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Continuing 1" k" Chi * lteracy wor in na Hong Yong-Fan Literacy as cttltural emancipation Literacy work is part and parcel of edu- cation in China and a basic task for socialist modernization. Widespread illiteracy was one of the social evils in semi-feudal and semi-colonial old China, which experienced sufferings similar to those of other developing countries. Before liber- ation, under the rule of reactionaries, working people were deprived of the right to education, and 80 to 9o per cent of them were absolute illiterates. After the founding of the new China in October 1949, workers and peasants began to have access to education. The Ministry of Education convened the historic First National Conference on Worker-Peasant Education in September 195o. A decision to launch a literacy movement was adopted by the conference and ratified by the State Council immediately after- wards, in order to develop worker-peasant edu- cation and train educated workers and peasants. After the completion of the democratic reform and the transformation of the ownership system, the central government made a decision in 1956 to eliminate illiteracy throughout the country. It also defined the policies and principles for the implementation of this decision. In the last thirty years, a total of I2O million people have become literate. In order to consolidate and expand this result, local authorities have been actively de- veloping spare-time secondary education for workers and peasants. In the meantime, with Hong Yong-Fan (China). President, University of Spare Time Education, Putuo District, Shanghai. the expansion of general primary and secondary education, large numbers of school graduates have been recruited for industrial and agri- cultural production. Thus, literacy among the working people is greatly improved. Now, 90 per cent of the workers and miners have reached an educational level equal to that of primary-school graduates. Only 5 to 7 per cent remain illiterate. In the rural areas, 70 per cent of the young and able-bodied peasants have acquired the reading, writing and calculating ability of primary-school graduates. When the labouring people are lifted out of illiteracy, they become scientific-minded. They are able to read newspapers, study government policies and decrees, and take an interest in national affairs. Reading, writing and calculating ability helps people to participate in political life and democratic practice, and to join in cultural activities. As a result, they play a better role in industrial and agricultural production. Take the rural areas as an example. During the agricultural co-operative movement, rural spare- time schools trained a great number of time- keepers and accountants. These schools con- tributed a lot to improving the scientific and technical knowledge of the commune cadres and technical personnel and to the consolidation and expansion of collective ownership. It was very natural that the people supported the lit- eracy work, felt proud and regarded literacy as 'cultural emancipation'. * This article is an edited version of a study prepared by the author for an International Institute for Educational Planning workshop on Planning and Administration of National Literacy Programmes (Arusha, United Repub- lic of Tanzania, 27 l',lovember-2 December I980). Prospects, Vol. XlI, No. 2~ x98~

Continuing literacy work in China

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Page 1: Continuing literacy work in China

Cont inu ing 1" k" Chi * l t e r a c y w o r in n a

Hong Yong-Fan

Literacy as cttltural emancipation

Literacy work is part and parcel of edu- cation in China and a basic task for socialist modernization.

Widespread illiteracy was one of the social evils in semi-feudal and semi-colonial old China, which experienced sufferings similar to those of other developing countries. Before liber- ation, under the rule of reactionaries, working people were deprived of the right to education, and 80 to 9o per cent of them were absolute illiterates. After the founding of the new China in October 1949, workers and peasants began to have access to education. The Ministry of Education convened the historic First National Conference on Worker-Peasant Education in September 195o. A decision to launch a literacy movement was adopted by the conference and ratified by the State Council immediately after- wards, in order to develop worker-peasant edu- cation and train educated workers and peasants. After the completion of the democratic reform and the transformation of the ownership system, the central government made a decision in 1956 to eliminate illiteracy throughout the country. It also defined the policies and principles for the implementation of this decision. In the last thirty years, a total of I2O million people have become literate. In order to consolidate and expand this result, local authorities have been actively de- veloping spare-time secondary education for workers and peasants. In the meantime, with

H o n g Y o n g - F a n (China). President, University of Spare Time Education, Putuo District, Shanghai.

the expansion of general primary and secondary education, large numbers of school graduates have been recruited for industrial and agri- cultural production. Thus, literacy among the working people is greatly improved. Now, 90 per cent of the workers and miners have reached an educational level equal to that of primary-school graduates. Only 5 to 7 per cent remain illiterate. In the rural areas, 70 per cent of the young and able-bodied peasants have acquired the reading, writing and calculating ability of primary-school graduates.

