Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics - Student Handbook

All rights reserved. No part of this handbook may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying

and recording, or in any information or retrieving system without permission in writing from the Arabic and Translation Studies Division, School of Continuing Education, The

American University in Cairo.

2007

Arabic & Translation Studies Division

CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR AND STYLISTICS

Student Handbook

This is a first draft of STTI102 Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Student Handbook (Fall 13)

iii

Forward

Changes in how professional translators practice their profession have been

recently frequent. They are not only derived by the growth of the young

discipline of translation, which is the success story of the 1980s, but also by

changes in the world around us such globalized societies and economies, the

spread of internet, and the need for intercultural communication, not to mention

the changes in the geography of translation with the move of the multi-million

industry towards the Middle East and the Arabic language. Translation in the

era of globalization requires interdisciplinary approach to translation that

stresses the need for a translator with background knowledge in various fields.

This necessitates training the learners in more than one field of specialization,

and hence a career certificate which focuses on the specializations of legal, UN

and economic translation on the one hand, and a career certificate which

includes journalistic, literary and audio-visual translation on the other hand.

Taking a quick path unto automation and digitalization, the translation

profession nowadays looks into practical techniques to help translators produce

more and waste less.

in Translation and Interpreting with a

focus on CAT tools and translation software programs does not only train

learners on computer-assisted translation, but takes them directly into the on-

line translation environment. To satisfy a need for the translator as intercultural

communicator, also derived from globalization and the spread of new

technologies, new courses such as literary translation and audiovisual

translation were offered in a Career Certificate in Media and Literary

Translation.

The changes in the translation market have been given due focus in the

advanced courses such as Advanced Translation Problem-Solving Strategies

and Translation Portfolio and Project, which focus on topics such as translation

market and environment, project management in translation, code of ethics etc.

Learners in the Professional Diploma in Translation and the Professional

Diploma in Translation and Interpreting are nourished from day one on the

highest standards of professionalism of translation as an activity in the market

of service, of translation as a translator/client relationship and translation as a

mental process.

Furthermore, the translation diploma at ATS can be viewed as comprising three

stages. The first stage (The Foundation Certificate in Translation and

Interpreting) develops all basic translation skills required to produce an

acceptable translation including command of the language, familiarity with

iv

culture, computer skills and e-tools for translators, background knowledge, and

contrastive and transfer skills between the source and the target languages.

Finishing this stage, a trainee can produce a good translation of a general text

but not necessarily of a specialized text such as legal, UN and journalistic texts.

The second stage (The Career Certificate in Legal and UN Translation and The

Career Certificate in Literary and Audiovisual Translation) focus on the text-

specific features in translation so that a trainee can be able to produce a

translation in a specialized field. After the career certificate, the trainee can

produce a sound translation in a certain specialization, but he may not be aware

of many factors related to the environment of translation such as certain code of

ethics, rates, project management etc. The diploma is the level of

professionalism which makes the trainee ready to go to the market after being

enlightened on many issues related to translation theory and the translation

market.

Dr. Hussein Ali

Director, Arabic and Translation Studies Division

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The American University in Cairo

School of Continuing Education

Arabic and Translation Studies Division

CURRICULUM DESIGN FORM

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Course Code: STTI102

Course Type (Regular / Customized): Regular/Customized

Number of Continuing Education Units (CEUs): 3.0 1

Target Audience:

Learners who are seeking knowledge on and skills at rendering the functions of grammatical

structures and stylistic devices between English and Arabic; trainees/translators seeking help with

problem-solving techniques at the levels of grammar and stylistics

Course Pre-requisites (if any): 1. None

Course Description:

This course is an exploration of how the differences between English and Arabic grammar and

stylistics are dealt with in translation, an investigation of how professional translators handle the

differences between English and Arabic in translation, and practice of the different techniques of

translation between English and Arabic.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this course, learners will be able to

1. contrast different sentence structures in English and Arabic;

2. translate appropriately different sentence structures in English and Arabic;

3. contrast tense and aspect in English and Arabic;

4. translate appropriately tense and aspect between English and Arabic;

5. contrast passive voice in English and Arabic;

6. translate appropriately passive voice between English and Arabic;

7. contrast punctuation in English and Arabic;

8. render appropriately punctuation between English and Arabic;

9. contrast adverbs and adverbial phrases in English and Arabic;

10. translate appropriately adverbs and adverbial phrases between English and Arabic;

11. contrast adjectives and adjectival phrases in English and Arabic;

12. translate appropriately adjectives and adjectival phrases between Arabic and English;

13. contrast sentence connectors in English and Arabic;

14. translate appropriately sentence connectors between English and Arabic;

15. contrast affixation in English and Arabic; and

16. translate appropriately affixation between Arabic and English.

1 Offered as customized; the number of CEUs depends on client's request.

vi

Instructional Materials:

1. Contrastive Grammar and stylistics. ATS Student Workbook. (Updated Every Term) 2. Baker, M. (1992). In other words. London: Routledge 3. Ghazala, Hasan. (2004). "Stylistic semantic and grammatical functions of punctuation in English

Arabic translation". Babel 50:3. 230-245.

4. Malmkjaer, K. (2005). Linguistics and the language of translation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Syllabus / Training Outline:

Serial* Title/subtitle Assignment

1 Orientation and theoretical introduction

Tenses and aspects;

Selected readings on theories of contrastive

analysis and translation

Selected readings on sentence structures in

English and Arabic

Selected readings on English and Arabic tense

and aspect

Controlled practice on translating tense and

aspect.

