Contents...the sack of Rome, 378–410 47 ‘The coming of the Huns’ 47 The Goths and the Empire, 376–95 51 Stilicho or Honorius? Alternative strategies, 395–410 54 5 A divided

vii

Contents

List of maps and genealogical tables xChronology of main events, 238–1000 xiPreface to the first edition xxiiPreface to the second edition xxvPreface to the third edition xxviIntroduction xxvii

1 Crisis and change in the Roman Empire, 235–305 1

Turbulent times, 235–85 1 The reforms of Diocletian, 285–305 8

2 The age of Constantine, 305–50 16 The emperor and his rivals, 305–12 16 Constantine and Christianity 18 Conflict and succession, 324–50 25

3 Protecting the Empire, 350–95 31 Frontier defence, 350–61 31 Julian the Reactionary, 361–3 36 Civil wars, 363–95 41

4 From the battle of Adrianople to the sack of Rome, 378–410 47

‘The coming of the Huns’ 47 The Goths and the Empire, 376–95 51 Stilicho or Honorius? Alternative strategies,

395–410 54

5 A divided city: the Christian Church, 300–460 61 Conflicts in Church and state 61 Authority is given to Peter 67 Monasticism 75

6 The warlords 79 Gaul or Africa? 410–54 79 The end of the Western Empire, 455–80 85

The fall of Rome? 94

9780230006720_01_prexxx.indd vii9780230006720_01_prexxx.indd vii 5/17/2010 7:07:37 PM5/17/2010 7:07:37 PM

PROOF

7 The new kingdoms 99 Roman generals and barbarian kings 99 The Gothic kingdom in Italy 103 Clovis and the Franks 109

8 The twilight of the West, 518–68? 114 Prelude in Constantinople and Rome 114 Justinian I and Africa, 527–33 118 The Italian reconquest, 535–53 127

9 Constantinople, Persia and the Arabs 133 Rome’s eastern neighbours 133 Islam and the Arab conquests 141

10 Decadent and do-nothing kings, 511–711 151 The Gothic kingdom in Spain, c. 589–711 151 Gaul and the Merovingians, c. 511–687 160

11 From Britain to the kingdoms of the Angles, 410–874 173

A ‘dark age’, 410–597 173 New Christian kingdoms, 598–685 179 The Mercian hegemony, 633–874 188

12 The Lombards in Italy, c. 540–712 198 Conquering Italy, 540–72 198 Dukes and kings, 572–84 203 The kingdom of the Lombards, 584–712 209

13 The parting of East and West 220 An end to cultural unity 220 The role of Iconoclasm 225 Rome between Constantinople and Francia 230

14 Monks and missionaries 236 The growth of western monasticism 237 The Irish Church 241 Spreading the word 250

15 Francia revived, 714–68 263 Charles ‘the Hammer’ and the recovery

of Francia, 714–41 263 Regaining the periphery: Pippin ‘the Short’,

741–68 272

viii Contents

9780230006720_01_prexxx.indd viii9780230006720_01_prexxx.indd viii 5/17/2010 7:07:38 PM5/17/2010 7:07:38 PM

PROOF

16 Charlemagne, 768–814 280 The route to the imperial throne, 768–800 280 The meaning of Empire, 800–14 292

17 The Carolingian regime 300 The apparatus of government 300 The ideological programme 307 Chroniclers of a warlike society 314

18 ‘The dissension of kings’, 814–911 318 Louis the Pious, 814–40 318 Kings and emperors in the West, 840–911 330

19 ‘The desolation of the pagans’ 344 Raiders and traiders 344 The Vikings and Francia 351 The Vikings and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 359 Conversion and expansion 366

20 The western frontiers of Christendom: Spain, 711–1037 371

The Christians of al-Andalus 371 The kingdoms of northern Spain, c. 718–910 376 The kingdom of León and the county of

Castille, 910–1037 385

21 The Empire revived, 875–1002 394 Italy, 875–961 394 Germany: the kingdom and the duchies,

911–62 399 Germany, Rome and Constantinople, 962–83 408 The eastwards expansion of Europe 414 Emperor and pope 424

Abbreviations 430 Notes 431 Bibliography 510 Index 527

Contents ix

9780230006720_01_prexxx.indd ix9780230006720_01_prexxx.indd ix 5/17/2010 7:07:38 PM5/17/2010 7:07:38 PM

PROOF

1

1 Crisis and change in the Roman Empire, 235–305

Turbulent times, 235–85

In the third century, the Roman Empire came of age. Problems of administration and defence that had been growing for dec-ades or had existed from the very foundation of the empire now made themselves felt so strongly that they had to be confronted and solved. The solutions were not always permanent ones, but at least the search for them was cathartic. Despite the Roman world often being portrayed as only emerging from the period of political and economic problems that marked so much of the century in the reign of Diocletian (284–305), some of his solu-tions were prefigured in the reforms of his predecessors.

When the young emperor Gordian III was killed in battle with the Persians in 244, many of the features of what is often called ‘the crisis of the third century’ were already present.1 Most obvious were the military threats. In the east, the new Sasanian Empire that Gordian had confronted so disastrously was claiming not just the territories lost to Rome earlier in the century by its Parthian predecessor, but also all the lands once owned by the Achaemenid kings of Persia (550–330 BC), whose heirs it claimed to be. On the Danube and Rhine fron-tiers, pressure was growing, which was to express itself in the movement of peoples – Vandals, Franks and others – into Roman territory when the Empire could no longer defend its borders. Similar threats appeared along the less clearly defined imperial frontiers in North Africa, leading to the permanent loss of Roman rule over all but the coastal areas of the two provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis and Tingitana (the northern parts of modern Algeria and Morocco).

These frontier problems may seem the easiest to understand, as we tend to assume that people outside the Roman Empire, lack-ing its more developed economic and cultural benefits, depend-ent on subsistence agriculture, and living in a state of endemic warfare with hostile neighbours would seize any opportunity to invade. Acquiring Rome’s fertile lands and relieving its citi-zens of their treasures would surely come naturally to ‘barbar-ians’, as the Romans regarded all those denied the benefits of being part of their civilization. However, raiding and migrating are very different activities. Roman ethnographers – those who

9780230006720_02_cha01.indd 19780230006720_02_cha01.indd 1 5/10/2010 6:37:38 PM5/10/2010 6:37:38 PM

PROOF

2 Early medieval Europe

wrote about the customs of peoples living beyond the imperial frontiers – were not at all interested in how they actually lived, let alone their motives, and wrote about them primarily in order to make moral or political comments about Roman society. So they were happy with stock descriptions and simplistic explanations for their conduct. In other words, we cannot trust what they have to say about ‘the barbarians’. What is certain is that the causes of the collapse of the frontiers in so many parts of the Empire in the mid-third century do not lie in some instinctive rapacity of those living beyond them. Their moving into Roman territory was itself a symptom, but of a process about which we are very ill-informed.

Within the imperial frontiers, problems no less threatening were mounting. For reasons that are almost equally obscure, the economy of the Empire was over-heating, prices were rising fast and the only remedy that was adopted by the central govern-ment – reducing the purity of the silver in the coinage – fuelled the inflationary spiral. The impact of this on the army became a prime concern for the emperors, as their survival depended on the continuing loyalty of the military, who by this period were playing the dominant role in both appointing and overthrowing them.

The imperial system had been created through the consti-tutional fiction of the first emperor, Augustus (27 BC–AD 14), accepting from the Senate a life tenure of a range of key admin-istrative, religious and military offices, which were then similarly conferred en bloc on his chosen successor. This concentrated power and central decision-making throughout the Empire in the hands of one individual. The weakness of such a system was that it was only as good as the person controlling it. The incom-petence of many of the first emperors was masked by the limited nature of the problems they had to face. As these mounted, the latitude that could be allowed for the eccentricities and inepti-tude of emperors who gained power by inheritance or because of their popularity with the imperial guard declined.2 However, family succession and even some measure of mediocrity could be tolerated in periods in which the emperors did not have to establish their credibility as military leaders.

From an emperor needing to prove himself as a commander in the field, it was a short step to a successful commander in the field becoming a contender for the imperial office. Dynastic sentiment could carry some weight. Because Septimius Severus (193–211) and his son Caracalla (211–17) were militarily suc-cessful and paid well, their troops supported their far less com-petent relatives Elagabalus (218–22) and his cousin Severus


PROOF

Crisis and change in the Roman Empire, 235–305 3

Alexander (222–35). However, when after several peaceful years serious threats developed on both the Persian and the Rhine frontiers, Severus Alexander was eliminated by his own sol-diers and the first of a series of professional military emperors emerged in the person of Maximin I (235–238).

This was unacceptable to the aristocracy, although power had often been transferred by decision of the army in the past, as in 68–9, 96, 193–7 and in 217–18. What had changed was the kind of man who commanded the armies, and therefore might be chosen by the troops as their emperor. By traditions stretching back into the time of the Roman Republic, major military commands were entrusted to Senators on a yearly basis. Effective as many of them had proved individually, such amateurism became less tolerable as the threats to the integ-rity of the Roman frontiers grew, and the Empire took a more defensive stance. The time when office and positions of power had been monopolised by a senatorial aristocracy of exclusively Roman origin was long past, and emperors and senators came from the upper classes of a number of major provinces, notably Spain and Africa, but Maximin I, the army’s choice, was a man of lower social origin, and from a frontier province.

He is portrayed by the contemporary Greek historian Herodian as coming ‘from one of the semi-barbarous tribes of the interior of Thrace’.3 This was further exaggerated in the peculiar fourth-century Latin compilation known as the Scriptores Historiae Augustae, a set of imperial biographies sup-posedly written by a variety of authors at the beginning of the century, but most probably the work of a single writer working towards the end of it. Here, Maximin was turned into a com-plete outsider, the product of the marriage of a Goth and an Alan, and thus a barbarian coming from outside the Empire.4

Maximin lacked the cultural sophistication of his predeces-sors, and his pursuit of the revenues needed to pay his armies intensified the antipathy between emperor and Senate, despite his being an effective military commander. However, he seemed dispensable when the threat on the frontiers temporarily less-ened. An unsuccessful revolt in Africa in 238 provided the inspiration for a more serious rebellion in Italy instigated by the Senate, and the emperor was murdered by his own men during a lengthy siege of Aquileia in northern Italy.5

The history of the emperors that succeeded him highlights another problem present in the imperial system from at least the murder of Caligula in AD 41. This was the power of the Praetorian Guard, the elite force, normally stationed in Rome, that provided the imperial bodyguard and garrisoned the


PROOF


capital. Control of this unit was exercised by one, sometimes two, Praetorian Prefects, who in certain circumstances could use it to seize power themselves.6

The reign of the young emperor Gordian III (238–44) proves the point. He was selected by the Senate as a figurehead because he was the grandson of the elderly proconsul whose short-lived revolt in Africa had precipitated the fall of Maximin, while real military and administrative authority was exercised by two senatorial co-emperors. However, they were murdered within months by the Praetorian Guard, whose Prefect then became the power behind the regime, marrying his daughter to the emperor. After Gordian was killed in battle with the Persians in 244, his next Praetorian Prefect, Philip, was proclaimed emperor by the army.

The growing military threats from the Persians and along the Danube frontier intensified the political instability, as the emperor could not respond to them all in person, and had to delegate command of large armies to generals whose ambitions could exceed their loyalty. In Philip’s reign, pressure on the Danube region saw the emperor campaigning successfully along that frontier in 246. However, in 248/9 an incursion across the river into the eastern Balkans by various tribes caused chaos. A local revolt was suppressed, but the victorious general, Trajan Decius, was proclaimed emperor by his army, which he then led into Italy, to confront Philip at Verona.7

The death in battle, or more probably at the hands of their own soldiers, of Philip I and his son and co-ruler Philip II gave the empire to Decius. He now faced the problems that had caused his predecessor’s downfall. Spiralling inflation and the threats along the frontiers forced the state to raise increasing amounts of money to pay the troops. The massive costs incurred in the celebration of the millennium of Rome in 247 had added a further burden, and substantial increases in taxation in Philip’s reign proved counterproductive, as they prompted revolts. The immediate military threat caused by the collapse of the Danube frontier required action, which proved fatal to the new imperial regime. In 251, after some initial success, Decius and his eldest son were killed in battle with the invaders.8

The next two decades seem to have been a period of unmit-igated crisis. They began with further political instability caused by the events of 249–51. Trebonianus Gallus, the gen-eral who extricated the remnants of the Roman army from the Balkans after the death of Decius, was proclaimed emperor, but his regime was weak. A victory in 253 by one of his generals, Aemilian, led to a challenge for the throne, and when Aemilian


PROOF


invaded Italy, Gallus’s army would not fight and killed him and his co-ruler, Volusian. Aemilian was then faced by another gen-eral, who had been sent to Gaul by Gallus to bring reinforce-ments. Aemilian was killed by his own troops after a reign of less than four months. His challenger, Valerian, became emperor, with his son Gallienus as co-ruler, and managed to retain power for seven years. For him, disaster took another form.9

The Persian threat, held off by the treaty made by Philip I in 244, reasserted itself in 259, and the following year Valerian (253–60 was captured by the Sasanian shah Shapur I (241–72), remaining a prisoner until his death.10 After this demoralising blow, the central authority of the Roman emperor was not reas-serted for a decade, and power was seized by local rulers and a string of aspiring imperial claimants. Most successful were the rulers of the kingdom of Palmyra, who resisted the Persian inva-sion in 260 and then extended their control to include Syria, Mesopotamia and eventually Egypt. In the Balkans, following the disaster of 251, no effective campaigning was undertaken, leaving several provinces outside imperial rule for the next twenty years.

Military problems on the Rhine frontier also returned in this period, after a time of relative tranquillity. In 259, various tribal groups crossed the river and ravaged their way across Gaul and into Spain unopposed. In the aftermath, one of the military commanders on the Rhine, Cassius Latinius Postumus (259–69), was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He made himself mas-ter of Gaul, Britain and parts of Spain. He was murdered by his own men in 269, but three short-lived successors kept this ‘Gallic Empire’ in being until 273.11

In these decades, the debasement of the currency became so severe that the precious metal content of the silver coins known as antoniniani was no higher than 5 per cent. The coins them-selves were made of bronze, and were dipped in a bath of silver prior to issue. No one seems to have been fooled, and the enor-mous size of some of the hoards of coins of this period testifies not only to the instability that led to their being hidden – and never recovered – but also to the growing quantities that had to be minted, because of the continuous drop in their exchange value.12

While, cumulatively, all of these problems, to which could be added intermittent outbreaks of plague and famine, seem to add up to a picture of political, economic and to some extent social chaos of ‘the Years of Anarchy’, as they have been called, the impression is to some extent misleading. Many provinces of the Empire were in fact little affected by these difficulties.


PROOF


For example, between the conclusion of Septimius Severus’s campaign against the Caledonians in 210/11 and the revolt of Carausius in 286, Britain appears to have been perfectly tran-quil. Similarly, only a few parts of Spain were touched by raids in the middle of the century. This was also a period of consid-erable prosperity for the cities of Roman Africa, which show fewer symptoms of urban decline that could be detected in many other regions of the Empire.13 Egypt suffered no external threats, nor did most parts of Asia Minor.

From the point of view of individual provinces, the creation of ‘breakaway’ regimes such as that of the Gallic emperors Postumus, Marius, Victorinus and Tetricus, was a sensible response. When the legitimate emperor was incapable of defending a province, the creation of a locally based imperial regime ensured effective protection and the exclusive direction of resources to the needs of the region. In these respects, when the western half of the Empire disintegrated in the fifth century, it might have benefited from the kinds of responses to crisis that were seen in the third century.

What is striking is the rapid recovery from the period of military disaster. Despite ruling in the middle of the worst period of crisis, the emperor Gallienus survived for fifteen years, the longest reign between those of Septimius Severus (193–211) and Diocletian (284–305). The cavalry army that Gallenius instituted in the 260s in northern Italy may have been a precedent for the mobile field armies that were to become the standard form of imperial defence from the early fourth cen-tury onwards.14 Unfortunately, the early death of one of his sons and the killing of the other by Postumus left him without heirs. In 268 he was murdered by some of his generals.

This heralded a succession of soldier emperors of great competence but of relatively lowly social origins; similar to Maximin I. But whereas he was unusual as an emperor in the first half of the century, Claudius II (268–70), Aurelian (270–5), Tacitus (275–6), Probus (276–82) and Carus (282–3) represent an unbroken line of such provincial career soldiers.15 Unlike Philip I, Decius, Gallus and Valerian, they were not senators and did not belong to the cultivated upper class world of the city of Rome. They were, on the other hand, successful in most of the tasks they undertook.

