in the middle of a sentence, and for good reason, the rest of the paragraph from the website says “Not only are developing countries increasingly dependent on imports for their basic food needs, sky rocketing food imports bills are also becoming a major burden” – proves the real cause of food price problems is US protectionism, not locks – means they don’t solve their d-rule argument

Low food prices force small farmers off their land and ensures starvation, an increase in food prices is key to a sustainable market – turns their d-rule argumentChandler 12 (Dr. Frances, 5/3/12, Independent Senator in the Upper Chamber of the Parliament of Barbados, http://businessbarbados.com/industry-guide/agriculture-and-fisheries/lets-put-food-security-talk-action/)

His thinking is of course in line with the WTO whose Agreement on Agriculture (AOA) , according to Debi Barker, Executive Director of the International Forum on Globalization, “has emerged as the most contentious issue at the WTO because of two basic facts: (1) agriculture is still the primary source of livelihood for roughly half of humanity; and (2) tremendous wealth and political control are derived from agricultural production and trade. Thus, the AOA pits many of the poorest people in the world against many of the wealthiest and most powerful…It requires that countries stop subsidizing their rural communities, and open their economies to industrialized, corporate farming practices. Simultaneously, it allows for the mass subsidization of multinational corporate farms, mainly in the U.S. and European Union, through billions of dollars in “hidden” subsidies such as those for exports. The European Union and the U.S. are committed to the preservation of their subsidies and their protections for domestic farmers” She goes on to say that AOA’s imposition of an unequal system of global competition on the domestic farm sector has undermined the viability of small farmers around the world who are unable to compete with cheaper subsidized imports. As a result, i t is driving millions of small farmers off the land and increasing the concentration of control over agriculture in the hands of a shrinking number of global corporations. The International Forum on Globalisation agrees with peoples’ movements and governments the world over that the answer to this impasse is to remove agriculture from the WTO altogether (www.ifg.org/pdf/cancun/issues-foodsecurity.pdf). I totally agree. The findings of Olivier De Schutter , UN Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur on the right to food reported in December 2011 to WTO members are also instructive – “Globalization creates big winners and big losers. But where food systems are concerned, losing out means sinking into poverty and hunger. A vision of food security that deepens the divide between food-surplus and food-deficit regions , between exporters and importers, and between winners and losers, simply cannot be accepted . However, we must ensure that the debate starts from the correct premise. This premise must acknowledge the dangers for poor countries in relying excessively on trade. We must also assess the compatibility of WTO disciplines and the Doha agenda with the food security agenda. Without such a fundamental reassessment, we will remain wedded to food systems where the most efficient producers with the biggest economies of scale are relied upon to feed food-deficit regions, and where the divide only gets bigger. This may look like food security on paper, but it is an approach that has failed spectacularly. The reality on the ground is that vulnerable populations are consigned to endemic hunger and poverty. The food bills of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) increased five- or six-fold between 1992 and 2008. Imports now account for around 25 per cent of their current food consumption. These

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countries are caught in a vicious cycle. The more they are told to rely on trade, the less they invest in domestic agriculture. And the less they support their own farmers, the more they have to rely on trade. In the long term, poor net-food-importing countries will not be helped by being fed. They will be helped by being able to feed themselves. It is disappointing that the WTO continues to fight the battles of the past.”

Don’t vote on their famine d-rule argument, extinction has to come first. We can’t feel bad about people dying from starvation if there’s no one left on Earth to feel.

Their Yee and Storey evidence list several alt causes to Chinese instability, quote “Chinese leadership faces a raft of internal problems, including the increasing political demands of its citizens, a growing population, a shortage of natural resources and a deterioration in the natural environment caused by rapid industrialisation and pollution”

Chinese domestic supply solves food shortageUS International Trade Commission 11 (March 2011, “China's Agricultural Trade: Competitive Conditions and Effects on U.S. Exports” www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub4219.pdf)

China is the world’s largest agricultural economy and the leading producer and consumer of many agricultural commodities. In recent years, its massive population and tremendous income growth have fueled a rapid increase in both the quantity and quality of food and fiber consumed. While China has met much of its needs by increasing domestic production, it has also emerged as a leading global importer of several agricultural commodities, including cotton, soybeans , vegetable oils, and hides and skins. China’s increase in imports has benefited its trade partners significantly, but only for a narrow range of products. At the same time, domestic policies to promote agricultural production and maintain self-sufficiency in staple foods increase the competitiveness of domestically produced goods over imported products and, in some cases, keep imports out altogether. As the Chinese agricultural sector has modernized and become more productive , China has also become an important global exporter of several horticultural products, including mandarin oranges, apples, apple juice, certain vegetables, and garlic.

Their evidence has no explanation of how Chinese instability would escalate to extinction like their tag claims – their Yee evidence just says that warlords might get a hold of nukes, not that they would bomb another country. And, the US could cream a fragmented China easily, means no escalation

No CCP collapse – strong legitimacy and stability now – any dissatisfaction would be directed to the lower levels of governmentBell 12 (Daniel A., Zhiyuan Chair Professor at Jiaotong University (Shanghai) and professor of political theory and director of the Center for Comparative and International Political Philosophy at Tsinghua University (Beijing) 7/9/12, “Why China Won't Collapse (Soon)” www.huffingtonpost.com/daniel-a-bell/chinese-government-legitimacy_b_1658006.html)

The purge of Chongqing's Party chief Bo Xilai is China's most serious political crisis in recent decades. What seemed like a relatively stable system of political transition -- two five year terms for top leaders -- has been thrown into chaos. Or so we are told. Such predictions about the collapse of China'spolitical system have been constantly repeated since the suppression of the pro-democracy uprisings in 1989. But the system didn't collapse then, and it won't collapse now . The key reason such dire predictions are taken

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seriously -- especially in the West -- is that non-democratic regimes are seen to lack legitimacy. A political regime that is morally justified in the eyes of the people must be chosen by the people. In the case of China, the political leadership is a self-selected elite. Such mode of rule is fragile, as the Arab Spring has shown. But this view assumes the people are dissatisfied with the regime. In fact, the large majority of Chinese people support the single-party state structure. Since the 1990s, scholars in the West and China have carried out many large scale surveys into the legitimacy of Chinese political power and by now they have virtually arrived at a consensus: the degree of legitimacy of the Chinese political system is very high. Surveys have been modified to prevent people from telling lies and the results are always the same. To the extent there is dissatisfaction, it is largely directed at the lower levels of government. The central government is viewed as the most legitimate part of the Chinese political apparatus.

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1NC Iran

War in the Middle East won’t draw in outside powersFerguson 06 (Niall, Professor of History at Harvard University, and Senior Fellow of the Hoover Institution, Stanford, LA Times, July 24)

Could today's quarrel between Israelis and Hezbollah over Lebanon produce World War III? That's what Republican Newt Gingrich, the former speaker of the House, called it last week, echoing earlier fighting talk by Dan Gillerman, Israel's ambassador to the United Nations. Such language can — for now, at least — safely be dismissed as hyperbole. This crisis is not going to trigger another world war. Indeed, I do not expect it to produce even another Middle East war worthy of comparison with those of June 1967 or October 1973. In 1967, Israel fought four of its Arab neighbors — Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq. In 1973, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel. Such combinations are very hard to imagine today. Nor does it seem likely that Syria and Iran will escalate their involvement in the crisis

beyond continuing their support for Hezbollah. Neither is in a position to risk a full-scale military confrontation with Israel, given the risk that this might precipitate an American military reaction. Crucially, Washington's consistent support for Israel is not matched by any great power support for Israel's neighbors. During the Cold War, by contrast, the risk was that a Middle East war could spill over into a superpower conflict. Henry Kissinger, secretary of State in the twilight of the Nixon presidency, first heard the news of an Arab-Israeli war at 6:15 a.m. on Oct. 6, 1973. Half an hour later, he was on the phone to the Soviet ambassador in Washington, Anatoly Dobrynin. Two weeks later, Kissinger flew to Moscow to meet the Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev. The stakes were high indeed. At one point during the 1973 crisis, as Brezhnev vainly tried to resist Kissinger's efforts to squeeze him out of the diplomatic loop, the White House issued DEFCON 3, putting American strategic nuclear forces on

high alert. It is hard to imagine anything like that today . In any case, this war may soon be over. Most wars Israel has fought have been short, lasting a matter of days or weeks (six days in '67, three weeks in '73). Some Israeli sources say this one could be finished in a matter of days. That, at any rate, is clearly the assumption being made in Washington.

No escalationCook 07 (Steven, fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, Ray Takeyh, fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, and Suzanne Maloney, senior fellow at Saban Center, June 28 2007 “Why the Iraq war won't engulf the Mideast” International Herald Tribune)

Finally, there is no precedent for Arab leaders to commit forces to conflicts in which they are not directly involved. The Iraqis and the Saudis did send small contingents to fight the Israelis in 1948 and 1967, but they were either ineffective or never made it. In the 1970s and 1980s,

Arab countries other than Syria, which had a compelling interest in establishing its hegemony over Lebanon, never committed forces either to protect the Lebanese from the Israelis or from other Lebanese. The civil war in Lebanon was regarded as someone else's fight. Indeed, this is the way many leaders view the current situation in Iraq. To Cairo, Amman and Riyadh, the situation in Iraq is worrisome, but in the end it is an Iraqi and American fight. As far as Iranian mullahs are concerned, they have long preferred to press their interests through proxies as opposed to direct engagement. At a time when Tehran has access and influence over powerful Shiite militias, a massive cross-border incursion is both unlikely and unnecessary. So Iraqis will remain locked in a sectarian and

ethnic struggle that outside powers may abet, but will remain within the borders of Iraq. The Middle East is a region both prone and accustomed to civil wars. But given its experience with ambiguous conflicts, the region has also developed an intuitive ability to contain its civil strife and prevent local conflicts from enveloping the entire Middle East.

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Ext. China Self-Sufficient

China is self-sufficientBeek 12 (Vincent ter, 6/27/12 www.pigprogress.net/background/china-%96-heading-for-food-self-sufficiency-and-more-8981.html)

How will China cope with its growing population and growing demand for foods? Is the country able to feed its projected 1.34 billion inhabitants by 2050? Clearly, yes, says Jikun Huang, of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. By 2020 the country will be 99% self-sufficient . The story has been well-known for some time . When it comes to food security in China, many have pointed to rapid economic growth, the rising food demand, increasing imports of feedstuffs like soybeans. So often, the question is: Who will feed China? A question for Jikun Huang, from the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He addressed the audience at the ‘Feeding the World’ summit, organised by the Economist Group and sponsored by DSM, in Geneva, Switzerland, on 8 February. His answer can be summarised as: China will take care of itself – and others too. Huang pointed to the time frame between 1992 and 2010, stating that in 17 years, China was a net food exporter . It is only in the last three years that China had to import . He also mentioned the fact that both national and household food security has significantly improved in this time. Huang continued by explaining how China had managed to achieve this. The annual growth rate of China’s agriculture has been 4.4 times the rate of the population growth in the last 30 years . To support this, he showed figures of a staggering grain production growth (74%) between 1978 and 2009; a whopping oil crop production growth by 505% in that same time frame. Similarly, meat production has grown extremely strong over the last 30 years, be it for pork, poultry, beef or mutton. Two developments in Beijing are at the basis of these achievements, Huang explained – a combination of strong investments in agriculture and a national policy reform.

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Ext. No CCP Collapse

The Chinese political system is resilientBlackwill 09 (Robert, RAND, former associate dean of the Kennedy School of Government and Deputy Assistant to the President and Deputy National Security Advisor for Strategic Planning, “The Geopolitical Consequences of the World Economic Recession—A Caution”, http://www.rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers/2009/RAND_OP275.pdf)

Next, China. Again, five years from today. Did the recession undermine the grip of the Chinese Communist Party on the

People’s Republic of China (PRC)? No. Again, as Lee Kuan Yew stressed in the same recent speech, “China has proven itself to be pragmatic, resilient and adaptive . The Chinese have survived severe crises—the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution—few societies have been so stricken. These are reasons not to be pessimistic.” Did

the crisis make Washington more willing to succumb to the rise of Chinese power because of PRC holdings of U.S. Treasury Bonds? No. Did it alter China’s basic external direction and especially its efforts, stemming from its own strategic analysis, to undermine the U.S. alliance system in

Asia? No. Did it cause the essence of Asian security to transform? No.

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1NC Deforestation

They have to win their food price spike internal link to access this impact

Robust peer reviewed evidence indicates ecosystems are resilient Matthew McDermott, 09, “Good news: most ecosystems can recover in one lifetime from human induced or natural disturbance” www.treehugger.com/files/2009/05/most-ecosystems-can-recover-from-disturbance-in-one-lifetime.php]

There's a reason the phrase "let nature take its course" exists: New research done at the Yale University School of Forestry & Environmental

Science reinforces the idea that ecosystems are quiet resilient and can rebound from pollution and environmental degradation . Published in the journal PLoS ONE, the study shows that most damaged ecosystems worldwide can recover within a single lifetime, if the source of pollution is removed and restoration work done: Forests Take Longest of Ecosystems Studied The analysis found that on average forest ecosystems can recover in 42 years, while in takes only about 10 years for the ocean bottom to recover. If an area has seen multiple, interactive disturbances, it can take on average 56 years for recovery. In general, most ecosystems take longer to recover

from human-induced disturbances than from natural events, such as hurricanes. To reach these recovery averages, the researchers looked at data from peer-reviewed studies over the past 100 years on the rate of ecosystem recovery once the source of pollution was removed. Interestingly, the researchers found that it appears that the rate at which an ecosystem recovers may be independent of its degraded condition: Aquatic systems may recover more quickly than, say, a forest, because the species and organisms that live in that ecosystem turn over more rapidly than in the forest.

Their AM evidence says that Brazil is already going to outpace the US in terms of soybean production without the collapse of locks – means their impact is inevitable

No human extinction – adaptation and functional redundancyDoremus, Berkeley La, 2K [Holly, Law Professor – Cal Berkeley, 57 Wash & Lee L. Rev. 11, L/N]

Reluctant to concede such losses, tellers of the ecological horror story highlight how close a catastrophe might be, and how little we know about what actions might trigger one. But the apocalyptic vision is less credible today than it seemed in the 1970s. Nor is human extinction probable any time soon. Homo sapiens is adaptable to nearly any environment. Even if the world of the future includes far fewer species, it likely will hold people. n215 [*47] One response to this credibility problem tones the story down a bit, arguing not that humans will go extinct but that ecological disruption will bring economies, and consequently civilizations, to their knees. n216 But this too may be overstating the case. Most ecosystem functions are performed by multiple species. This functional redundancy means that a high proportion of species can be lost without precipitating a collapse. n217

They have no internal link into their extinction claim. Their evidence says that without the plan deforestation will occur but they have NO evidence that this would kill ONE MILLION species which is the number their evidence identifies as what would cause extinction.

Cattle ranching is a bigger threat to the Amazon than soy farming – our evidence is comparativeReuters 09 (“Cattle, not soy, drives Amazon deforestation: report” 4/14/09, www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/14/us-brazil-amazon-idUSTRE53D65C20090414)

(Reuters) - Cattle ranchers are far bigger culprits in Amazon deforestation than soy farmers, a study showed

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on Tuesday, as the environmental record of Brazil's commodity exporters comes under increasing international scrutiny. The study, produced jointly by environmental groups and the soy industry, showed that only 12 of 630 sample areas deforested since July 2006 -- or 0.88 percent of 157,896 hectares (390,000 acres) -- were planted with soy. By comparison, nearly 200 were converted into pasture land for cattle. The rest of the deforested areas had not yet been put to use. "The big villain of Amazon destruction is cattle ranching," said Paulo Adario, Amazon campaign coordinator with Greenpeace, one of the groups that sponsored the report. Each year country-sized chunks of the world's largest rain forest are devastated, although the rate has fallen sharply from a few years ago and preliminary data shows it fell further in the past 10 months. In addition to loggers, ranchers and peasants, large-scale farmers are often blamed for contributing to the devastation as Brazil's agricultural frontier has expanded due to strong foreign demand for the country's commodities in recent years. Brazil is the world's biggest beef exporter and the second-largest exporter of soy, much of which is bought by China. Adario said the size of deforested plots had been falling consistently in recent years. That suggests that soy farmers, who require large areas to be efficient, were no longer involved directly in clearing forest.

Their impact is non-unique. Their Takacs evidence says that we’ve already passed the tipping point for biodiversity and extinction is inevitable within the century.

Soybean farming doesn’t cause deforestationReuters 09 (“Cattle, not soy, drives Amazon deforestation: report” 4/14/09, www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/14/us-brazil-amazon-idUSTRE53D65C20090414)

Brazil's soy industry, with exports of $18 billion last year, agreed in July 2006 not to trade soy from deforested areas. That accord helped prevent farmers from clearing large, new areas, the authors of the report said. "Soy is no longer a big threat to the Amazon," said Carlo Lovatelli, head of the soy industry association Abiove. Foreign farm competitors in the United States and Europe often criticize Brazilian exports, such as sugar and beef, for contributing to deforestation. Lovatelli acknowledged the accord did not cover about 10 percent of Brazil's soy output and that mechanisms to control its implementation were still inadequate. Asked what would happen to a farmer who planted soy illegally on deforested land, Lovatelli said, "He'll sell to a Chinese trader on the spot market." Some environmental economists say the expansion of soy has been to blame for deforestation by displacing cattle ranchers deeper into the Amazon in search of cheaper land. Still, Environment Minister Carlos Minc said the accord was a good first step. "It's a model for other sectors to follow," said Minc, adding he was eyeing a similar accord with the beef industry. Brazil's government, which last year abandoned years of opposition to deforestation targets, aims to reduce deforestation in the 12 months through July to about 9,500 square km (3,667 square miles) from 11,900 square km (4,595 square miles) the year before.