2 Tenses and aspects;

Conditional

Controlled practice on translating conditionals in

English and Arabic

3 Voice

Quiz 1

Controlled practice on translating active and

passive in English and

Arabic

Selected readings on voice in English and Arabic

4 Affixations and collocations Controlled practice on translating affixation and

collocations in English

and Arabic

5 Adjectives

Quiz 2

Controlled practice on translating adjectives in

English and Arabic

* Session: In this course one session equals 2.5 contact hours.

vii

6 Adverbs and adverbial phrases Controlled practice on translating adverbs and

adverbial phrases in

English and Arabic

Selected readings on

adverbs and adverbial

phrases in English and

Arabic 7 Sentence connectors

Punctuation

Controlled practice on

translating sentence

connectors in English

and Arabic

Selected readings on

sentence connectors in

English and Arabic

Controlled practice on

translating punctuation

devices in English and

Arabic

8 Models and articles

Quiz 3

Controlled practice on translating modals and

articles in English and

Arabic

9 Thematic organization of information

Controlled practice on thematic organization of

information

10 Translation at paragraph level

Distribution of the final Project

11 Translation at paragraph level

12 Discussion of project

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Instructional Methods:

Learners will experience interactive, practice and skill-based learning; methods of teaching in this

course also include group work and case studies of published translations.

Assessment of Learning Outcomes

Frequency**

: Three assessments and a project.

Type: Written tests and/or projects.

Classroom assessments should not take more than 30 minutes.

The first two assessments should be recorded in the class folder by session 7.

ring the course (70%) and an end-of-term exam (30%).

Instructors are required to provide learners with appropriate feedback on their performance throughout the course.

For all written courses, three assessments at least should be conducted as follows:

Session 3 20 points Session 5 25 points Session 8 25 points Project 30 points Total 100 points

For further information or Inquiries: Please see the Assistant Division Director for Regular Programs

in Room 617 SCE, or call 2797-6873, or email [email protected]

**

Exact dates will be announced in class two sessions before the quiz, exam, or project is due.

x

Classroom Guidelines for SCE Learners

CLASSROOM GUIDELINES FOR SCE

LEARNERS

Attendance Policy

You must attend at least 75% of the class sessions. Failure to do so will result in failing the course, although you will be allowed to attend classes.

Punctuality Policy

You are expected to arrive on time for all scheduled classes and laboratory sessions.

You will be considered late if you enter the class any time after the start of instruction.

You are allowed to be late twice without penalty. All successive instances of tardiness will be counted as absences, although you will be allowed to attend the class.

Grading System:

Learners are assessed throughout the term by tests, quizzes, assignments, projects or other means of evaluation. End-of-term

performance in the course.

The final grade in each course is based on

assessment measures and the final test.

Final course grades are NOT based on

attendance policy, learners must attend at least 75% of the class sessions in order to be allowed to take the final examination.

At the end of each term, final course grades are posted on the divisional bulletin boards

names. Accordingly, the ID number is necessary to know your course grade.

Incomplete Grade:

An incomplete grade (I) for any scheduled course may be given at the discretion of the course instructor only to learners who have attended the course, but cannot sit for the final examination or cannot complete course requirements due to circumstances beyond their control.

In order to record the final course grade, all requirements should be completed before the end of the second week of the following term. Failure to change an incomplete grade will result in the final grade being recorded as "F".

xi

Learner Evaluation of Instruction:

Learner evaluation of instruction is very important. Based upon your response and comments, changes can be made.

Please take these evaluations seriously and answer all the questions honestly. Remember that instructors are not permitted to see their evaluation results until after your grades are posted.

SCE values your input.

Learner Petitions and Grievances:

You may appeal to a division administrator in any aspect pertaining to class instruction, learning environment, or administration processes.

You may seek resolution at higher administrative levels if the matter is not resolved. The decision of the Associate Dean for Instructional Affairs is final.

Anonymous complaints or petitions will be completely disregarded. All petitions are handled with discretion, protecting your best interests.

Cheating:

Cheating is not acceptable in an institution dedicated to learning. Cheating includes giving or receiving information during an examination, using unauthorized material during an examination, and other acts of academic dishonesty, including plagiarism.

If you are caught cheating on the final examination, your final course grade will be

The penalty for a second offense is automatic suspension from studying at SCE for one 12-week term and failing the course.

In instances of a third offense, you will be permanently dismissed from SCE.

F

Harassment

SCE does not tolerate any form of harassment, including sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is any conduct of a sexual nature that significantly impairs a

or her job or educational pursuits.

SCE is committed to providing a secure educational and work environment for its learners, instructors, staff, and administrators.

Photocopying:

Photocopying textbooks and original content including computer software is a violation of AUC copyright and photocopying policies and thus will not be allowed in SCE classes.

xii

Smoking

Smoking is not allowed in any SCE building, including classes, lounges, workspaces, single-occupancy offices, balconies, stairwells, open-areas within buildings, and outside the entrance of buildings.

Cellular / Mobile Phone

SCE prohibits the use of cellular/mobile phones in the classroom and during the administration of entrance and end-of-term testing sessions.

You should turn off your phone during any class time and/or testing session.

Misconduct:

Acceptable adult behavior is expected of SCE learners in the classroom and on university campuses.

Breach of such behavior will be reported by the instructor to the Division Director, and learners involved will be referred to the Learner Disciplinary Committee.

xiii

Table of Contents

Session Number: One ............................................................................................................... 2

Tenses .................................................................................................................................... 3

Tenses (PowerPoint) ............................................................................................................ 7

Tenses Exercises .............................................................................................................. 13

Session Number: Two ............................................................................................................ 16

Conditional in English and Arabic ................................................................................... 17

Session Number: Three .......................................................................................................... 22

Active & Passive ................................................................................................................. 23

Passive & Active (PowerPoint) ......................................................................................... 28

Session Number: Four ............................................................................................................ 30

Affixati ons ........................................................................................................................... 31

................................................................................................................................... 42

............................................................................................................................. 46

Collocations ........................................................................................................................ 49

Exercises on Collocations .................................................................................................. 50

Idioms .................................................................................................................................. 51

What is a Fixed Expression? ............................................................................................. 52

Fixed Expressions Quiz ..................................................... Error! Bookmark no t defined.