In a brief reign, terminated by illness, Claudius II disposed of the Gothic menace in the Balkans, expelling them from imperial territory. Aurelian put an end to the independent Gallic Empire in 273, even allowing its last ruler to retire to his estates in Italy, and he re-established Roman control in the East the next


PROOF


year. This was made easier by the recent death of the powerful Sasanian shah Shapur I and an ensuing period of internal dis-order in Persia. By the time of Carus (282–3), the Romans were taking the offensive, and he launched an invasion that reached as far as the Persian capital of Ctesiphon before he was killed, apparently by lightning.16

Aurelian had increased the silver content in the coinage, and gave up the pretence of overvaluing it, by abolishing the residual bronze coin denominations that had existed along-side it. Further economic recovery was gradual, and it must be admitted that the actual causes of it were probably as unclear to the rulers of the Empire at this time as they are to modern historians.

These emperors failed, however, to solve the problem of internal political stability. In succumbing to disease, Claudius II was one of only two emperors in the course of the entire cen-tury to die of natural causes. The army often favoured dynas-tic succession, if a potential candidate from the late emperor’s family could be found. This was made clear on the deaths of Claudius II in 270, and of Tacitus in 276, when units of the army attending the deceased emperor proclaimed his brother as his successor. Neither, however, was able to muster enough support to face the challenge of the candidate chosen by other units of the army. In 270, Quintillus, who was proclaimed in northern Italy, survived only seventeen days. In 276, Florian, the brother of Tacitus, was set up by the army in Asia Minor, but was opposed by Probus, the choice of the army in Egypt. Rather than face a war, his own men killed Florian at Tarsus after only a three-month reign.17

As well as disputed successions, the period was still marked by occasional military revolts. Probus (276–82) was faced with two: one in Gaul and the other in Syria in 281. It is probable also that his successor, Carus, Praetorian Prefect and commander of the army in the Balkans, was in revolt against him in 282, when he was killed by his own men near Sirmium. It is recorded that the troops did so because he had transferred them to the digging of drainage ditches, but it is more likely that the mur-der of Probus mirrored the events of 276 and that he was killed because his own men were unwilling to fight for him against Carus.18

The basic problem remained the need for the emperor to be in more than one place at the same time, at least in periods of military crisis. He had to command his forces in person, but if more than one frontier was threatened, or if a mixture of inter-nal and external threats needed to be countered, control over a


PROOF


significant body of troops had to be delegated to a subordinate. If the latter proved succesful, his army might proclaim him emperor. But if the rebels then failed to secure broader support for their candidate, they tended to murder him and revert to their previous allegiance. Even with this relative ‘safety mecha-nism’, such revolts and contested successions remained frequent in the period 268–85.

The emperor who first tried to end to this instability achieved power in the same way. Carus was the first to attempt to deal with the question of his own succession and to solve the prob-lem of the emperor needing to be in more than one place at a time. On taking power, he nominated his two sons to the rank of Caesar, or junior emperor. When he undertook his Persian campaign in 283 he promoted the elder of them, Carinus, to the superior rank of Augustus or full emperor, leaving him in charge of the West. The younger son, the Caesar Numerian, accompanied him. On Carus’s death in Persia, his army then elevated Numerian to the rank of Augustus, but in the course of the army’s withdrawal across Asia Minor in the winter of 284 the new emperor was secretly murdered. One of his generals, Diocletian, blamed the Praetorian Prefect, killed him and had himself proclaimed emperor by the troops. In the ensuing civil war, Diocletian suffered an initial defeat, but Carinus was mur-dered by his own officers. Diocletian was then accepted as sole ruler without further opposition.19

The reforms of Diocletian, 285–305

Diocletian’s appreciation of the scale of the problems facing the holder of the imperial office, including the need for the emperor to be able to deal personally with any threat involving a military response, was acute and his solution remarkable. None of his immediate predecessors, apart from Carus, had addressed the issue, but the dynastic approach adopted by Carus, following earlier precedents, was only as effective as the emperor’s children were competent and popular. Diocletian’s answer was more daring and potentially riskier, but initially it proved to be effective.

In 285 he nominated another general, Maximian, as his co-ruler, at first in the junior rank of Caesar, and then, in April 286, in the senior rank of Augustus, making him an equal col-league and entrusting him with the oversight of the West while he returned to the East.20 This could have produced civil war, if Maximian had ambitions to make himself sole ruler, but he was kept busy with a series of military problems in the West, ranging


PROOF


from Frankish and Saxon seaborne raiding in the Channel to a major Berber incursion into the Roman provinces of North Africa. While this development was probably not envisaged in 286, Diocletian’s political solution was taken a stage further in 293, when, with the consent of Maximian, he nominated two Caesars – Galerius and Constantius – one for the East and one for the West. These two operated under the authority of the senior emperor in their half of the Empire, and with particular oversight of a group of provinces. To further cement the loyalty of the imperial quartet, each of the Caesars married the daugh-ter of the senior emperor of his half of the Empire.21 In 305, the two senior emperors abdicated in favour of their Caesars and new junior emperors were appointed to bring the imperial college up to four once again.

The new Tetrarchic (‘four ruler’) system did not eliminate the possibility of military revolt, but it reduced the degree to which a rebel general in a particular province could threaten the stability of the imperial regime. In 286, Carausius, the com-mander of the Channel fleet, rebelled. He was proclaimed emperor by the army in Britain, but while he held out for seven years he did not extend his power beyond the island, apart from controlling Boulogne and some other ports on the north Gallic coast. He was murdered by his finance minister, Allectus, in 293, and the latter was killed when the Caesar Constantius invaded Britain in 296.22 It was principally the difficulty of shipping an army across the Channel that enabled this rebel regime to last so long; a prior attempt at invasion in 289 had to be aban-doned when the imperial fleet was destroyed in a storm. In con-trast, a revolt in Egypt in 296 under Domitius Domitianus was suppressed within eight months.23

The intention of the fully developed Tetrarchic system was to present the four emperors as working together in the clos-est harmony and concord. Despite there being a distinction in status between the two senior Augusti and their junior partners, otherwise their functions and authorities were equal and inter-changeable. The ideology was represented in art, above all by the elimination of elements of individuality in the portraiture of the rulers. Thus, in the coins of these emperors, only the inscriptions indicate which of the rulers is being portrayed. The styles vary from mint to mint, but the individual rulers are always given identical features.24 The quintessential imperial image of this period can be seen in the three-dimensional por-phyry sculptures of the four emperors, now embedded in the wall of the Church of San Marco in Venice. Grouped in pairs, with the senior emperor in each case placing his arm around


PROOF


the shoulder of his junior, the four men are identical, both in their military costume and in their physiognomy.25 They form a team, an indivisible unit, and are not separable individuals.

In the official literary depictions of the imperial regime, similar imagery was used. In 291, in the panegyric or speech in praise of the emperor Maximian on his birthday, the Gallic orator Mamertinus imagined the crowd exclaiming as they saw the two emperors together in Milan: ‘Do you see Diocletian? Do you see Maximian? There they both are! They are together! How they sit in unity! How they talk together in concord!’26 This dates from the period before the extension of the numbers in the ‘college of emperors’ from two to four; something that may have resulted from the failure of Maximian to deal effectively with all the problems besetting the West in the later 280s.27

As well as this fundamental change in the imperial office, Diocletian attempted to restructure the administration of the Empire. A reorganisation of provincial boundaries increased their number and reduced their size. At the same time, civil and military authority within the provinces was divided, and parallel army and civil service hierarchies were created within both divi-sions. The provinces were themselves then grouped into larger units, called dioceses, and these were placed under the direc-tion of a new class of official called Vicarii, or Deputy Praetorian Prefects. This process was continued under Diocletian’s even-tual successor. Constantine I (306–37), who, through disbanding the Praetorian cohorts in 312, turned the Praetorian Prefecture into an essentially civilian and administrative office. Later in his reign, he increased the number of Prefects from two to four and tied them to regional prefectures rather than being attached to the persons of the emperors.28

In the reorganisation of the army, as well as the restructuring of the administration, it is difficult to separate the reforms of Diocletian from those of Constantine. What is clear is that by the time of the latter’s death in 337, an entirely new organisation had been created, whereby the army was divided into two types of unit. On the one hand, there were the Limitanei, garrison groups stationed on the frontiers to provide the first line of defence against incursions, and, on the other, there were the Comitatenses, or units of the mobile field armies that were deployed behind the frontiers but which moved rapidly to coun-ter specific threats that were beyond the capacity of the Limitanei to contain. 29

The garrison forces were somewhat less well armed, equipped and trained, and were expected to have only limited mobility. The field armies, on the other hand, contained much larger


PROOF


proportions of cavalry than had existed under the early Empire, when this arm had been considered inferior and its units com-posed exclusively of the second class Auxiliaries. The army reforms of Diocletian and Constantine led to more flexible responses to the military challenges faced by the empire.29 At the same time, the frontiers were defended more intensively by the construction of numerous and complex fortifications. This system had certain disadvantages, and the redeployment of field armies to participate in the numerous civil wars within the Empire in the fourth century could leave the frontier provinces open to penetration and destruction.

A reform that can certainly be ascribed to Diocletian is his attempt to curb the inflationary price spiral within the Empire. His approach to the problem was direct, but ultimately ineffectual. It took the form of an edict, issued in the year 301, that stipulated the maximum price that could be charged for a long list of specified items, most of which, not surprisingly, were of direct importance to the army. The penalty for charging more than the decreed prices was execution. In practice, this seems to have had limited effect, in that it ignored the basic mechanisms of supply and demand. Hoarding and ‘black market’ trading became preferable alternatives to selling on the open market at government-set price levels. The edict had to be repealed.30 More effective were a series of reforms of the coinage in 296 that reintroduced a bronze denomination and set new ratios of value between bronze, silver and gold. This took up and extended the revaluation tentatively begun under Aurelian.

In general, the whole thrust of the changes introduced around the turn of the century by Diocletian and by Constantine was aimed at the production of a more regimented and rigid society. Laws that required sons to follow the professions of their fathers, laws that fixed prices, laws that established exact hierarchies in the civil and military administration, and laws that forbade an increasing range of opinions and practices all reflect a common social ideal.31 This was not just a question of the will of an individual ruler, or even of a college of emperors. Many of the elements can be detected earlier in the third century in a less developed and less coherent form, and the transformation that was wrought within the Empire at the end of it must reflect the growth of the public acceptability of so many of the rules that were then introduced or systematised.

In this sense, the culmination of occasional persecution of the Christians in the course of the third century in the so-called Great Persecution initiated by Diocletian in 303 is hardly surprising. This was more thorough, logical and systematic than


PROOF


anything that had gone before, and at the same time developed tendencies within Roman society that had been growing for a century or more. Leaving aside the Neronian persecution, which seems to have been confined to the city of Rome, and was prompted by the need to find scapegoats for the great fire in the city in AD 64, serious state action against the growing Christian communities within the Empire was essentially a third-century phenomenon.32

It began with the brief reign of Trajan Decius (249–51), who in 250 issued an edict requiring his provincial governors, urban magxcCd local Commissioners for Sacrifices to obtain certifi-cates from the citizens to establish that they had taken part in the obligatory public sacrifices to the Genius (or guiding spirit) of the emperor on certain specified days. While Christians thought this was aimed exclusively against them, the edict is far more revolutionary, in that this marks the first attempt by the Roman government to force its citizens into performing a public religious act. Both belief and practice in religion were largely regarded as matters of private concern, but, in this case, the emperor was demanding an Empire-wide declaration of political loyalty, expressed through a religious ceremony. Many Christians evaded the edict by bribery, but their reluctance to take part confirmed suspicions of their unreliability. The proc-ess was ended by Decius’s death in 251.33

More sustained and systematic were the measures taken in 258 by the emperor Valerian, who issued a law ordering Christians not to assemble in their own places of worship or to use their own cemeteries, and requiring them again to perform public sacrifices. He also confiscated the property of practising Christians, deprived individuals of their existing legal status, and threatened with death those who persisted in their faith.34 These laws were repealed in 261 by Valerian’s son Gallienus, who also restored their property to Christian individuals and communities. No further state action was taken against them until the time of Diocletian.

The sources of evidence for all of the persecutions are gen-erally later in date than the events themselves, and are written from a Christian point of view. Only the chance survival of an odd document, such as the witnessed certificate of attendance at sacrifices sent to the Commissioners for Sacrifices ‘in the Village of Alexander’s Island’ in Egypt by one Aurelius Diogenes ‘son of Satabus ... aged 72; scar on right eyebrow’, gives any con-temporary and non-Christian perspective on events.35 Thus it is not easy to determine the real causes of the state- initiated persecutions. From the Christians’ perspective, there was no


PROOF


need to try to understand the causes of the actions taken against them, as they expected the pagan Roman world to be antagonistic.

The religious exclusivity of the Christian message meant that no adherent of the faith could participate in any other form of worship. For the Christians, the gods venerated by their fellow Romans were not divinities at all, but evil, demonic forces, whose hold over the minds of their worshippers prevented them from recognising the truth of the Christian revelation. Thus, for a Christian to participate in a pagan sacrifice, even in a pas-sive way, was an act of apostasy, a renunciation of belief. This was unfortunate at a time when the making of sacrifices was the principal way in which acts of public loyalty to the emperor were expressed, but for the Christians, the implicit recognition of a divinity other than the one true God made participation an act of spiritual suicide. In consequence, of course, the Christians could appear to be politically subversive. The successive crises affecting the Empire in the mid-third century and the growth in the number of Christians made the taking of repressive meas-ures against such seeming dissidents increasingly likely.36

In general, the growth of Christianity, particularly among the most influential sectors of society, disturbed imperial regimes of a conservative cast. The second rescript of Valerian envisaged the possibilities of Christians being found among the ranks of the Senate, and the second level of nobility, that of the Equites. Similarly, there were thought to be many Christians among the members of the imperial household, both at this time and later, in the reign of Diocletian. The emperor Decius, who initiated the series of imperial laws requiring Christian participation in public sacrifices, was particularly anxious to reinforce the impe-rial cult, not least in the aftermath of his own overthrow of Philip and the spate of revolts in 249. He also issued a series of coins commemorating previous emperors, from Augustus to Severus Alexander, who had been deified or been declared to be gods.37 That the issue of Christian non-participation in such rites should come to a head at this time is hardly surpris-ing. Imperial attitudes and policy are, however, only half of the story.38

While attention normally focuses on the formal measures taken by the state against the Christians in this mid-third-century period, and the later accounts of the martyrdoms of those who refused to abandon their faith often provide vivid images of confrontations with the civil authorities, it is notable that the persecutions also derived from conflicts in local urban contexts. The Christian accounts written in the early fourth century,


PROOF


particularly the Ecclesiastical History of bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (d. 339/40), mention some of these. In a letter sent by bishop Dionysius of Alexandria to his colleague Fabius in Antioch, quoted by Eusebius, persecution broke out in his city a year before the promulgation of Decius’s edict. This he blamed on ‘the nameless prophet and worker of mischief ’ who incited the populace of Alexandria against the local Christian commu-nity, several of whom were lynched.39

In the great cities of the eastern half of the Empire, above all in Antioch and Alexandria, the numerical rise of the Christian communities, whose religious practices prevented them from participating in the public festivals of their pagan neighbours, was bound to be a cause of mounting tension in periods of economic hardship and political crisis. It seems that Valerian, who had favoured the Christians to a degree they themselves found surprising at the beginning of his reign, turned against them after he went east and took up residence in Antioch in 256. Bishop Dionysius, in another of his letters, put the blame on one of the emperor’s civil servant advisers – later to be an unsuccessful emperor-maker – by the name of Macrianus.40

A similar personal influence, but again rooted in sometimes bitter inter-communal hostilities in the eastern cities, may have lain behind the initiation of the Great Persecution under Diocletian. It is surprising that he waited until so late a stage in his reign to begin legislating against the Christians if he had a personal dislike of them. It may be that the initiative really lay with the Caesar Galerius, whose influence was increasing in the final years of Diocletian’s reign, and who was to succeed him within two years.41 However, it is worth noting that it was Galerius himself who in 311 repealed the edict of persecution in the East; in other words, a year before the conversion of Constantine and the formal end to persecution in the West.