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Ext. Alt Cause

Alt causes – pig iron and loggingHance 12 (Jeremy Hance citing Greenpeace, “U.S. car manufacturers linked to Amazon destruction, slave labor,” May 14, 2012, http://news.mongabay.com/2012/0514-hance-pig-iron-amazon.html)

According to a new report by Greenpeace, top U.S. car companies such as Ford, General Motors, and Nissan are sourcing pig iron that has resulted in the destruction of Amazon rainforests , slave labor, and land conflict with indigenous tribes. Spending two years documenting the pig iron trade between northeastern Brazil and the U.S., Greenpeace has discovered that rainforests are cut and burned to power blast furnaces that produce pig iron, which is then shipped to the U.S. for steel production. "Despite attention to the problem over the years, little has been done and household consumer products in the U.S. can still be traced back to illegalities and forest destruction in the Amazon," the Greenpeace report reads. Brazil's Carajás region is home to 43 blast furnaces used by 18 different companies, of which Viena is the largest. The blast furnaces depend largely on illegal camps that cut and burn rainforest for charcoal. "These camps are built in a matter of days, located in difficult to access areas and, if shut down by authorities, frequently spring up again in another location. They are built next to wood sources, including illegally in protected areas and indigenous lands," the report reads, noting that labor conditions in the area are often similar to slavery. Often forced to work seven-days-a-week in hazardous and toxic conditions, workers are fleeced of salaries by imaginary debts. The massive pig iron production in the region has been actively promoted by the Brazilian government and financed in the past by the World Bank, the European Economic Community, and the Japanese government. However, such promotion has not kept the industry clean as Greenpeace documented several types of fraud, from running an operation without a license to creating fake companies to keep timber sources hidden. Not surprisingly, much of the fuel comes from illegal logging. Greenpeace linked two of the largest pig iron companies, Viena and Sidepar, to a steel mill in the U.S. run by Severstal and from there to major car manufacturers like Ford, General Motors, BMW, Nissan, and Mercedes. Viena also exports its pig iron to Cargill, Environmental Materials Corporation, and National Material Trading, which in turn sells the steel to John Deere. "Greenpeace's research found Viena and Sidepar fueling their foundries with illegal charcoal connected to the region’s pandemic illegalities including slavery, illegal logging and deforestation, and invasions into indigenous lands," reads the report. Around 70-80 percent of the region's forests have been lost already, with the bulk of it since pig iron production began in the mid-1980s. With forest running out in the region, loggers are now entering indigenous lands and conservation areas. Some indigenous tribes, such as the Awá and the Alto Rio Guamá, have lost over 30 percent of their land to the illegal loggers. "Loggers flagrantly violate the law and bring in multiple trucks for hauling away timber and often enter indigenous lands well armed," reads the Greenpeace report. Despite this issue being in the media since 2006, companies have taken little action or responsibility according to Greenpeace.

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1NC Economy – All

Ninety-three economic downturns since World War Two disprove the link between economy and war – only our evidence takes into Miller 2k (Morris Miller, Adjunct Professor of Administration at the University of Ottawa, 2000, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, Vol 24 No 4)

The question may be reformulated. Do wars spring from a popular reaction to a sudden economic crisis that exacerbates poverty and growing disparities in wealth and incomes? Perhaps one could argue, as some scholars do, that it is some dramatic event or sequence of such events leading to the exacerbation of poverty that, in turn, leads to this deplorable denouement. This exogenous factor might act as a catalyst for a violent reaction on the part of the people or on the part of the political leadership who would then possibly be tempted to seek a diversion by finding or, if need be, fabricating an enemy and setting in train the process leading to war. According to a study undertaken by Minxin Pei and Ariel Adesnik of the Carnegie endowment for International Peace, there would not appear to be any merit in this hypothesis . After studying ninety-three episodes of economic crisis in twenty-two countries in Latin America and Asia in the years since the Second World War they concluded that: Much of the conventional wisdom about the political impact of economic crises may be wrong… The severity of economic crisis – as measured in terms of inflation and negative growth – bore no relationship to the collapse of regimes…(or, in democratic states, rarely) to an outbreak of violence…In the cases of dictatorships and semi-democracies, the ruling elites responded to crises by increasing repression (thereby using one form of violence to abort another).

No solvency – climate change destroys locksCaldwell et al 02 (Harry Caldwell is the Chief of Freight Policy for the Federal Highway Administration, Kate H. Quinn is the Assistant Division Administrator of the Federal Highway Administration, Jacob Meunier , Ph.D. is an Analyst of Cambridge Systematics with experience in transportation planning and policy-making, John Suhrbier is a Principal of Cambridge Systematics, and Lance Grenzeback is someone I don’t know, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Freight Transport”, http://climate.dot.gov/documents/workshop1002/caldwell.pdf

A greater number of extreme weather events – hurricanes, snow storms, ice storms, floods, etc. – will increase damage to infrastructure used for the movement of freight. Each year, state and local transportation agencies spend an estimated five billion dollars repairing roads, bridges, and other infrastructure damaged by snow and ice. The most serious and costly water-related impacts of climate change are likely to be coastal flooding that would result from increased flood frequencies and flood elevations . The risk of damage to low-lying port facilities, locks , airports, roads, rail lines, tunnels, pipelines, ventilation shafts, and power lines is particularly great because of the large number of fright facilities – international gateways in particular – that are concentrated on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts and along inland waterways

U.S. not key to the global economyCaryl 10 [Christian, Senior Fellow at the Center for International Studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a contributing editor to Foreign Policy, His column, "Reality Check," appears weekly on ForeignPolicy.com, Crisis? What Crisis? APRIL 5, 2010, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/04/05/crisis_what_crisis?page=full]

Many emerging economies entered the 2008-2009 crisis with healthy balance sheets. In most cases governments reacted quickly and flexibly, rolling out stimulus programs or even expanding poverty-reduction programs. Increasingly, the same countries that have embraced globalization and markets are starting to build social safety nets. And there's another factor: Trade is becoming more evenly distributed throughout the world. China is now a bigger market for Asian exporters than the U nited States. Some economists are talking about "emerging market decoupling." Jonathan Anderson , an emerging-

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markets economist at the Swiss bank UBS, showed in one recent report how car sales in emerging markets have actually been rising during this latest bout of turmoil -- powerful evidence that emerging economies no longer have to sneeze when America catches a cold . Aphitchaya Nguanbanchong, a consultant for the British-based aid organization Oxfam, has studied the crisis's effects on Southeast Asian economies. "The research so far shows that the result of the crisis isn't as bad as we were expecting," she says. Indonesia is a case in point: "People in this region and at the policy level learned a lot from the past crisis." Healthy domestic demand cushioned the shock when the crisis hit export-oriented industries; the government weighed in immediately with hefty stimulus measures. Nguanbanchong says that she has been surprised by the extent to which families throughout the region have kept spending money on education even as incomes have declined for some. And that, she says, reinforces a major lesson that emerging-market governments can take away from the crisis: "Governments should focus more on social policy, on health, education, and services. They shouldn't be intervening so much directly in the economy itself."

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1NC Trade

Free trade doesn’t solve warMcDonald and Sweeney 07 (Patrick is an Assistant Professor of Government at UT, Kevin works for the DoD, “The Achilles’ Heel of Liberal IR Theory?” World Politics)

While it has become fashionable to characterize the current world order as one of extensive globalization and suggest that peace should follow, an earlier period dating from the middle of the nineteenth century until 1914 stands out as the Achilles' heel of liberal international relations theory. Then, as now, the world economy was marked by dramatic integration in goods, capital, and labor markets. For example, British and French exports grew by respective factors of thirty-five and twenty-five between 1820 and 1913. French, German, and American exports all expanded over 30 percent in the three years before 1914. British capital exports were nearly nine percent of the gross domestic product (gdp) in 1911—a ratio unmatched even in the current wave of globalization. If expanding economic ties bind states together in a commercial web that either makes war unthinkable or simply raises its costs to unacceptable levels, then why did this earlier era of globalization fail to prevent one of the defining conflicts of modern history—the outbreak of World War I?

Trade interdependence causes warFriedman and Friedman 96 (George Friedman and Meredith Friedman, 1996, founder and chairman of Stratfor, The Future of War, p. 7-9)

The argument that interdependence gives rise to peace is flawed in theory as well as in practice. Conflicts arise from friction, particularly friction involving the fundamental interests of different nations. The less interdependence there is, the fewer the areas of serious friction. The more interdependence there is, the greater the areas of friction, and, therefore, the greater the potential for conflict. Two widely separated nations that trade little with each other are unlikely to go to war —Brazil is unlikely to fight Madagascar precisely because they have so little to do with each other . France and Germany , on the other hand, which have engaged in extensive trade and transnational finance, have fought three wars with each other over about seventy years. Interdependence was the root of the conflicts , not the deterrent. There are, of course, cases of interdependence in which one country effectively absorbs the other or in which their interests match so precisely that the two countries simply merge. In other cases, interdependence remains peaceful because the economic, military, and political power of one country is overwhelming and inevitable. In relations between advanced industrialized countries and third-world countries, for example, this sort of asymmetrical relationship can frequently be seen. All such relationships have a quality of unease built into them, particularly when the level of interdependence is great. When one or both nations attempt, intentionally or unintentionally, to shift the balance of power, the result is often tremendous anxiety and, sometimes, real pain. Each side sees the other’s actions as an attempt to gain advantage and becomes frightened. In the end, precisely because the level of interdependence is so great, the relationship can, and frequently

does, spiral out of control. Consider the seemingly miraculous ability of the U nited States and Soviet Union to be rivals and yet avoid open warfare. These two powers could forgo extreme measures because they were not interdependent . Neither relied on the other for its economic well-being , and therefore, its social stability. This provided considerable room for maneuvering. Because there were few economic linkages, neither nation felt irresistible pressure to bring the relationship under control; neither felt any time constraint. Had one country been dependent on the other for something as important as oil or long-term investment, there would have been enormous fear of being held hostage economically. Each would have sought to dominate the relationship, and the result would have been catastrophic. In the years before World War I, as a result of European interdependence, control of key national issues fell into the hands of foreign governments. Thus, decisions made in Paris had tremendous impact on Austria, and decisions made in London determined growth

rates in the Ruhr. Each government sought to take charge of its own destiny by shift ing the pattern of interdependence in its favor. Where economic means proved insufficient, political and military strategies were tried.

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1NC Congestion

Congestion inevitable- population growth and accumulating wealthDowns 04 (Anthony Downs, Senior Fellow at Brookings Institution, Fall 2004, Keynote address to UCTC’s Annual Student Research Conference at UC Davis, www.uctc.net/access/25/Access%2025%20-%2004%20-%20Traffic%20Congestion%20is%20Here%20to%20Stay.pdf)

Peak-hour traffic congestion in almost all large and growing metropolitan regions around the world is here to stay. Indeed, it is almost certain to get worse during at least the next few decades, mainly because of rising populations and wealth. This will be true no matter what p ublic and private policies are adopted to combat congestion. This outcome should not be regarded as a mark of social failure or wrong policies. In fact, traffic congestion reflects economic prosperity. People congregate in large numbers in those places where they most want to be. The conclusion that traffic congestion is inevitable does not mean it must grow unchecked. Several policies described here—especially if used in concert—could effectively slow congestion’s growth. But, aside from disastrous wars or other catastrophes, nothing can eliminate traffic congestion from large metropolitan regions here and around the world. Only serious recessions—which are hardly desirable—can even forestall its increasing. So my advice to traffic-plagued commuters is: relax and get used it. Get a comfortable air-conditioned vehicle with a stereo system, a tape deck and CD player, a hands-free telephone, perhaps even a microwave oven, and commute daily with someone you really like. Learn to make congestion part of your everyday leisure time, because it is going to be your commuting companion for the foreseeable future.

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Ext. Econ Collapse =/= War

Economic decline doesn’t cause war.Jervis 11 [Robert, Adlai E. Stevenson Professor of International Politics in the Department of Political Science, and a Member of the Arnold A. Saltzman Institute of War and Peace Studies at Columbia University. Force in Our Times Saltzman Working Paper No. 15 July 2011 http://www.siwps.com/news.attachment/saltzmanworkingpaper15-842/SaltzmanWorkingPaper15.PDF]

Even if war is still seen as evil, the security community could be dissolved if severe conflicts of interest were to arise. Could the more peaceful world generate new interests that would bring the members of the community into sharp disputes? 45 A zero-sum sense of status would be one example, perhaps linked to a steep rise in nationalism. More likely would be a worsening of the current economic difficulties, which could itself produce greater

nationalism, undermine democracy, and bring back old-fashioned beggar-thy-neighbor economic policies. While these dangers are real, it is hard to believe that the conflicts could be great enough to lead the members of the community to contemplate fighting each other. It is not so much that economic interdependence has proceeded to the point where it could not be reversed – states that were more internally interdependent than anything seen internationally have fought bloody civil wars. Rather it is that even if the more extreme versions of free trade and economic liberalism become discredited , it is hard to see how without building on a pre-existing high level of political conflict leaders and mass opinion would come to believe that their countries could prosper by impoverishing or even attacking others . Is it possible that problems will not only become severe, but that people will entertain the thought that they have to be solved by war? While a pessimist could note that this argument does not appear as outlandish as it did before the financial crisis, an optimist could reply

(correctly, in my view) that the very fact that we have seen such a sharp economic down-turn without anyone suggesting that force of arms is the solution shows that even if bad times bring about greater economic conflict, it will not make war thinkable .

No causal relationship between economic decline and war.Ferguson 6 [Niall, MA, D.Phil., is Laurence A. Tisch Professor of History at Harvard University and William Ziegler Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School. He is also a Senior Research Fellow at Jesus College, Oxford University, and a Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Foreign Affairs, Sept/Oct, “The Next War of the World”]

Nor can economic crises explain the bloodshed. What may be the most familiar causal chain in modern historiography links the Great Depression to the rise of fascism and the outbreak of World War II. But that simple story leaves too much out. Nazi Germany started the war in Europe only after its economy had recovered. Not all the countries affected by the Great Depression were taken over by fascist regimes, nor did all such regimes start wars of aggression. In fact, no general relationship between economics and conflict is discernible for the century as a whole. Some wars came after periods of growth, others were the causes rather than the consequences of economic catastrophe, and some severe economic crises were not followed by wars.

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1NC Solvency

Their Howland evidence is talking about how the Army Corp is key to environmental restoration projects – it’s not applicable to locks

There’s no pressing need for new locksBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

Multiple factors demonstrate that the proposed construction of the new locks is not justified: •Barge traffic on the Upper Mississippi River-Illinois Waterway has been flat since 1980 , and in recent years continued a trend of significant drops in volume. Locks currently in operation have excess capacity of more than 50 percent , which would accommodate any reasonable future increase in lock demand . •Due to the lack of consistent funding, the Corps has been unable to keep current on necessary maintenance on the UMR-IWW lock system. This large and growing backlog creates a perpetual problem that new construction does not solve. Because basic maintenance is necessary for any lock in use, new construction only adds another expense to existing unmet maintenance funding needs. •Several non-structural and small-scale measures, including barge traffic appointment scheduling, have been identified by the Corps as measures that can reduce barge lockage delays. These measures need to be instituted and evaluated before the Corps proceeds with any new lock construction. An important step in that evaluation process is completing another Benefit-Cost Analysis for the new locks using conditions subsequent to full implementation of non-structural and smallscale measures. • The barge industry asserts that shipping by barge is significantly more fuel efficient than rail transportation and therefore less polluting. More complete analysis of transportation fuel efficiency demonstrates that this claim is incorrect because it ignores the use of highly efficient rail systems and does not take into consideration that barges travel more miles following the course of the river than trains do to get to the same destination . •The Corps’ own economic analysis shows new construction of seven 1,200-foot locks will result in a negative return on investment. Based on two decades of flat or decreasing barge traffic, the proposed new locks will likely result in a loss of 80 cents for every dollar provided by taxpayers. Of additional concern is the fact that other Corps lock projects currently underway are exceeding their initial cost-estimates by double and even triple the estimated amounts.Vi | Big Price — LittLe Benefit •Previous legislation 2 established a trust fund financed by barge industry contributions to pay 50 percent of the cost of new inland waterway navigation construction and major rehabilitation of existing navigation infrastructure. Today the fund is essentially bankrupt due largely to massive cost overruns on Corps construction projects on the Ohio River and the fact that the barge industry’s mandated contribution is insufficient to support current project costs. This trust fund will be unable to provide significant funding for NESP projects for potentially 5 years. During this period, the cost 2 Section 1103 (g), Water Resources Development Act of 1986, P.L. 99–662, as amended of constructing the seven new 1,200-foot locks on the UMR-IWW will only continue to escalate, further worsening the already negative return on NESP construction investment.

Ports can’t accommodate mega containers – guts solvency Feinstein 12 (Diane is a Senior U.S. Senator from California, 4/26/12, “ENERGY AND WATER DEVELOPMENT APPROPRIATIONS BILL, 2013”, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-112srpt164/html/CRPT-112srpt164.htm

Past investments have provided adequate, albeit in some cases inefficient, infrastructure to deal with current commodity and cargo movements. Only about 20 percent of the administration's proposed construction budget is dedicated to navigation projects. Despite whatever other efforts may be underway to meet the goal of doubling exports, the budget request for the Corps for improvements and maintenance of the waterway system falls woefully short of the needs. Ports are routinely not dredged to their full authorized dimensions. It is hard for this Committee to understand how exports can be doubled without improvements and adequate maintenance to the projects that provide for the transit and the exit points for these commodities. The Committee is concerned that there are major changes in worldwide shipping and trade occurring and on the horizon that our Nation's water infrastructure is not equipped to handle.