Session Number: Five ............................................................................................................ 54

Adjectives ............................................................................................................................ 55

Modifiers ............................................................................................................................. 59

Adjectives PowerPoint ....................................................................................................... 62

..................................................................................................... 65

Session Number: Six .............................................................................................................. 72

Adverbs ......................................................................................................... 73

........................................................................................................ 81

Session Number: Seven .......................................................................................................... 82

PUNCTUATION ................................................................................................................ 83

........................................................................................................................... 87

Sentence Connectors .......................................................................................................... 91

Connectors .......................................................................................................................... 94

Session Number: Eight ......................................................................................................... 100

Models and Articles ......................................................................................................... 101

Session Number: Nine .......................................................................................................... 110

Session Number: Ten ........................................................................................................... 114

Session Number: Eleven ...................................................................................................... 116

Session Number: Tweleve .................................................................................................... 118


Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 1



Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting


Session Number: One

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between English and Arabic

verb tenses, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also

practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.

What is the function of the structure and

how For example, the

function of the present perfect is to give news of recent events, where as the function

is performed by the use of the past tense in Arabic.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast tense and aspect in English and Arabic; and - translate appropriately tense and aspect from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Selected readings on theories of contrastive analysis and translation. - Selected readings on sentence structures in English and Arabic.



Tenses What is a tense? Tense in English means a system marked by verb inflection or auxiliaries whose

basic use is to locate the situation in time or to express certain time relations.

Present Simple: When we talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen regularly,

repeatedly or all the time (not just around now), we use the simple present tense.

Simple present tense is used to indicate: Facts: Ex. The sun rises in the East.

Habits: Ex. The British drink tea a lot.

Making declarations: By the authority vested in me, I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Senses: did you hear that?

Mental & Emotional states: think, feel, believe, belong, doubt, know, matter, mean, prefer, understand, suppose, suspect, want, wish, depend.

Communication of Reactions: agree, astonish, deny, disagree, impress, please, promise, satisfy, surprise.

With Frequency Adverbs: Ex. He usually practices 90 minutes of yoga every morning.

Timetabled future: Ex. The president holds talks with his French counterpart on Wednesday.

The plane arrives at 10 AM.

Present Continuous (Progressive) It indicates contemporary or continuing actions that are going around now. In other

words, it indicates:

Actions that are in progress at the moment: I'm staying in a hotel until I find a suitable apartment.

Complaints and bad habits You are always telling lies. (Bad habit)



Description of change & development Things are getting worse.

Gradual Change The status quo in the Arab world is deteriorating.

Note: Present Continuous is sometimes used to indicate future plans:

The prime minister is meeting the new ministers late this afternoon.

Present Perfect This tense indicates:

Giving news of recent events: The government has announced the new Cabinet.

No time reference: I have visited the Caribbean islands many times.

Up to the present I have not seen Romeo and Juliet

s never apologized for anything in her life.

The result at hand (connected with the present): I've broken my leg.

Not distant in time and place (on part of the speaker) I've left my wallet in the car. (Speaker about to return)

Something happened several times up to the present: I have written six letters since morning.

Present Perfect Continuous This tense is used mainly to talk about situations that started in the past and are

still going on.

Emphasis of a duration I've been waiting for you all morning.

A habitual action in a period of time up to the present I've been jogging every morning since I quit my job.

Incomplete action that continued over a period of time I've been ironing



Simple Past Tense It refers to a completed action, state, and habits in the past (with definite time

reference).

Last year I changed my career from a stockbroker into a real estate agent.

Note: simple past is used to when distancing oneself.

I left my wallet in the car. (I'm not near my car.)

Past continuous Actions in progress (often interrupted by other actions)

While we were trying to find a solution to the problem, the CEO suggested a

brilliant idea.

Changing states

Your behavior was getting worse.

Past Perfect This tense refers to an event in the distant past before another in the past.

When I came back, someone had stolen my wallet. I guess I had forgotten to lock

the locker.

Note: When past events are reported in their order of occurrence, there will be no

need for the past perfect; the need would arise if the events were reported out of

their sequence.

We use will to refer to the future in the following situations:

Description of what we suppose to be true: That will be Jim at the door.

Immediate (spur of the moment) decision: I'll take this one.

Intention or plan:

I'm going to do my best to be there on time.

An event whose cause is present: Look at the tree! It is going to fall.



Decisions referring to a more distant point in the future: Next year, I'm going to work as a reporter.

Future Continuous: An event that will be continuing at a future point

Come around in the morning, I'll be cooking in the kitchen.

An event that will happen anyway, rather than events we choose to make happen

I won't fix a time to see you as I'll be calling into the office anyway.

Fixed arrangements: The band will be performing next spring.

Future Perfect: To express assumptions on the part of the speaker that a particular action will be

finished by a future point

ll have finished the roof by Tuesday.



Tenses (PowerPoint)



I. Translate the following sentences into Arabic showing the function of the tense in

each sentence, and how to convey it into the target language:

1. social wants, needs, and desires.

2. We celebrate Halloween every year on October 31.

3. The platform of the Democratic Party stressed the importance of the economic reform.

4. The manifesto of Al Wafd party includes all their views and motives.

5. The Central Intelligence Agency has concluded that China has recently delivered important components for missile systems to Iran and Pakistan.

6. EEAA has exerted enormous efforts to conserve environment in Egypt.

7. In 1979 the Conservative party has won the general election making Margaret

8. Previous government attempts to find a consensus on terror laws have failed but the London bombs appear to have changed that.

9. He observed that the economy had expanded steadily since 1981

10. NASA scientists had thought they'd solved the technical problems which have dogged the Space Agency.

11. ntrol policies have been criticized as draconian, especially the -

II. Translate the following into English, showing the function of the tenses included

and how to convey them into English:

III. Translate the following taking into consideration the function of the tenses

included and the brief:



Exercise one:

Target group: employees of health services and young managers

Text type : Self reporting questionnaire on teamwork and total quality management

- The first part of the questionnaire asks non-identifying demographic data. The second part is composed of statements that represent items of teamwork that

may influence TQM. You are requested to mark the best response which

reflects your own beliefs. The third part asks you to respond to open-ended

questions. In this part you can write what you would like to add and believe

was not addressed in the questionnaire items.