Whatever the motives of individual participants, the strength of anti-Christian feeling and the degree to which persecution was actively pursued in the years 303–12 depended largely on local conditions. In the West, where, apart from Africa, Christian communities were neither numerous nor large, the application of Diocletian’s legal measures, which were effec-tively the reimposition of those of Valerian, barely outlasted his reign. Constantius I (305–6) seems to have allowed the penalties against practising Christians to lapse, and Maxentius (306–12) began the process of restoring their property. In the East, however, the Caesar (later Augustus) Maximin II (305–13), who ruled Egypt and Syria, applied the laws in full, not least because of popular anti-Christian agitation within his


PROOF


territories.42 This prevented him from following Galerius in ending the persecution in 311.

Diocletian’s eventual successor, Constantine, who was the heir to so many of his policies, took quite the opposite approach to him in religious matters, and became the first Christian emperor. This was perhaps the logical move. In the more regu-lated and authoritarian state that had been created in the third century, the hierarchical structures and the Mediterranean-wide organisation of the Church had much to offer the secular rulers of the Empire.


PROOF

527

Index

Key: bold = extended discussion or term highlighted in the text; f = figure; n = endnote.

Aachen 288–9, 309, 311–12, 319–20, 326, 331, 336, 405, 413, 427, 485(n28)

ecclesiastical councils (816, 817) 323, 324

Aarhus bishopric 419‘Abbasids xvii, xviii, xx, 372–3, 394,

501(n8)abbesses 416Abbo, Burgundian aristocrat 274‘abbot’ (etymology) 76abbots 238, 240‘Abd al-Rahman I, amir of Córdoba

(756–88) 284–5, 326, 380, 381‘Abd ar-Rahman II, amir of Córdoba

(822–52) 326‘Abd ar-Rahman III

(912–61) xx, 388‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Gafiqi 270‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu’awiya 373‘Abdallah, amir of Córdoba

(888–912) 384Abodrites (people) 351, 417, 420Abraha (Yemen) 136–7Abu Bakr, caliph (632–4) xv, 147Acacian schism 116, 118–19Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople 74,

114, 115–16, 441(n43)Acharius, bishop of Noyon

(d. 640) 253, 479(n78)Achila, Visigothic king

(710–13) 159Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg 423,

506–7Adalbert, St., bishop of Prague (d.

997) 423–4, 426Adalbert, son of Berengar II 410Adalhard, abbot of Corbie

(d. 826) 310, 324, 325Adaloald, king of Lombards (616–

26) 211–13, 216, 218, 467(n20)Adamnán, abbot of Iona

(679–704; d. 705) xvi, 182, 221, 477(n38)

Adelchis, duke of Benevento (854–78) 397Adelheid (d. 999), widow of Lothar and

Otto I 405, 414Adelheid, abbess (d. 945), daughter of Otto

II 416Admonitio Generalis (capitulary) 311Adoptionism 309, 314, 489(n21),

490(n43)

Adosinda (widow of Silo) 380Adrianople (battle, 378) xii, 23, 51, 52,

53, 54Aega, mayor of palace (Neustria) 169Aegean (battle, 655) 148Aegidius 91, 111, 445(n45)Ælla, king of Northumbria

(d. 867) 196, 361Ælle, king of South Saxons

(470s/490s) 191–2Aemilian, emperor (251 AD) 4–5, 25Æthelbald, king of Mercia

(716–57) xvi, 191, 192Æthelberht, king of Kent (565?–616) 178–9,

182–4, 191–2Æthelfrith, king of Northumbria

(c.593–617) 179, 183Æthelred, king of Northumbria

(d. c.850) 196Æthelred (d. 911), son-in-law of

Alfred 364–5Æthelwold (d 904), nephew of Alfred 363,

368Æthelwulf, king of Wessex

(839–55) 196–7Aetius (Flavius Aetius, d. 454) 81–5, 87–8,

90, 94, 176, 443–4ascendant (430–53) xiii‘last of Romans’ 81, 85, 444(n33)Master of Soldiers (Gaul) 79–80‘military dictator’ phenomenon 85–6MSP (430–2, 433–54) 86

Africa 6, 28, 44, 69, 88, 90–2, 94, 102, 108, 122–3, 125

Christian population 67–8versus Gaul (in imperial

policy-making, 410–54 AD) 79–85, 443–4

imperial reconquest (533/4) xiv, 127–8, 130–1, 220

intellectual powerhouse of Christianity 220–1

‘North Africa’ xi–xxi, 148, 220, 354, 372–3

seized by Vandals 78, 79, 82Agathias 128, 140, 200Agatho, pope (678–81) 187, 222, 257Aghlabids xviii–xx, 394, 411Agila, king of Visigothic Spain (549–54) 151Agilbert, bishop (Wessex/Paris, C7) 250,

252

9780230006720_26_index.indd 5279780230006720_26_index.indd 527 5/10/2010 7:33:45 PM5/10/2010 7:33:45 PM

PROOF

528 Index

Agilolfings (ducal house of Bavaria) 210, 275

Agilulf (king of Lombards, 590–616) xiv, 204, 211–13, 215, 218, 233, 248, 467(n20), 469, 470(n80)

Agobard, bishop of Lyons 328, 329Aistulf (Lombard king, 749–56) xvii, 234,

235, 278–9, 474(n53)Al Ajnadan (battle, 634) 147Al-Andalus 225, 326, 380, 384–5, 387–8

Christians 371–6, 501–2civil war 381conversion of Romano-Gothic population

to Islam 373–4families of mixed religion 374–5population of countryside ‘still Christian’

(948) 374Umayyad coup d’état (756) 372Umayyad rulers 373

Al-Mansur (d. 1002) 373Al-Mundhir, amir of Córdoba (886–8) 384Al-Qadisiyah, battle of (637) 147Alahis, duke of Trento, duke of Brescia,

briefly king 218, 471(n96)Alamannia (Suabia) 280, 337–9, 400,

402–3Alamans 32, 33–6, 37, 42, 44, 111, 112,

269, 272–4, 296, 483(n34)Alans 59, 80, 103Alaric I, Visigothic king

(395–410) xiii, 53, 54–9, 61, 62, 110agreement with Stilicho (407) 56, 58Gothic social changes 103‘Master of Soldiers’ 58

Alaric II (484–507) 112Alava 157Alavivus, Gothic leader 51Albelda (fortress) 385Alberic I, duke of Spoleto

(d. 925) 406, 407fAlberic II, prince of Rome

(936–54) 407f, 407, 507(n48)Albertini Tablets 127, 452(n56)Alboin, king xiv, 202–6, 211–13

‘time’ (c.560–72) 204‘king of Lombards’

(568–72) 212fmarried daughter of Chlotar I 204,

212fAlcuin (d. 804) xviii, 194, 291, 293, 298,

308–9, 346–7, 486, 489Aldgisl, king of Frisians 257Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (705/6–9)

xvi, 221, 259, 480(n100)Alexander, bishop of Alexandria (313–

26) 63Alexandria 14, 63, 68, 70, 72, 74, 222,

231, 398Alföld (Hungary) 402Alfonso I, king of Asturias

(739–57) 378–80, 381Alfonso II, the Chaste

(791–842) 380–4period of deposition (c.801) 382

Alfonso III, the Great (866–910) xix, 377, 385, 386, 390, 504(n50)

Alfonso IV 390–2Alfonso V (999–1027), 393, 505(n78)Alfred of Wessex (871–99)

xix, 195, 358, 360–5Algeria xvii, 97, 394‘Ali, caliph (656–61) xv, 147Allectus (r 293–6) xi, 9Almoravids 375, 376Alpaida (relationship with Pippin II) 268Alton Priors (battle, 715) 191Alvar, Paul (martyr) 374, 375, 502(n13)Amalasuntha (regent for Athalaric) 127–8Amalfi 395‘Amals’ (dynastic name) 103–4Amandus (monastic founder) 252–7,

258–9, 261, 479–80bishop of Maastricht

(648/9–650/1) 255death (674/5) 255–6

Amblève (716) 266Ambrose, bishop of Milan (374–

97) xxviii, 44, 65–7, 68, 440Amida (fortress) 36Ammianus Marcellinus 29, 31–3, 36, 40,

50–1, 80, 100, 434–7, 510, 511hostility to Valens 42–3

amphitheatres 119Anastasius (papal librarian) 396Anastasius I, emperor

(491–518) 114, 119, 200renegotiated treaty with Theoderic

(c.498) 115Anatolia 114Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople

(449–58) 73, 74Andernach (battle) 336Angilbert, abbot of St Riquier

(d. 814) 310Angles 177, 179, 364Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) 177–9, 195,

360–4, 462–6, 499–500, 510E or Parker version 178West Saxon 188

Anglo-Saxon kingdoms‘Frankish ecclesiastical hegemony’ 251–

2, 479(n70)Viking ‘protection racket’ 361–3Vikings and 359–65, 499–500

Anglo-Saxons 99, 174, 179, 218, 237, 247, 447(n26)

special ties with papacy 240–1, 250Angoulême (battle, 844) 332Angrarii (southern Saxon

confederacy) 281–2Anicius Olybrius, emperor (492) 89f, 92Anjou 334, 335Anna, king of East Anglia (d. 654) 189Annales Bertiniani (Annals of St

Bertin) 314–15, 317, 328, 334, 353, 357, 430, 490(n44), 494–5, 497–8, 510

Annales Fuldenses (Annals of Fulda) 315, 339, 491(n46), 495, 506, 510


PROOF

Index 529

Annales Mettenses Priores 166–7, 510Annales Regni Francorum

(ARF; Annals of Kingdom of Franks) 277, 280–2, 285–6, 296, 314–17, 321–3, 328, 348, 430, 483–6, 490, 492–3, 497–8, 510

annalists 345, 346Annals of St Vaast 315, 339, 356, 357,

495(n79)Annals of Xanten 315, 491(n47)Annegray monastery 248Ansegisis, abbot of Saint-Wandrille 310Anskar (monk and bishop of

Hamburg) 366, 417Ansprand (d. 712) 219Antapodosis (Liudprand) 405, 406, 513Anthemius, Emperor 91, 92, 102, 111,

445(n48)Anthony, St (Egyptian hermit) 75–6, 77Antioch xii, 14, 40–1, 43, 77, 100

captured by Persia (611) 138recovered by Byzantine Empire

(969) xxi, 411sacked by Persia (540) xiv, 130, 135

Antioch 68, 70, 72, 74, 231, 398Antiochos Strategos 138antoniniani (coins) 5Antwerp 258Apocalyptic thinking 228Apostles 68, 69Appledore 364Apulia 234Aquae Sulis (Bath) 185Aquileia 215Aquitaine

‘duchy’ 269–70, 271–4, 279, 287, 483(n33)

‘dukes of Aquitanians’ 296independence extinguished 273‘king of Aquitanians’ 297‘kingdom’ 297, 329, 483(n30, n43),

487(n58)miscellaneous xvii, 112, 164, 253,

254–5, 260–1, 266, 276, 280, 286, 304, 318, 320–1, 323, 326, 332–5, 353, 371, 382–3, 482(n9), 484(n1), 494(n55)

treaty with Francia (745) 272, 483(n33)

Aquitania Secunda (province) 80Arab clientage 298, 488(n64)Arab conquests 141–50, 394–5, 455–7; 74,

123, 224, 228, 230, 266, 270, 284–5, 287, 371, 376–7, 398, 413

Arab raids xv, 318, 358, 406, 411Arabia 137, 142(map)Arabs 211, 325, 343, 352, 354, 411, 419

in Spain 371–4rule over non-Arab subjects 298, 375–6slave market 369

Aragón 315, 376Arbitio (Master of Cavalry) 101Arbogast, Frankish general 45, 86, 100Arbogast, Count of Trier

( fl. 477) 100

Arcadius, emperor (383–408) xii, 54, 89f, 101, 119

Arcasids 135archaeology 156–9, 184–6; 48, 50, 131,

178–9, 181, 193–4, 199, 223, 282, 345, 347–8, 380, 384, 402, 446(n1), 458, 467(n12), 469(n65), 498(n47), 503(n47)

architecture 156–7, 381–2, 384Arculf, Frankish bishop 221Arianism 62, 63–4, 66, 70, 110, 114, 118,

125, 151–3, 204, 220, 251, 439(n11)Lombard Italy 213–16, 470(n80)

Arichis, duke of Benevento ( fl. 787) 284, 286

Arioald, king of Lombards (626–36) 212f, 213, 216

Aripert I, king of Lombard Italy (653–61) 212f, 213, 218

Aripert II, king of Lombard Italy (701–12) 212f, 219

Arnegisclus 107aristocracy (‘nobility’/‘magnates’) 302–3

conversion to Christianity 440(n26)Frankish 461(n77)miscellaneous 3, 6, 13, 39, 68, 77–8, 90,

105–6, 115–16, 128, 131, 138, 159–61, 167–9, 171–2, 187, 190, 207–9, 238, 248–51, 260, 267–8, 274–6, 322, 325, 328, 331–2, 334–5, 339–42, 378, 380–1, 386–9, 391–3, 399, 401, 406, 411, 416–17, 421, 427–8, 469(n60)

Persian 135, 136see also Senate

aristocratic estates 98, 446(n63)Aristotle 223Ariulf, duke of Spoleto

(591–601) 212Arles 60, 165, 394Armagh monastery 242Armenia 133, 138, 140, 141Arnulf

count of Carinthia 338–9, 340

emperor (896–9) 333f, 340–1, 395, 399–400

king of East Francia (877–99) 333f, 402, 420–1

Arnulf, bishop of Metz (614–627/8) 166, 265f, 307, 478(n54)

Arnulf the Bad, duke of Bavarians (d 937) 399–400, 401, 403–4, 410, 416, 421

Arnulfing-Pippinid (Carolingian) dynasty (751–987) 166–9, 235, 255–7, 264–8, 272, 274, 478(n54)

‘crucial division’ 268art see IconoclasmArtavasdos (Byzantine usurper, 742–3) 229‘Arthur’ 174, 462(n6)Ashdown (battle, 871) xix, 361


PROOF

530 Index

Asia Minor xix, 22, 23, 51, 87, 138–40, 150, 226, 228–30, 411, 473(n21)

Aspar, MSP (431–71) 86, 87, 103, 107, 113, 114

Asparuch, Bulgar khan 230Asser 193‘Astronomer’ 317, 491(n51)Asturias xix, 352, 377–85, 392–3

decline 387expansion southwards 384successive capitals 380, 381, 385

Ataulf, Visigothic king (410–15) 59, 89f

Athalaric (d. 534), grandson of Theoderic ‘the Amal’ 127

Athanaric, Theruingi ‘judge’ (d. 381) 42, 55Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria (326–

73) xxviii, 37, 63, 64–5, 75, 77Athelstan, king of Kent

(839–c.852) 360Athelstan, king of Wessex

(924/5–39) xx, 367Attila (d. 453/4) xiii, 48, 49, 84–5, 88, 101,

447(n21)Audoin, king of Lombards 210, 211, 212fAudramnus, count (later mayor of

palace) 267, 482(n12)Augusta Raurica (near Basel) 35Augustine of Canterbury xiv, xv, 182–3,

186–7, 240, 260Augustine of Hippo

(d 430) xxviii, 62–3, 69, 78, 220, 223, 237–8, 250–1

Confessions xiiAugustus (27BC–AD14) 2, 13, 282augustus (full emperor rank) 8, 9, 16,

17, 27f, 28Aurelian, emperor (270–5) 6–7, 11, 19Aurelius, king of Asturias

(768–73) 380Aurelius Caninus 176Aurelius Diogenes 12Ausonius, tutor 44Austrasia see Francia: EastAuthari, king of Lombard Italy (584–

90) 206–8, 209–11, 212f, 215Avar campaign (791) 293, 486–7(n47)Avars xviii, xv, 47, 50, 140, 200–1, 211,

218, 227, 287–8, 325, 334, 402Aventicum (Switzerland) 161Avignon 270–1, 287Avila 157, 380Avitus, bishop of Vienne 110, 511Avitus, emperor (455–7) xiii, 90

previously Eparchius Avitus (MSP) 88Axum 142(map)

Baduila, Ostrogothic king (541–52) 130

Bagaudae 80, 83Baghdad xvii, xx, 394Baldechildis 169, 460(n67)Baldred, king of Kent (expelled 825) 195,