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One of these changes is the enlargement and deepening of the Panama Canal that will allow a shift to larger container vessels with a need for deeper ports and navigation channels. However, larger vessels are also transiting the Suez Canal and more and more will likely be attempting to call at the Nation's ports. If larger ships are unable to dock here, they may be forced to dock in other countries with the appropriate infrastructure and then reconfigure ships and cargos to accommodate U.S. water infrastructure , leading to increased transportation costs, higher end-unit prices and loss of jobs . Along with deeper channels to accommodate these larger vessels, ports will need efficient dockside infrastructure to handle the throughput of this increased trade. Intermodal improvements at ports and possibly short sea shipping will also be a part of trade movements in and among ports. Without this system, transportation of commodities, exports and imports, would become vastly more expensive. For more than 25 years, the current mechanisms have been in place. However, how water transportation infrastructure is planned, designed, constructed, maintained, and funded has not kept pace with the pace of change in worldwide trade. Water transportation infrastructure was and continues to be a linchpin of our national economy. It is time to determine if there is a better way to develop this infrastructure. The Committee believes it is important for the Congress to rethink the Federal role in water transportation to determine if there is a better way to plan, build and finance this critical infrastructure. The Committee will work with the appropriate authorizing and tax writing committees as well as industry and the administration to determine a path forward to provide the water transportation infrastructure that will be required for the next 50-100 years.

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Ext. Rail Solves

Rail system is more efficient and cost-effective than barges – it also supports more bulk and is fasterBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

The barge industry asserts that inland waterways barge traffic is more fuel efficient than other modes of transportation. Industry representatives cite a 2007 Texas Transportation Institute report 28 to support this claim. The report includes the data in Table 3 portraying the superior fuel efficiency of barges in shipping cargo compared with trains and trucks. However, these comparisons do not take into account the variation in miles traveled to get from one point to another by water, rail, or road . The comparison between the distance of two modes of transportation both leaving one destination and going to the same final destination is called circuity. The Texas report acknowledges that nationally, barges have a 1.3 to 1 circuity factor when compared with trains, 29 which means that a barge must travel 30 percent farther than a rail car to reach the same destination Any comparison of barge and rail efficiencies on the UMR-IWW must include the geographic realities of rivers. Rivers do not flow directly in straight lines; there are many turns that increase the distance a barge must travel. The rail system is not constrained by the flow of the river and follows a much straighter path to the Gulf of Mexico at New Orleans. But instead of comparing rail miles to barge miles on the Mississippi River using the acknowledged national 1.3 to 1 circuity factor, the Texas report uses a barge to truck comparison to establish a 1 to 1 circuity factor. (For comparison, a researcher at the University of Illinois 30 estimated a 1.38 to 1 circuity factor for barges specifically on the Upper Mississippi River.) Also ignored in this report was the use by rail companies of “unit trains” for shipping grain long distances. Unit trains are made up of cars going to the same final destination carrying one type of commodity. A 2008 study by researchers at Iowa State University 31 shows that unit grain trains moving from Iowa to New Orleans have a much better fuel efficiency – 640 versus 413 ton-miles per gallon – than an average train. Incorporating both the rail circuity factor and unit grain trains into a revision of the Texas Transportation Institute’s table (see Table 4) shows that barges have virtually no fuel efficiency advantage over an average train and are far less fuel efficient than unit grain trains. The primary grain commodity used in the NESP studies to support the construction of new locks is corn, which is also shipped by unit grain trains. The barge industry, as stated above, asserts that shipping commodities on barges is more efficient than rail, saving fuel and therefore emitting fewer pollutants. However, normal rail shipping is nearly equivalent to the fuel efficiency of barge shipping, and unit grain trains are significantly more efficient than barges .

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***1NC Spending***

Lock projects cost billions of dollars and empirically go over budgetBoselovic 12 (Len Boselovic, 4/27/12, “Watchdogs criticize plan for locks, dams” www.post-gazette.com/stories/business/news/watchdogs-criticize-plan-for-locks-dams-633353/?print=1)

Proponents say the measure would help clear up an $8 billion backlog of river projects caused by inefficient funding and chronic cost overruns at lock and dam projects, which are managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The backlog includes eliminating a 105-year-old lock and dam on the Monongahela River at Elizabeth and building new locks up river at Charleroi. The Mon project was approved by Congress in 1992 at an estimated cost of $750 million and was expected to be completed in 2004. Corps officials say the project now will cost at least $1.4 billion and be completed in 2024 at the earliest.

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2NC Spending

Their USB evidence says that repairing just 6 locks would cost $4 billion and we have 221 – means the plan would be exorbitantly expensive

***read generic leads to other spending card***

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Allowing locks and dams to remain is fiscally irresponsible – taxpayers fully subsidize all of their functions and repercussionsBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

Taxpayers paid the entire bill for the original UMRIWW lock and dam system, valued today at between $15 and $30 billion. The public also pays for the operation and maintenance of the system (more than $100 million per year), at least half of the major rehabilitation work (approaching $1 billion dollars to date), and all of the costs of repairing the environmental damage caused by the navigation system ( estimated to be in the tens of billions of dollars). For taxpayers to assume responsibility for potentially billions of dollars more to construct seven new locks, the economic justification for that construction must be firmly established.

Taxpayers finance 92% of inland waterway systems – uniquely more than other forms of transportation infrastructureWalker 10 (Brad is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February, “Big Price – Little Benefit” www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/7807)

Barge Industry contributions are inadequate to properly fund the Inland Waterways Trust Fund’s projects backlog, yet the industry wants to restore IWTF solvency and increase inland waterways navigation investment primarily by increasing the burden on all other taxpayers. • The barge industry touts itself as the cheapest form of commodity transportation. Unfortunately, the equation used to derive that designation excludes over 90 percent of the costs to support the inland waterways system. According to the National Academy of Sciences, 1 U.S. taxpayers pay 92 percent of the inland waterway system (IWS) costs of constructing, operating and maintaining barge navigation infrastructure. This is compared to virtually no taxpayer support for rail system users and only 20 percent for highway system users . • The general public does receive some benefits from the current dams on the rivers, though it can be argued that the costs, both financial and to the environment, have far exceeded these benefits. The barge industry paid nothing for the original lock and dam system and do not contribute to repairing and restoring degraded riverine ecosystems, which the inland waterways navigation system is largely responsible for causing. The taxpayers have been totally responsible for these costs, and as mentioned above all of the O&M costs and 50 percent of the construction and rehabilitation costs. • When all costs are accounted for, the inland waterways system is by far the most expensive shipping system in the country.

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***Cap Link***

The notion that transportation can be used for profit is a mask for keeping those in poor areas impoverished and oppressed for the good of capital and strategic investmentFreemark 11 (Yonah, urbanist and journalist who has worked in architecture, planning, and transportation, June 14th, 2011, “Local Neoliberalism’s Role in Defining Transit’s Purpose”, http://www.thetransportpolitic.com/2011/06/14/local-neoliberalisms-role-in-defining-transits-purpose/)

Writing recently in Environment and Planning A, Sociologist Stephanie Farmer argues that the rise of neoliberal ideology in local and national politics has encouraged a “retreat from social redistribution and integrated social welfare policies in favor of bolstering business activity .” * This, she writes in reference to Chicago, has specifically affected public transportation , which “ is increasingly deployed as a means to attract global capital as well as enhance affluent residents’ and tourists’ rights to the city.” This trend, she states, stands in opposition to the mid-century “Fordist strategy of territorial redistribution mobilizing public transportation to enhance economically disadvantaged groups’ access to the city.”** Farmer’s approach provides something of an explanation for Detroit’s experience: Rather than concentrate on the needs of its most impoverished denizens through the assurance of basic bus service, the city’s business and political elite has instead put its resources into the construction of a light rail line whose primary purpose is to stimulate economic development by creating “place-based advantages for capital.” Similarly, Farmer is very critical of Chicago’s approach, arguing that that city’s investments have repeatedly favored “business elites over everyday users by excluding public transit investment in areas outside of Chicago’s global city downtown showcase zone.” Her evidence for this trend is primary in former Mayor Richard Daley’s obsession in constructing a premium-fare, limited-stop express rail link to the airport (including his willingness to construct a station for said service without providing the funds to actually operate the trains) and the transit authority’s Circle Line plan, which she argued would “effectively redraw [and expand] the downtown boundary,” with little benefit for the city’s most transit dependent. The repeated delays in extending the Red Line south of 95th Street into some of Chicago’s least prosperous neighborhoods suggest that there is no political will to invest outside of the wealthiest areas. Farmer’s argument is revealing of the one of the peculiarities of transit promotion: Those who engage in it simultaneously argue for the social welfare benefits of providing affordable mobility for as many people as possible while also suggesting that good public transportation can play an essential role in city-building — essentially for the elite. After all, one of the primary arguments made for investing in new transit capital projects is that their long-term benefits include raising the property values of the land parcels near stations. This creates an uneasy pro-transit coalition in many places where development and real estate interests align their lobbying with that of representatives of the poor to argue for the construction of new transit lines (usually rail), under the assumption that projects will benefit each group. This produces an identity crisis for transit. For whom is it developed? Can its social mobility goals be reconciled with the interests of capitalists in the urban space? Identifying the value of a transportation project is an essential element of the planning process, so asking these questions is essential, since there are limited resources. When it comes to transit, this seems particularly relevant, since most funds invested in bus or rail projects are provided by the public sector. Ultimately, this means that the promotion of almost every transit project is defined by political ideology . Do we invest our funds in a project to connect downtown with the airport, under the assumption that economic benefits will flow down from the top, as conservatives might suggest? Is spending government money on ensuring the efficient transportation of the elite effective because it grows the economy as a whole and eventually aids the poor? Or should public dollars be reserved for redistributive causes, focusing on the needs of those who are least able to provide for themselves? Of course there are many examples in which these questions appear to have been resolved. Even in Chicago, it would be difficult to argue that the subway and elevated lines that run into to the Loop are unhelpful for the poor, since many of the city’s greatest resources even for the impoverished are located in Farmer’s “downtown showcase zone.” Nonetheless, ponder this question next time a transit project is proposed: For whom is it being built, and why?

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***1NC States CP***

CP text:The Army Corps of Engineers should grant permission to relevant states and territories to repair inland river locks. The relevant states and territories should then fund inland waterway modernization through an Interstate Compact including burden sharing.

States can efficiently AND uniformly implement inland port and waterway infrastructure REGARDLESS of the Army Corps of Engineers jurisdiction Chris Edwards, Director of Tax Policy at the Cato Institute, October 2005, “Privatize the Army Corps of Engineers”, http://www.cato.org/pubs/tbb/tbb-0510-27.pdf, Tax and Budget Bulletin No. 27; AB

Reform Options To solve these problems, the civilian activities of the Corps should be transferred to state , local, or private ownership. A rough framework for reform might be: • Privatize: port dredging, hydroelectric dams, beach replenishment, and other activities that could be supported by user fees and revenues. • Transfer to lower governments: levees, municipal water and sewer projects, recreational areas, locks, channels, and other waterway infrastructure. Such reforms could accompany broader reforms to U.S. ports and waterways. For example, U.S. ports are owned by state and local governments and are dredged by the Army Corps. But ports could be privatized, and they could purchase dredging services in the marketplace. The harbor maintenance tax could be repealed, and ports could recover dredging costs from port users. For example, if the $286 million Delaware River dredging project made sense, it could be funded by the refineries and other industries along the river that would be the beneficiaries. In Britain, 19 ports were privatized in 1983 to form Associated British Ports. ABP and a subsidiary UK Dredging sell port and dredging services in the marketplace. They earn a profit, pay taxes, and return dividends to shareholders. 11 Two-thirds of British cargo goes through privatized ports, which are highly efficient. In the United States, there are complaints that governments are not investing enough in port facilities and dredging to the detriment of U.S. international trade. If ports were privatized, they could invest and expand as needed to relieve congestion and accommodate larger ships. Privatization is also a good option for the Corp’s large inventory of hydroelectric dams. The Corp’s recreational areas should be transferred to state governments or to the private sector if they could generate sufficient user

fees. Municipal water, sewer, and beach projects should be left to local governments. Waterway and environmental projects, such as the $8 billion Florida Everglades Restoration Plan, should be funded by state governments . Waterway facilities that affect numerous states , such as those along the Mississippi River, could be transferred to the states and managed under a regional agreement. Conclusion For decades, presidents have tried to rein in wasteful spending by the Corps of Engineers. President Eisenhower vetoed a Corp’s spending bill in 1958 because it included numerous projects that made no economic sense. In 1977 President Carter gave Congress a hit list of wasteful water projects that he wanted to cut. The Bush administration has tried to cut the agency’s waste and to refocus its budget on completing the high-value

projects in its large construction backlog. But as TCS noted, “the administration has failed to follow through and defend those budget cuts,” which is a common problem with this White House. 12 A better solution is to privatize and devolve to lower governments the Corp’s activities . The New Orleans levees, for example, should be transferred to the State of Louisiana. State , local, and private ownership would better ensure that infrastructure is efficiently maintained and upgraded, and not subject to neglect because of distracted policymakers in far away Washington.

AT: Perm

1. The perm still links to spending and politics – they have to completely win the dis-ad to win the perm

2. Specifically, federal involvement on inland waterways leads to mismanagement, inefficiency,

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destruction of federalism and rampant spending – sole state control solves Chris Edwards, Director of Tax Policy at the Cato Institute and expert on transportation policy, March 2012, “Cutting the Army Corps of Engineers”, http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/usace; AB

To create more efficient inland waterways, Congress should consider transfer ring the Corps' activities to state governments or private businesses. In 2002 the Bush administration determined that the Corps' civilian activities were not a "core competency" of the government and should be opened to private contractors.100 It proposed allowing private bidding for 2,000 Corps jobs involved in the operation of locks and dams on the waterways, but that plan did not come to fruition.101 Another idea is to create a self-funded organization to operate the inland waterways, either as an arms-length part of government or as a private entity.102 To conclude, the nation's long experience with the Army Corps illustrates how federal involvement in local infrastructure often leads to mismanagement, inefficiency, and pork-barrel spending. It's time to revive federalism in infrastructure investment and begin to privatize Army Corps activities or transfer them to the states. Those remaining activities of the Corps that are truly federal in nature should be moved to the Department of the Interior and the civilian side of the Corps closed down.

3. The perm is worse than either the plan or cp alone – joint federal and state projects are empirically less efficient because there’s less accountability – that’s Edwards

AT: ACE Key

The states can takeover the Army Corps of engineer’s projectsChris Edwards, Director of Tax Policy at the Cato Institute and expert on transportation policy, March 2012, “Cutting the Army Corps of Engineers”, http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/usace; AB

Economists generally support government spending on true "public goods." However, the purpose of many Corps' projects is to generate private gains, not broad public benefits. The Corps would look favorably on a project that cost taxpayers $100 million and generated private benefits to farmers, developers, or shipping companies of $110 million. But private interests should be willing to invest their own funds in such projects that have positive returns.74 In sum, the Corps' infrastructure activities have often been based on faulty economics and pork-barrel politic s . To better ensure efficient investment decisions , policymakers should transfer those Corps' activitie s that can be supported in the marketplace to the private sector, and transfer most of the rest of the agency's activities to state and local governments.

AT: Gridlock

1. This evidence isn’t specific to why the states can’t do inland waterway infrastructure – default to issue specific solvency evidence from the 1NC

2. The CP doesn’t mandate the rigid lines between the state and federal government – it just says that the states would be more efficient at doing the plan as opposed to the federal government or Army Corps

AT: USFG K2 Competition

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1. They don’t read a competitiveness advantage – no impact

2. All of their internal link evidence is predicated off of the failure of locks crippling our economy and competition – if the CP resolves that internal link then there is no solvency deficit.

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***1NC Privatization CP***

CP Text: The United States federal government should initiate public private partnerships for the development of inland waterway modernization.

Army Corps of Engineers fails at lock modernization – privatization would solve betterChris Edwards, Director of Tax Policy at the Cato Institute, October 2005, “Privatize the Army Corps of Engineers”, http://www.cato.org/pubs/tbb/tbb-0510-27.pdf, Tax and Budget Bulletin No. 27; AB

The Army Corps of Engineers has been in the news as the owner of the levee system in New Orleans. The

levee system could not handle a storm of the strength of Hurricane Katrina, and its failure contributed to the disastrous flooding of the city. The Corps of Engineers is a federal agency that builds and maintains infrastructure for ports and waterways . Most of the agency’s $5 billion annual budget goes toward dredging harbors and investing in locks , channels, and other works on rivers such as the Mississippi . The Corps is the largest owner of hydroelectric power plants in the country with 75 plants

worth $18 billion. 1 It also manages 4,300 recreational areas, funds beach replenishment, and upgrades local water and sewer systems. This bulletin examines the inefficiencies that result from federal funding of such local infrastructure, and proposes that the Corp’s civilian activities be privatized or devolved to the states. A Pork Barrel Machine for Congress Congress has used the Army Corps as a pork barrel spending machine for decades. Funds are earmarked for low-value projects in the districts of important members of Congress, while

higher-value projects go unfunded. Federal decisions on spending for local infrastructure are often based on political pull , not on economic analysis . That is true for the Army Corps and for federal spending on airports, highways, transit systems, and other facilities. The Washington Post notes that “powerful members of Congress dictate the selection, pace, and price tag for major projects” of the Army Corps. 2 Indeed, data from Citizens Against Government

Waste show that Congress inserted 1,073 special interest, or pork, projects into the Corp’s budget for 2005. 3 The

result is that while levee upgrades in New Orleans were stalled, dubious projects in other states moved ahead. The Corps epitomizes the “iron triangle” that produces excess and misallocated federal spending . It tends to favor expensive projects that expand its empire and please its political overlords. Politicians use the agency’s budget to curry favor with special interests in their districts. Of course, those interests would rather have federal taxpayers fund their projects than pay for them locally. One problem with the federalization of local infrastructure is that it makes local officials complacent about planning for their own needs. Louisiana politicians have complained that the Bush administration underfunded New Orlean’s levees, but they were closest to the problem and should have funded the upgrades themselves.