When the labouring people are lifted out of illiteracy, they become scientific-minded. They are able to read newspapers, study government policies and decrees, and take an interest in national affairs. Reading, writing and calculating ability helps people to participate in political life and democratic practice, and to join in cultural activities. As a result, they play a better role in industrial and agricultural production. Take the rural areas as an example. During the agricultural co-operative movement, rural spare- time schools trained a great number of time- keepers and accountants. These schools con- tributed a lot to improving the scientific and technical knowledge of the commune cadres and technical personnel and to the consolidation and expansion of collective ownership. It was very natural that the people supported the lit- eracy work, felt proud and regarded literacy as 'cultural emancipation'.

* This article is an edited version of a study prepared by the author for an International Insti tute for Educational Planning workshop on Planning and Administration of National Literacy Programmes (Arusha, Uni ted Repub- lic of Tanzania, 27 l',lovember-2 December I980).

Prospects, Vol. XlI, No. 2~ x98~

Page 2: Continuing literacy work in China

186 Hong Yong-Fan

Literacy work in China developed rather smoothly during the seventeen years from I949 to 1966. During the ten-year turmoil of the Cultural Revolution, literacy work was almost at a standstill. Even primary education suffered. Consequently, many new illiterates appeared, and the former illiteracy was not eliminated.

At present, literacy work is being carried out mainly in the rural areas. Statistics indicate that approximately 3o per cent of the young and able-bodied population are illiterate in moun- tainous, pastoral and economically marginal areas. The educational progress of peasants is closely correlated with local economic develop- ment; also, the feudalistic contempt of women has not yet been overcome. Even though much progress has been made in the provision of primary-school education in the rural areas in the last few decades, many girls drop out before the completion of the five year period. Some of them don't even have the opportunity to enter primary schools. Sos among the i11iterates~ most are girls.

Since the downfall of the CGang of Four', adult education has been restored and devel- oped, and the fight against illiteracy is regaining its momentum. In the last three years, 2o miUion people have become literate. Some thirty cities, counties, prefectures and communes have com- pletely overcome illireracy. The rest are con- tinuing their struggle.

Planning and objectives

Although we have made some achievements in literacy training in the past and at the present, we are aware that there is a lot for us to do and a long and arduous way to go before reaching universal literacy. China gives high priority to the struggle against illiteracy. It is a significant and urgent task, and necessary for modem- ization and development. Guided by the Direc- fives of the State Council, educational depart- ments at different levels have worked out plans and objectives for liquidating illiteracy and expanding spare-time primary and secondary education. The guiding principles are as follows:

Literacy plans should be made with a view to modernizing the country. Our attitude towards literacy work should be enthusiastic and at the same time our action should be sure and steady. Needs should be combined with possibilities so as to make the plan realistic and practical.

Literacy plans should be relevant to local con- ditions. They must not be nationally unified. China is vast in area, and the level of edu- cational development varies from area to area. The Directives on Eradication of Illiteracy pointed out that Careas should work out their own relevant plans and adopt effective measures to eradicate illiteracy among juv- enile, young and able-bodied people before the end of I98O or 1982, or a bit later'. Taking into full account the variations between re- gions, the directives allow disparities. Some may be more advanced and may aim higher. Those whose economical conditions are less favourable and education less developed may set lower objectives at a slower speed, while the mountainous, pastoral and economically and educationally underdeveloped regions are allowed to carry out their literacy work more flexibly according to circumstances.

Each area should set its own priorities in lir- eracy work. Those that have overcome or nearly overcome illiteracy should give priority to the development of spare-time primary and secondary education while stepping up work with remaining illiterates. In those areas with serious illiteracy emphasis should be on lit- eracy. Those areas in a situation between the two should pay attention to both literacy and the development of spare-time primary and secondary education.

Broad surveys and in-depth studies should be made so as to make the literacy plan more relevant. Since I978 educational institutions at provincial, regional, county and commune level have made surveys of literacy. Generally speaking, surveys and studies are carried out under the guidance of the Committee on Worker-Peasant Education. Schoolteachers, spare-time schoolteachers, students and ac- tive Youth League members are called upon

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Continuing literacy work in China 187

to make in-depth general surveys, directed by educational administrative institutions. The subjects of these surveys are first the current educational level of the young and working population, their learning conditions and interests, so as to establish educational files about individuals and families and com- pose the statistics necessary for planning. Further areas of interest include the edu- cation and skills demanded by agricultural production, the income and living conditions of the people, and the community's potential for r~,nnhag schools. Then in the light of these surveys and studies, production brig- ades, communes and counties work out their respective literacy plans, which are then co- ordinated in the prefectures and provinces. The brigades make detailed plans for each individual, which are published and subject to amendment; thus every learner knows very well the time he will start and complete his objectives.