- Management Support

Exercise two:

Target group: Same as previous

Text type : Same questionnaire- some items

- Teams are active and their input is appreciated by management - Management encourages multidisciplinary, multilevel team decisions - Management gives incentives to promote teamwork. - Management consults appropriate employees to solve quality issues - Incentives are given to employee who participates in setting quality plans. - Management appreciates employee work based only on their performance.

Exercise three:

Brief: academic paper review

Context: workshop

Target group: young researchers

- This section will explore the various ways in which resistance to change has been unmasked in the literature and the areas that perhaps did not capture much

attention by the researchers in general.



Exercise four: Target: Children with special needs educators

Text type: Book: In Early Childhood Through Middle School: Laying the Foundation

- Scenario: Jacob was born with Down syndrome, severe cognitive delays, and additional health problems to parents who understood that Jacob would need

special attention. Even before Jacob was born, hospital officials had connected

the family with agencies and resource people who helped them understand how

the family could best help Jacob in his years as an infant. The connections to

agencies and resources continued into his toddler days and through his

transitions into public school.

Exercise five:

Target group: doctors

Text type : Medical report

Brief History:

- Patient is a known case of mitral steno-sis presented in ER with left side weakness. CT Brain shows right tempero parietal infarc.

- Echo- rheumatic heart with infected endocraditisimproves, trans out to the ward where he developed respiratory distress, heart

failure and aspiration pneumonia. Admitted again to the ICU, intubated and

ventilated.



Tenses Exercises

.

.



1. The blast Thursday that killed Stephen Everhart, who was working for the U.S.

Agency for International Development, was the second in a week in the Iraqi capital

that targeted embassy personnel.

2. Tunisia, the country where the Arab Spring uprisings began this year, has joined the

International Criminal Court, becoming the first North African country to do so.

3. I was sorry when Jacky moved to America; we had been good friends since university

days.

4. Obama said when I came into office, this economy was in a freefall, and the economy

has stabilized.

5. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has said more than 2,000 people -- mostly

demonstrators -- have died since the uprising began in mid-March.

6. Movie producer Khoury had planned to make two series for this Ramadan, but the

other had to be postponed until next year because several members of his team were

too busy participating in the revolution to work on it.

7. Egyptian Gabriel Khoury's first foray into television drama "Dawaran Chobra" is

being watched by millions on four channels every night during the holy month of

Ramadan.

8. This year we have tried to break the mold with a good quality series without the big

names.

9. Despite violence and political uncertainty sweeping the country, Syria's production of

Ramadan drama continued largely undisturbed in the capital Damascus.

10. The United Nations' World Food Programme was sending 600 tons of food

commodities for the Red Cross to distribute in Tripoli.

11. A group of University of Kentucky students and staff has been patrolling campus

grounds -- scouting out any student, employee or visitor lighting a cigarette.



12. This year, we've certainly become aware of how social media can coordinate the

activities of protesters and rebels acting against repressive regimes.

13. The Arab Spring was initiated on Facebook pages, orchestrated through Twitter

accounts, and video recorded on cell phones.

14. In a brave and noble move, the United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Agency this

week issued a ban on two makeup advertisements.

15. There has been a string of scientific studies in recent years showing a potential health

benefit from eating chocolate.



Certif icate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting


Session Number: Two


In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic

conditional, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also


Learning Outcomes:


- contrast the conditional in English and Arabic; and - translate appropriately the conditional from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:


Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating tense and aspect from English into Arabic and vice versa.

- Controlled practice on translating conditionals from English into Arabic and vice versa.



Conditional in English and Arabic

Conditional in Arabic is understood at the lexical level, while in English it's

understood at the syntactic level.

Suggest Arabic Translations:

There are four main types of 'if' conditional in English:

CASE ZERO: - Formation: present simple + present simple

- Usage: 1. It expresses universal fact:

If you heat ice, it melts. (Universal fact)

2. It expresses personal fact: If I drink coffee, I get a headache. (Personal fact)

3. It is also used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main clause:

If he phones, tell him I'll be back at 5:00.

CASE I: - Formation: Present simple + "will + infinitive - Usage: to express real possibility in the future.

If you study, you will succeed. (Present in form, future in meaning)

CASE II: - Formation: Past simple + "would + infinitive

- Usage: 1. to express untrue present, unlikely future, probable result

If you studied hard, you would succeed (Past in form but present in

meaning)

If you won the prize, what would you do?

2. Imaginary present

If I were you, I would say the truth.

I was not on that occasion and I'll never be

If I had been you, I would have said the truth.

I was not on that occasion, but I may be in future.



CASE III :

Formation: Past perfect + "would + have + P.P.

Usage: Imaginary past impossible past

If you had studied hard, you would have succeeded.

If the test had been easier, I'd have had a full mark.

If I had been elected US president, I would have reduced taxes.

Exceptions:

If I were a queen, I would have lived in a palace.

III + II = Present result of a past condition

Past perfect / if clause + would + infinitive / main clause.

If I had accepted that job I would be a millionaire now.

If I had married him I would be happy now.

The time is past in the If-clause & present in the main clause.

Unreal past condition + its probable result in the present.

II + III = Past result of a present or continuing condition

Simple past / If clause + would have + P.P. / main clause.

If I didn't love him I wouldn't have married him.

=

I still love him and that is why I married him.

Unreal present situation + its probable (but unreal) past result. If I were a good cook, I would have invited them to lunch.

=

I am not a good cook so I can't invite them to lunch.

If I spoke English, I would have got a better job.

If I knew him, I would have said Hello



ADVICE :

Take 2 days off, if that will help you to recover.

INSISTENCE:

If she will (insists on) smoke so heavily,

it's not surprising she has a disease in the heart.

REQUEST:

If you will just fill in this form, you can hand it in the reception.

INVERSION :

Had he studied hard, he would have entered faculty of engineering. Should you have any questions, do not hesitate to ask me.

UNLESS: is used instead of "if not"

Unless you got an ID, you wouldn't have access to the library.