Privatization solves transportation infrastructure and doesn’t link to politics or spending – multiple reasons Chris Edwards, the director of tax policy studies at the Cato Institute, November 16th 2011, “Federal Infrastructure Investment”, http://www.cato.org/publications/congressional-testimony/federal-infrastructure-investment; AB

There are many advantages of infrastructure PPP and privatization . One advantage is that we are more likely to get funding allocated to high-return investments when private-sector profits are on the line . Of

course, businesses can make investment mistakes just as governments do. But unlike governments, businesses have a systematic way of choosing investments to maximize the net returns . And when investment returns are maximized, it stimulates the largest gains to the broader economy . One reason that privatized infrastructure is efficient is that private companies can freely tap debt and equity markets to build capacity and meet market demands . By contrast, government investment suffers from the politics and uncertainties of the federal budget process . You can see the problems with our air traffic control system, which needs long-term investment but the Federal Aviation Administration can't count on a stable funding stream. For its part, the FAA's management of ATC investment has been poor. The agency has a

history of delays and cost overruns on its technology upgrade projects. The solution is to privatize our air traffic control system, as Canada has done with very favorable results.31 A recent Brookings Institution study describes some of the advantages of PPPs. It notes that the usual process for government infrastructure investment decouples the initial construction from the later management, which results in contractors having few incentives to build

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projects that will minimize operation and maintenance costs.32 PPP solves this problem because the same company will both build and operate projects. "Many advantages of PPP stem from the fact that they bundle construction, operations, and maintenance in a single contract. This provides incentives to minimize life-cycle costs which are typically not present when the project is publicly provided," notes the Brookings' study.33 There are other

advantages of infrastructure PPP and privatization. One advantage is the greater efficiency of construction. Extensive British

experience shows that PPP projects are more likely to be completed on time than traditional government projects.34 Another advantage is the greater efficiency of operations. Private firms have incentives to reduce excessive operational costs , as illustrated by the labor cost savings from the leasing of the Chicago Skyway.35

Finally, private operators of infrastructure such as toll roads are more likely to charge efficient market rates to users, as illustrated by the leasing of the Indiana Toll Road.36

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A2: ACE Jurisdiction

The private industry could take over all of the services the Army Corps offers and operate them more efficiently – accesses spilloverChris Edwards, Director of Tax Policy at the Cato Institute, October 2005, “Privatize the Army Corps of Engineers”, http://www.cato.org/pubs/tbb/tbb-0510-27.pdf, Tax and Budget Bulletin No. 27; AB

Reform Options To solve these problems, the civilian activi ties of the Corps should be transferred to state, local, or private ownership. A rough framework for reform might be: • Privatize: port dredging, hydroelectric dams , beach replenishment, and other activities that could be supported by user fees and revenues. • Transfer to lower governments: levees, municipal water and sewer projects, recreational areas, locks, channels, and other waterway

infrastructure. Such reforms could accompany broader reforms to U.S. ports and waterways. For example, U.S. ports are owned by state and local governments and are dredged by the Army Corps. But ports could be privatized, and they could purchase dredging services in the marketplace. The harbor maintenance tax could be repealed, and ports could recover dredging costs from port users. For example, if the $286 million Delaware River dredging project made sense, it could be funded by

the refineries and other industries along the river that would be the beneficiaries. In Britain, 19 ports were privatized in 1983 to form Associated British Ports. ABP and a subsidiary UK Dredging sell port and dredging services in the marketplace. They earn a profit, pay taxes, and

return dividends to shareholders. 11 Two-thirds of British cargo goes through privatized ports , which are highly efficient. In the United States, there are complaints that governments are not investing enough in port facilities and dredging to the detriment of U.S. international trade. If ports were privatized, they could invest and expand as needed to relieve congestion and accommodate larger ships . Privatization is also a good option for the Corp’s large inventory of hydroelectric dams. The Corp’s recreational areas should be transferred to state governments or to the private sector if they could generate sufficient user fees. Municipal water, sewer, and beach projects should be left to local governments.

Waterway and environmental projects, such as the $8 billion Florida Everglades Restoration Plan, should be funded by state governments. Waterway facilities that affect numerous states, such as those along the Mississippi River, could be transferred to the states and managed under a regional agreement. Conclusion For decades, presidents have tried to rein in wasteful spending by the Corps of Engineers. President Eisenhower vetoed a Corp’s spending bill in 1958 because it included numerous projects that made no economic sense. In 1977 President Carter gave Congress a hit list of wasteful water projects that he wanted to cut. The Bush administration has tried to cut the agency’s waste and to refocus its budget on completing the high-value projects in its large construction backlog. But as TCS

noted, “the administration has failed to follow through and defend those budget cuts,” which is a common problem with

this White House. 12 A better solution is to privatize and devolve to lower governments the Corp’s activities . The New Orleans levees, for example, should be transferred to the State of Louisiana. State, local, and private ownership would better ensure that infrastructure is efficiently maintained and upgraded, and not subject to neglect because of distracted policymakers in far away Washington.

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A2: Perm – Do Both

Private sector solvency is dependent upon a decrease in state involvement in infrastructure Stephen Blake, President at the Center for Transportation Training, Education and Research, 2001, The Thomas Jefferson Institute for Public Policy, Issue Brief #3, http://heartland.org/sites/all/modules/custom/heartland_migration/files/pdfs/3783.pd; AB

1. Privatization. The privatization of transportation planning , design, construction and maintenance will enhance the efficiencies and effectiveness of the government sponsored transportation system . This can be accomplished through innovative financing mechanisms , particularly the development of public-private partnerships and privatization initiatives that move the financial burden away from sole dependence on government to a sharing of financial responsibility between government and the private sector. The current

privatization legislation needs to be strengthened to provide incentives for the transportation industry to assume greater responsibility and for the state Department of Transportation to yield responsibility to the private sector. The adequacy of the private sector to provide this assistance must be addressed as the role of the public sector is reduced . Opportunities to privatize government activities should be pursued. An example of this privatization is the project conducted by the motor pool at the state. This project resulted in the hiring of Enterprise Rent-A-Car to provide a back up source of vehicles for state employees who travel, this allowed the motor pool to more efficiently manage the state cars and allowed a substantial savings over reimbursing state employees for using their personal vehicles for travel. This year Richmond Car and Truck Rental won the bid and reduced the cost from

$25/per vehicle and 19 cents a mile to $18.95 and unlimited mileage. Other examples include; contracting out of maintenance functions by VDOT, and in Fairfax County and the City of Alexandria bus service is now provided through contracts with private transportation management companies.

The government isn’t key to attracting capital – the private industry could operate independently Cezary Podkul is the associate editor of Infrastructure Investor, published by PEI and writer for the Washington Post, 10/21/11, http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/with-us-infrastructure-aging-public-funds-scant-more-projects-going-private/2011/10/17/gIQAGTuv4L_story.html, “With U.S. infrastructure aging, public funds scant, more projects going private”; AB

More capital is on the way. There are 100 private funds seeking to raise $95 billion for infrastructure investments globally, according to a tally by San Francisco-based fund adviser Probitas Partners, though not all of them will succeed. Of that, about

$11.5 billion would be targeted for the United States, with fund sizes ranging from $100 million to $3 billion. “In 2003, nobody in the U.S. talked about infrastructure,” said Kelly DePonte, a partner at Probitas. “We really have seen a sea change in interest .” The main draw for investors, DePonte said, is the steady, predictable income that infrastructure assets can provide . People need to get to work, use electricity and flush toilets, so a toll road, an electric utility or a water utility tends to deliver cash no matter what happens in the stock market on any given day. Recent research

by Macquarie shows infrastructure has outperformed the global stock market by an average of about 0.5 percent per month in the past 10 years. “Traffic on the road is highly insensitive to stock market levels,” said Chris Camarsh, head of investment process at Australian fund

manager CP2. That makes infrastructure a good way to save for one’s nest egg, since “there is good predictability that the cash will be there when you’re older,” he said.

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A2: Funding Key

Federal and State funding can’t finance infrastructure – the private sector is critical to raising capital Leonard Gilroy is the director of government reform and Harris Kenny is a policy analyst at Reason Foundation, a Los Angeles-based think tank,

5/17/12, “States and Cities Going Private With Infrastructure Investment”, http://www.realclearmarkets.com/articles/2012/05/17/states_and_cities_going_private_with_infrastructure_investment_99671.html, AB

States and municipalities across the U.S. continue to grapple with the lingering effects of the Great Recession . City

leaders continue to struggle with depressed revenues , and 30 states are expected to close budget deficits

totaling $49 billion this year, according to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Further, many government bodies are struggling to maintain their credit ratings in an uncertain economy . As public debts grow, cities and states simultaneously face pressing needs to repair and modernize critical infrastructure assets that can't wait if citizens hope to keep goods and services moving in the economy. For example, many interstate highways, which

are owned and maintained by states, are reaching the end of their useful lives and will cost tens of billions of dollars to reconstruct. Yet, projected federal and state fuel tax revenues will come nowhere close to covering the bills . When factoring in similarly large investment needs in water, aviation, schools and other public infrastructure facilities, it becomes abundantly clear that new infrastructure financing models and sources of capital will be the only viable option to support and sustain growth . Enter the private sector , where investors are demonstrating a willingness and capability to partner with governments to modernize and expand infrastructure , according to Reason Foundation's recent Annual Privatization Report 2011. The report finds that the amount of capital available in private infrastructure equity investment funds reached a new all-time high last yea r. And since 2006, the 30 largest global infrastructure investment funds have raised a total of $183.1 billion dedicated to financing infrastructure projects; the bulk coming from U.S., Australian and Canadian inventors. In fact, eight major privately financed transportation projects were under construction in the U.S. in 2011 totaling over $13 billion.

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A2: Control Key

The private sector solves infrastructure investment – federal control ensures political misallocation of funds and bureaucratic mismanagementChris Edwards and Tad DeHaven are budget experts at the Cato Institute, 6/17/10, “Privatize Transportation Spending”, http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/privatize-transportation-spending; AB

After the 2008 election, President Obama promised to "go through our federal budget — page by page, line by line —

eliminating those programs we don't need." We haven't seen much of that from the president so far, but at the Cato Institute we are going

page by page and finding whole agencies to abolish. If the president ever gets serious about eliminating programs, the $91

billion Department of Transportation would be a good place to start. The DOT should be radically chopped. America's mobile citizens would

be better off for it. Rising federal control over transportation has resulted in the political misallocation of funds, bureaucratic mismanagement and costly one-size-fits-all regulations of the states . The solution is to devolve most of DOT's activities back to state governments and the private sector . We should follow the lead of other nations that have turned to the private sector to fund their highways, airports, air traffic control and other infrastructure. The first reform is to abolish federal highway aid to the states and related gasoline taxes. Highway aid is tilted toward states with powerful politicians, not necessarily to the states that are most in need. It also often goes to boondoggle projects like Alaska's "Bridge to Nowhere." Furthermore, federal highway aid comes with costly regulations like the Davis-Bacon labor rules, which raise state highway costs . For their part, the states should seek out private funding for their highways. Virginia is adding toll lanes on the Capitol Beltway that are partly privately financed, and Virginia is also home to the Dulles Greenway, a 14-mile private highway in operation since 1995. Ending federal subsidies would accelerate the

trend toward such innovative projects. Another DOT reform is to end subsidies to urban transit systems. Federal aid favors

light rail and subways, which are much more expensive than city buses. Rail systems are sexy, but they eat up funds that could be used for more flexible and efficient bus services. Ending federal aid would prompt local governments to make more cost-effective transit decisions. There is no reason why, for example, that cities couldn't reintroduce private-sector transit, which was the norm in U.S. cities before the 1960s. To government planners, intercity high-speed rail is

even sexier than urban rail systems. The DOT is currently dishing out $8 billion for high-speed rail projects across the country, as authorized in the 2009 stimulus bill. Most people think that the French and Japanese fast trains are cool, but they don't realize that the price tag is enormous. For us to build a nationwide system of bullet-style trains would cost up to $1 trillion. The truth about high-speed trains is that even in densely-

populated Japan and Europe, they are money losers, while carrying few passengers compared to cars, airlines and buses. The fantasy of high-speed rail in America should be killed before it becomes a huge financial drain on our already broke government. Through its ownership of Amtrak, the federal government also subsidizes slow trains. The government has dumped almost $40 billion into the company since it was created in 1971. Amtrak has a poor on-time record, its infrastructure is in bad shape, and it carries only a tiny fraction of intercity passengers. Politicians prevent Amtrak from making cost-effective decisions regarding its routes, workforce polices, capital investment and other aspects of business. Amtrak should be privatized to save taxpayer money and give the firm the flexibility it needs to operate efficiently. A final area in DOT to make

budget savings is aviation. Federal aid to airports should be ended and local governments encouraged to privati ze their airports and operate without subsidies . In recent decades, dozens of airports have been privatized in major cities such as Amsterdam, Auckland, Frankfurt, London, Melbourne, Sydney and Vienna. Air traffic control (ATC) can also be privatized. The DOT's Federal Aviation Administration has a terrible record in implementing new technologies in a timely and cost-effective manner. Many nations have moved toward a commercialized ATC structure, and the results have been very positive. Canada privatized its ATC system in 1996 in the form of a nonprofit corporation. The company, NavCanada, has a very good record on both safety and innovation. Moving to a Canadian-style ATC system would help solve the FAA's chronic management and funding problems, and allow our aviation infrastructure to meet rising

aviation demand. There are few advantages in funding transportation infrastructure from Washington, but many disadvantages . America should study the market-based transportation reforms of other countries and use the best ideas to revitalize our infrastructure while ending taxpayer subsidies.

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A2: Loss of Control

Private sector is superior – risk analysis, cheaper and more efficient Ezra Klein, writer and columnist for The Washington Post, Bloomberg, and a contributor to MSNBC, 04/01/2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/more-states-privatizing-their-infrastructure-are-they-making-a-mistake/2012/03/31/gIQARtAhnS_blog.html

Here’s how this setup would work. Say a state wants to build or upgrade a highway. Various private companies will bid for the project, and the winning bidder has to raise enough money from outside investors to design, operate, build, and maintain the highway for a fixed number of years. The firm is allowed to

recoup its costs through tolls and the like over that span. Because the private company is on the hook for the whole thing, it has an incentive to keep costs as low as possible and finish the road on time . “The idea here,” says Robert Poole of the

Reason Foundation, “is that the government is only commissioning projects where the private sector is willing to put its skin in the game .” There’s some evidence that privately operated infrastructure projects can get built more quickly — and for less money — than projects wholly overseen by the government . One 2007 study (pdf) from Allen

Consulting and the University of Melbourne looked at 54 large infrastructure projects in Australia and found that the privately financed ones had smaller cost overruns and were more likely to be finished on schedule than those financed through traditional public-sector methods.

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A2: More Efficient

Privatization solves – Federal spending is inefficient Chris Edwards is the director of tax policy studies at Cato and expert on federal and state tax and budget issues, senior economist on the congressional Joint

Economic Committee, and an economist with the Tax Foundation, 11/17/11, “PPPs and Privatization for Infrastructure”, http://www.cato-at-liberty.org/ppps-and-privatization-for-infrastructure/; AB

I testified to the congressional Joint Economic Committee on Wednesday regarding infrastructure, which means roads, bridges, pipelines, railroads, and other such assets. Here are some of the points I raised: Private sector infrastructure spending in the United States is more than four times larger than federal, state, and local government infrastructure spending. Thus, if Congress wants infrastructure, it should remove barriers to private investment. Over the past 25 years, U.S. governments have spent about the same amount on infrastructure as a share of GDP as have other OECD countries, on average. Most federal

infrastructure spending, outside of defense, goes toward activities that are state, local, and private in nature. A key problem with federal government involvement in infrastructure is that when it makes mistakes, it replicates those mistakes across the countr y . Think about the disastrous high-rise public housing projects built in dozens of cities in the 20th century. Or consider how the

Obama administration is trying to impose its misguided high-speed rail vision on the states. Politics often results in federal infrastructure spending being misallocated. For example, a large share of Amtrak spending goes to rural states where passenger trains don’t make any economic sense . The way ahead is to devolve infrastructure spending to state and local governments and the private sector . The United States lags many advanced nations in the growing use of privatization and public-private partnerships (PPP) for infrastructure. PPP deals are basically half

way to full privatization. They’ve got some drawbacks, but they are a step forward toward market-based investment for items such as roads and bridges. The industry reference guide for tracking PPP and privatization projects, Public Works Financing, includes only 2

American companies out of the 40 global companies that lead in these innovative projects. U.S. policymakers should be asking: What have other countries privatized that we can privatize in this country? The answer is: air traffic control, airports, seaports, and many other items. For roads and bridges, the states can look at Virginia’s progress in shifting toward private funding and management of its projects.