Measures should be adopted to ensure im- plementation of the plan. Structures and insti- tutions at aU levels should be established and strengthened. FuU-time persounel must be ap- pointed and reinforced. Qualified teachers must be trained, teaching materials edited, compiled and published, more funds allocated. Class- rooms, desks and chairs and other necessary equipment should be provided.

Checking and evaluation

In order to ensure achievement of the objectives set forth in the plans, systems for evaluation, checking and control are established.

Evaluations are carried out in three main ways.

First, the Committees on Worker-Peasant Education make comprehensive yearly checks, usually before the Chinese lunar New Year's Day or the spring ploughing. The people's governments at all levels pay great attention to this work. Many of their leading members preside over these checks personally. Missions are organized by provincial and regional auth-

orities and go to some counties, communes and schools. They listen to the reports by leading personalities of the region and those units selected for evaluation, attend educational ac- tivities, and read and examine assignments of the students. They also organize different work- shops of cadres, teachers and students, pay visits to individuals and families, and hold testing sessions. As an important part of the evaluation, the missions help the units that are being evaluated to sum up their experiences, identify their problems and put forward sugges- tions for improvement after studying the infor- mation collected.

Second, meetings are organized for the ex- change of experiences and for the commendation of model literacy workers, teachers and students. Pamphlets about meritorious collective and in- dividual needs are published for dissemination and emulation. Thus the advanced are encour- aged, the less advanced and backward are brought along.

Third, leading departments at all levels carry out pilot and model projects with a view to pushing on the whole front. The pilot project may cover a county, a commune, a production brigade, or a school. Many provinces and counties have their own model schools. They often send their full-time specialists to stay at these units to help improve their work and gain first-hand experiences. Then on-the-spot meet- ings are organized to introduce these exemplary experiences for the promotion of the overall work.

There is also a system of checks and evalu- ation to ensure the quality of the literacy work.

The government has set unified criteria for literacy. A worker who knows 2,ooo common Chinese characters, a peasant or any citizen who knows 1,5oo, can read easy newspapers and books, and can write short notices and letters is accepted as having attained literacy. An area is considered basically free from illit- eracy when 9o per cent of the population in industry and 85 per cent of the young and able- bodied people in the rural areas are literate.

The competence of the committees for the eradication of illiteracy is clearly defined at

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I88 Hong Yong-Fan

every leveh The production-brigade committee on eradication of illiteracy is authorized to test individuals and issue diplomas to those who meet the criteria, after reporting the test results to the people's commune and receiving its approval. The commune committee is author- ized to evaluate those brigades which have basically overcome illiteracy and report to the county for acceptance. And the counties evalu- ate the people's communes and report for the record to the prefectures or the cities, which in their turn are authorized to evaluate the counties and report to the provinces for the record. After evaluation, the unit which has reached the national criteria of literacy is de- clared as literate and granted the certificate by its next higher government. In the course of eliminating illiteracy, those individuals and units who have made excellent contributions are awarded and commended.

The following procedure of evaluation is also followed: As a first step, the evaluating missions listen to a presentation of their real situation by those units to be checked, read the statistics gleaned from general surveys, student lists, examination papers and other related data, pay necessary visits~ and compare the real situation with the national criteria. Then, a strict exam- ination is held to check whether the students' reading and writing ability is up to the standard. When the examination is passed, the unit should inform its immediate authority of the result and ask for its selective reexamination and acceptance. Generally speaking, at the common level a third to two-thirds of pro- duction brigades and at the county level a third of the commune and brigades are selected for in-depth check-up in their grass-roots units and schools.

Evaluating personnel are trained and briefed to familiarize them with matters relating to evaluation. They should strictly observe the criteria of literacy set by the government, and seek truth both from facts and among the masses as well; in other words, they should listen to the reports and read documents on the one hand, and go to the masses for their opinions on the other.

i i I

Administration and personnel

With the aim of providing proper guidance for literacy work and truly improving management, special organs have been established in the central government and the social infrastruc- tures as well.