196

Balkans xiii, xiv, 23, 28, 31, 49, 51, 103Balthildis (regency,

657–664/5) xvBangor (Gwynedd) 173Bangor monastery

(Co. Down) 244Banu Qasi 383, 384, 386‘barbarians’ 1–2, 47, 96, 99–103, 115,

236, 287, 413, 446–7preconceptions (misleading) 99

Barbatio 35, 36Barcelona 79, 158, 284–5, 326, 393, 408

Frankish conquest (801) 382Bardney (monastery) 191Bari xix, 395–8, 412–13Basil, bishop of Caesarea

(370–9) xxviii, 78, 238, 239Basil I, emperor (867–86) xix, 396–8, 411Basil II, the Bulgar-slayer

(976–1025) xxi, 411basilicas 21Basiliscus, usurper (475–6) 77Basilius, senator 117Basques 152, 159–60, 181, 254–5, 266,

275, 285, 331, 371, 379, 382–4, 387, 389, 480(n82), 482(n9)

Bath xxiv, 178–9, 185Baugulf, abbot of Fulda 313Bauto, master of soldiers

(c. 380–5) 89f, 100–1Bavaria 210, 287–8, 315, 320, 329–30,

343, 399–400, 402–4, 413, 416, 420–1, 426, 469(n65)

missionaries 261–2, 481‘Bavarian’ dynasty (Lombardy, 590–

712) 210–19Bavarians 269, 272–5, 296Bayeux bishopric 268Baynes, N.H. 123, 453(n39)Bedcanford 178Bede (d. 735) xvii, 155, 180–2, 184, 186,

188–91, 196, 248, 258, 292, 463–5, 479–80, 486(n46), 512

‘clearly partisan Northumbrian’ 192Beirut (legal school) 224Belgica Secunda (province) 110, 112Belisarius 122, 124, 126,

128–30, 131–2, 291Benedict (c.480–547) 239–40Benedict (Wittiza) of Aniane

(d. 821) 323, 492(n22)Benedict II, pope (684–5) 231Benedict VI, pope (973–4) 911Benedict Biscop (monastic founder) 187Benevento (duchy) 131, 205, 206, 212,

218, 234, 284, 395, 397–8, 403imperial attack (788) 289rulers take title of ‘prince’ 294

Beorhtric, king of Wessex (786–802) 196, 368

‘Beorhtsige, son of prince Beorhtnoth’ 368

Beorhtwulf, king of Mercia (841–52) 368Beornwulf, king of Mercia (823–5) 195, 368


PROOF

Index 531

Beranburgh 178Berbers xiv, 148, 149, 151, 220, 224–5,

270, 371–3, 378–9, 394Berchar, mayor of palace (Neustria) 170,

267Berengar II, king of Lombards (950–1,

951–63) 405, 408previously marchio (margrave) of

Ivrea 405Bernard, king of Italy (813–18)

nephew of Louis the Pious 322–3, 324, 492(n18)

ruler of Italy (812–) 319son of Pippin (d. 810) 319, 333f

Bernard of Septimania, count of Barcelona 326–7, 330

Bernicia (kingdom) 179, 186Bertrada, widow of Pippin III 273, 280Bertulf, abbot of Bobbio 478(n54)Bethlehem 77–8‘Better Antioch of Khusro’ 135Biblioteca (‘Library’ of Photios) 48, 514Birinus, bishop of Dorchester (Oxon.) 192Birka (Lake Måleren) 344, 347, 366Bischoff, B. 471(n5)bishops/bishoprics 36, 38,

153–5, 169, 182–4Arian 214–15, 470(n75)living within monastic household 250–

1, 478(n62)boat-building techniques 345–6Bobbio (monastery) 215, 248–9, 470(n80)Boethius, praetorian prefect

(d. 454) 85Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus

(senator, d. 523) 116–17, 118, 223, 511

Bognetti, G. P. 204, 467–70Bohemians 413, 420–2Boleslav I, duke of Bohemians (c.935–

67) 421, 422, 423Boleslav II, duke of Bohemians (c.967–

1004) 421–3Boleslav I Chobry, Polish ruler (992–

1025) 423Boniface (MSP, 432) 79, 82, 86Boniface (Wynfrith; d. 754) xvii, 259–61,

281, 480–1archbishop of Mainz 273founder of Fulda monastery 403re-named ‘Boniface’ by pope 259

Boniface VII, (anti-)pope (974, 984–5) 411

Bonitus, general ( fl. early C4) 100Book of Cerne 194Bordeaux 353, 498(n47)Boso, king of Provence

(879–c.885/7) 333f, 338, 342Boulogne 347, 364Brabant 356bracteates 345Brandenburg 417, 419–20Bratislava (battle, 907) 399Braulio, bishop of Zaragoza (631–51) 157

‘bread and circuses’ 108Breedon on the Hill 194Bremen 418–19Brescia: San Salvatore 218Bretons 325–6, 334–5, 358Bretwalda 191–3, 196Britain

‘dark age’ (410–597) 173–9, 461–3fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Romano-

British elements 177, 179–80history (‘to kingdoms of Angles’, 410–

874) 173–97, 461–6Irish slave-raiding 243miscellaneous 6, 9, 28–9, 33, 44–5,

59–60, 81–2, 97, 222–3new Christian kingdoms

(598–685) 179–87, 463–4Roman cultural survivals 180seventh century 283–4withdrawal of Roman Army (407) 79

British Isles xi–xxiBritons 175–6, 178, 362Bruide, king of Picts 190Brunanburh (battle, 937) xxBruno (d. 965), brother to Otto I 410Bruno of Querfurt, bishop 423, 426Buglers 50Bulgars xvi, xviii–xx, 41, 115, 206, 230,

236, 294–5, 325, 334, 402Bulliett, R. 373, 502(n10)Burchard, bishop of Würzburg

( fl. 750) 277Burchard I, count/prince of Suabia

(Alamannia) 400Burchard II, duke of Suabia

(917–26) 400, 401Burchard, duke of Thuringia

(d. 908) 400bureaucracy 304, 306, 374, 428Burghred, king of Mercia

(852–74) xix, 197, 361Burgos 386, 392Burgundians 80, 83, 111, 213–14Burgundy 108, 215, 248, 260, 266, 280,

296, 297, 304, 405, 487(n59)defeat of Vikings (898) 357‘duchy’ 273–5‘kingdom’ 92, 164–5, 255–6, 270kingdom eliminated (534) 164–5

burhs 365Busta Gallorum (battle, 552) 130Byrhtferth of Ramsey (monk) 465(n81)Byzantine Army 229–30‘Byzantine Commonwealth’

(Obolensky) 237, 474(n1)Byzantine Empire (711–) xviii, xx, xxviii,

225, 428bureaucracy 304, 488(n3)‘one and only Roman empire’ 294relations with Charlemagne 286–7relations with Germany and papacy

(962–83) 408–13, 508territories controlled in Italy

(mid-C8) 234


PROOF

532 Index

Byzantine Empire (711–) — continuedvictories over Arabs (830, 837) xviiiViking links 369, 500–1war against Bulgars 402

Byzantium 23, 24

‘cadaver synod’ (897) 340–1Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd 183, 188–9Caedwalla, king of Wessex 191Caesarea in Cappadocia 138Caesarius, bishop of Arles (502–42) 239caesar ( junior emperor, 293–) xi, 8, 9,

26–8, 36Cairo (Fustat) 411Calabria (Byzantine) 412Calabria Theme (892) 398Callinicum 67Cambridge Medieval History (1922) 405,

507(n37)Candida Casa church 180, 182, 251Cangas de Onis (Asturias) 378canon law 406, 408

‘ecclesiastical law’ 309Cantabria 379Canterbury 182–7, 221, 360Cantware/Cantuarii (kingdom) 111Canu Aneirin 174, 462(n9–10)capitularies 306, 318, 309–14, 324, 356,

490, 496(n90)Cappadocian Fathers 238Caracalla, emperor (211–17) 2Carausius, emperor in Britain

(286–93) xi, 6, 9carbon-14 dating 156Carinthia 339Carinus, emperor (283–4) 8Carlisle 185Carloman, king of Bavaria

(876–80) 333f, 336, 337brother of Charles the Fat 333f, 339

Carloman, king of (part of ) Neustria (768–71)

brother of Charlemagne 265fwidow and children 283younger son of Pippin III 265f, 280

Carloman, king of West Francia (879–84) 333f, 337, 359

Carloman, mayor of palace (741–7) xvii, 260, 273

son of Charles Martel 265f, 272Carlopolis 285Carnuntum conference (308 AD) 16Carolingian Empire 428

‘became defensive rather than expansive’ 325, 330

‘dissension of kings’ (814–911) 318–43, 491–6

‘fundamental flaws’ 316imperial title 335imperial title ‘failed to acquire

significance’ 330‘irrelevancy’ (as functioning entity) 330kings and emperors in West

(840–911) 330–43, 494–6

military problems 342structural inadequacies 330‘three kingdoms, one kingdom’

idea 318–19Carolingian regime 300–17, 488–91

apparatus of government 300–7, 488–9armed forces 301–2chroniclers of warlike society 314–17,

490–1‘consensus and balance’ 301, 304, 305disintegration of central authority 342–3high-minded declarations of

principles 306ideological programme 307–14,

489–90ideology of empire 426major problems (C9) 318, 321–2‘not a state in any meaningful way’ 304rewards of military success (inducements

to loyalty) 305‘strong’ versus ‘weak’ rulers 300

Carolingian Renaissanceclassical Latin authors

(works preserved) 307Carolingians (751–987) xxviii, 166, 235,

241, 263–4establishment (751) 277extinct in East Francia (911) xx, 341,

399genealogy 265f, 333fimperial title 395lack of longevity 336objectives 297–9problems of inheritance 334

Carpathian basin 200, 201Cartagena 158Carthage xiii, xiv, 68, 79, 124, 126

Arab capture (698) xvi, 148taken by Vandals (439) xiii

Carus, emperor (282–3) xi, 6, 7, 8, 25Cassiodorus 104, 106–7, 109, 117, 127,

239Cassius Latinius Postumus, Gallic emperor

(259–69) 5Castille 376, 377, 387, 502(n22)Castinus, MSP (423–5) 86Catholicism 151, 152–3, 204

conversion of Arians 213–14Catterick (Co. Durham) 174Ceawlin ( fl. 556–93) xiv, 177–8, 179,

191, 192Celestine, pope ( fl. 430) 243Celts 179Centcelles mausoleum 29central government 81, 301

disappearance (Britain) 176centralisation 163–4, 170, 273, 284, 428Cenwalh, king of Wessex 189Ceolred, king of Mercia (709–16) 191Ceolwulf, king of Wessex ( fl. 597) 179Ceolwulf, king of Mercia

(873–) 361, 362Ceonred, king of Mercia (704–9) 191Ceorl, ealdorman of Devon 360


PROOF

Index 533

Cerdic, king of Wessex 178, 196, 462(n22)

Cerdicesora 178Cernjachov/Sîntana

culture 50Chad, bishop (669–71) 190Chalcedon 138, 148Chalcedon: Council (451) xiii, 73–4, 114,

116, 220, 221–2Chamavian Franks 296Charibert, king of Franks

(561–7) 182Charibert II, Merovingian king

(629–32) 168, 254Charlemagne/Karl der Grosse (Charles the

Great, 768–814) 280–99, 484–8

administrative apparatus ‘minimal’ 305–6, 488(n5)

conquest of Lombard Italy (773/4–) 282–4

coronation rites ‘unprecedented’ 292, 486(n43)

crowned as emperor (Rome, Christmas Day 800) 291–2, 486

‘emperor of Franks’ (to Byzantines) 295, 396

forcible conversion of Saxons to Christianity 281–2, 284–6

and Hadrian I 397joint rule with his brother (768–71) 280‘king of Lombards’ (774–) 283–4‘limited standard of literacy’ 306meaning of Empire

(800–14) 292–9, 486–8miscellaneous xvii–, xviii, xxix, 163,

193–4, 265f, 300, 316, 332, 333f, 344, 382, 394, 405, 409, 417, 423, 512

plan for succession (806) 318, 491(n2)Rex Langobardorum

(774–) 284, 293–4route to imperial throne

(768–800) 280–92, 484–6son of Pippin III (b 748) 273

Charles (eldest son of Charlemagne, d. 811) 318–19, 333f

Charles (king of Aquitanians, 855–; son of Charles the Bald) 335

Charles (king of Provence, 855–63) 333f, 337

Charles the Bald (king of West Francia, 840–77, emperor 875–7) xix, 316, 322, 325,

328–37, 342, 352–5, 397, 491(n49)death (877) 336investiture 328–9

Charles the Fat, emperor (881–7; d. 888) xix, 315, 333f, 336–41, 343, 358, 395, 399, 405, 495(n66–7)

crowned emperor (881) 337king of Lombards (879–) 337reunification of Carolingian empire

(884) 337–8

Charles Martel, mayor of palace (d. 741) xvi, xvii, 260, 265f, 276, 280, 281, 305, 351

military manpower 275recovery of Francia (714–41) 263–72,

481–3Charles the Simple, king of West Francia

(893–926) xx, xxiii, 333f, 337, 341, 359, 365, 399, 404, 496(n87)

agreement with Rollo (911) 357–8‘direct and uncomplicated’ 356Viking raids 356–7

charters 167, 170, 193, 194, 259, 267, 310, 380, 386–9, 400, 414, 427, 504(n53)

Chester 364Childebert I, king of Franks (c.511–58) 165Childebert II, king of Austrasia

(575–96) 171, 204, 209, 210Childebert, king of Austrasia

(656–62?) 256Childebert III, Merovingian king

(695–710/11) 168, 264, 267Childebrand, count 263, 270Childeric I, Frankish king (d. 481) 101–2,

110–11, 449(n50)Childeric II, king (Austrasia, 662–75;

Neustria 673–5) 168, 169, 255–6

Childeric III, Merovingian king (743–nd) 276, 484(n46)

Chilperic, king of Franks (561–84) 161–2, 165–6, 171, 204, 275

Chilperic II (715–21) 264, 266, 276China 72, 96, 136, 304Chindasuinth, king of Visigothic Spain

(642–53) 153Chippenham 362, 363Chlodomer, king of Franks (c.511–24) 164Chlotar I, king of Franks (c.511–61) xiv,

164–5, 204, 212fChlotar II, king of Franks

(584–629) xv, 166, 168Chlotar III, Merovingian king (657–

73) 168, 169, 461(n67)Chlotar IV (d. 719) 266Chlotsuintha (daughter of Chlotar I; wife

of Alboin) 204Chnodomar and Serapio 35Christian church (300–460) 61–78,

439–42Christianity xxvii–xxviii, 11–12

continuity (in Britain) 180–1Easter (dating) 248, 257, 258fall of Roman Empire 97fourth century 38–9Greek thought 65, 440(n14)Latin-Greek rift xxviiimonks and missionaries 236–62,

475–81Roman Army 432(n38)source of authority in church 73–4western frontiers (Spain,

711–1037) 371–93, 501–5


PROOF

534 Index

Christology 72–4, 77, 116, 221–2, 231, 309

Christopher, pope (903–4) 406Christophorus (Byzantine patrician) 412Chronica Bohemorum (Cosmas) 421Chronicle (Isidore) xvChronicle of 754 (Mozarabic

Chronicle) 159–60, 372, 458(n27), 511

Chronicle of Albelda (c.883) 377, 378, 384, 385, 502–3, 511

Chronicle of Alfonso III 377–8, 385, 502–3, 511

ad Sebastianum version 377–8Roda version 377

Chronicle of Fredegar 161, 166, 201, 202, 263, 274, 481(n1), 483(n41), 523

Fredegar continuations 482–4Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite (507) 134, 511Chronicle of Moissac 312Chronicle of Prosper 199, 243, 514Chronicle of Theophanes 226, 227, 473–4,

485, 486–7, 514chronological boundaries xxii–xxiiiChrysaphius (imperial chamberlain) 73Chrysopolis 23church councils (Greek orthodox) 231church–state conflicts 61–7, 439–40Ciaran 244circus factions 121Cirencester 178, 179, 185City of God (Augustine) xii, 62–3, 78civil wars 25, 292–3civitates (main towns) 170Claudian (Egyptian poet) 56Claudius II Gothicus, emperor (268–70) 6,