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----------------------------------------------------OLD STUFF

1NC Congestion F/L

Congestion is inevitable – alt causesAmerican Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , “Transportation: Invest in America”, 2001, http://rail.transportation.org/Documents/FreightRailReport.pdf

Waterways face a variety of pressures from the continued expansion of both domestic and international trade. Many ports are seeking deeper navigation channels to accommodate next-generation “mega-containerships.” Now in service in the Pacific trades, these vessels need channel depths of 50 feet or more. Marine terminals also are facing shortages of land for the storage and transfer of containers and cargo , and many are being forced to operate at unprecedented levels of efficiency to compensate for their shortage of space. Landside access is increasingly problematic, as many ports must contend with congestion on their major truck access routes and inadequate or antiquated rail connectors.

Ext. Alt Causes

Alt cause to waterway congestion – increased traffic James F. Campbell et al, L. Douglas Smith, Donald C. Sweeney II, Ray Mundy and Robert M. Nauss, College of Business Administration, University of Missouri - St. Louis, 2007, “Decision Tools for Reducing Congestion at Locks on the Upper Mississippi River”, http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/hicss_40/decisionbp/02_04_01.pdf

Our study region includes the five southernmost 600-foot long locks in the UMR navigation system, Locks 20, 21, 22, 24 and 25 (there is no Lock 23) and the four intervening pools, covering 100 river miles. These five locks are among the most heavily utilized and most congested locks in the U.S. Current utilization of these locks is 70-85% during the main navigation season from April to November. The locks adjacent to our study region have already been expanded to 1200 feet in length and do not generally experience significant queues. Large waits at Locks 20–25 occur due to the seasonality of commercial traffic , periodic adverse operating conditions , the relatively lengthy time required to process double lockages , and periodic significant use by private recreational craft . In a congested period , commercial traffic on the UMR between Locks 20 and 25 might typically spend 3–10 hours traversing each pool, depending on the direction and length of the pool, several hours in queue at each lock, and 0.5–2.5 hours undergoing a lockage, depending on the condition of the lock and the type of tow. In extreme cases, the wait in a lock queue may be as long as 100 hours . Increased traffic on the UMR navigation system would create substantial increases in congestion and delays at system locks , increasing tow transit times and possibly decreasing systemic efficiency . In response to the potential increasing levels of future lock congestion, the Corps initiated a feasibility study to examine increasing the size of the existing 600-foot long UMR locks to 1200-feet to eliminate the need for double lockages. This twelve year, $77 million feasibility study ultimately concluded in late 2004 with a recommendation that the 600-foot long lock chambers for Locks 20 – 25 (and others) be replaced with new 1200-foot long lock chambers at a cost of some $2.8 billion [15].

Repairing locks causes congestion and economic downturn Boselovic, 1ac evidence, award winner for business and investigative reporting, 2012 (March 20, “Locked and Dammed: Neglect erodes river commerce”, http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/12080/1218128-113.stm) AB

There is a price to be paid for neglecting the nation's aging system of locks and dams, an economic engine in desperate need of a tune-up.¶ On the Monongahela River, the price tag could be as high as $1 billion annually if the breakdown of a

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lock or dam puts the river off limits to barges delivering coal to power plants, according to a study performed last year for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.¶ About 500 miles down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh, 18 months of delays caused by repairs needed at three troubled locks is expected to cost one utility alone $16 million, according to a company spokesman.¶ For farmers in the Midwest, a three-month lock failure would add $71.6 million to the cost of moving grain to markets, according to a Texas Transportation Institute study issued in January.¶ The impact that the failure of a dam like the 105-year-old one on the Monongahela at Elizabeth could have on water supplies is worrisome enough it has drawn the attention of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.¶ "It is not a far-fetched scenario. It can happen," said Joe Dinkel, executive director of operations for West View Water Authority, which serves more than 200,000 residents in the North Hills and Ohio River communities. The authority's Neville Island plant gets its water from a pool created by a Corps dam at Emsworth.¶ Mr. Dinkel said short-term outages could be managed "through some creative engineering and logistical arrangements." But if a dam would be out of commission for a period of several years, "That would be very troubling to us," he said.¶ "It would put us in a bind for a protracted period of time."¶

Alt cause – congestion of freight train/highway makes your econ impacts inevitable American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , “Transportation: Invest in America”, 2001, http://rail.transportation.org/Documents/FreightRailReport.pdf

Freight rail is vital to military mobilization and provides critically needed transportation system redundancy in national emergencies. At issue is the capacity of the freight-rail system to grow with the economy and continue to provide these public benefits. The U.S. economy is growing, and with it the demand for freight transportation services. With moderate growth in the economy — about three percent per year — domestic freight tonnage will increase by 57 percent by 2020 and import-export tonnage will increase by nearly 100 percent. Today trucks and the highway system carry 78 percent of domestic tonnage, the freight-rail system carries 16 percent, and barges and coastal shipping carry six percent. By 2020, the highway system must carry an additional 6,600 million tons of freight (an increase of 62 percent), and the freight rail system must carry an additional 888 million tons (an increase of 44 percent). However, the highway system is increasingly congested, and the social, economic, and environmental costs of adding new highway capacity are prohibitively high in many areas. State departments of transportation are asking if expanding the capacity of the freight-rail system in some cases might be a cost-effective way of increasing the capacity of the total transportation system. The freight-rail system was a triumph of 19th century America. It freed business and industry from the need to locate near sea, river, and canal ports. It opened up domestic east–west trade corridors and underpinned the development of the United States as an industrial power. But the freight-rail system was eclipsed in the 20th century by trucking and highways, which freed business and industry again, this time from the need to locate near rail lines and terminals. Long-haul trucking, which provided reliable, door-to-door service, captured a large share of east–west freight traffic from the railroads and much of the north–south freight traffic from coastal steamers and river barges. Much of the railroad industry slid into bankruptcy in the mid-1900s. The government deregulated the railroad industry in 1980. The mergers and reorganization that followed restructured the industry. System mileage was cut in half, from 380,000 miles of track at its peak in 1920 to 172,000 miles today. Ownership was consolidated into seven Class I railroads that today originate 84 percent of the traffic and generate 91 percent of railroad revenue, and 551 regional and short-line railroads that operate 30,000 miles of track, originate 16 percent of traffic, and generate nine percent of railroad revenue. Freight-rail productivity was increased; ton-miles handled per railroad employee have nearly quadrupled since 1980. Rates were dropped, service was improved, and market share was stabilized at 28 percent of total domestic ton-miles and about 40 percent of intercity ton-miles. However, the productivity gains and competitive rates have not been sufficient to rebuild market share and increase revenue. Railroad revenues have continued to drop. The industry’s return on investment has improved from about four percent in 1980 to about eight percent in 2000; however, it is still below the cost of capital at 10 percent. Most of the benefits of railroad reorganization and productivity improvements have accrued to shippers and the economy in the form of rate cuts, rather than to the railroads and their investors.

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1NC Trade F/L

Price fluctuations inevitable – higher prices don’t cause your impactBiopact 08 [unites specialists in several disciplines related to bioenergy—an economic anthropologist, a bio-engineer, a professor in chemistry, a tropical agronomist, a sociologist with expertise on Central-Africa, and a development economist, Jun 17, “Wageningen UR: biofuels not to blame for high food prices; decline in world food prices to continue”]

Unpredictable movements in food prices can still provide problems in the future. With high prices, the consequences in terms of hunger or malnutrition especially in poor urban areas will surface. But with low prices, the consequence for poor farmers will be large. Until recently , hundreds of millions of farmers could not lift themselves out of poverty because of low food prices. Seventy-five percent of the world's hungry people are still living in rural areas and are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. Over time, high prices should benefit them.

Food scarcity inevitableEconomist 10 [Climate change How to live with climate change Nov 25th 2010 | from PRINT EDITION http://www.economist.com/node/17575027/print]

Food security will become a crucial issue. Drought-resistant seeds are needed; and, given that the farmers least able to pay will require the hardiest varieties, seed companies’ efforts should be supplemented by state-funded research. Since genetic modification would help with this, it would be handy if people abandoned their prejudice against it. Even with better crops, better soil conservation, better planting patterns and better weather forecasts, all of which are needed , there will still be regional calamities . To ensure that food is always available, the global food market will have to be deeper and more resilient than it is now. That means abandoning the protectionism that bedevils ag riculture today.

Chinese domestic supply solves food shortageUnited States International Trade Commission, March 2011, “China's Agricultural Trade: Competitive Conditions and Effects on U.S. Exports”, http://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub4219.pdf

China is the world’s largest agricultural economy and the leading producer and consumer of many agricultural commodities. In recent years, its massive population and tremendous income growth have fueled a rapid increase in both the quantity and quality of food and fiber consumed. While China has met much of its needs by increasing domestic production, it has also emerged as a leading global importer of several agricultural commodities, including cotton, soybeans, vegetable oils, and hides and skins. China’s increase in imports has benefited its trade partners significantly, but only for a narrow range of products. At the same time, domestic policies to promote agricultural production and maintain self-sufficiency in staple foods increase the competitiveness of domestically produced goods over imported products and, in some cases, keep imports out altogether. As the Chinese agricultural sector has modernized and become more productive , China has also become an important global exporter of several horticultural products, including mandarin oranges, apples, apple juice, certain vegetables, and garlic.

Ext. No Impact - Soybeans

No impact – stockpiles solve soy beans and drought should’ve triggered the impactsSTRATFOR, 1/19/12, “Update on Global Food Commodities”, http://www.tcry.com/inewsdetail.php?NID=24

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http://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub4219.pdf


The popularity of soybeans is growing. While less soy is produced than the other three food staples, soybean production has increased by nearly 150 percent in the past two decades, nearly twice the rate of corn production. The United States is a major producer and exporter of soybeans, but the fastest growth has occurred in Brazil. Indeed, there is growing domestic and foreign investment into the South American soybean industry, particularly in the Mercosur countries -- Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina. The rising popularity of soy can be attributed to its being a relatively cheap source of protein for humans and livestock. Most soybeans are consumed in Asia's rapidly growing markets. China consumes more soy than any other nation. It imports more than 60 percent of globally traded soy, which represents more than 80 percent of China's total annual supply. To mitigate the risk posed by a sudden disruption in the soy trade, China stockpiles its soybeans for later consumption. The drought that is affecting corn production in Brazil and Argentina is also expected to affect soybean production as the season progresses . Projected output for Argentina this season has dropped by nearly 3 percent, but the country still expects a slight increase in production compared to the previous season. Brazil will not be as lucky. The above-average rainfall seen in soybean-producing center-west states, such as Mato Grosso, will not further compensate for the drought in Parana state. As such, soybean production in Brazil will decrease by 2 percent. This will contribute to a 3 percent decline of global soybean production. Despite this decline, Brazil is expected to become the world's largest exporter of soybeans in the 2011-2012 season following an 8 percent dip in U.S. production.

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1NC Competitiveness F/L

America still has a global edgeYetiv 12 (Steve Yetiv is a political science professor at Old Dominion University, 3/6/12, “8 reasons America is not in decline” www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2012/0306/8-reasons-America-is-not-in-decline/US-still-has-most-competitive-major-economy-in-the-world)

1. US still has most competitive major economy in the world. The stakes in the debate on American decline are big. Exaggerated views of demise can create a self-fulfilling prophecy at home, encourage global troublemakers, and produce world economic and strategic instability. Let’s set the record straight. America has had the most competitive major economy in the world over the past several years , according to the World Economic Forum . Only the small states of Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, and Singapore sometimes eclipse it. Even the European Union countries are now looking to America to help them out of their debt crisis, as ironic as that may sound. 2. US has world’s best entrepreneurs and most Fortune 500 companies. It has the world’s best entrepreneurs and by far the highest number of Fortune 500 companies. It remains at the forefront of the technologies of the future, such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, and has the advantage in cyberspace, even though it has fallen behind in some other areas, like green technologies. 3. US remains world’s leading magnet for immigrants. It remains by far the world’s leading magnet for immigrants, allowing it to draw on millions of bright, hardworking people. It’s hard to exaggerate such brain power, which constantly helps renew the country. 4. US has many trustworthy allies. It has trustworthy allies in NATO, the EU, the Group of 20 industrialized countries, and elsewhere that usually help it meet national and international goals. Contrast that with, let’s say, China and Russia. They suspect each other and often lack such global support. 5. US has weakened adversaries. It benefits because most of its adversaries are largely constrained and less threatening than they used to be. North Korea is a pariah. Syria is on the ropes. Hugo Chávez is not well liked and is ailing. Fidel Castro is a has-been. Saddam Hussein and Osama bin Laden are dead. The Soviet Union is gone. Those are tectonic shifts in world politics that we rarely appreciate in full. America also possesses a military that is far ahead of its rivals, allowing the US to operate at great distances in unique ways. Difficulties in Iraq and Afghanistan are not a commentary on US military capability, but on strategy and the challenges of nation-building. 6. US has vast energy resources. It lacks a comprehensive energy policy, but it has more energy resources than any major country, except Russia. The US is also less dependent on oil than most great powers. That’s important in a world where energy is becoming increasingly central. 7. US is leader in global move toward democracy. It has spearheaded the global move toward democracy, which has been on the march in the past 100 years – not communism, fascism, Nazism, autocracy, radical Islamism, or any other forms of governance. According to sophisticated rankings, America ranks third in soft power – the ability to attract others due to culture and policies, marginally behind France and Britain (China clocked in at No. 17). 8. US colleges and universities top global rankings. The US trails badly in K-12 education – a huge problem – but its universities, especially at the graduate level, dominate the global rankings.

Protectionism good - trade liberalization causes cycles of food shortages – turns their trade impactSeedling 96 (October 1996, http://www.grain.org/publications/oct961-en.cfm)

In the South, the different elements of trade liberalisation often translate directly into food insecurity. Among these elements the following have the most severe impacts on peoples livelihood. In addition they easily result in internal migration, urban growth and environmental destruction: * undoing land reform and allowing concentration of land ownership * privatising water * introducing monopoly control on seeds through IPRs * diverting land from food to cash crops for exports * diverting food from local to global markets Volatile prices and globalisation are creating an unstable, insecure and costly food system and undermine the ecological security of agriculture, the livelihood security of farmers and the food security of both poor and affluent consumers. "We in the South Asian subcontinent have more than the World Bank indices as our guide. We have our history", says Vandana Shiva. "India's worst famines took place when India's economy was most integrated though the globalisatio n of the colonial period."

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1NC Economy F/L

Ninety-three economic downturns since World War Two disprove the link between economy and war – only our evidence takes into Miller 2k (Morris Miller, Adjunct Professor of Administration at the University of Ottawa, 2000, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, Vol 24 No 4)

The question may be reformulated. Do wars spring from a popular reaction to a sudden economic crisis that exacerbates poverty and growing disparities in wealth and incomes? Perhaps one could argue, as some scholars do, that it is some dramatic event or sequence of such events leading to the exacerbation of poverty that, in turn, leads to this deplorable denouement. This exogenous factor might act as a catalyst for a violent reaction on the part of the people or on the part of the political leadership who would then possibly be tempted to seek a diversion by finding or, if need be, fabricating an enemy and setting in train the process leading to war. According to a study undertaken by Minxin Pei and Ariel Adesnik of the Carnegie endowment for International Peace, there would not appear to be any merit in this hypothesis . After studying ninety-three episodes of economic crisis in twenty-two countries in Latin America and Asia in the years since the Second World War they concluded that: Much of the conventional wisdom about the political impact of economic crises may be wrong… The severity of economic crisis – as measured in terms of inflation and negative growth – bore no relationship to the collapse of regimes…(or, in democratic states, rarely) to an outbreak of violence…In the cases of dictatorships and semi-democracies, the ruling elites responded to crises by increasing repression (thereby using one form of violence to abort another).

No solvency – climate change destroys outdated ports and rail along the Mississippi – key to efficient movement of goodsHarry Caldwell is the Chief of Freight Policy for the Federal Highway Administration, Kate H. Quinn is the Assistant Division Administrator of the Federal Highway Administration, Jacob Meunier , Ph.D. is an Analyst of Cambridge Systematics with experience in transportation planning and policy-making, John Suhrbier is a Principal of Cambridge Systematics, and Lance Grenzeback is someone I don’t know, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Freight Transport”, http://climate.dot.gov/documents/workshop1002/caldwell.pdf

A greater number of extreme weather events – hurricanes, snow storms, ice storms, floods, etc. – will increase damage to infrastructure used for the movement of freight. Each year, state and local transportation agencies spend an estimated five billion dollars repairing roads, bridges, and other infrastructure damaged by snow and ice. The most serious and costly water-related impacts of climate change are likely to be coastal flooding that would result from increased flood frequencies and flood elevations . The risk of damage to l ow-lying port facilities, locks , airports, roads, rail lines, tunnels, pipelines, ventilation shafts, and power lines is particularly great because of the large number of fright facilities – international gateways in particular – that are concentrated on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts and along inland waterways

Ext. Climate Change

Climate change collapses water operationsHarry Caldwell is the Chief of Freight Policy for the Federal Highway Administration, Kate H. Quinn is the Assistant Division Administrator of the Federal Highway Administration, Jacob Meunier , Ph.D. is an Analyst of Cambridge Systematics with experience in transportation planning and policy-making, John Suhrbier is a Principal of Cambridge Systematics, and Lance Grenzeback is someone I don’t know, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Freight Transport”, http://climate.dot.gov/documents/workshop1002/caldwell.pdf

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Water operations are likely to become more expensive and less reliable. Not only will an increase in extreme weather events create more frequent disruptions in service, it will cause sediment shifts in channels, increasing requirements for dredging. Rising sea levels will reduce bridge clearances and the 12 Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Freight Transport The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Transportation effectiveness of roll-on/roll-off port facilities at high tide. “RO-RO” facilities, such as those at the ports of New York/New Jersey, Baltimore, and Jacksonville, are used primarily for loading and unloading shipments of automobiles, farm equipment, and military equipment. Finally, the timing and demand for freight services is likely to shift as a result of global climate change. For example, coal shipments may decline as cleaner forms of energy are substituted. This would have serious consequences for the freight railroads, which carry virtually all of the coal mined in the U.S.. Coal accounts for 41 percent of tonnage moved by rail and about one-quarter of the revenues of Class I railroads. Heating oil and liquid natural gas shipments might also decline as winter heating needs lessen. In contrast, agricultural shipments are likely to rise as longer growing seasons make multiple harvests in a single year more common. Timber shipments (particularly hardwood) may also rise. The spatial pattern of agricultural production is also likely to change, causing demand for freight transportation in some regions of the United States to increase and in other regions to decline.