In Zero case "if" is mostly replaced by "when" (time clause).

If in front position is more emphatic and put a comma.

Request: ex: It will be nice if you help me. (direct request - Type 1)

ex: It would be nice if you helped me. (more polite request - Type 2)

Type I: Future tense may be used in both clauses. This is particularly common in polite requests.

ex: If you will marry me, I will love you forever.

ex: If you would marry me, I will love you forever.

(More polite than 'If you will marry

Type I: "be + going to" often replaces "will" to emphasize a certain result.

ex: If you skip your classes, you are going to fail.

For example:

If she gets good grades, she will go to university.

We are talking about the future, but we use a present tense for the condition

and will for the result. In this case, the person is sure about going to

university.

Other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence.

We can use other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence. For example:

IF Condition Result Possibility

If she gets

good grades,

she will go to

university.

If the condition is met, then she

definitely will go

If he gets good

grades,

he may go to

university.

He is not sure about going to

university.

If she gets

good grades,

she should go to

university.

The speaker is expressing his or her

opinion, giving advice.

If he gets good

grades,

he can go to

university.

This means that it is possible.

If she gets

good grades,

she could go to

university.

This means that it is possible, but not

that likely.

If he gets good

grades,

he might go to

university.

This means that it is possible, but not

that likely.
http://www.perfectyourenglish.com/glossary/clause.htm



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Session Number: Three



active and passive, and how professional translators handle the differences. They

will also practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice

versa. Assessment 1 will be given in this session.

Learning Outcomes:


- contrast the active and passive in English and Arabic; and - translate appropriately the active and passive from English into Arabic and vice

versa.

Material:


Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating simple and continuous aspects.



Active & Passive

Arabic tends to use the actuve more frequently, whereas passive voice is inherent in the

English language structure.

A professional translator should know that not every active vocie case in Arabic is

necessarily translated to active in English; it might be better rendered with the passive

voice.

Likewise, not every passive case in English is necessarily translated into passive voice in

Arabic ; it might be better rendered with active vocie.

When is Passive voice is used in English? 1. When the doer of the verb is not known from the text or the situation as a whole.

When they got back from their holiday they found that their home had been

burgled.

2. When the doer is known but is not really important.

The streets are swept every day.

3. When the subject or the doer of the active verb is generic; "people" or the infinite

pronoun ONE; OR the doer can be easily understood from the context,(in this case it

is better to translate the sentence to in Arabic).

French is spoken in France, Switzerland and Belgium.

This sort of advertisement is seen everywhere.

4. When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it.



5. When the doer is known but is of little importance compared to the action. In this

case, the English mentions the doer after "by"

The notes were written by the committee.

(These kind of sentences must be translated in Arabic to the activeThus it would be

inaccurate to translate the word "by" using )

6. The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence. This is

usually done by avoiding a change of subject.

When their mother got sick, the children were looked after by neighbors.

7. Passive is used with some verbs that collocate or exist with a single known doer: Ex.

arrest, sentence, acquit. (In this case translation of the sentences would be better if

we use the active voice)

He was arrested on charges of spying.

8. Passive is also used when the speaker gets someone to do the act for him.

I got or (had) my car repaired last week

(Here the translator is dealing with a cultural aspect since it is very unusual in Arabic to

indicate that an (agent) carried out an act for the speaker. Hence the Arabic would tend

to use )



The action is unexpected, involuntary or possibly unwelcome.

When he picked up the phone we got cut off.

An achievement based on something that has been built up beforehand.

She got elected.

An achievement in the face of difficulty.

I finally got accepted for the job.

GET or HAVE

To describe things we arranged to be done for us.

I got/had my nails polished.

''By'' indicates an animate agent. Ex.: by the police.

''With '' indicate an inanimate instrument. Ex.: with a stick.

Compare: I was hit with a branch.

I was hit by a branch.

Verbs not used in the passive Note that:

Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive forms are impossible with intransitive

verbs which cannot have objects like: die, arrive

Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive form. Most of these are

fit, have, lack,

resemble, suit.

fit me any more.

Some prepositional verbs are mainly used in the active voice.

Everybody agreed with my opinion.



Passive in modern standard Arabic:

Usages of are restricted to some cases:

The law was twice amended.

The meeting was held yesterday.

At the banquet held by the president in honor of the French president, our president went

on telling anecdotes about his last trip to France.



He is expected to travel to the USA next month.

The bank is to open the new branch next month.

It has been decided that

It's well established that

It's well known that

It's understood that

It has been agreed that

It is likely that

Is scheduled

It is said that women live longer than men.



Passive & Active (PowerPoint)





Session Number: Four


In this session, students will explore affixations and collocations. They will practice

different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:


- translate appropriately affixation between Arabic and English; and - translate appropriately collocations between Arabic and English.

Material:


Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating affixation and collocations.



Affixations

Affixation : formation of a word by means of an affix (Prefix, Suffix or Infix) - Prefix: a group of letters that is added to the beginning of a word to change

its meaning and form a new word.

- Suffix: a letter or letters added to the end of a word to form a new word.

- Infix : is a morpheme attached in the middle of the word to facilitate pronunciation.

Pan-African Unity Organization

All - African Unity Organization (UN)

Pan-America Airways

The Islamic Nation

The Pan-Muslim Nation

The Arab Nation (according to context)

The Pan-Arab Nation

Inter-ministerial committee between the Ministers of Irrigation in Egypt, the Sudan

and Alexandria

The seven-state inter-governmental committee has discussed the draft resolution.