7, 17Clement, bishop of Rome 71Cleph, king of Lombard Italy

(572–3) 206–10, 212fclergy 307, 309, 312clerical marriage 231Clichy 272clientage networks 302–3, 305Clonmacnoise (monastery) 244, 246Clonmelsh (County Carlow) 257Clothildis (spouse of Clovis) 164clothing 99–100Clovis I (481?–511?) xiii, 102, 109–15,

115, 161–4, 171, 305, 448–9honorary consulship (Eastern

Empire) 114source material 109–10victory over Goths (507) 112, 114

Clovis II, Merovingian king (638–57) 168, 169, 255, 256

Clovis III 169Codex Amiatinus (pre-716) 187, 464(n52)coenobite life 76Cœnwulf, king of Mercia (796–821) 196Coimbra 388coinage 7, 9, 11, 13, 19, 24, 31, 159, 165,

290, 347, 452(n52)debasement 5

Collins, R. 453(n74), 457, 458–60, 469(n73), 471(n1), 475(n7–8), 479–83, 485–7, 489(n18), 491(n51), 493, 501–5, 507(n41), 520, 523–5

Cologne 100, 112–13, 171, 266, 285, 310, 418

Columba (d 597) xiv, 181–2, 244–5, 477(n38)

Columbanus (d. 615) 215, 247–9, 250, 254, 478(n49), 511

comes (companion of the god) 19comes (count) 170, 205Comes Rei Privatae 29Comgall (monastic founder) 244Comitatenses (units of mobile field

armies) 10–11comitatus 153Commodus 24communalism 375–6Conferences ( John Cassian) 78Confessio (Patrick) 242–3Conrad I, king of Germany

(911–18) 402–4duke of Franconia; selected as

king 401, 506(n20)Conradines 400Constans I, emperor (337–50) xii,

28–31, 65augustus (337–50) 27fcaesar (333–7) 27f

Constans, ‘co-emperor’ (early C5) 60Constans II (641–68) xvi, 148, 218, 230,

232edict (648) 222

Constantine I, the Great (306–37) xi, xxiii, 10, 14–16, 63–4, 68, 100

age of (305–50) 16–30, 432–4Christianity 18–24conflict and succession (324–50

AD) 25–30genealogy 27f, 31, 32, 38–9, 46rivals (305–12) 16–18

Constantine II 28, 64, 65augustus (337–40) 27fcaesar (317–37) 27f

Constantine III (usurper, 407–11) xiii, 59–60, 79, 175

Constantine IV (668–85) 230Constantine V (741–75) xvii, 226, 228–9,

235, 287Constantine VI (780–97) xviii, 286, 294,

323deposition and death 289–90

Constantine (d. 879), son of Basil I 396Constantine, pope (708–15) 232Constantine of Dumnonia (Britain) 176Constantinople (324/5–) xi–xii, 24, 28

Arab siege (674–7), xvi, 150, 226Arab siege (717–18) xvi, 226, 227Avar siege (626) xvdevelopments (790s) 289Latin associated with barbarians 223–4Muslim blockade (674) 148


PROOF

Index 535

relations with Persia and Arabs 133–50, 453–7

Constantinople: bishopric (330–) 70, 72, 74

Constantinople: Council (381) 65, 71Constantinople: Council (786) 287Constantinople: legal school 224Constantinople: patriarchate 115–16,

230–3, 398Constantinople: ‘Quinisext’ Council

(692) 231–2Constantinople: sixth Ecumenical Council

(680–1) 231Constantinople: Third Council (680–1)

222Constantius I, emperor xi, 9, 14, 16,

17, 19augustus (305–6) 27fcaesar (293–305) 27f

Constantius II, emperor xii, 26–9, 31–2, 36–7, 38, 40, 42, 46, 64, 100–1

augustus (337–61) 27fcaesar (324–37) 27f

Constantius III, emperor (421) 89fConstantius, MSP (411–21) xiii, 81, 86‘Constitution of Constantine’ 396, 505(n7)consulships (abolition, 551) 174Copts 149Corbie monastery 356Corbinian (d. 730) 262Córdoba 151–2, 373–5, 384–5, 388, 392Córdoba: Mezquita Mosque 373Corippus, Flavius Cresconius (poet,

C6) 221, 224, 411, 511Cornwall 196, 223, 360Coroticus 243‘Corpus Iuris Civilis’

(527–33) xiv, 511Corsica 394Corvey monastery (River Weser) 421Cosmas of Prague (d. 1125) 421counts (originally urban magistrates and

governors) 209, 302–3, 305–6, 332, 334–5, 342, 358, 360, 408

court annals 310‘court school’ (Charlemagne) 309Covadonga (battle, date uncertain) 378Cracow 422, 424Crescentii faction 411Crimea 50‘crisis of third century’ 1Crispus (son of Constantine; d 326) 18,

23–4crown 292Ctesiphon 41, 141cultural boundaries (‘Roman’) 236culture 298–9, 314, 321–2, 363, 368, 370,

381–2, 401, 420–2, 424–5Islamic influences 375–6

Cumbria 176Cuneglasus 176Cunimund, Gepid king 202Cunincpert, king of Lombard Italy

(679–700) 198, 212f, 218–19

curia (administrative body around bishop) 70

Cutha 178, 463(n27)Cuthred, king of Kent (d. 807) 195Cuthwine 178, 463(n27)Cuthwulf 178Cynegisl, king of Wessex (611?–42?) 192–3Cynewulf, king of Wessex (d 786) 196,

462(n22)Cynric son of Cerdic 178Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (248–58) xi,

68Cyprianus, senator 117Cyprus xv, 148, 411Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (412–44)

72–3

Dafyd peninsula 175Dagobert I, king of Franks (623–38) xv,

166–9, 252, 253–5, 262, 272, 276, 479(n79)

Dagobert II, king of Austrasia (676–8) 168, 257

Dagobert III (710/11–715) 264Dalmatius (nephew of Constantine) 26Damascus 147, 372Damasus I, pope (366–84) 61, 68Danes xix, 288, 344, 346, 351–5, 359,

364–5, 417Danevirke (earthworks) 348Daniel the Stylite 77Danube frontier 4, 33, 42–3, 47–9,

52–4, 83–5, 99, 101–2, 105, 199–200, 298

Danube plains 416Dara (fortress city, Mesopotamia) 138David (Biblical monarch) 277, 308De Excidio Brittonum (Gildas, c.540) xiv,

175–6, 512De Gubernatione Dei (Salvian) 175de Jong, M. 493(n35)De Orthographia (Alcuin) 309, 489(n23)De Ottone Rege (Liudprand) 405, 513Decentius, caesar (d. 353) 31, 32Decius (Trajan Decius), emperor

(249–51) 4, 6, 12–14, 25, 52, 70Decline and Fall of Roman Empire (Gibbon,

1776) 97Deira (kingdom) 179dendrochronology 348Deniseburn (battle) 189Denmark 344, 366, 367

bishoprics 419civil wars 348–9, 351

Derry monastery 244descriptiones (tax registers) 162Desiderius, king of Lombard Italy

(756–74) 280, 283, 284‘desolation of pagans’ 344–70, 496–501Dhu Nuwas (Yemen) xiv, 136, 141–2Dialogues (Gregory the Great) 214, 217,

239Dierkens, A. 480(n85–6)dihqans (lesser nobles) 135


PROOF

536 Index

Diocletian (285–305) xi, 1, 6, 8–15, 16–18, 22, 25–6, 70

administrative reforms 10‘Dionysio-Hadriana’ 309, 489(n24)Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria 14Dioscorus, bishop of Alexandria (444–

51) 73, 74dissensio regum 317‘dissension of kings’

(814–911) 318–43, 491–6Divisio Regnorum (806) 318, 320, 491(n2)Dodo (‘probably brother to Alpaida’) 269Domestici (corps of imperial guards) 41Domitius Domitianus, rebel

( fl. 296) 9‘donation of Constantine’ 396, 424, 427Dorchester (Oxon.) 185, 192Dorestad (Frisia) 347, 352, 354,

497(n16)Droctulf, Lombard duke 206Drogo, dux of Champagne

(d. 708) 263, 265feldest son of Pippin II 265f, 267, 268

Drogo, mayor of palace, Austrasia (747–8) 265f, 273, 483(n37)

son of Carloman 265fDrogo ( fl. 822), half-brother of Louis the

Pious 324druid 246Dublin 355, 365, 498(n47)duchy system (Lombard Italy) 204–9,

214–15, 217, 234Duero valley (battle, 939) 388‘duke of Bavarians’ (title) 399Dumbarton 185Dumnonia (Devon) 176Dun Eddin (Edinburgh) 174Dunnichen (battle, 685) xvi,

190Durrow monastery 244dux (duke; ‘military commander’) 169–70,

205, 209, 266, 342–3, 358, 399, 408Dyrham (battle, 577) 178–9

Eadbald, king of Kent (616–40) 183

Eadbert Praen, king of Kent (796–8?) 195Eadfrith, bishop of Lindisfarne (698–

721) 187Eadred, king of Wessex

(946–55) xxi, 368Eahlmund, king of Kent (c.784/5) 196,

466(n92)Ealhere, ealdorman 360Eanfrith of Bernicia 189Eanred, king of Northumbria (c.808–

41) 196Eanwulf, ealdorman of Somerset 360East Anglia/East Angles 186, 189–91, 196,

284, 347, 358, 360–5, 368Viking conquest (869–70) xix, 195Viking dynasty 363

East Saxons 184, 190East Sussex 191

Eastphalian Saxons 281–2Ebbo, archbishop of Reims

(817–35) 328, 366Eberhard, duke of Franconia 404Ebro valley 285, 371, 379–80, 382–4,

386, 393Ebroin, mayor of palace xvi, 169–70,

461(n69)Ecclesiastical History (Bede) 188, 191, 511Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius of

Caesarea) 14, 512Ecgfrith, son of Offa (d. 796)

196Ecgfrith, son of Oswy

(670–85) 190, 246Echternach monastery 259economic history xxiii–xxiveconomy 97Ecumenical Councils 222, 231, 311‘Ecumenical Patriarch’ (title) 74Edeco (father of Odovacer) 101Edict of Theoderic 295Edinburgh 185Edington (battle, 878) xix, 362Edith (d. 947), wife of Otto I

405Edmund, king of East Anglia

(d. 869) 361, 499(n68)education 251, 479(n63)Edward the Elder, king of Wessex (899–

925) 363, 368, 383, 405Edward the Martyr (975–8) xxi, 421Edwin, king of Northumbria (616–32) xv,

183, 189, 191Egbert, archbishop of York

(d. 766) xviiEgbert, king of Northumbria (867–

72) 361Egbert, king of Wessex

(802–39) xviii, 196, 360Egbert, prospective missionary

( fl. 680s) 257–8Egypt 9, 22, 71–2, 74, 78, 97–8, 138,

148–9, 224, 373, 411Arab conquest (640–2) xv, 147monasticism 75–6, 244, 245, 247, 250

Eight Ecumenical Councils 398Einhard 292, 295–6, 306, 317, 338,

486–7, 491(n50), 512Einheitspartei 329Ekthesis (639) 221–2El Bovalar 158–9Elagabalus, emperor

(218–22) 2–3Elbe valley 346, 351, 353, 417, 418, 420Eleusinian Mysteries 38Elfoddw, ‘archbishop of Venedotia’ (d.

809) 173Elipandus, bishop of Toledo 225, 309,

314elites 50, 51Elnone monastery 253–5Elvira Ramirez, regent of León

(967–75) 393


PROOF

Index 537

Elvodug 173Emmeram, missionary

(d. c.690) 261–2‘emperor of Franks’ (title) 295, 396‘emperor of Romans’ (title) 396, 397Emperors and kings

(364–533) 89fEmperors and popes 424–9, 509‘empire of Christians’ idea 298Empire revived (875–1002) 394–429,

505–9Endless Peace (532) 130Engelberga, empress 397England

centralised monarchy (tenth-century) 343

Viking conversion to Christianity 368Ennodius, bishop of Pavia

(d. 521) 109Eorcenberht, king of Kent

(640–64) 183Eparchius Avitus (MSP) see AvitusEphesus: Council (431) 72, 73,

441(n38)Ephesus: Second Council (449) 73Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis

(d. 403) 227epistemology 95–6Equites 13Erchinoald, mayor of palace

(Neustria) 255, 256Eresburg (Saxon fortress) 281, 282Erispoë, king of Bretons

(851–7) 335Ermengard (d 818), wife of Louis the

Pious 322, 333fErvig (Visigothic king, removed 687) 159Essex 191, 196, 197Ethelred, king of Mercia

(674–704) 190‘retired to monastery’ 191

Ethelred, king of Wessex (865–71) 361

Ethiopia: Axumite kingdom 136‘ethnic cleansing’ 351ethnicity 111, 283, 296–9, 304, 321, 329,

343, 396, 420, 422, 487(n59)Etymologiae (Isidore) 154Eudo, duke of Aquitaine

(d 735) 266, 270, 275, 483(n43)Eudocia ( fl. 455), daughter of Valentinian

III 88, 89fEugenius, emperor (d. 394) xii, 45, 46,

61, 67, 70, 100Eugenius II, bishop of Toledo

(646–57) 154–5, 221Eulogius, martyr (859) 374, 375eunuchs 38, 40, 130Euric, Visigothic king

(466–84) 92Europe: Central 47Europe: Eastern xi–xxi, 47, 413–24,

508–9Europe: Western xi–xxi

lacking in knowledge of Greek language 223–4, 472(n15)

Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea (d. 339/40) 14, 18–19, 63, 433(n10), 512

Eutharic, consul ( fl. 519) 115Eutychius, patriarch of Constantinople

( fl. 582) 224evidence/source material xxii, xxiii–iv,

xxvi, 47–8, 54, 97–8, 104, 109, 114, 160, 447(n16)

lost 97, 116, 450(n11)‘subjective interpretation’ 301

evidential deficiencies 97–8, 155–6, 166–7, 194–5

al-Andalus (conversion to Islam) 373–4Amandus 252–3Arab conquest of Spain 371–2Asturias 377–85Avar-Frank war (791) 288Bohemia 421Britain 173–9Britain (new Christian kingdoms) 180–2Byzantine-Viking links 369Castille 387, 388Charles Martel (721–41 period)

266–8Charles the Fat 338coronation of Charlemagne 292Danish monarchy (C9) 367‘Greater Moravia’ 402Iconoclasm 226, 228, 230Irish church 241–5, 476–7Irish missionary imperative 247–9Irish monasticism 244–5, 249León and Castille 385Lombard Italy 198–200, 206, 216,

466(n4)Louis the Pious (830) 327Mercia 188, 191Merovingian era 263miscellaneous 50, 54–5, 62, 80–1, 90,

101, 104, 107, 110, 112, 114–5, 117, 119, 139–40, 143–4, 146, 150, 161–2, 164, 171, 193, 222

‘missing links’ 173Pamplona/Navarre

(C9–10) 383Patrick 242–3, 476–7personal factors 304Viking phenomenon 345–6, 349, 352,

357see also historiography

exarchs (Byzantine governors, to 751) 205–6, 232–4

Fabius, Bishop of Antioch 14‘face’ 415factionalism 78, 139, 169–70, 276, 293,

303, 324–5, 327, 334–5, 338, 349, 380–1, 387, 390, 393, 406, 411, 428

Fafila, king of Asturias (737–9) 378famine 356, 364Fardulf, abbot of Saint-Denis

(792–806) 310, 490(n27)


PROOF

538 Index

Faroald, duke of Spoleto 206, 212Faroe Islands 369Fastrada (d. 794), wife of

Charlemagne 288, 486–7(n47)Fatimids xx, xxi, 411, 412Fausta, second wife of Constantine 23–4Faustus, bishop of Riez (C5) 238Felix, bishop of East Angles (c.630) 252Felix, MSP (425–30) 82, 86Felix IV, pope (526–30) 118Fernán González, count of Castille (d.