Impacts are inevitable – climate changeHarry Caldwell is the Chief of Freight Policy for the Federal Highway Administration, Kate H. Quinn is the Assistant Division Administrator of the Federal Highway Administration, Jacob Meunier , Ph.D. is an Analyst of Cambridge Systematics with experience in transportation planning and policy-making, John Suhrbier is a Principal of Cambridge Systematics, and Lance Grenzeback is someone I don’t know, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Freight Transport”, http://climate.dot.gov/documents/workshop1002/caldwell.pdf

Rising ocean levels and declining flows could also pose problems on the Mississippi River system, which handles a large percentage of the country’s bulk commodities, such as grain and coal. The result would be more water diversions and salt intrusion, and possibly the disappearance of much of the Mississippi Delta. This would necessitate a new shipping outlet to the Gulf. Droughts and floods would also disrupt traffic on the Mississippi. In 1988, low water levels prevented the movement of 800 barges in the river for several months. In 1993 and 1997, flooding again disrupted barge traffic and prevented ships from reaching the port of New Orleans for several days. Global climate change is likely to require reengineered freight facilities that are better able to withstand storm surges and flooding. For example, stronger, higher, corrosion- and scourresistant bridges will be needed in areas subject to storm surges and salt water contamination. Lift-on/lift-off port facilities may replace rollon/roll-off port facilities in harbors that experience unusually large tidal variations. Protective structures and water removal systems will be needed for road and rail tunnels subject to flooding. Global warming also could necessitate changes in the location where new infrastructure is built. For example, if the origin of farm and forest product shipments shifts as their optimum growing regions change, demand for new roads and rail lines would also shift.

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1NC Solvency F/L

Ports can’t accommodate mega containers – guts aff solvencyPlanning and Management Consultants, December 2002, “NATIONAL DREDGING NEEDS STUDY OF U.S. PORTS AND HARBORS”, www.graduadosportuaria.com.ar/Vias%20Navegables/Tema%205/National%20dredging%20needs....pdf

While regional hub and spoke activity is still a major component of total transshipment, over time, especially with the emergence of carrier alliances, a global form of transshipment hubs has emerged. Often referred to as “mega” transshipment hubs, these container terminals are sited at locations sufficiently central to serve main east-west or north-south trade routes and provide fast and efficient feeder services to large sub-regions. They are also being designed and located to accommodate containerships with capacities of at least 6,000 TEUs. Unlike many traditional ports, they do not directly service inland markets. 51 For carriers operating new generations of container ships, megahubs offer many advantages over traditional liner ports. Depth and channel constraints are a major factor. Megahubs are being located in areas that do not require continual dredging, which is expensive and, in many nations, controversial and difficult to implement because of potential environmental impacts . Dredging is a constant process, particularly at inland ports where siltation occurs. 52 This is not the case with many of the new offshore megahubs, which have the advantage of naturally deep waters. Ports in the Caribbean, Mediterranean and along the Arabian Peninsula have low siltation rates and limited rainfall, thus there is minimal need for dredging. Big ships also have difficulty in navigating rivers , and in ports where congestion exists, this can be a major impediment. Many ports are struggling to develop infrastructure and improve the efficiency of existing facilities. At some point, expansion may become difficult or impossible . Ports in metropolitan areas must compete with other public interests for alternative land uses near port facilities. In many communities throughout the United States and abroad, local citizens oppose terminal development and dredging due to potential environmental impacts. For example, most major U.S. ports are in or near large urban areas where trucks and trains compete with commuters on crowded highways. Numerous rail at-grade street and highway crossings can hamper access to ocean terminals and cause delays for carriers, shippers and commuters. Collisions associated 51 See, Baird (1999) and DeMonie, G. “The Global Economy, Very Large Containerships and the Funding of MegaHubs.” Paper presented at the Cargo Systems Port Financing Conference, London, June 27, 1997. 52 With the exception of Seattle, WA and Long Beach, CA, most major U.S. ports are located at the mouths of rivers connected to inland waterway systems. Historically this has been advantageous since most goods were transported to and from inland markets via rivers and canals. However, a major disadvantage is that most harbors at the mouths of rivers are not natural deepwater harbors. At ports located at the mouths of rivers, upstream runoff collects soil from the land that is carried downstream and deposited on harbor bottoms. National Dredging Needs Study of U.S. Ports and Harbors 134 VI. Organization and Operation of the World Merchant Fleet with at-grade crossings and roads are a problem and may worsen because of increasing port traffic and growing urban congestion. 53 A recent study by the U.S. Maritime Administration found that more than half of all U.S. ports reported that traffic impediments are major infrastructure problems. 54 Land values in large urban areas can also be exorbitant, which makes expansion very costly. In order to serve existing clients, many ports are spending millions of dollars for development projects, but finding additional land to occupy is becoming increasingly more difficult.

Rail and trucks solve any impact to the affTexas Transportation Institute is a subdivision of Texas A&M University, December 2011, “AMERICA’S LOCKS & DAMS: “A TICKING TIME BOMB FOR AGRICULTURE?”, http://www.unitedsoybean.org/wp-content/uploads/Americas_Locks_And_Dams.pdf

Four different lock closure time horizons—two weeks, one month, whole quarter, and one year—are considered for each of the six locks that are the focus of this study. Thus, 24 lock closure scenarios are simulated using the International Grain Transportation Model (IGTM). Changes in modal splits and associated transportation costs by type of transportation mode under each scenario are estimated. Table

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3.9 and Table 3.10 provide changes in the total volume and associated costs of domestic grain transportation by each mode as a result of lock closures under different scenarios. In all scenarios, lock closures reduce the total volume (all modes combined) of domestic transportation of grain (see Table 3.9). Though alternative transport modes will haul more grain in some of the regions to partially offset the reduced barge transport due to lock closures, the net effect is negative under any scenario. Except for LaGrange Lock in the three-month lock closure scenario, lock closure of any duration decreases the volume of domestic grain transported by barge, as well as the total volume transported by all three modes. The volume of domestic grain transportation by rail is projected to increase and the volume of truck transportation to decrease under most scenarios. When US grain is exported to EU countries from the Ports of Duluth and Toledo, the grain is first transported on small ships to the port of Montreal, Canada, and then transferred to ocean-going vessels. Unavailability of barge transportation above the closed locks would normally cause more export grain shipments via the Great Lakes to compensate for the loss of exports via New Orleans. During lock closures of one month or less, unavailability of barge transportation above the closed locks does not increase the small ship transportation volume. However, when the locks are closed for three months or longer, small ships start moving an increased volume of grain via the Great Lakes. The effect of lock closures on modal splits in grain transportation is not equal across the locks. For example, Lock 52 is affected the most under any lock closure scenario. If it is closed for two weeks, the total volume of grain transportation by barge will be reduced by 1.6 million tons and this reduced barge volume will be offset by rail. At the same time, the volume of truck transportation will also be reduced in the same amount, since there will no longer be a need for trucking the grain from storage facilities to barge locations. This pattern at Lock 52 holds under all scenarios. Under lock closures of one year, the reductions in barge transportation at Lock 20 and Lock 25 surpass that of Lock 52.

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Ext. Ports

Non-inland Gulf Coast ports are crucial gateways to inland waterwaysPlanning and Management Consultants, December 2002, “NATIONAL DREDGING NEEDS STUDY OF U.S. PORTS AND HARBORS”, http://www.graduadosportuaria.com.ar/Vias%20Navegables/Tema%205/National%20dredging%20needs....pdf

When compared to the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, ports along the Gulf handle considerably less containerized cargo. However, the Gulf Coast accounts for almost half of all international trade in terms of tonnage, which highlights its significant role as a point of entry and exit for bulk commodities (see Table V-13 and V-14). Almost 500 million tons of international cargo flow through Gulf ports. Nearly one-half of this is in the form of crude petroleum imported from Mexico, South America, the Mid-East and Africa. Iron, steel and ores from Latin America, Europe and Africa are also important imports. Grain is the leading U.S. export from the Gulf Coast at about 57 millions tons. Almost one-half of grain shipments go to Asia via the Panama Canal and the remainder is exported worldwide. Most grain is shipped down river from the Midwest and Plains states and exported abroad. Geographical location has a major influence on the type of cargo at Gulf Coast ports. Many Gulf Coast ports serve as gateways to the United States’ vast inland system of navigable waterways that serve as conduits for bulk imports and export s . Because bulk goods are heavy and generally low in value, they are much cheaper to transport via barges rather than on rail or trucks. International bulk cargo is often traded through ports such as New Orleans, where it can be loaded and unloaded onto barges or smaller ships and transported to the central U.S. by way of the Mississippi or other inland waterways. River ports in cities such as Memphis, Tulsa, St. Louis, Chicago and St. Paul, Minnesota serve as inland distribution centers. Trade in the Gulf Coast is concentrated within a few bulk commodities, primarily crude petroleum and grain. Therefore, Gulf Coast ports are more vulnerable to fluctuations in world commodity markets. For example, in 1973, the Arab oil embargo effectively halted flows of crude oil from the Mid-East. Consequently, ports along the Gulf saw a significant decline in tanker traffic and revenues. In contrast, the embargo had less of an impact on coastal regions that handle a wider range of cargo such as the Atlantic Coast. Ports along the Atlantic deal in substantial volumes of crude petroleum, about one-quarter of total U.S. imports and exports. However, as a percentage of total tonnage, crude petroleum accounts for only about 28 percent of Atlantic Coast trade. In contrast, crude petroleum makes up about two-thirds of trade on the Gulf Coast in term of both value and tonnage. Although the Gulf Coast currently has a relatively small share of the container market, it will likely grow as north-to-south trade routes develop between the U.S. and Latin America. 24 Over the next decade, NAFTA should result in more container trade along the Gulf Coast as well, and if the U.S. embargo on Cuban trade is lifted, the Gulf Coast should have tremendous opportunities for growth. In September of 1999, the U.S. Senate passed a measure to reduce restrictions on food exports to Cuba that will give shippers of bulk goods an excellent opportunity to expand their markets. The amendment will allow the sale of agricultural products to Cuba, and allow U.S. banks and other institutions to finance bulk-food exports. Among those benefiting would be U.S. agricultural producers and Gulf Coast ports. Before Fidel Castro came 24 Americana Ships and Stevedoring Services of America signed an agreement in April of 2000 to develop a 300-acre container terminal at the Port of Texas City, TX, which has traditionally been a tanker port. The facility will be able to handle ships drawing up to 50 feet of water.The National Dredging Needs Study of Ports and Harbors 67 V. Major Commodity Groups and Commodity Flows in the United States into power, Cuba was a very important trading partner for Gulf Coast ports such as New Orleans. When trade restrictions are lifted, Cuba should become an important consumer market in the long term, and in the short term, Cuba will need to rebuild its dilapidated infrastructure. For U.S. ports, this translates into more business, particularly in the form of exported bulk, neo-bulk and break-bulk cargo.

Mega-containers will be the predominant freight in international commerceDiane Feinstein is a Senior U.S. Senator from California, 4/26/12, “ENERGY AND WATER DEVELOPMENT APPROPRIATIONS BILL, 2013”, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-112srpt164/html/CRPT-112srpt164.htm

Past investments have provided adequate, albeit in some cases inefficient, infrastructure to deal with current commodity and cargo movements. Only about 20 percent of the administration's proposed construction budget is dedicated to navigation projects. Despite whatever other efforts may be underway to meet the goal of doubling exports, the budget

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request for the Corps for improvements and maintenance of the waterway system falls woefully short of the needs. Ports are routinely not dredged to their full authorized dimensions. It is hard for this Committee to understand how exports can be doubled without improvements and adequate maintenance to the projects that provide for the transit and the exit points for these commodities. The Committee is concerned that there are major changes in worldwide shipping and trade occurring and on the horizon that our Nation's water infrastructure is not equipped to handle. One of these changes is the enlargement and deepening of the Panama Canal that will allow a shift to larger container vessels with a need for deeper ports and navigation channels. However, larger vessels are also transiting the Suez Canal and more and more will likely be attempting to call at the Nation's ports. If larger ships are unable to dock here, they may be forced to dock in other countries with the appropriate infrastructure and then reconfigure ships and cargos to accommodate U.S. water infrastructure , leading to increased transportation costs, higher end-unit prices and loss of jobs . Along with deeper channels to accommodate these larger vessels, ports will need efficient dockside infrastructure to handle the throughput of this increased trade. Intermodal improvements at ports and possibly short sea shipping will also be a part of trade movements in and among ports. Without this system, transportation of commodities, exports and imports, would become vastly more expensive. For more than 25 years, the current mechanisms have been in place. However, how water transportation infrastructure is planned, designed, constructed, maintained, and funded has not kept pace with the pace of change in worldwide trade. Water transportation infrastructure was and continues to be a linchpin of our national economy. It is time to determine if there is a better way to develop this infrastructure. The Committee believes it is important for the Congress to rethink the Federal role in water transportation to determine if there is a better way to plan, build and finance this critical infrastructure. The Committee will work with the appropriate authorizing and tax writing committees as well as industry and the administration to determine a path forward to provide the water transportation infrastructure that will be required for the next 50-100 years.

Mo evCenter for Transportation Research, May 1999 “MEGA-CONTAINERSHIPS AND MEGA-CONTAINERPORTS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO: A LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY”, http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~maf/Reports/A%20LITERATURE%20REVIEW%20AND%20ANNOTATED.pdf

While mega-containerships are not presently dominating trade routes, many believe they will on several key routes in the near future. This belief is evident in the forecasts of leading economic analysts as well as in the changing fleet orders of major shipping lines. VZM/TranSystems, using DRI/McGraw Hill data, estimates that a larger share of containerized cargo will be transported by mega-containerships in future years. Estimates have placed 30 percent of containerized cargo on ships in the 4,000–6,000-TEU class by the year 2010, and nine percent of all cargo in 2010 is expected to be handled by ships larger than 6,000 TEUs. These statistics must be interpreted carefully, as they are formulated under unconstrained conditions. In other words, they assume adequate future port infrastructure as well as a market demand for containers. While the latter assumption is relatively solid, the infrastructure assumption is weak (26).

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Ext. Rails and Trucks Solve

There’s no pressing need for new locksBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

Multiple factors demonstrate that the proposed construction of the new locks is not justified: •Barge traffic on the Upper Mississippi River-Illinois Waterway has been flat since 1980 , and in recent years continued a trend of significant drops in volume. Locks currently in operation have excess capacity of more than 50 percent , which would accommodate any reasonable future increase in lock demand . •Due to the lack of consistent funding, the Corps has been unable to keep current on necessary maintenance on the UMR-IWW lock system. This large and growing backlog creates a perpetual problem that new construction does not solve. Because basic maintenance is necessary for any lock in use, new construction only adds another expense to existing unmet maintenance funding needs. •Several non-structural and small-scale measures, including barge traffic appointment scheduling, have been identified by the Corps as measures that can reduce barge lockage delays. These measures need to be instituted and evaluated before the Corps proceeds with any new lock construction. An important step in that evaluation process is completing another Benefit-Cost Analysis for the new locks using conditions subsequent to full implementation of non-structural and smallscale measures. • The barge industry asserts that shipping by barge is significantly more fuel efficient than rail transportation and therefore less polluting. More complete analysis of transportation fuel efficiency demonstrates that this claim is incorrect because it ignores the use of highly efficient rail systems and does not take into consideration that barges travel more miles following the course of the river than trains do to get to the same destination . •The Corps’ own economic analysis shows new construction of seven 1,200-foot locks will result in a negative return on investment. Based on two decades of flat or decreasing barge traffic, the proposed new locks will likely result in a loss of 80 cents for every dollar provided by taxpayers. Of additional concern is the fact that other Corps lock projects currently underway are exceeding their initial cost-estimates by double and even triple the estimated amounts.Vi | Big Price — LittLe Benefit •Previous legislation 2 established a trust fund financed by barge industry contributions to pay 50 percent of the cost of new inland waterway navigation construction and major rehabilitation of existing navigation infrastructure. Today the fund is essentially bankrupt due largely to massive cost overruns on Corps construction projects on the Ohio River and the fact that the barge industry’s mandated contribution is insufficient to support current project costs. This trust fund will be unable to provide significant funding for NESP projects for potentially 5 years. During this period, the cost 2 Section 1103 (g), Water Resources Development Act of 1986, P.L. 99–662, as amended of constructing the seven new 1,200-foot locks on the UMR-IWW will only continue to escalate, further worsening the already negative return on NESP construction investment.