7. Inter -state commerce laws

8. Intra -state commerce laws

9. Inter -governorate taxi

10. Intra -governorate taxi

Disarmament and Decolonization Organs Servicing Branch (term)

Inter-rater reliability



I) Translate the following sentences into English using the suffix between brackets:

(-able)

(-aholic)

(-oid)

(-cide)

(-ee)

(-fold)

(-est)

(free)

(-ic/-ical)

(-ic/-ical)

(-ic/-ical)

(-ish/-li ke)

(-ish/-like)

(-ic/-ical)



(-ic/-ical)

(-phone)

II) Translate the following sentences from Arabic into English using prefixes , paying due

attention to the underlined words and phrases:

[co-, de-, il-, auto-, con-, cross-, im-, demi-, fore-, hypo-, extra-, mal-, anthropo-, by-, all-,

foster-, down-]



Translate the following sentences into Arabic heeding the use of affixation in the

underlined words:

1- The efforts of this poet are laudable.

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2- Aerial imaging advanced the field of geography.

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3- I have ambivalent feelings towards my cousin.

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4- Anomalies that occur at child birth are usually incurable.

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5- The anterior part of your body is beautiful.

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6- The blind rely on their auditory sense.

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7- Biophysics is a difficult field of knowledge.

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8- Pesticides and herbicides are used by farmers.

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9- The Palestinians and the Israelis have failed to coexist in peace.

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10- One of the contraindications of this medicine is hypertension.

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11- I bought a golden bracelet to match my yellowish scarf.

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12- I was greatly saddened by the news.

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13- All the shoes we make are of genuine leather not leatherette.

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14- The good deed is rewarded by tenfold.



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15- Both ultraviolet and infrared radiations are used in treating certain diseases.

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16- Before the rebellion against heaven, Satan was the most important of the archangels,

now he is the archfiend.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

17- Farouk was the monarch of Egypt.

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18- Archeology is the study of ancient civilizations.

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19- Diabetes is a chronic disease.

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20- Please indicate your degrees in chronological order.

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21- Demography is one of the areas studied in this department.

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22- Bigamy is not a crime in Islam.

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23- Many congenital diseases are curable.

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24- The child has hydrophobia.

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25- Beware of dehydration in this heat.

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26- This is not logical.

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27- I am specialized in astrology.

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28- Cairo is a megalopolis.

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29- Microprocessors are part of the computer technology.



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30- This physician is specialized in treating neonatals.

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31- Agronomy is the science of managing crops.

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32- This movement is pan-African.

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33- I was struck by apathy.

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34- I specialized in pathology.

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35- He loves reading English novels, he is an Anglophile.

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36- Physical punishment is not a necessary component of pedagogy.

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37- Many animals are quadrupeds.

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38- This child is polylingual.

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39- There are many microscopic organisms in the air.

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40- Atheism means the lack of belief in a god.

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41- Iran is ruled by a theocratic regime.

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42- Anemia is a grave disease.

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43- Anarchy can be caused due to the lack of leadership.

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44- The antidote of many poisons is a small dose of the poison itself.



-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

45- Antibiotics are prescribed to treat many diseases.

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46- When I was a child I had an appendectomy.

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47- Hypersensitive people are hard to deal with.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

48- Insulin injections are hypodermic.

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49- The word "sofa" and "couch" are synonyms.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------



Translate the following into English using one word for the underlined word:



:



And after we made them understand the consequences of marriage.

And after I explained the consequences of marriage

The students understood the lesson.

The teacher made the students understand the lesson.

The teacher made sure the students understood the lesson.



Translate the following verb forms into English:

He understood

He made sure someone understand

He made someone understand

He showed understanding

He asked to understand/ He requested understanding

To forgive

Forgiver

The Ever-Forgiving

The All-Forgiving

To hear

Hearer

The Ever-Hearing

The All-Hearing



I) Translate the following into English, paying due attention to the verb form in the word

underlined:

II) Translate the following verb forms into English:



Collocations2

What is a collocation?

A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them

all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:

Natural English... Unnatural English...

the fast train fast food

the quick train quick food

a quick shower a quick meal

a fast shower a fast meal

2

http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm
http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm



Exercises on Collocations

I. Render the following sentences into English paying special attention to the

underlined collocations:



Idioms

Idiom : A group of words in a fixed order that have a particular meaning, that is different

is too difficult for you.



What is a Fixed Expression? 3

To children, non-native English speakers, and anyone who confronts a fixed expression for

the first time, they can be baffling. A fixed expression is a little like a secret code that allows

e that has a very specific meaning that

turn them into a joke cre

word.

Unlike idioms, fixed expressions typically offer neither folk wisdom nor an image.

have a better chance of solving it than just a single thinker. Fixed expressions are more often

a collection of words with individual meaning that really have nothing to do with one

another.

A fixed expression 4 in English is a standard form of expression that has taken on a more

specific meaning than the expression itself. It is different from a proverb in that it is used as a

part of a sentence, and is the standard way of expressing a concept or idea.

Examples include:

all of a sudden

come into mind

fall in line

I can assure you

so to speak

surf the web

trinomials (3-word fixed expressions); e.g. "lights, camera, action", "signed, sealed,

delivered".

English uses a number of fixed expressions in everyday conversations and writing.

For example:

I'm going to go come rain or shine. (Come rain or shine: "no matter whether it rains or

the sun shines; in any sort of weather")

To tell you the truth, I don't enjoy going to parties. (To tell you the truth/To tell the truth: "really; actually")

3 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-fixed-expression.htm

4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_expression
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideahttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-fixed-expression.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_expression



Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Time: 30 minutes

I. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their

meaning is still unambiguous. The sentences include tenses and aspects

which are problematic in translation into Arabic. Write down the function of

the aspect followed by the appropriate translation of the sentences.

(Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)

1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

II. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their

meaning is still unambiguous. The sentences include tenses and aspects

which are problematic in translation into English. Write down the function of

the aspect followed by the appropriate translation of the sentences.


1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

III. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their

meaning is still unambiguous. State the function of the conditional, and

translate into Arabic so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target

language.


1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .





Session Number: Five



adjectives, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also


Assessment 2 will be given in this session.

Learning Outcomes:


render appropriately adjectives between Arabic and English.

Material:


Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating adjectives between English and Arabic.



Adjectives Handout

Most adjectives and adjectives derived from nouns can be either attributive or predicative.

(a) Attributive : It comes before a noun.

(b) Predicative: It comes as complement after the following:

- Verb to be.