970) 387, 391–3Fernando I, king of León-Castille

(1037–65) 393Festus, Sextus Pompeius 307Feudal Revolution 428–9, 509(n101)‘Field of Lies’ (Alsace, 833) 328, 331filid (‘seers’) 246Filius Augusti (title) 17, 433(n5)Finnan 180–1Flanders, count of 358Flavian, bishop of Constantinople

(446–9) 73, 441(n41)Flavianus, Virius Nicomachus 45Flavius Aetius see ‘Aetius’Flavius Maximus, senator (d. 552) 127,

131Flavius Victor, co-emperor (d. 388) 45Flodoard of Reims 357‘Florence of Worcester’ 195, 466(n89)Florian, emperor (276 AD) 7, 25Foílleán (abbot) 255Fontanelle (Saint-Wandrille)

monastery 193–4, 249, 268, 310Fontenoy (battle, 841) 330–1food and drink 143–4Forannán, abbot of Armagh (835–48) 354Formosus, pope (891–6) 340–1Forum Iudicum (Visigothic code,

654–) xv, 384, 513Fossès (monastery) 255Foulke, W.D. 208, 468–9Four Books of Histories (Nithard) 327, 331,

513France 102

‘birth’ 35end of Carolingian rule (987) xxi‘unification’ 163

Franciacivil wars xviii, 352divided (c.511) xivEast–West schism 230–5ethnicity 273–4, 483(n39)miscellaneous 176, 193, 194, 198, 209,

219, 241, 332, 349, 350monasticism 248–9new name for ‘Gaul’ (mid-C6) 165‘organised for warfare’ 275regaining the periphery (741–68) 272–

9, 463–4revived (714–68) 263–79, 481–4role of consensus 328, 331royal authority 169unification under Chlotar II (613) xv

Viking raids (835–) xviii, xix, 351–9, 498–9

Francia: East xx, 340, 343, 399‘Austrasia’ xvi, 166, 168–70, 172, 254–7,

260, 264–8, 273, 275–6, 280, 297, 318Francia: West xviii, 336, 340, 342–3,

364–5, 399, 416, 427‘Neustria’ xvi, 167–70, 172, 255–6,

263–9, 272, 274, 276, 280, 297, 318, 326, 484(n1)

Viking conversion to Christianity 367Franconia 269, 343, 400, 402, 404Frankfurt: Council (794) 287–9, 314,

490(n43)Frankish chroniclers 348–9Franks 35–6, 59, 99–100, 102, 109–13,

130–1, 176, 237, 448–9Fravitta, MSP (400–1) 86, 87free will 69Freising bishopric 262Fridugis, abbot of St Martin’s (Tours) 327Frigidus River (battle, 394) 45, 46Frisia/Frisians 165, 257–61,

264–7, 273, 275, 351–4, 358–9, 480(n90)

frith (‘peace’) 361Fritigern, Gothic leader 51–3Fritzlar (monastery) 281Fritzlar assembly (919) 403Friuli 205, 218, 284, 288Fructuosus, bishop of Braga

(c.655–75) 157, 221Fruela I, ‘the Cruel’, king of Asturias

(757–68) 379, 380Fruela II, king of León

(924–5) 390, 504(n67)fuero (charter) 388–9, 504(n62)Fulda monastery (744–) 261, 315, 403,

506Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (d. 532) 125,

220, 471(n1)Fulk, archbishop of Reims (883–900) 341Fulrad, abbot of Saint-Denis ( fl. 750) 277Fursa (Irish hermit) 256

Gaeta 395Gainas, MSP (399–400) 56, 86, 87Gaiseric, Vandal king

(428–77) 82, 88, 89f, 91–2, 125–6, 447(n21)

Galerius, emperor (305–11) xi, 16–17, 22–3

caesar to Diocletian 9, 14, 28elevation to augustus (305) 16

Galicia 80, 82, 152, 352, 376, 379, 383–4, 386–7, 390–3

sub-kingship 390–1Galindo (Prudentius), bishop of Troyes

(843–61) 315Galla Placidia (mother of Valentinian

III) 81–3, 89f, 444(n21)‘Gallic Empire’ (253–68) xi, 5, 6Gallienus, emperor (253–68) xi, 6, 12,

22, 25


PROOF

Index 539

Galloway xiii, 180, 223Gallus (caesar, 350–3) xx, 27f, 32, 36Ganshof, F-L. 318, 491(n1), 494García I, king of León

(910–13/14) 386, 390Garcia IV, king of Navarre (1035–54) 393Garibald, duke of Bavaria

(d. 592) 210, 212fGarigliano River 406Garipald, king of Lombard Italy 212f,

218Garonne River (battle, 32/3) 270Gascony 254, 332, 393gastald (class of official) 205, 209Gaudentius, archbishop of Gniezno 426Gaul 28–9, 31–2, 33–5, 37, 44, 45, 59–60,

78, 100, 101–2, 156, 304versus Africa (410–54 AD) 79–85, 443–4early monasticism 238–9, 240Hun invasion (451) xiiiMerovingian

(c.511–687) 160–72, 459–61source of military manpower 88, 90Visigothic 108see also Francia

Gebhard, duke of Lotharingia (d. 910) 401, 402

Geilamir (Vandal king, 530–3) 89f, 124, 126, 452(n52)

Gelasius I, pope (491–6) 440(n32)

genealogy 103–5, 107, 178, 196, 246, 275, 447(n26), 506(n19)

Carolingians 265f, 333fConstantine, emperor 27femperors and kings (364–533) 89fevidence for conversion to Islam

(al-Andalus) 373–4Justin I and Justinian I 120fLombards (c.568–712) 212fTheophylact 407f

gens (people) 107gens Anglorum 191Gento (elder brother of Huneric) 89f,

125–6George of Pisidia 140Gepids 106, 115, 130, 200–1, 203, 204,

206, 212fGerberding, R. A. 482Gerbert, abbot see Sylvester IIGeretrudis (d. 659), sister of Grimoald 255Germania (Tacitus, 98AD) 107, 198Germanus, master of soldiers (d.

551) 118–19, 120fGermanus, son of Germanus

(d. 602) 120fGermany 343, 367

formerly eastern Frankish lands 341historical scholarship 96kingdom and duchies

(911–62) 399–408, 506–7relations with papacy and Constantinople

(962–83) 408–13, 508see also Francia: East

Gero, count 418Gerona 159, 326, 381Gerontius, rebel emperor (early C5) 60,

79Gervasius, St. 66Gesta Karoli (Magni) (Notker) 337–8,

495(n72), 513Getica ( Jordanes, 551) 48, 84, 103, 104,

109, 127–8, 513Geza, Magyar ruler (d. 997) 425Ghassanids 137–8Ghent 315Gibbon, E. xxvii, xxviii–xxix, 97Gildas (fl. 520/40) xiv, 175–6, 180, 244,

248, 462(n12), 477(n37)Gisela, sister of Charlemagne 167Gisela, daughter of Lothar II 358Gisela, spouse of Stephen of Hungary 425Giselher

archbishop of Magdeburg (981–1004) 415, 420

bishop of Merseburg (971–81) 415Gisulf, dux of Friuli (nephew of

Alboin) 205, 211Glendalough (monastic site) 244Gloucester 178, 185Glycerius, emperor/bishop 92–3Gniezno 422–4Godefred, Alaman duke 272Godefred, king of Denmark

(d. 810) 348, 349, 351, 353Godefred ( fl. 852), son of Heriold 358Godegisel, king of Burgundy ( fl. 500)

112Godepert, king of Lombard Italy

(661–2) 212f, 219Godobald, abbot of Saint-Denis

(c.726/7–) 269Gododdin (kingdom) 174Gododdin (poems) 174, 462(n9, n11)Goffart, W. 466, 468–9gold 347Gonzalo Munoz, count 393Gordian III (238–44) xi, 1, 4, 26Gorm the Old, king of Denmark

(d. c.936) 367Gospels 68, 71, 75Gothic History (Cassiodorus) 104, 107Goths 48, 49, 65, 99, 237

and Roman Empire (376–95) 51–4, 437grain 123Gratian, emperor (367–83) 53–4, 89f son of Valentinian I 43–4, 89fGratian, rebel emperor in Britain

(406) xii, 59Great Persecution xi, 11–15, 22, 63, 75,

432(n36)see also persecution

Greater Moravia 402Greece 230Greek Fire 150, 226Greeks 47Greenland 369Gregoriopolis (Ostia) 395


PROOF

540 Index

Gregory I, the Great, pope (590–604) xiv, 182–4, 186–7, 214, 217, 223, 233, 237, 250–1, 253, 260, 307, 474–5

monk 240Gregory II, pope (715–31) 233–4, 259, 260Gregory III, pope

(731–41) 233, 234, 261Gregory IV, pope (827–44) 321, 328, 395Gregory V, pope (996–9) 423, 427Gregory VII, pope (1073–85) 375Gregory of Nazianzus, bishop of

Constantinople (379–81) xxviii, 238Gregory, bishop of Nyssa

(372–95) xxviii, 238Gregory, bishop of Tours (d 594) xv,

109–10, 112–14, 155, 160–2, 163–4, 166, 202, 251, 449, 460, 479

Greuthungi (Gothic kingdom) 48–51, 53, 103, 105

see also OstrogothsGrifo, son of Charles Martel

(d. 753) 265f, 272, 273Grimoald, duke of Bavaria

(717–25) 269, 272Grimoald, duke of Benevento

king of Lombard Italy (662–71) 211–13, 218, 219

Grimoald III, duke of Benevento (787–806) 198

Grimoald, mayor of palace, Austrasia (d. 657) 254–6

Grimoald, mayor of palace, Neustria (d. 714)

son of Pippin II 264, 265f, 268Gudeoc, king of Lombards 466(n6)Guido, duke of Spoleto (d. 894)

crowned emperor (891) 340king of Italy (elected 889) 340

Guido, marquis of Tuscany ( fl. 928) 406–7Gumley (Leicestershire) 194Gumpert 212f, 219Gundiperga, daughter of

Theodelinda 211, 212fGundoald (d. 616), brother

of Theodelinda 211, 212fGundobad, king of Burgundy

(d. 518) 92, 111, 112, 297MSP (472–3) 86, 92, 111

Gunthamund, king of Vandals (484–96) 89f, 126

Guntramnbrother of Sigebert I 204king of Burgundy ( fl. 590) 210

Guthrum (Danish king of East Anglia)agreement with Alfred (c.886) 364, 368forced conversion to Christianity 362

Gwynedd 176

Hadrian, African abbot 221, 471(n5)Hadrian I, pope (772–95) 283, 284, 286,

289–90, 295, 309, 397Hadrian II, pope (867–72) 398Hadrian’s Wall xii, 190, 244, 298

Haesten xx, 364hagiography 161, 166, 242, 244, 252,

264, 315, 416Håkon, king of Norway (d. 960) 367Halberstadt, bishop of 419Halfdan, king of Northumbria

( fl. 876) 362Hamburg 353, 366, 418–20Hamwih 347, 360Hannibalianus, king of Armenia 26Harald Bluetooth, king of Denmark

(c.940–c.985) 366–7, 370, 413Harald Hárfagri (d. 936?) 349, 367Harald Klak, king of Denmark (812–13,

819–27) 351, 358, 366Hartlepool 186Hatfield: church council 222Hatfield Chase (battle, 632) 189Havelburg 419–20Hebrides 244, 346, 349Hedeby (Haithabu) 347, 348Hedeno, duke of Thuringia 259Helena (mother of Constantine) 141Helisachar 324–5, 327Henoticon (482) 115–16Henry I, the Fowler (919–36) 403–4,

417–18Henry II, emperor (1002–24) 416, 425

son of Henry the Quarrelsome 425Henry ( fl. 939), duke of Bavaria (brother

of Otto I) 404Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria

(d. 995) 416, 421, 422, 425Hephthalites xiii, 134, 135–6, 454(n6)Heraclius I (610–41) xv, 137–9, 140–1,

149, 221–2, 229, 411dynasty of 225succession crisis (641) 147–8

Heraclius Constantine, son of Heraclius I 148

Heribert, count of Vermandois 341Hermenigild 152–3, 154Herodian (historian) 3Herodotus 47Heruls 200, 466(n9)Hesse 259, 261Hilarus (pope, 461–6) 73Hild (abbess) 186Hildebald, archbishop of Cologne

(785–819) 310Hildegard (d 783), wife of

Charlemagne 283, 333fHildeprand, duke of Spoleto ( fl. 774)

284Hilderic, king of Vandals (523–30) xiv,

89f, 125, 126, 452(n52)Hilduin, abbot of Saint-Denis 323–5, 327Hilmagis ( fl. 572) 203, 205Hincmar, archbishop of Reims

(845–82) xix, 315, 334, 356, 491(n45), 494(n59)

hippodromes 119[–]122, 165, 451Hisham, caliph (724–43) xvi, 226, 230Hisham I (788–96) 381


PROOF

Index 541

Historia Brittonum (‘Nennius’, 829) xviii, 173–4, 175, 461–2

Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Bede, 731) 180, 182, 463–5, 511

Historia vel Gesta Francorum 263, 266, 269–70, 272, 277, 280, 481(n1)

Historia Silense 386historiography xxv, xxvii

Arabic 371, 501(n3–4)Asturian 377–9Carolingian tradition 263–4, 316,

481–2English insularity 173Francia (C8–) 316‘hardly ever neutral’ 316–17personal prejudices of historians 98reflection of present-day

preoccupations 301Spanish 377–8, 502(n22), 504(n52)speculation converted into dogma via

repetition 252, 479(n70)understanding causation 301Vikings 496(n3)Wessex 195, 196–7West Frankish 357, 499(n55)‘wickedness of narrative’ 301see also evidence/source material

Historiola (Bishop Secundus of Trento) 202, 467(n20)

historypurpose xxixRoman ideas 104–5, 107

History (Theophylact Simocatta) 140, 514

History of Goths, Vandals, Sueves (Isidore) xv, 154, 155, 512

History of Lombards (Paul the Deacon) 198, 201–2, 206, 307–8, 489, 514

History of Wamba (Julian of Toledo) 155History of Wars (Procopius, 550s) 121,

451–3, 514Hodegetria (icon of Virgin Mary) 227Hodgkin, T. 217, 470(n87)Honoratus, bishop of Arles

(d. 430) 238Honorius, emperor (393–423) xii, 54,

57–60, 81, 89f, 99, 438–9Honorius I, pope (625–38) 222, 253Horic I, king of Denmark

(d. 854) 353, 366Hormizd IV, shah (579–90) xiv, 138hospitalitas (hospitality) 207, 208, 229Hostilian (child co-emperor, fl. 251) 26house-monasteries 77, 237–8, 240, 244Housesteads (post-Roman survival) 185Hrodbert (St Rupert) 262Hrodgaud, duke of Friuli 284, 307Hugh, archbishop of Rouen (b. c.695;

d. 732/3)nephew of Charles Martel 268

Hugh (d. 814)half-brother of Louis the Pious 324illegitimate son of Charlemagne 324,

332

Hugh, count of Tours ( fl. 820s) 325, 326, 330

Hugh of Arles, king of Lombards (926–32) 405, 407, 410

count of Provence 405Hugh Capet, king (987–96) xxi, 342Hunald I, duke of Aquitaine (742–5) 272,

279Hunald II, duke of Aquitaine

( fl. 769) 280Huneric, king of Vandals (477–84) xiii,

82, 88, 89f, 92, 125–6Hungary 287Huns 47–51, 80–2, 83–5, 88, 101, 105–6,

134, 136, 200, 402, 436–7Hwicce (people) 191Hydatius (Bishop of Chaves) 80Hypatia (d. 410) 78Hypatius (d. 532) 122

Ibn Hawqal 374Ibn Hayyan (d. 1076) 390, 504(n69)Ibn Hisham (d. 833) 143Ibn Ishaq (d. 768) 143, 512Iceland xxi, 236, 345, 367, 369–70iconoclasm xvii–xviii, 225–30, 232–3, 287,

289, 397, 472–3edict (726) 226, 473(n24)

ideas and institutions xxiii, xxviiIfriqiya (Tunisia) 372, 394, 411Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople

(d. 877) 397–8Ildebad, king of Ostrogothic Italy (540–

1) 130Ildefonsus, bishop of Toledo

(657–67) 154–5Illyria 64Illyricum 54, 56, 57, 102, 119, 128Imperator Augustus (title) 321Imperator Augustus Romanorum 427Imperator Francorum 295Imperator Imperium Romanum

gubernans 295Imperator Romanorum 293, 295imperial biography (genre) 317‘Imperium Christianorum’ (Alcuin) 293Ine, king of Wessex (688–728) 191inflation 2, 4, 11Ingelheim (royal palace) 351, 366Iñigo Arista, king of Pamplona 383Inisbofin monastery 350Inn River (battle, 913) 402inscriptions 180, 181, 345, 496(n5)Institutes (Byzantine law textbook,

533) 216, 223–4Institutes (Cassiodorus) 239Institutes ( John Cassian) 78Iona (565–) xiv, 181–3, 186, 221, 244–5,