As directed by the State Council, Worker- Peasant Educational Committees, also respon- sible for literacy work, have been set up at the provincial, municipal, regional and county levels. They include representatives of the Youth League, the Women's Association, the Trade Union, the Planning Commission, the Economic Commission, the Scientific Association, the Peasant Association, and governmental depart- ments of agriculture and forestry, propaganda, culture, education and publications. Leading members of governmental departments of edu- cation at every level serve as the heads, and leading members of the other institutions as the members.

These committees have the explicit tasks of advising the government on defining policies, carrying out directives, principles and policies by the central government, executing and bal- ancing plans and programmes, making periodic evaluations, summing up experiences and co- ordinating the work of various institutions that promote literacy work. At its plenary session, which takes place several times each year, the committee discusses important matters and makes decisions to be implemented by com- petent institutions. The responsibilities are divided among the representing institutions as follows: educational institutions are in charge of curriculum, teaching materials, teacher- training and instructions for teaching and learn- ing; the Trade Union, the Youth League, the Women's Association, the association of peasants and other non-governmental organizations are in charge of propaganda, mobilization of their people, mass participation in the literacy work, helping pilot projects and model cases sum up their experiences, commendation of the ad- vanced and helping the masses overcome their difficulties; the Scientific Association and govern-

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Continuing literacy work in China 189

mental departments of agriculture and forestry are in charge of popular science dissemination, easy scientific reading materials; the department of propaganda is responsible for using mass media (radio, television, cultural activities, etc.) to bring about public awareness of the signifi- cance of literacy, and publicizing good ex- periences; governmental departments of culture and propaganda are responsible for editing, publishing and distributing teaching and read- ing materials.

Special organs have been set up in educational institutions at all levels. There is a Worker- Peasant Education Bureau in the Ministry of Education, a Worker-Peasant Education Div- ision in the governmental department of edu- cation in the provinces and autonomous region, a Worker-Peasant Education Sector or Office in prefectures or county educational bureaux. Each organ is provided with a full-time staff. Full-time or part-time specialists are appointed if necessary in industrial enterprises and mines, urban communities and people's communes.

In the rural areas, literacy guidance groups have been widely set up in production brigades and teams. The heads of production are heads of these groups. The heads of the Youth League, the Women's Association, the Peasants' As- sociation and schools are members. These groups often make studies of literacy work and give guidance in their respective units.

Financial resources

In industry, according to the appropriate regu- lations, 3 per cent of the money for personnel education comes from the Trade Union's fund, and the rest comes from the administrative appropriation itself.

In rural areas, education is financed mainly by the literacy units themselves and subsidized by the state. The government subsidy mainly covers the salaries and welfare of the full-time personnel, administration, teacher-training, re- search, meetings, propaganda and a part of the textbooks and awards. It comes from the edu- cational appropriation allocated to the area by

the government and is approximately I to 3 per cent of the total fund for literacy. The production brigade or team pays for part-time instructors and their welfare, light and heating, from their welfare fund or the profits made by their small industries. Besides, spare-time schools often organize work-study programmes, making money locally in line with the Chinese proverb that says: ~Those who live near moun- tains live on mountain products, those who live near water live on water products.'

Teaching and learning

Teaching and research institutions are estab- lished and their tasks are defined.

There are teaching and research offices or full-time supervisors in provincial, prefectural and county worker-peasant education organs. At the provincial level, they are geared to the implementation of the policies and principles by the central government, compilation of teaching materials and source books, training of high-level teachers and other full-time per- sonnel and exchange of experiences in teaching and learning. At the prefectural and county level, these offices supervise the implementation of the teaching programmes, train teachers, organize demonstration classes and exchange of experiences, and compile supplementary teach- ing materials and source books.

In the communes there are taecher-coaching centres where teachers get instructions, usually once a week, on the teaching materials and on how to tackle difficulties in their teaching and teaching methods in regular classes. Teachers are grouped together to make preparations for their classes.

Some practices and requirements are estab- lished that undergo constant improvement so as to guarantee the steady progress of teaching and learning. Some of them are checks on attendance, prior notification of absence, exam- inations, standards for going up one class, o1" graduation for the students. Others include preparation for classes, correcting students' homework, improving teaching ability.