- Linking verbs: seem/ appear/ become.

- Verbs of senses: look/ smell/ taste/ feel.

- Verbs of continuity: keep/ remain/ stay.

- Verbs of opinion: think/ believe/ consider.

- Verbs of change: grow/ turn.

When translating adjectives pay due attention to the following:

N.B. Some attributive adjectives appear after nouns.

N.B. Nouns of measurements occur after nouns.

N.B. Some adjectives can be used as both attributive and predicative, yet with a

difference in meaning.

N.B. Position of participial adjectives may change the meaning.

U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has called on the leaders of Bahrain not to use

violence against civilians and journalists.

Since Martelly became the President elect back in April, he has fought to put a properly

functioning government.



The average depth of the lake is approximately 14.5 feet deep.

The Suez Canal is 163 kilometers long.

All the present members of the Egyptian parliament attended the session.

The members present at the board meeting are very few.

Try to translate the following examples

I was certain that she would be the perfect choice for the movie.

There are certain circumstances where deceit is permissible.

This smiling man over there is my boss.

This man smiling over there is my boss.



The Royal Order of Adjectives

Opinion

An opinion adjective explains what you think about something (other people may

not agree with you). Examples:

silly, beautiful, horrible, difficult

Size A size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is. Examples:

large, tiny, enormous, little

Age An age adjective tells you how young or old something or someone is. Examples:

ancient, new, young, old

Shape A shape adjective describes the shape of something. Examples:

square, round, flat, rectangular

Colour A colour adjective, of course, describes the colour of something. Examples:

blue, pink, reddish, grey

Origin An origin adjective describes where something comes from. Examples:

French, lunar, American, eastern, Greek

Material A material adjective describes what something is made from. Examples:

wooden, metal, cotton, paper

Purpose

A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives often

end with "-ing". Examples:

sleeping (as in "sleeping bag"), roasting (as in "roasting tin")

Try to translate the following examples:

Genitive with adjective construction:

Ex.: Helen's big car was stolen

It is ambiguous in Arabic



Verbless adjective clause

An adjective can function as a verbless clause (a part of a sentence without a verb)

Ex.:

Long and untidy, his hair played in the breeze.

Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote.

Numerous adjectives qualifying one noun may pose a difficulty in translation.

The broken lock of the steel safe door drew his attention at once.

The broken lock of the door

(ambiguous)

*********

Compound Adjectives

They are made up of two more words, normally with a hyphen between them. They have got

several patterns:

Adj/Adv + Past Participle

Ex. empty-handed, old-fashioned, open-minded, well mannered You can travel to the ends of the earth but you will come back empty-handed.

Adj/Adv/Noun + Present Participle

Ex. good-looking, long-lasting, mouth-watering The banquet we have been invited for was really mouth-watering.

Noun + Past Participle

Ex. sun-dried, tongue-tied While he was addressing the European parliament for the first time, he became

somewhat tongue-tied. Noun + Adjective

Ex. trouble-free, lead-free If you want trouble-free motoring, make sure you use lead-free gas.

Cardinal Number+ Singular Noun

Ex. Three-hour, twenty-page You should finish reading this twenty-page article by the weekend.



Modifiers Definition:

A word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or word group. A

content word that qualifies the meaning of a noun or verb. (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)

Definition of Compounding:

Any combination of two or more parts, aspects, etc (Collins English Dictionary)

Section (1)

Compound noun:

A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns in

English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.

Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words:-

Noun + Noun toothpaste

Adjective + Noun monthly ticket

Verb + Noun swimming pool

Preposition + Noun underground

Noun + Verb haircut

Noun + Preposition hanger on

Adjective + Verb dry-cleaning

Preposition + Verb output

www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncompound .htm

Examples:

1. Road Accident Research Center

2. Furniture Factory Pay Cut Riot

3. The Convention Refugee Definition

4. Cambridge University Press Conference

A compound noun is a noun + noun combination characterized by a primary-tertiary stress

pattern in which the second element is the head of the construction and the first element is a

kind of modifier. Hence, contrary to what we may feel the meaning relationship should be

from right to left.

English Teaching Forum, Volume X, May-June, 1972 #3



Section (2)

The order of adjectives may change the meaning

His last great novel

His great last novel

Section (3)

If we have a Noun+Noun construction in English, and it is possible to have an adjective

derived from the same noun and both are acceptable, this means that the Noun+Noun has a

singular meaning and the Adj+Noun has a plural meaning.

Division Approval Divisional Approval

Program Funding Programmatic Funding

Program Planning Programmatic Planning

Institution Development Institutional Development

Section (4)

Participles with different meanings

If we have a gerund + noun preceded by the verb to be we have two possible ways for

interpretation:

a) Verb to be may be the main verb, and in this case what follows the verb to be constitutes a

compound noun. The pause will be after the verb to be.

b) The main verb is the gerund, that is used in the progressive form and in this case we can

only have a pause after the ing form.

1- They are moving vans.

2- They are washing machines.

3- They are visiting professors.



Section (5)

Number of modifiers

If we have a noun+noun preceded by an adjective, this construction may be ambiguous.

1- French Language Conference

2- New Gas Station

3- Foreign Car Dealers

4- Economic Planning Council



Adjectives PowerPoint



1. By this marriage, they are attempting to put some form of stability into the most

dysfunctional royal family in the world.

2. The former Egyptian governments failed to provide proper medical care for the seniors.

3. Purifiers have been affected by radiation in Tokyo city proper and 5 suburban districts.

4. They have also done little to change the perception that his family, the Grimaldi dynasty,

is one of the most troubled royal households in Europe.