257–8, 278, 350Ipswich 347Ireland xiii, 182, 186, 236, 346, 349–50,

354–5cultural transformation 246–7,

477(n45)


PROOF

542 Index

Ireland — continuedepiscopacy ‘practical impossibility’ 245–6legal texts 245persistence of Iron Age social

order 243political divisions 245–6royal unction or anointing 278, 484(n51)Viking conversion to Christianity 368Vikings 354–5, 358, 500(n86)

Irene, empress (C8) xviii, 286–7, 289–90, 294

Iria Flavia (Bishop Hydatius) 80Irish church 241–50, 475–8Irish colonisation 175–6Irish language 241–2, 248Irminsul (cult object) 281Iron Age 243Isaurian War (492–7) 115Isaurians 87, 114–15Isidore, bishop of Seville (599/600–

636) xv, 154, 157, 201, 223, 248, 458, 512

Islam 141–50, 224–5, 227–8, 236, 293, 298, 455–7

Pillars 145reasons for military success

(by 732) 148–50, 456–7islands 353–4, 498(n41)Istra 234Istria 294Istrian schism 215, 470(n77)Italy xiv, xvii, xix, 28, 44, 45, 79, 92, 102,

161, 286, 336–7, 416, 425, 459(n35)Arab threat 394–5, 397, 398–9Byzantine revival (875–961) 394–9,

505–6Gothic kingdom 103–9, 447–8invaded by Pippin III (755) 278‘just another kingdom’ 94limitations on Byzantine authority 232Ostrogothic kingdom (493–) xiiireconquest by forces of Justinian I

(535–53) 127–32, 452–3see also Lombard Italy

Italy: South 205

Jarrow: monastery of St Paul 186, 187Jerome (331–419) xxviii, 61, 65, 77, 440Jerusalem 70, 221, 231

Arab conquest (636) xv, 147captured by Persia (614) xv, 138, 141

Jesus Christ 68, 71, 76, 357see also Christology

Jews 146, 149, 374John, bishop of Nikiu 144John, emperor (423–5) 81, 86John I Tzimisces/Zimiskes, emperor

(969–76) xxi, 413John I, pope (523–6) 117–18John V, pope (685–6) 224John VI, pope (701–5) 232John VII, pope (705–7) 232John VIII, pope (872–82) 335–7, 340,

395, 397–8

John X, pope (914–28) 406–7, 407fJohn XI, pope (931–5/6) 407f, 407John XII, pope (955–64) 407f, 410

Octavian, son of Alberic II 407–8John XIII, pope (965–72) 412John XIV, pope (983–4) 911John XVI, pope (997–8) 414John, praetorian prefect ( fl. 532) 121,

124John Cassian 78John Chrysostom 72, 78, 441(n36)John the Vandal 107John of Worcester 195Jonas of Susa 248Jones, A.H.M. 98, 446(n63)Jordan 156Jordanes (historian) 48, 54, 84, 103–4,

107, 109, 127–8, 199, 447(n21, n23), 513

Jovian, emperor (363–4) xii, 41–2, 133Jovinus (usurper) 80Judaism 136, 142, 228Judith, empress

wife (819–) of Louis the Pious 322, 325, 327, 333f

Julian, bishop of Toledo (680–90) 154–5, 221, 471(n5)

Julian, emperor (361–3) xii, 46, 59, 64, 91

caesar in Gaul (355–60) 27f, 32, 33–6Persian expedition (363) 40–1,

133, 435(n31)‘the Reactionary’ (361–3) 36–41, 435

Julius Nepos 92–3Jumièges monastery 249, 268justice 313, 343Justin I, Byzantine emperor (518–27)

115–6, 118, 451(n25)family 120f

Justin II (565–78) 118–19, 120f, 200–3, 224, 451(n26, n29)

Justin (d 566), son of Germanus 119, 120fJustina, empress (mother of Valentinian

II) 43, 44, 66Justinian I (527–65) 118–27, 451–2

abolition of consular office (551) 174family 120fcodification of imperial edicts 216,

223–4Italian reconquest

(535–53) 127–32, 452–3miscellaneous xiv, 136, 139, 149–50,

152, 165, 200, 204, 215, 228, 295, 304reconquest of Africa (533/4) xiv, 127–8,

130–1, 220western adventures (balance

sheet) 131–2Justinian II (685–95, 705–11) xvi, 225,

230, 472(n20)Quinisext Council (692) 231–2

Jutland 347–8, 367

Kairouan (place) xvi, 411Kaupang (Scandinavia) 347


PROOF

Index 543

Kavad I, shah (488–97, 499–531) xiii, 134–5, 136, 454(n11)

Kavad II, shah 141Kells (monastery) 350Kent 111, 179, 182–3, 184, 186, 188,

190–2, 194–6, 240, 251, 359, 364Khadija 144–5Khazars 369–70, 501(n95)Khusro I, shah (531–75/79) xiv, 130, 134,

135, 138Khusro II (591–628) xiv, xv, 138, 141Kibyrreot Theme 230Kiev 369–70Kildare monastery 246kings (barbarian) 99–103 446–7Kirkmadrine inscription 180Kolberg 424Krum, khan of Bulgars (805–14) xviii,

294–5Krusch, B. 252, 479(n72, n74)

Lactantius 17, 18, 19‘Laiamicho’, king of Lombards 199Lakhmids 137–8Lambert, bishop of Maastricht

(d. c.705) 269Lambert, count of Spoleto 336

father of duke Guido (later emperor) 340

Lambert, emperor (d. 898)son of emperor Guido 340

‘Lamissio’, king of Lombards 199land 207–8, 229, 254, 271, 302–3, 313,

351, 354, 362–3, 387, 479(n78)land tax 469(n59)landowners 305, 312, 343, 428

see also aristocracyLangobardia Theme (892) 398language 181, 331

Celtic and Germanic 177, 462(n22)Old English 177

Laon 403Late Roman Empire xxvii, 311Late Roman history xxiiiLateran synod (863) 397–8Latin language 223–4, 246–8

al-Andalus 375Laurentian schism 291, 406, 507(n41)lavra (monastic communities) 76law 216–17, 223–4, 295–7, 310–12

Islamic 374–5Lombardy 205miscellaneous 155, 156, 171, 246, 275,

324, 384, 386, 388, 428, 465(n86), 470(n84), 487, 504(n53)

Roman 71, 297Visigothic 389, 504(n64)

Lazica region 134–5, 142(map)Leander, bishop of Seville 153, 154Lech River (battle, 955) xxi, 404,

418, 424Lecho ( fl. 805) 420Leeds 189Leges Saxonum 296, 487(n55)

Lentienses (tribe) 44Leo I, emperor (457–74) 77, 87, 91, 114Leo III (717–41) xvi, 226–30, 234, 395,

473(n24)iconoclast decrees (726) xvii, 232–3

Leo IV, the Khazar (775–80) xvii, 287, 335Leo I, the Great, pope (440–61) xiii, 71,

73–4, 80, 85, 231, 441(n33), 513Leo II, pope (682–3) 231Leo III, pope (795–816) 290–1, 292–5,

406, 486(n45)attempted blinding (799) 290–1

Leo IV, pope (847–55) 395Leo V, pope (903) 406Leo VIII, pope (963–5) 410León (city) 379, 384, 386, 504(n54)

new capital of Asturias (910–) 385León (kingdom) 377

and Castile (910–1037) 385–93, 504–5colonisation and settlement 386–9invaded by Navarre (1031) 393

Leontius of Byzantium 223Leovigild, king of Visigothic Spain

(569–86) xiv, 151–3, 469(n73)Lérins (monastery) 238–9Leuthere, bishop of Winchester

(670–6) 252Lex Gundobada 297Lex Ribuaria /Ripuarian Code 310, 324,

513Lex Salica /Salic Code 171, 295, 310, 324,

461(n74), 513Lex Thuringorum 296Liao dynasty (907–1125) 72Libanius (sophist/orator) 100Liber Historiae Francorum (c.727) 166,

263–6, 482, 513Liber Pontificalis 20, 113, 191, 278, 283,

295, 513Liberius (senator) 106Libius Severus , emperor (461–) 91Libri Carolini 289, 308–9, 485–6Lichfield 190, 194Licinius I, augustus (308/9–24) xi, 16–17,

22–6, 27fLicinius II (caesar, 317–24) 23, 26, 27fLife of Adalbert (Rome, 999) 423Life of Aemilian (Braulio) 157, 515Life of Alfred (Asser) 193, 465(n81)Life of Amandus/Vita Amandi 252–6,

479–80, 515 Vita Anskari (Rimbert) 366, 500(n88)Life of Anthony (Athanasius) 75Vita Arnulfi 166, 515Life of Augustus (Suetonius) 317Life of Boniface 259Life of Charles/Vita Karoli (Magni)

(Einhard) 292, 295, 317, 486–7, 491(n50), 512

Life of Columba 181–2, 515Life of Columbanus ( Jonas of Susa) 248,

515Life of Constantine (Eusebius) 18Life of Eulogius 374


PROOF

544 Index

Lives of Gildas 175Life of John the Almsgiver 222–3, 513Lives of Louis the Pious 317, 328, 491(n51)

Vita Hludovici Imperatoris (anonymous/’The Astronomer’) 317, 324, 491(n51), 515

Life of Martin of Tours (Sulpicius Severus) 251, 515

Life of Patrick (Muirchú) 242, 243, 513Life of Queen Matilda 400Life of Rimbert (Anskar) xxvLife of Stephen the Younger

(d. 765) 230, 473(n38)Life of Wilfred (Stephanus) 257, 480, 515Ligugé (monastery) 238, 251, 475(n5)Limerick 365Limitanei (frontier troops) 10–11, 32Lincoln 185Lincolnshire 359Lindisfarne xviii, 344, 346–7, 350Lindisfarne Gospels 186, 187Lindsey 190, 191Lippe valley 281–2, 285Lisbon 352, 382, 387literacy 237, 246, 306–7, 309, 477(n45),

488(n8)literary sources 95–6Litorius (Aetius’s deputy in Gaul) 80, 83liturgy 70–1, 440(n32)Liudhard, bishop 182–3, 463(n39)Liudolf I, duke of Saxony

(d. 866) 400, 417Liudolf, duke of Suabia

(son of Otto I) 404Liudolfing (or Ottonian) family 400, 417Liudprand, bishop of Cremona 405–6,

407–8, 410, 507–8, 513 embassy to Constantinople

(968–9) 412–13Liutbert, archbishop of

Mainz (863–89) 315, 338

Liutpert, king of Lombard Italy (700–1) 212f, 219

Liutpold, duke of Bavarians (d. 907) 399, 402

Liutprand, king of Lombard Italy (712–44) xvi, 219, 234, 235, 474(n53)

Liutward, bishop of Vercelli 338Liutzi 423local government 305local politics 302–4, 334–5, 342–3, 358–9,

389, 488(n2)Loire valley 111–12, 160, 162, 238, 253,

334, 352–4, 357, 364Lombard Italy (c.540–712)

198–219, 466–71Avar incursion (660s) 218conquest by Charlemagne (773–4) xvii,

282–4coups and conspiracies 211Frankish invasion (660s) 218genealogy 212f

miscellaneous xiv, 130–2, 170, 234, 298, 318, 405

shifts in religious affiliation 213–16survival of late Roman ceremonial 218

Lombard-Rome treaty (752) 235Lombards, kingdom of

(584–712) 209–19, 469–71‘by no means barbarians’ 204conquering Italy (540–72) 198–203,

466–7dukes and kings (572–84) 203–9, 467–9entry into Italy (568) 131, 162, 199,

204, 304, 453(n75)London xix, 184, 359, 361Longobardi (Tacitus) 198Lorsch annalist 312Lothar I, emperor (817–55) 320–32, 333f,

335, 337, 352–3, 358, 399heirs 334invested as co-emperor (817) 320papal re-coronation (Rome, 823) 320rule in Italy (823–) 320–1

Lothar II, king of Lotharingia (855–69) 333f, 334, 337, 339–40, 496(n82)

Lothar (d. 950), son of Hugh of Arles 405Lothar, king of West Francia (954–86) 413

son of Louis IV 341Lotharingia 337, 341, 399–401, 404, 410,

416‘artificial creation’ (843) 401

Louis I, the Pious, emperor (814–40) 318–30, 491–4

church–state relationship 324consensual politics 331court purge 323crowned himself emperor (813) 319death (840) 329deposed and reinstated (830) 327, 328,

329deposed and reinstated again

(833–4) 328imperial title (ambiguity) 321king of Aquitanians (781–814) 318,

321, 326king of Aquitanians (capture of

Pamplona) 382–3king of Aquitanians (papal coronation,

781) 286Lives 317, 324, 328, 491(n51), 515miscellaneous xviii, 300, 302–3, 305,

310, 332, 351–3, 358, 409, 417, 427, 500(n93)

‘mistakes’ 319–21Ordinatio Imperii (817) 320–2public confession at Attigny (822) 324re-coronation (Reims, 816) 319successor to Charlemagne 316–17

Louis II, emperor 337, 395–7crowned as co-emperor (850) 335emperor (855–75) 333fforced to leave south Italy (872) xixking of Lombards (844–) 335son of Lothar I 333f, 335


PROOF

Index 545

Louis the German, king of East Francia (817–76) xviii, 316, 327–37, 353, 417, 420, 491(n49), 494(n44), 417, 509(n82)

heirs 334son of Louis the Pious 320, 327–8, 333f

Louis III, the Younger, king of East Francia (876–82) 333f, 336, 337, 356, 417

Louis the Child, king of East Francia (900–11) 300, 333f, 341, 399–401

Louis II, the Stammerer, king of West Francia (877–9) 333f, 337, 340–2, 356

installed as Duke of Maine (856) 335Louis III, king of West Francia

(879–82) 333f, 356, 359Louis IV, king of West Francia

(936–54) 333f, 341, 403–4restoration of Carolingian rule in France

(936) xxLouis V (986–7) 341–2Louis, abbot of Saint-Denis 354Louis le Débonnaire 319; see Louis the

PiousLouis of Provence ( fl. 887) 338Ludeca, king of Mercia (825–7) 195,

466(n89)Lullus, Anglo-Saxon missionary 261Lupercalia festival 68, 440(n32)Lupicinus, Roman general 51Luxembourg 259Luxeuil monastery 248, 479(n78)luxury goods 136, 137

Maas valley 257Macedonian dynasty (Byzantium, 867–

1056), xix, 412–13Macrianus 14Máel Sechnaill, Uí Néill king of Mide 355Maelgw(y)n 176Magdeburg 418–19, 422–4Magister Peditum 36magistrates 184, 329Maglocunus 176Magnentius, Western emperor

(350–3) xii, 29–34, 46, 64Magnus, earl of Orkney (c.1105–15) 421Magnus Maximus xii, 44–6, 59Magyars 50, 343, 399, 401–4, 410, 417,

418, 420–1, 427first king (1001) 424–5

Maine 335Mainz: archbishopric 261, 418, 419, 423Mainz: assembly (887) 339Majorian (Emperor) 90–1Maldon (battle, 991) xxiMallobaudes, comes domesticorum 101Mamertinus, Gallic orator 10‘mandates’ (Merovingian era) 170Mantua 202manuscript illumination 187, 425,

509(n94)Marcella ( fl. 380s) 61

Marcellinus (finance minister, fl. 350) 29

Marcellinus, count (C6 chronicler) 85, 444(n33), 513

marcher societies 389–90, 417–18‘Marchfield’ (annual assembly) 275–6,

277, 288, 302, 305, 483(n45)marchio (march warden) 399Marcian, emperor (450–7) 73, 77, 84, 87,

89f, 90–1Marcianople 51Marcus, rebel emperor in Britain

(406) xii, 59Marcus Martinianus, co-emperor (324) 23Marius, Gallic emperor 6Marius, bishop of Avenches 161, 201,

202–3, 206, 513Mark, St. 68Marmoutier monastery 251Marozia, daughter of Theophylact 406–7,

407fMartin, bishop of Tours (d. 397) 238, 251,

253, 255, 308Martin I, pope (649–53) 222, 232–3, 255‘Martyr Movement’ (840s, 850s) 374–5,

502(n13)martyrs 70Marxists 98Mary Theotokos 72Maserfelth (battle, 642) 189Mass Book 309, 489(n24)massacres 131, 138Master of Soldiers 55, 58, 60, 79, 81–2,

91–2, 100–2, 106, 111, 162Master of Soldiers in

imperial presence (Magister Militum praesentalis, MSP) 82, 86–8, 119

Matfrid, count of Orléans 323, 325, 326, 330

Matilda, daughter of Otto I 416Matilda, widow of Henry I

400 416, 418, 509(n81)Mauregatus, king of Asturias (783–8) 381Mauretania Caesariensis 1Maurice, emperor (582–602) xiv–xv, 137,

138, 139, 149, 201, 210, 233Maurontus, duke of Marseille 270–1, 274,

482(n26)Maxentius, emperor

(306–12) 14, 16–18, 20–2, 25–6, 31Maximian, co-ruler with Diocletian (d.