Rail system is more efficient and cost-effective than barges – it also supports more bulk and is fasterBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

The barge industry asserts that inland waterways barge traffic is more fuel efficient than other modes of transportation. Industry representatives cite a 2007 Texas Transportation Institute report 28 to support this claim. The report includes the data in Table 3 portraying the superior fuel efficiency of barges in shipping cargo compared with trains and trucks. However, these comparisons do not take into account the variation in miles traveled to get from one point to another by water, rail, or road . The comparison between the distance of two modes of transportation both leaving one destination and going to the same final destination is called circuity. The Texas report acknowledges that nationally, barges have a 1.3 to 1 circuity factor when compared with trains, 29 which means that a barge must travel 30 percent farther than a rail car to reach the same destination Any comparison of barge and rail efficiencies on the UMR-IWW must include the geographic realities of rivers. Rivers do not flow directly in straight lines; there are many turns that increase the distance a barge must travel. The rail system is not constrained by the flow of the river and follows a much straighter path to the Gulf of Mexico at New Orleans. But instead of

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comparing rail miles to barge miles on the Mississippi River using the acknowledged national 1.3 to 1 circuity factor, the Texas report uses a barge to truck comparison to establish a 1 to 1 circuity factor. (For comparison, a researcher at the University of Illinois 30 estimated a 1.38 to 1 circuity factor for barges specifically on the Upper Mississippi River.) Also ignored in this report was the use by rail companies of “unit trains” for shipping grain long distances. Unit trains are made up of cars going to the same final destination carrying one type of commodity. A 2008 study by researchers at Iowa State University 31 shows that unit grain trains moving from Iowa to New Orleans have a much better fuel efficiency – 640 versus 413 ton-miles per gallon – than an average train. Incorporating both the rail circuity factor and unit grain trains into a revision of the Texas Transportation Institute’s table (see Table 4) shows that barges have virtually no fuel efficiency advantage over an average train and are far less fuel efficient than unit grain trains. The primary grain commodity used in the NESP studies to support the construction of new locks is corn, which is also shipped by unit grain trains. The barge industry, as stated above, asserts that shipping commodities on barges is more efficient than rail, saving fuel and therefore emitting fewer pollutants. However, normal rail shipping is nearly equivalent to the fuel efficiency of barge shipping, and unit grain trains are significantly more efficient than barges .

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*** Offense***1NC Food Security Bad Turn

American food security leads to exports of GMOs to the rest of the worldDeborah James is a Writer for the Global Exchange website, “Food Security, Farming, and the WTO and CAFTA”, http://www.globalexchange.org/resources/wto/agriculture

Effects of “Free Trade” Agricultural Policies on Small Farmers and Food Security CAFTA and the FTAA would consolidate and expand free market policies that have already devastated rural communities under NAFTA and the WTO. Loss of Small Farm Income The devastation of Mexican corn farmers due to NAFTA most sharply exemplifies the horrifying effects of these policies. After NAFTA eliminated Mexican quotas for corn, artificially-priced U.S. corn flooded the market. U.S. agribusinesses typically dump corn on the Mexican market at prices 30 percent below the cost of production. Before NAFTA, Mexico only imported about 2.5 million tons of corn per year. In 2001, they imported over 6 million tons of corn. The price of Mexican corn fell 70 percent. Millions of small family corn farmers have been left without a source of income, and have been forced to abandon their communities in search of a way to feed their families. The bedrock of traditional Mexican rural life, corn farming families, have been torn apart by NAFTA. While agreements like NAFTA and the WTO offer policies that favor agribusiness, they have been slow to address concerns of developing countries facing rock-bottom commodities prices. For example, in the WTO, African countries have raised the issue of low commodities prices in cotton, a staple of income for countries like Benin, Senegal, Mali, and Chad. Recent U.S. production of cotton has doubled, causing a world depression in cotton prices. In a July WTO meeting, the Trade Minister of Benin stated that Benin was “not prepared to accept the death of thousands of peasants as the price of a deal.” Loss of Food Sovereignty Under free trade regimes, developing countries are unable to use traditional methods of encouraging self-sufficiency in food production, because NAFTA and the WTO, as would CAFTA, prohibit internal support programs and import controls (quotas). The result has been an increased dependence on imported staples that have to be bought on the global market instead of grown locally. Since many countries can’t afford to buy imported food, they have to increase their foreign debt or suffer increased rates of malnutrition. Under CAFTA, Central American countries were able to negotiate an exemption to tariff reductions only on one corn variety-- white corn. This means that protective tariffs for staple food products such as rice and beans are prohibited. The result will be that in Nicaragua, for instance, tariff-free imports of yellow corn would increase ten times their current amount in the first year of CAFTA. Increased Food Prices Consumer prices were supposed to decline under NAFTA—yet while farmer’s commodity prices have plummeted, consumer food prices have risen in all three NAFTA countries. The U.S. consumer price index for food rose by 22 percent between 1994 and 2002. While Mexican farmers now earn 70 percent less for their corn, they pay 50 percent more for tortillas. Without domestic support for family farmers, poor countries have become increasingly dependent on food imports. Imports of agriculture products in Mexico have increased by 44 percent since NAFTA, pushing local producers out of the market. This is true for products such as: wheat, potatoes, rice, barley, coffee, milk products, sugar, fruits and many others. When exchange rates fluctuate, this can lead to a dramatic rise—sometimes a doubling or tripling—in food prices for poor consumers. Loss of Land and Increase in Migration Under NAFTA and the WTO, over one and a half million Mexican farmers have lost their sources of income, forcing them to abandon their farms. This has created a massive farmers’ migration to big cities and other countries in search of jobs. In 2002, an average of 600 Mexicans were forced off their land each day. Annually now 500,000 Mexicans per year attempt to cross the U.S.-Mexico border to find a way to feed their families. In the past five years, 1600 Mexican migrants have died while trying to cross the U.S.-Mexico border searching for jobs. Under CAFTA, Central American corn, rice, beans, and sorghum farmers, as well as poultry, pig, cow, and dairy producers all stand to be driven off their land by cheap imports. In Guatemala alone, experts predict that CAFTA will result in the loss of 45,000 to 120,000 agricultural jobs. Corporate Consolidation Since NAFTA was implemented, 38,000 small farms have been lost in the United States, and 11 percent of Canadian farms have gone bankrupt. A mere 2 percent of farms in the United States control 50 percent of American agricultural sales. Over 73 percent of the nation’s farms share less than 7 percent of the market value of agricultural products, while 7.2 percent of farms receive 72 percent of the market value of products sold. Eight-two percent of U.S. corn exports are controlled by three agribusiness firms- Cargill, Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), and Zen Noh. While family farmer incomes have

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plummeted during the first 7 years of NAFTA, ADM’s profits went from $110 million to $301 million, while ConAgra’s grew from $143 million to $413 million. Corporate Control of Plants and Seeds The Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPs) agreement within the WTO establishes global and uniform protection for trademarks, copyrights and patents. Perhaps most controversial and worrisome is the fact that these protections also apply to patenting of life forms. For example, traditional, plant-derived medicines used by Indigenous populations in countries such as Brazil could be patented by a transnational corporation for profit, as long as the Indigenous peoples had not already done so. It is highly unlikely, however, that Indigenous communities would seek a patent, because plants are considered to be a shared resource, not a commodity to be exploited for profit. CAFTA and the TRIPs agreement also undermine global access to and distribution of seeds and, therefore, the food supply. As corporations begin to patent seeds, local farmers must pay annual fees and/or sign technology use agreements that prohibit saving patented seeds and limit the use of seeds that have been used by generations. Subsistence farmers cannot afford the cost of purchasing new seeds each year, and the limiting of seed varieties makes food supplies vulnerable to plant pests and diseases. The Spread of Genetically Modified Organisms Currently, agreements under the WTO and CAFTA grant unprecedented rights to multinational corporations producing genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The WTO has ruled that GMOs must be treated no differently than their conventional counterparts. Thus, consumers are unknowingly being used as guinea pigs for the powerful biotech industry. Scientists have argued that the spread of GMOs drastically reduces biodiversity as a result of the contamination of conventional crops by pollen from those containing GMOs. Currently, no satisfactory protections exist to safeguard our food supply from known or unknown dangers of this new technology. Under CAFTA, GMO corporations would be granted the power to file suit against countries whose farmers replanted GMO seeds. Environmental Degradation Industrial agriculture practices replace sustainable family farm practices and take an extra toll on the environment that is not reflected in consumer prices. The overuse of fertilizers and chemicals, overgrazing, and the unenforced regulation of factory farm dumping of agricultural byproducts such as excrement and pesticides into rivers and streams all damage the quality of air, water, and soil, which are our shared resources. Corporate “free trade” agreements continue to stick communities and taxpayers with the costs of cleanup and loss of environmental quality, while corporations reap the profits embodied in industrial agriculture. Erosion of Democracy In order to be in compliance with NAFTA, the Mexican government actually had to change the Mexican Constitution’s land redistribution statutes to allow foreign ownership of land. This allowed lands owned collectively by farming communities to be sold off or taken by creditors. This move led to the uprising of the Indigenous people of Chiapas in the Zapatista rebellion on January 1, 1994 – the very day NAFTA took effect. The Zapatistas view NAFTA as a death knell for Indigenous people. Under Chapter 11 of NAFTA, corporations are also empowered to directly sue national governments (called investor-to-state dispute resolution) in the event that domestic legislation interferes with their profit maximization. CAFTA includes these same investor rights, inviting challenges from foreign corporations over governmental actions such as GMO food labeling, increased food safety standards, or local purchasing preferences. Farmers across Mexico protested the implementation of the final phase-in of NAFTA agricultural policies on January 1, 2003. A movement called “The Countryside Can’t Take Anymore!” is working to educate the world about the failed promises of “free trade” in Mexico. And hundreds of thousands of farmers in Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua have mobilized against CAFTA and the FTAA in recent years. Food is a Human Right: Towards a Policy of Food Sovereignty Farmers worldwide are demanding an entirely different approach to agriculture and trade, one that prioritizes food sovereignty, security, and the preservation of rural livelihoods. Via Campesina, the global movement of peasant and family farmers’ organizations, has led the way in advocating Food as a Human Right and is demanding that governments uphold their right to food sovereignty. A twelve-step program for global human rights and food security would include: 1. Agriculture out of the WTO. Food is a human right and should not be treated the same as any other commodity. Food as a human right demands that governments set national policies that encourage food security—local and diverse production of food to guarantee adequate and accessible nutrition for all citizens. Governments must maintain the ability to pass laws for the national security of their populations—food sovereignty. 2. Stop Dumping. Developed countries should restore farm programs that place price floors under commodity prices and establish supply management and food security reserves to prevent cheap commodities from being dumped on global markets. International trade cooperation should aim at sharing and enforcing this responsibility. 3. Improve Market Access. Developed countries should address the problem of tariff escalation, the practice of increasing tariffs with the level of processing. Developed countries should reduce their tariffs, eliminating higher tariffs faster than lower ones. Without the requisite reduction of high import tariffs on processed and semi-processed commodities, commodity-dependent

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countries will be unable to diversify into higher stages of the commodity values chain. 4. Reinstate Qualitative Restrictions. Developing countries should be able to put in place qualitative restrictions on imports as well as domestic subsidies for the protection of and support to household-subsistence farming. Developing countries should be encouraged to produce food for their domestic market. 5. Promote Fair Trade. Cash crops like coffee, cocoa, sugar, and bananas represent the largest source of income for developing countries. The Fair Trade system is the best model for an agricultural trading system that guarantees fair prices and community empowerment, based on cooperative economics, farmer empowerment, increased transparency, and decreased power of purchasing monopolies. All commodity crops should be produced under the Fair Trade system. 6. Reinstate Global Commodity Agreements. These agreements, which regulate supply and demand to keep prices within a steady range, promote stability and sustainability within rural communities. Action to reverse the trend in falling commodity prices is essential to any initiative undertaken at the international level to facilitate sustainable development, poverty reduction and debt relief. 7. No Patents on Life. Seeds, plants, animals, and their components–the fabric of life–should be exempt from patenting. Agricultural policy must preserve the rights of Indigenous farmers to utilize their cultural knowledge and collective use of resources. Indigenous knowledge (as related to agriculture methods, use of seeds and plants) should be protected from biopiracy. The TRIPs provisions in the WTO that permit multinational corporations to patent seeds originally developed by farmers, requiring farmers to pay for the right to replant those seeds, must be abolished. 8. No GMOs. Laws and regulations on sanitary and phytosanitary standards should guarantee high quality and safe food for consumers and the environment. GMOs have yet to be proven safe. Utilizing the pre-cautionary principle, any trade agreement should ban the trade of genetically-modified substances. 9. Promote Real Land Reform. There can be no real sustainable development without massive global land reform to remedy the needs of millions of landless peasants around the world. Any global agreement that is truly based on the needs of the poor must prioritize the fair and adequate redistribution of lands that have been concentrated from colonial times in the hands of an elite few. Additionally, the necessary resources must be redistributed to enable them to productively work the lands. 10. Enforce Labor Laws for Farm Workers. Globally, farm workers are among the most exploited laborers, suffering the lowest wages. Even in the U.S., farm workers are not covered under many domestic labor laws. Any global agreement relating to agriculture should include provisions for the enforcement of a living wage for agricultural producers, and include all of the basic International Labor Organization’s labor rights. These include the right to organize freely and form a union; the right to strike; the right to adequate health and safety protections; freedom from discrimination in the workplace; and the elimination of forced overtime. 11. Create Policies Supportive of Small Farmers and Sustainable Agriculture. International financial institutions and governments should finance sustainable agricultural practices and the improvement of rural infrastructures. They should acknowledge that small farmers and cooperatives need policies that protect land ownership, provide access to credit, offer technical assistance, provide appropriate technology transfers, and guarantee pricing mechanisms that reflect the true costs of production. Investments in agriculture should promote local knowledge and organic and sustainable production systems rather than artificial fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides that harm the planet and place communities at risk. 12. Promote Real Democracy. All countries should guarantee that rural populations are represented in decision-making, nationally and globally. Small producers, farm workers, consumers, and their organizations, previously excluded, should be involved—and invested with real decision-making power—in trade negotiations that affect their futures. Governments must have the right to enact legislation that protects the environment, health and livelihood of its citizens. Corporate globalization is responsible for the loss of land, the loss of income, and the exposure to unsafe food and unhealthy working conditions for millions of people worldwide. Furthermore, it has severely exacerbated the risk of hunger and starvation, and caused the general erosion of rural communities and biodiversity across the globe. Fortunately, agricultural policies that promote food sovereignty have been developed. We have the power to change the global food system if we work together with farmers, environmentalists, consumers, and human rights advocates to say NO to the global corporatization of the food system and YES to people and earth-centered global agricultural policy.

Genetic engineering poses a risk greater than nuclear weaponsHo, ‘97[Dr. Mae-Wan, heads the Bio-Electrodynamics laboratory at the Open University in Milton Keynes in the UK, “The Unholy Alliance,” The Ecologist, Vol. 27, No. 4, July/August, ASP //umn-kn

The present situation is reminiscent of the development of nuclear energy which gave us the atom bomb, and the nuclear power stations that we now know to be hazardous to health and also to be environmentally unsustainable on account of the long-lasting radioactive wastes they produce. Joseph Rotblat, the British physicist who won the 1995 Nobel Prize after years of battling against nuclear weapons, has this to say. "My worry is that other advances in science may result in other means of mass destruction, maybe more readily available even than nuclear weapons. Genetic engineering is quite a possible area, because of these dreadful developments that are taking place there."(35) The large-scale release of transgenic organisms is much worse

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than nuclear weapons or radioactive nuclear wastes, as genes can replicate indefinitely, spread and recombine. There may yet be time enough to stop the industry's dreams turning into nightmares if we act now, before the critical genetic "melt-down" is reached.

That causes trade wars Marisa Guederrama and Neil Meyer, “Government Intervention Affecting Agricultural Trade”, http://www.ag.uidaho.edu/aers/PDF/tradepapers/tradepaper.pdf

Trade-distorting policies include price support programs, commodity programs, marketing programs, and programs that subsidize production costs. U.S. farm programs have a long history, beginning with the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933. These programs provided price and income support for the major food grain and feed grain crops, cotton, dairy, and specialty crops such as tobacco, peanuts and sugar. Farm programs for food grains and feed grains required farmers to leave land idle in order to qualify for price and income support payments. Also, farmers were required to produce these program crops every year to maintain eligibility for program benefits. The tobacco and peanut programs imposed production or marketing quotas on producers and limited the areas where these commodities could be grown. These programs affected the profitability of producing and marketing selected farm commodities, which, in turn, affected the quantities available, commodity prices, and competitiveness in international markets. In most cases, trade policies were needed to make these domestic farm programs workable. Export subsidies were needed to make U.S. wheat, cotton and rice competitive in world markets, and import quotas were needed to protect high domestic dairy, peanut and sugar prices from cheaper imports. However, in a major policy change, Congress passed the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act--the 1996 Farm Bill--which terminated most of the U.S. farm commodity programs. The EU Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) includes farm programs for virtually all of the agricultural commodities produced in the member countries. The EU countries used to be major importers of U.S. agricultural products. However, generous price supports have encouraged production increases to the point where the EU now produces a surplus of some commodities, such as dairy products, wheat, and beef. These surpluses are exported but large subsidies are required because EU domestic prices are above world prices. These subsidies depress world prices, to the advantage of consumers in importing countries and to the detriment of competing domestic producers and producers in other exporting countries. Prospects for Change Trade barriers and distortions lead to inefficient use of the world’s resources, which affects standards of living throughout the world. The distortions in the market change the economic opportunities for producers and consumers. For example, domestic consumers may pay more and have fewer, and perhaps lower quality, products to choose from, while domestic producers make greater profits. Actions by one country that harm other countries often lead to retaliation in the form of import restrictions or export subsidies of their own. These "trade wars" usually result in losses to both nations . On a multilateral basis, the prospects for removing or reducing trade barriers and distortions are brighter now than they have been for a long time. The GATT-UR agreement was the first to address a wide range of agricultural trade issues, including both trade barriers and trade- distorting farm policies and programs (see Leaflet 7). The changes required under this agreement are modest but a precedent has been set for future rounds of negotiations. Unilaterally, the United States, by implementing the 1996 farm bill, or FAIR Act, will effectively dismantle many of its own trade- distorting domestic programs discussed above. The target price-loan rate scheme which, coupled with export subsidies, was a major distortion to world trade, will gradually be eliminated. The pressure to pursue such widespread changes in farm policy emanated from U.S. budget deficits and not from external sources such as GATT-UR. The farm difficulties of 1998 and 1999 may bring a reevaluation of US policy. The United States has aggressively sought free-trade agreements with other countries. The Israeli-U.S. Free Trade Agreement developed in 1984, the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement completed in 1989, the Japan-U.S. Beef-Citrus accord, and NAFTA are examples. NAFTA is discussed in detail in Leaflet No. 8. However, it is important to recognize that national political and economic objectives generally outweigh consideration of specific impacts on the agricultural and food production sector. It is unrealistic to expect negative international trade impacts on one or more commodities to take precedence over positive benefits realized by politically influential non-agricultural sectors of the economy. Also, international trade policies, which favor the larger sub-sectors of agriculture, such as food and feed grains, can be expected to receive favorable federal government consideration at the expense of minor crops. The Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) serves as an excellent example of how broad national policies can affect the competitive position of U.S. agricultural commodities. The United States unilaterally enacted the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 with the intent of fostering economic growth in 27 small Caribbean countries through trade, economic assistance and tax measures. It was assumed that such growth would enhance national security, as well as other economic and political interests of the United States, by creating more political stability in the region and reducing the chances of unfriendly governments coming into power. The principal component of the CBI is the provision of duty-free access to U.S. markets.