5. His long-running bachelorhood has been a major cause for concern in Monaco.

6. Early attempts at flight are the subject of much debate.



Study the following compound and adjective + noun constructions into Arabic:

1 Management Information System

(MIS)

2 Divisional Approval

3 Institution Development

4 Time Management

5 Progress Report

6 Core Programs

7 Experience Exchange Program

8 Change Management

9 Concept paper

10 Donor Countries

11 Institutional Development

12 Development agencies

13 Needs Assessment Survey

14 Mother and Child Care

15 Community Participation

16 Programmatic activities

17 Teaching hospital

18 Laser Printer User

19 Professional Traditions

20 Inter-Agency Coordination



1. MOE staff

2. Local Community Development

Association

3. Training program

4. Organizational Development

5. Small Local Voluntary Organizations

6. Individual and Organizational

Management

7. Practical Operation

8. Management Structure

9. Business or Government

Organizations

10. Religious Institution

11. Religion Education

12. Development Agencies

13. Participatory Planning

14. Strategic Management

15. Guidelines

16. Decision-making

17. Decision-taking

18. Financial Management

19. Trust Fund

20. Fund-raising

21. Conflict Resolution

22. Community Participation



23. Staff Development

24. Loan Coordinator

25. Time Management

26. Personnel Management

27. Water Project

28. Problem Solving Exercise

29. Preschool Programs

30. Program Management Skills

31. Program Needs

32. Staff Development

33. Proposal and Report Writing

34. Programmatic Funding

35. Organizational Funding

36. Core Funding

37. Administration Costs

38. Telephone Calls

39. Governorate Level

40. Pre-program Systems

41. Monitoring System

42. Monthly Health Committee Meetings

43. Membership Fees Account

44. Funding Proposal

45. Communication System



46. Performance Appraisal

Form/Guidelines

47. Key Accountabilities

48. Key Processes

49. Work Flow

50. Performance Development Plan

51. Overall Performance Rating

52. Inter -rater Reliability

53. Work Assignments

54. Team-building

55. Change Management

56. Management Change

57. Village Leadership

58. Committee Members

59. Professional Organization

60. Volunteer Staff

61. Wider Community Participation

62. Income Generation Programs

63. Income Supplementation Programs

64. Strategic management and Planning

65. Financial Management and Funding

66. Decision-making Structures and

Leadership

67. Membership Criteria



68. Current Membership

69. Some Fund-raising Successes and

Failures

70. Job Description/ Analysis

71. A Special Major Business Goal

72. Quality Management Systems

Requirements

73. Family of Standards

74. Transition Planning Guidance

75. Guidance on the Documentation

Requirements

76. General Information on Structure

and Work Program

77. Links to related password-protected

and public websites

78. A list of organizations

79. Summary of pages

80. Title Page

81. Forward Page

82. Water's Project



Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Time: 40 minutes

I. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news

items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their

meaning is still unambiguous. Translate the following sentences into Arabic

paying attention to affixation.


1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

II. Translate the following phrases into English using affixation. (Suggested

time 10 min. Points 5)

1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

III. Translate the following phrases into English using the appropriate

collocations. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)

1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

IV. Translate the following sentences into Arabic pay attention to the meaning of

the adjectival phrase(s). (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)

1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .





Session Number: Six



adverbs and adverbial phrases, and how professional translators handle the

differences. They will also practice different translation techniques from English

into Arabic and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:


- contrast adverbs and adverbial phrases in English and Arabic; and - translate appropriately adverbs and adverbial phrases from English into Arabic and

vice versa.

Material:


Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating adverbs and adverbial phrases.



Adverbs can be translated into Arabic either syntactically or lexically

EX. The wind blew fiercely.

How do we translate ''adverbs'' into Arabic?

Adverbs in English

- Manner: How something happens

- Degree: To what extent Ex.: She is totally insane.

- Frequency: How often something happens. Ex.: She occasionally visits her hometown.

- Time: When something happens Ex.: lately, recently.

- Place: Where something happens Ex.: here, there

- Intensifying: Make things stronger or weaker Ex.: I am really sick of indifferent people.

Form

A large number of adverbs are formed by adding -ly to their adjectives.

(Ex.: completely, haphazardly )

There are exceptions such as:

Adverbs whose adjectives end in -ly

(Ex.:

In this case, adverbs can be formed by (in a + adj. + way / manner / fashion).

Some problematic issues when translating Adverbs

1- Some adverbs have different meanings from those of their adjectives:

- U.S. president's speech has been received coldly in Germany.

- The Turkish prime minister welcomed the Egyptian delegation so warmly.

2- Some adverbs have the same form as their adjectives:

- We have never received a straight answer from the Navy regarding his mysterious

disappearance.

- We'll go straight to the jewelry store where I have see a perfect ring for my

engagement.

- Turn right on County Road 130 and follow signs to Eldora.

- You were right when you accused him of treason.



3- Some pairs of adverbs are closely related but have different meanings :

Compare:

- They really worked hard to finish the project on time.

- I hardly know him.

- He hardly ever attends the board meeting.

Position of adverbs

Adverbs of Manner

1. They usually come after the verb

He behaved foolishly.

OR after the object if there is one

She answered him reluctantly

(NEVER put an adverb between verb and object)

2. If we have verb + preposition + object the adverb can occur either before the preposition

or after the object

He looked at me suspiciously. OR He looked suspiciously at me.

Note: If the object is long, the adverb comes before the preposition.

He looked suspiciously at everyone who laughed.

3. With phrases or clauses, the position of the adverb changes the meaning. If it is placed

after the clause or phrase, it is normally considered to modify the verb in that clause or

phrase.

COMPARE:

*They secretly decided to leave the town. (the decision was secret)

*They decided to secretly leave the town. (the departure was secret)

Adverbs of Time

They are usually placed at the very beginning OR the very end of the clause

Eventually, he decided to put an end to his bachelorhood and get married.

OR

He decided to put an end to his bachelorhood and get married eventually.

Adverbs of Frequency

They are normally placed:

After the simple tense of (to be)

He is always in time for dinner.

Before the simple tenses of all other verbs



They sometimes stay up all night.

With compound tenses, they are placed after the first auxiliary

He will never understand.

Adverbs of Degree

An adverb of degree modifies adjectives or another adverb.

You are absolutely right.

Only modifies verbs. It is placed next

Documents

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics - Student Handbook