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19o Hone Yong-Fan

Part-time teachers are recruited, trained and paid. Selective recruitment of part-time teachers from those who are recommended by the masses concerned are carried out according to two criteria: they must serve the people will- ingly and they must be competent. To be frank, most of these teachers are inexperienced and need training by rotation. So, before the winter classes begin, intensive short-term train- ing courses are organized in the counties and communes, where the part-time teachers are briefed on the national literacy policies and principles, and on the teaching materials and teaching methods. They also get help from the commune teacher-coaching eentres. At present, these approaches for training teachers have proved effective. These part-time teachers are compensated for income lost due to absence from their full-time posts. They also get al- lowances for teaching. The meritorious are often commended and awarded. Since these teachers are well looked after, they are devoted to their work and try to keep on improving the quality of our literacy work.

Study and improvement of the methods for teaching literacy are a process constantly going on. Chinese characters are difficult to master. Therefore, broad and in-depth studies on how to teach them have been carried out by our teachers and educators. There are some findings. With adults, we adopt art approach including as many chances as possible to read, write and practice in class. As a result, they are able to absorb and digest what they learn right in class. The 'unit-teaching' method is another example. The students first learn the new characters for three to five lessons together, then the texts themselves. This method has proved an effective and speedier way of learning the characters. In some other areas, the approach of teaching phonetized Chinese characters has been successful. The students begin by learning the phonetic alphabets of the new characters, which serve as 'walking sticks' for these begin- ners on their way to mastering the characters themselves. Moreover, when the students know the phonetics, they feel it very easy to know how to consult the dictionaries, which are compiled

in alphabetic order. Nevertheless, the traditional method of Cteaching three to five words a day' is still the most common. Every day, students learn three to five characters together with the texts, and learn the easy ones first, then the more difficult. By and by, they achieve literacy. Whatever approach is adopted, it must suit the students and teachers. For instance, Chinese phonetics are easier for adolescents and young people, and only teachers of high professional calibre are capable of teaching them. Otherwise, it is very difficult to reach the expected results.

Lessons from experience

The following implications emerge from our experiences in literacy work.

Literacy should tally with the actual situation and be carried out in a variety of ways. So, programmes and measures must be flexible, specific and relevant to each area.

Studies should be combined with production and be organized in a variety of practical and appropriate ways. Since the students are in- service labourers, the content, timetable and form of their studies cannot be along the same lines as those of full-time schools. They should be relevant, practical, useful and effective so as to be acceptable. Generally speaking, we try to combine study with production as closely as possible: big classes are organized in production brigades or teams to facilitate guidance and management. For those who have difficulties in attending these classes, especially women who are tied down by household chores, literacy teaching is organized for a group of people who live in the same area, for a small group of only a few neighbours, a family, or even an individual. When more teachers are needed, middle- and primary-school students volunteer. Literates volunteer to teach their illiterate neighbours. Children teach their parents. Husbands teach their wives or vice versa. We put young people into different grades of classes according to their literacy level. They are required to learn more, quicker and better than others. Illiterate cadres are granted a leave of two to three months for

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concentrated literacy learning, which has proved effective, because although their tasks require them to be the first to overcome illiteracy, their work often holds them back from ordinary classes.

The 'mass line' should be the basis for literacy work and the principle of creative mass partici- pation should be adhered to. The affairs of the masses should be attended to by the masses themselves. And without mass participation in the struggles against cultural backwardness, the mass literacy movement would hardly achieve anything. The principles, policies and directives are widely publicized so that the people are conscious of the purposes of learning and the impact of education and science on the develop- ment and modernization of their country. Our propaganda is pursued in a variety of ways and made known to every family on radio and television, by small-scale cultural performances and activities, on blackboard bulletins and propaganda boards.

The involvement of communities in the promotion of education is traditional in China. During the different historical periods there were different approaches to implementing lit- eracy work by the communities. With com- munity participation, many material questions are solved, such as school building, teaching facilities, stationery, light and heating. The other dimension of mass involvement is the mobilization of those who know how read to and write to teach those who don't. We call this 'letting the peasants teach the peasants', or 'making use of local resources', or 'letting those who know teach'. There are teachers who know only between a hundred and a thousand Chinese characters. Of course, we have a large number of better educated peasants selected to act as instructors of these so-called teachers.

Prevention, eradication and post-literacy edu- cation are three aspects of literacy work and should have our equal attention. By this we mean that while no effort is spared to eradicate the existing illiteracy, the emergence of new illiteracy should be stopped, reIapses prevented, and the retention of newly acquired literacy encouraged. In some areas, although many

illiterates are educated, the proportion of illit- erates stays the same owing to the emergence of young illiterates and the lack of effective general provision of primary education. In some other areas, post-literacy education has not received attention and some former graduates from literacy courses have relapsed into illit- eracy.