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http://www.ag.uidaho.edu/aers/PDF/tradepapers/tradepaper.pdf


Most agricultural products from CBI countries are eligible for duty-free status, which increases their competitiveness in the U.S. market. Concluding Remarks In its simplest form, international trade is a relatively straightforward concept. Through trade, countries are free to specialize in the production of those commodities in which they have a comparative advantage. As a result, world production increases and all nations benefit. In practice, of course, international trade is much more complex. Government policies interfere with the free movement of goods and services, causing distortions in domestic economies. Some industries benefit from trade restrictions, others lose. If trade is liberalized, some sectors of the economy will benefit and others may be worse off, even though the nation as a whole benefits. The U.S. agricultural sector is affected by a broad array of U.S. government policies and regulations, and by the policies of foreign governments. U.S. producers and others in the U.S. agricultural sector have a vested interest in monitoring and analyzing new traderelated policy proposals, in order to be represented in the government policy formulation process, to anticipate impacts, and to be able to adjust quickly to change.

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1NC Terrorist TurnTerrorists will attack inland waterways Bakir 07 (1-1-2007 Niyazi Onur Bakir is a postdoctoral research associate at University of Southern California Center for Homeland Security, “A Brief Analysis of Threats and Vulnerabilities in the Maritime Domain”, http://research.create.usc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=nonpublished_reports)

3.2.2.1 Critical Coastal Targets. Maritime terrorism has hit US and non-US coastal infrastructure in the past . Terrorists have a plethora of potential targets for launching deadly attacks on the US coast . History of maritime terrorism suggests that terrorists have already exercised a variety of options to execute such attacks. In recent years, many terrorist organizations have added various means of suicide attacks in their portfolios. This poses further challenges to those who seek to deter terrorists from attacking one of the most vulnerable points of the nation. LNG facilities, chemical plants, urban centers, bridges and nuclear plants are among those critical targets that are exposed to waterborne terrorism threat . There are various ways to attack critical coastal targets. Terrorists may acquire new vessels through piracy or smuggle humans on vessels that are destined to sail near the target of interest. Piracy is a rising threat across the globe, and terrorists are already known to use piracy for financing purposes. Having acquired a ship to execute an attack, terrorists may detonate explosives on the ship at a time or location of their choice, or ram the ship into the target. It may be difficult to execute an attack hijacking an LNG ship due to security guidelines followed by the Coast Guard, but vessels with other forms of hazardous cargo may be vulnerable to hijacking. In particular, ships carrying bulk shipments of ammonium nitrate are potentially vulnerable . A huge volume of ammonium nitrate flows through US inland waterways each year . For example, in 1997 over 400,000 tons of ammonium nitrate was shipped through the Mississippi river. These shipments pass near urban centers such as New Orleans, St. Louis, Memphis, and Pittsburgh. In order to monitor and reduce vulnerability against ammonium nitrate and other hazardous cargo shipments (commonly called certain dangers cargo or CDC), the Coast Guard acted to introduce new regulations in 2004. These regulations include mandatory development of security plans at vessels and facilities handling ammonium nitrate, preparation of vessel maintenance and security records, training of a facility and vessel security officer, and installation of vessel and facility security systems. These new regulations increased the transportation cost of ammonium nitrate.

That turns all of your advantages – the US would shutdown EVERYTHING, collapsing the economy and trade Flynn 03 (Stephen, Natl Sec Studies, “The Fragile state of container security,” testimony before the senate, March 20 http://www.cfr.org/publication.html?id=5730)

A year later I joined with former senators Warren Rudman and Gary Hart in preparing our report, “America: Still Unprepared—Still In Danger.” We observed that “nineteen men wielding box-cutters forced the United States to do to itself what no adversary could ever accomplish: a successful blockade of the U.S.

economy. If a surprise terrorist attack were to happen tomorrow involving the sea , rail, or truck transportation systems that carry millions of tons of trade to the U nited S tates each day, the response would likely be the

same— a self-imposed global embargo .” Based on that analysis, we identified as second of the six critical mandates that deserve the nation’s immediate attention: “Make trade security a global priority; the system for moving goods affordably and reliably around the world is ripe for exploitation and vulnerable to mass disruption by terrorists.” This is why the topic of today’s hearing is so important. The stakes are enormous. U.S. prosperity—and much of its power—relies on its ready access to global markets. Both the scale and pace at which goods move between markets has exploded in recent years thanks in no small part to the invention and proliferation of the intermodal container. These ubiquitous boxes—most come in the 40’x8’x8’ size—have transformed the transfer of cargo from a truck, train, and ship into the transportation equivalent of connecting Lego

blocks. The result has been to increasingly diminish the role of distance for a supplier or a consumer as a constraint in the world marketplace. Ninety percent of the world’s freight now moves in a container. Companies like Wal-Mart and General Motors move up to 30 tons of merchandise or parts across the vast Pacific Ocean from Asia to the West Coast for about $1600. The transatlantic trip runs just over a $1000—which makes the postage stamp seem a bit overpriced. But the system that underpins the incredibly efficient, reliable, and affordable movement of global freight has one glaring shortcoming in the post-9-11 world—it was built without credible safeguards to prevent it from being exploited or targeted by terrorists and criminals. Prior to September 11, 2001, virtually anyone in the world could arrange with an international shipper or carrier to have an empty intermodal container delivered to their home or workplace. They then could load it with tons of material, declare in only the most general terms what the contents were, “seal” it with a 50-cent lead tag, and send it on its way to any city and town in the United States. The job of transportation providers was to move the box as expeditiously as possible. Exercising any care to ensure that the integrity of a container’s contents was not compromised may have been a commercial practice, but it was not a requirement. The responsibility for making sure that goods loaded in a box were legitimate and authorized was shouldered almost exclusively by the importing jurisdiction. But as the volume of containerized cargo grew exponentially, the number of agents assigned to police that cargo stayed flat or even declined among most trading nations. The rule of thumb in the inspection business is that it takes five agents three hours to conduct a thorough physical examination of a single full intermodal container. Last year nearly 20 million containers washed across America’s borders via a ship, train, and truck. Frontline agencies had only enough inspectors and equipment to examine between 1-2 percent of that cargo. Thus, for would-be terrorists, the global intermodal container system that is responsible for moving the overwhelming majority of the world’s freight satisfies the age-old criteria of opportunity and motive. “Opportunity” flows from (1) the almost complete absence of any security oversight in the loading and transporting of a box from its point of origin to its final destination, and (2) the fact that growing volume and velocity at which containers move around the planet create a daunting “needle-in-the-haystack” problem for inspectors. “Motive” is derived from the role that the container now plays in underpinning global

supply chains and the likely response by the U.S. government to an attack involving a container. Based on statements by the key officials at U.S. Customs, the Transportation Security Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the Department of Transportation, should a container be used as a “poor man’s missile,” the shipment of all containerized cargo into our ports and across our borders would be halted. As a consequence, a modest investment by a terrorist could yield billions of dollars in losses to the U.S. economy by shutting down —even temporarily— the system that moves “just-in-time” shipments of parts and goods. Given the current state of container security, it is hard to imagine how a post-event lock-down on container shipments could be either prevented or short-lived. One thing we should have learned from the 9-11 attacks involving passenger airliners, the follow-on anthrax attacks, and even last fall Washington sniper spree is that terrorist incidents pose a special challenge for public officials. In the case of most disasters, the reaction by the general public is almost always to assume the event is an isolated one. Even if the post-mortem provides evidence of a systemic vulnerability, it often takes a good deal of effort to mobilize a public policy response to redress it. But just the opposite happens in the event of a terrorist attack—especially one involving catastrophic consequences. When these attacks take place, the assumption by the general public is almost always to presume a general vulnerability unless there is proof to the contrary. Government officials have to confront head-on this loss of public confidence by marshalling evidence that they have a credible means to manage the risk highlighted by the terrorist incident. In the interim as recent events have shown,

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people will refuse to fly, open their mail, or even leave their homes.If a terrorist were to use a container as a weapon-delivery devise, the easiest choice would be high-explosives such as those used in the attack on the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. Some form of chemical weapon, perhaps even involving hazardous materials, is another likely scenario. A bio-weapon is a less attractive choice for a terrorist because of the challenge of dispersing the agent in a sufficiently concentrated form beyond the area where the explosive devise goes off. A “dirty bomb” is the more likely threat vs. a nuclear weapon, but all these

scenarios are conceivable since the choice of a weapon would not be constrained by any security measures currently in place in our seaports or within the intermodal transportation industry. This is why a terrorist attack involving a cargo container could cause such profound economic disruption . An incident triggered by even a conventional weapon going off in a box could result in a substantial loss of life. In the immediate aftermath, the general public will want reassurance that one of the many other thousands of containers arriving on any given day will not pose a similar risk. The President of the United States, the Secretary of Homeland Security, and other keys officials responsible for the security of the nation would have to stand before a

traumatized and likely skeptical American people and outline the measures they have in place to prevent another such attack. In the absence of a convincing security framework to manage the risk of another incident, the public would likely insist that all containerized cargo be stopped until adequate safeguards are in place. Even with the most focused effort, constructing that framework from scratch could take months—even years. Yet, within three weeks, the entire worldwide intermodal transportation industry would effectively be brought to its knees—as would much of the freight movements that make up international trade .

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1NC Environment Turn

Repairing locks kills the recovering wildlife system in the MississippiBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

The Upper Midwest is in the midst of transformative change in its rural economic and transportation needs. For decades, agricultural commodity exports originating from the Upper Midwest were a critical component of our nation’s economy and foreign policy. Facilitating the export of agricultural commodities through the investment in and subsidization of transportation networks provided benefits to farmers, grain traders, and the agricultural economy and improved the U.S. balance of trade. However, these transportation networks interrupted and damaged natural river processes on the Upper Mississippi and Illinois Rivers. River ecosystems were radically altered when 29 dams with accompanying locks were built on the rivers and barge traffic commenced. The dams transformed the Upper Mississippi River System into a string of reservoirs, halting the flows and processes of rivers that for centuries produced a dynamic environment and vital wildlife habitat. The rivers are now dependent on further human intervention and investment to simulate and enable the necessary functions of the rivers. The most promising of these restoration efforts is the Environmental Management Program (EMP), created by Congress in 1986 to bring together federal and state expertise to develop and – in essence – test restoration activities to determine the most effective methods to restore ecosystems on the Upper Mississippi River System. To combat the radical changes brought by the locks and dams, EMP has responded with a host of practices and technologies to support natural river functions. Water level management, side channel rehabilitation, and even manmade islands are examples of projects conducted through EMP to mimic the behavior of free-flowing rivers.

Mississippi is one of the biggest areas of wildlife loss – key to global eco-diversity National Academy of Sciences, 2008, “In the Light of Evolution, Volume II: Biodiversity and Extinction,” http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12501&page=5

In the Light of Evolution: Volume II—Biodiversity and Extinction (Fig. 1.1) (Dayton et al., 1995; Auster, 1998; NRC, 2002). The magnitude of effects increases with the frequency and geographic scale of trawling. The most striking data are from New England and the Gulf of Mexico (NRC, 2002), although the situation is almost certainly comparable on continental shelves around the world (Dayton et al., 1995). In New England, the total area fished (TAF) by trawling is 138,000 km2, and 56% of the sample areas are fished more than once a year, so that the equivalent of 115% of the TAF is fished every year. In the Gulf of Mexico, the TAF is 270,000 km2, 57% of the sample areas are fished more than once a year, and trawls sweep 255% of the TAF each year. Thus, trawling has drastically degraded most of the sea floor in these huge regions, and with multiple trawling episodes per year at favored sites, there is obviously no opportunity for ecosystem recovery. Eutrophication, Dead Zones, and the Rise of Slime Nutrient runoff is naturally greatest, and eutrophication, hypoxia, and toxic blooms are most intense, in estuaries and coastal seas like the Adriatic and Baltic seas and Chesapeake and San Francisco bays (Diaz, 2001; Jackson, 2001; Jackson et al., 2001; Lötze et al., 2006). However, major river systems like the Amazon, Yangtze, and Mississippi–Missouri also discharge vast amounts of nutrients, sediments, and organic matter into relatively small areas of open coast and surrounding continental shelves. The enormous increase in the use of chemical fertilizers in the drainage basins of these great rivers over the past 50 years (Tilman et al., 2002), coupled with the virtual elimination of suspension feeding oysters and wetlands along their delta margins, has resulted in the formation of vast eutrophic and hypoxic regions comparable with the worst conditions in estuaries (Diaz, 2001). The iconic American example is the hypoxic “dead zone” that extends some 500 km west of the Mississippi delta. The area of the hypoxic zone has doubled in the past 20 years to ≈20,000 km2, and the rate of increase in area is a linear function of nitrogen loading from the Mississippi drainage (Fig. 1.2) (Rabalais et al., 2007; Turner et al., 2008). Analyses of the geochemistry and mineralogy of cores shows that hypoxic conditions were uncommon before the 1950s, strongly supporting the hypothesis that their formation is due to comparatively recent human impacts and is not a natural phenomenon. The dead zone expands during the summer, when hypoxia extends from shallow depths to the sea floor, and there is mass mortality of most animals that cannot swim away, including major fisheries species like shrimp. The dead zone is hardly dead, however, but supports an extraordinary biomass of diverse microbes and jellyfish that may constitute

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the only surviving commercial fishery. In addition,

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2NC Environment Turn

Locks and barge traffic RUIN the vital Mississippi river ecosystemBrad Walker is the Head of the Izaak Walton League of America, a member of the Nicollet Island Coalition, February 2010, “Big Price – Little Benefit”, http://www.iwla.org/index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i/2079

These 29 structures, including two locks and dams on the Illinois River at Peoria and La Grange, Illinois, constitute the Upper Mississippi River-Illinois Waterway (UMR-IWW) navigation system, which was developed to ease the transport of freight along the rivers’ northerly incline. (See Figure 1) Barges carry agricultural commodities, petroleum products, and coal through this system. Farm products account for approximately half the tonnage shipped . The Mississippi River corridor contains an ecosystem that is home to over 200 fish and mussel species and nearly 300 varieties of birds . It serves as the migratory path for 40 percent of North America’s waterfowl. 3 More than 12 million people annually recreate on and along the Upper Mississippi River, spending $1.2 billion and supporting 18,000 jobs. Each year, more people use the Upper Mississippi than visit Yellowstone National Park. Since the completion of the UMR-IWW navigation system, the river ecosystems have declined significantly. As the Corps candidly stated in its study of expanding navigation construction on the river, the Upper Mississippi River ecosystem is “significantly altered, is currently degraded, and is expected to get worse.” 4 Rather than a natural, continuous river, the dams turned the Upper Mississippi into a series of pools, which age like reservoirs from sediment accumulation and are degrading further each year. Channelization of the lower open portion of the river, due to the construction 4 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2004, “Final Integrated Feasibility Report and Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement for the UMR-IWW System Navigation Feasibility Study,” page 95 i n t r o D U c t i o n During the 1930s, a series of dams and locks were constructed by, and are still operated under the direction of, the U.S. Army corps of engineers (the corps) on the Upper Mississippi and illinois rivers. The dams and locks stretch south from the twin cities of Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, to just above St. Louis, Missouri. 2 | Big Price — LittLe Benefit figure 1: of levees and river training structures built to improve navigation, has separated the river from its floodplain. Barge traffic throughout the UMR-IWW system causes additional environmental damage to islands and river banks from wave action as well as from the long periods of storage, or “fleeting,” of empty barges along the river banks. These combined conditions and the resultant erosion and disturbance creates a host of environmental consequences such as high turbidity, which undermines river ecosystems by choking off aquatic plants and destroying the river food chain at its foundation. In sum, there is no denying that the natural functions of the river have been adversely affected by the presence of 29 dams and their associated locks and barge traffic. A river sub-divided into a string of lakes is simply not capable of functioning as a dynamic river ecosystem. Once it has been so significantly altered, it requires further intervention to sustain the diverse habitats and interdependent species that evolved with the river over many preceding centuries

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