310) 8, 10, 16, 18, 23–4Maximin I, emperor

(235–8) xi, 3, 6Maximin II, emperor (305–13) xi

augustus (308/9–13) 14, 17, 21–3, 25, 39, 75, 433(n5)

caesar (ruled Egypt and Syria) 14–16Maximus, bishop of Riez (433–) 238Maximus, rebel emperor (early C5) 79mayor of palace xvi, 169, 170, 254–5,

260–1, 263–4, 266, 273Mazdakite movement xiii, 135, 454(n11)


PROOF

546 Index

McClure, J. v, xxivMecca xv, 142(map), 145–6Medina 142(map), 145–6Medina Sidonia 152Mediterranean world

first serious divide 224Meissen 417, 419, 423–4Melitene (Asia Minor) 235Memorandum of Patrick (Tírechán) 242Menander Protector 140, 200, 513mercenaries 79, 81, 82, 83, 266, 370,

482(n9)Mercia xv, xix, xx, 246, 284, 358, 361–5,

368hegemony (633–874) 188–97, 464–6introduction of Christianity 190Viking dynasty 363

Mérida 157, 158, 387Merobaudes, general 44Merovingians 109, 186, 222, 254, 274–5,

316, 322alleged mental instability 168annual assemblies 170–1decline 276fall (751) 167–8, 235, 241, 263final stages 264minorities 168urban self-government 304–5

Merseburg see (968–) 415, 419Meseta (Iberian plateau) 384, 386, 388

‘depopulation’ (C8) 379–80Mesopotamia 36, 41–2, 115, 130, 133–4,

138, 149–50, 298Metz 84Michael I, Byzantine emperor

(811–13) 295Michael III, emperor (842–67) 398Middle Angles 188Mieszko, Piast duke (d. 922) 422Milan 24, 44, 45, 56, 65–6, 83, 202, 210,

218Milvian Bridge (312) xi, 17, 18–19Misopogon or Beard-Hater ( Julian) 40missi (special emissaries) 306, 310, 312–13,

321–2, 342missionaries 236–62, 417, 421, 425–6,

475–81Anglo-Saxon 241, 256,

257–61, 480–1‘spreading the word’ 250–62, 478–81

missorium 100, 447(n5)monarchy: unitary (Scandinavia) 367,

368Monasterboice (monastic site) 244monasteries 186, 354–5, 360, 380, 388–9,

408, 418destruction (al-Andalus) 375Viking raids 350

monasticism 75–8, 441–2direction of spread

(Britain versus Ireland) 245Eastern 75–7, 78Frankish 262, 271, 323Gallic 248–9, 252–6, 479–80

Ireland/Irish 241–2, 244–9, 253, 255, 256, 262, 477

miscellaneous 153–4, 157, 180, 181, 190–1, 230, 250, 311, 407

Spain 375Western 77–8, 237–41, 475

Moncontour 280monks and missionaries 236–62, 475–81Monophysites 73, 74, 114, 137, 139, 141,

148–9, 215, 221–2, 441, 455(n26)monotheletism 221–2, 231–3, 255, 471–2Monte Cassino (monastery,

529–) 198, 239, 308Monte Naranco 384, 503(n47)Monumenta Germaniae

Historica (MGH) 252, 430, 490, 491–2, 510–15

Monza: Basilica of St John the Baptist 215Morava River, battle (505) 115Moravians 420Morocco xvii, 225, 375, 376, 394mosaics 19, 228Moustier-sur-Sambre (monastery) 255Mozarabic art/architecture 375–6Mozarabic Chronicle (or Chronicle of

754) 159–60, 372, 458(n27), 511Mozarabic refugees 389MSP see Master of Soldiers in imperial

presenceMt Sinai 457(n59)Mu’awiya (first Umayyad Caliph,

661–80) xvMuhammad, Prophet (d. 632) xiv–xv,

143–6, 149, 456Muhammad I, amir of Córdoba

(852–86) 374, 384Muirchú 242Mundus, general (d. 535) 122, 128Munnuzza, governor of Gijón 378murder 296, 312Musa ibn Musa (d. 862) 384–5Musa ibn Nusayr (governorship, 700–

12) xvi

naming patterns 389Nantechildis 169Nantes 352, 357Naples 128, 129, 201, 395, 397, 412Narbonne 155, 159, 285, 371Narses (eunuch, C6) 130, 201–2nation-state 301‘national’ identity 296–7naval warfare 90, 92, 123, 135, 140, 148,

150, 230, 233, 394–5, 398, 412Navarre 152, 391–3Near East xi–xxi, 142(map), 354Nedao River (battle, 454) xiii, 85, 105Nennius 173, 461(n3–4)Neoplantonism 39, 40Nepotian (of Asturias) 384, 503(n46)Nepotian, emperor ( fl. 350) 31Nero, emperor 24Nerseh, shah (293–302) 28Nestorians 72, 137, 441(n38)


PROOF

Index 547

Nestorius (Patriarch of Constantinople, 428–31) 72–3

Neustria see Francia: WestNew History (Zosimus) 24‘new kingdoms’ (C5) 99–113, 446–9Nibelung, Count 263Nicaea: Council (325) xii, 37, 42, 63–4,

155Nicene Creed 64, 65

Nicaea: Second Council (787) xvii, 287, 289

Nicephorus I (802–11) xviii, 294–5Nicephorus II Phocas, emperor

(963–9) xxi, 411–13Nicephorus Phocas, general ( fl. 883) 398Nicetius, bishop of Trier 213Nicholas I, pope (858–67) 397–8Nichomachi family 61Nicomedia 24Nihavand (battle, 642) 147Nika Riots (C6) xiv, 121–2, 124, 128Nithard, lay abbot of St Riquier (d.

844) 327, 331–2, 494, 513Nivelles monastery 255, 256Noirmoutier: St Philibert’s monastery 350nomads 49–50, 134–6Norbert (mayor of palace) 267Nordalbingia 417, 422Normandy 268, 358, 365, 499(n58)Norricum (province) 108, 200, 201, 254Northumbria xv, xxi, 179, 183, 185–90,

194–6, 250, 292, 308, 349, 358–9, 361–5, 463(n31)

conquest by Wessex (mid-C10) xx, 368

fusion of Irish and Mediterranean traditions 187

Viking dynasty 363Norway xxi, 344, 349, 367Norwegians (Norse) 344, 346, 351,

354–5, 359–60Notitia Dignitatum (c.425) 94, 445(n56)Notker the Stammerer (d. 912) 337–8,

495(n72), 513Nottingham 361Noyon 327Nubia 141Numerian 8Nynia (‘Ninian’), bishop xiii, 180–1, 182,

248, 463(n39)

oaths of loyalty 312–13, 314, 330–1, 336, 343

obeisance 38Octavian see Pope John XIIOdilo, duke of Bavarians 272, 273Odo, king of West Francia

(888–98) 340–1, 356–9previously count of Paris 340

Odovacer (MSP, 476; king of Italy, 476–93) 86, 93–4, 101–2, 106–8, 111, 113, 116, 199, 466(n6)

Offa, king of Mercia (757–96) xvii, 192, 193–5, 309, 465

Offa’s Dyke 193, 348, 465(n82)office-holding 342, 496(n90)Oker valley 281, 285Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway

(995–1000) xxi, 367Olaf II, king of Norway (1016–30) 367Old English 182, 185Old Testament 228, 277, 308Oleg, Viking ‘prince’ of Kiev

(c.882–c.912/13) 369Olga, regent (Kiev)

visit to Constantinople (957) xxi, 370Oliba, count-abbot-bishop 507(n51)Olmund, brother of Alfonso III 390Olof Skötkonung, king of Sweden

(c.995–1021/2) 366On Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius,

523) 116–17, 511On Death of Persecutors (Lactantius) 17,

18, 513On Holy Places (Adamnán) 221, 510On Meaning of Words (SP Festus) 307Onulph (brother of Odovacer) 101, 102Oppa, bishop 378oral testimony 167, 173Ordinatio Imperii (817) xviii, 320–3, 327,

329, 491(n9)Ordo Gothorum (‘order of Goths’) 381–2Ordoño I, king of Asturias

(850–66) 384–5Ordoño II, king of León (914–24) 386,

390sons 390–1

Ordoño III (951–6) 391–2, 505(n71)Ordoño IV, ‘the Bad’ (958–9) 392Orestes, MSP (475–6) 86, 92–3, 102Origen (d. 254) 65, 71–2, 78, 440(n35)Origo Gentis Langobardorum 198, 199Orkneyinga Saga 350Orkneys 346, 349, 350Orosius ( fl. 418) 62Orthodox Christianity 221–2Oviedo 381Osbald, king of Northumbria (796) 196Osbryht, king of Northumbria

(d. 867) 196, 361Ostrogoths 49, 54,101–2, 113–15,

199–203, 283kingdom in Italy 103–9, 212f,

304, 447–8see also Greuthungi

Oswald, king of Northumbria (633–42) xv, 183, 189, 191–2

Oswestry 189Oswy, king of Northumbria

(642–70) xv, 186–7, 189–92, 196Otranto 395, 398Otto, duke of Saxony

(d. 912) 400Otto I, emperor (962–73) xxi, 370, 400,

403–5, 410–11, 415, 417–19, 424Byzantine refusal to treat as equal 412conquest of kingdom of Lombards

(961) 408, 410


PROOF

548 Index

Otto I, emperor (962–73) — continuedimperial coronation in Rome

(962) 408–9invasion of Apulia (968) 412–13involvement in Italy 404–6, 408‘king of Lombards’ (951–) 405, 409

Otto II (973–83) 400, 410, 413, 415–16, 418–19, 421, 423, 508(n71)

marries Byzantine princess (972) xxiOtto III (983–1002) xxi, 410, 413,

414–15, 416, 421, 423–4, 425–8, 508(n73)

imperial coronation (Rome, 994) 423kingship of Lombards 427period of personal power

(984–1002) 414regencies (983–994) 414

Ottonian dynasty xxv, 343, 367, 400power base 409

Ottonianum 409over-mighty magnates 302–3overlordship 284, 292overpopulation 345, 496(n7)Ovid 308Oviedo 382–4, 386Oxyrynchos and Fayum districts 98

Pachomius (fl. 295–350) 76, 77Paderborn 282, 284, 291, 486(n45)Padua 202paganism xii, 38–41, 45, 61–2, 67–8, 110,

116, 204, 307suppression 70–1, 440(n32)

pagans 24‘desolation’ 344–70, 496–501

pagi (sub-sections of civitates) 170Palestine 75–6, 148–9, 250, 411, 433(n10)Palladius, missionary ( fl. C5) xiii, 243,

476(n31)Palladius ( fl. 455), son of Petronius

Maximus 88pallium 187Palmyra (kingdom) 5Pamplona (Navarre), kingdom of

(C9–) 382–3, 392Pandolf I ‘Ironhead’, duke of

Capua-Benevento (961–80) 411–12

Pannonia (Balkans) 43, 105, 108, 131, 200, 253–4

papacy 67–74, 440–1close links with Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms 190–1conflict with Constantinople

(C9) 397–8, 505(n11)between Constantinople and

Francia 230–5and emperors 424–9, 509end of formal ties with eastern Empire

(781) 290miscellaneous xiii, xxviii, 64,

114–15, 213, 215, 237, 260, 278, 289, 295, 336–7, 341, 396, 405, 419, 507(n41)

object of aristocratic factionalism in Rome 406

relations with Germany and Constantinople (962–83) 408–13, 508

rise 69role in imperial consecration 320, 335secular allegiance 294special ties with Anglo-Saxons 240–1tenth century 406, 507(n42)see also popes

papal elections 321papyrus 222, 472(n11), 473(n34)Paris 37, 352, 357

besieged by Vikings (885–6) xix, 338, 340, 343, 356, 495(n73)

Paris: bishopric 268Paris: Saint-Denis monastery 166, 167,

263, 269, 272, 277, 280, 310, 323, 328Parrett River (battle, 848) 360Paschal Chronicle 140, 455, 513Paschal I, pope (817–24) 320–1, 366Patricius (patrician) of Provence 274Patrick xiii, 182, 242–3, 476–7, 513Patristic Age xxviiipatronage 302–4, 305, 409, 423Paul, count of Narbonne ( fl. 673) xvi,

155, 159Paul, Roman count ( fl. 469) 102, 111Paul, St. 68, 70Paul ‘the Chain’ 37, 38Paul the Deacon 198, 199, 201–3, 205–6,

207–8, 209, 211, 214, 216–17, 219, 307–8, 466(n3), 467–9, 489, 490(n33), 514

Paul I, pope (C8) 280Paulinus, archbishop of York ( fl. C7) 183Pavia 108, 130–1, 202, 205, 210, 214,

218, 278–9, 282–3, 284, 294, 324, 335, 405, 410, 470(n90)

Peada (d. 658), son of Penda 189–90Pelagius 69, 78Pelagius (of the Asturias, d. 737) 378Pelagius (Pelayo), bishop of Oviedo 386Pelagius I, pope (556–61) 215Penda, king of Mercia (C7) xv, 183,

188–91achievements ‘permanent’ 189–90

Pentapolis region (Ravenna) 294Perctarit, king of Lombard Italy (661–2,

672–88) 198, 212f, 218, 471(n95)Peregrinatio tradition 247, 249, 478(n47)Péronne monastery 255, 256Peroz, shah (C5) xiii, 134, 136persecution 139, 148–9

see also Great PersecutionPersia 40–2

Christians 72, 441(n38)collapse before Arabs (642) xv, 150death of last shah (651) xvfrontier 466(n9)miscellaneous xi, xii, 29, 33, 46, 115,

122, 130, 132, 298Sasanians 1, 5, 28, 133–41, 146, 236,

453–5


PROOF

Index 549

treaty with Rome (363) 42war with Byzantium 133–41, 453–5

Persians 36, 99, 211personality (role in history) 316‘personality of law’ 297Perugia 202, 212–13, 234Petchenegs 402Peter, duke of Cantabria 378–9Peter, St. 68–70, 74, 253Petronius Maximus , emperor (455

AD) 85, 87–8, 92Pevensey 29Philibert [fl. 655] 249Philip, emperor (244–9) 4, 6, 13, 25Philip II, son and co-ruler of Philip I 4Philippicus, Byzantine emperor (711–13)

232–3Phocas, emperor (602–10) xv, 119, 138–9Photios/Photius, patriarch of

Constantinople (C9) 48, 397–8Piacenza (Pollentia) 90Piasts (Polish ducal dynasty) 422,

509(n91)Picts 175–6, 179, 181–2, 190, 251, 362,

463(n35)Pietroasa and Nagyszentmiklós

Treasures 436(n3)pilgrimage 78Pippin I, mayor of palace in Austrasia (d.

639/40) 254, 265fPippin II, mayor of palace in Austrasia (d.

714) 170, 257–8, 260, 263–8Pippin III, ‘the Short’

(741–68) 272–9, 463–4king of Francia (751–68) 261, 265finvasion of Italy (755) 235, 278mayor of palace (741–51) 261, 265fmiscellaneous xvii, 281, 284–5, 305,

409‘patrician of Romans’ (754) 278, 393re-consecrated (754) 278second expedition to Italy (756) 235,

279will 280

Pippin (d. 810), son of Charlemagne 288, 394

king of Lombards (781–810) 286, 318–19, 333f

Pippin ‘the Hunchback’ (illegitimate son of Charlemagne) 311–12, 490(n33)

Pippin I, son of Louis the Pious (d. 838) 320, 328–9, 487(n58)

deprived of royal title (833) 327king of Aquitaine (817–38) 327, 333f

Pippin II, king of Aquitaine (838–48, d. 864) 329, 331–4, 353

Pippinid dynasty 271–2, 274piracy 348, 394Pirenne, H. 123, 453(n39)placita (legal hearings) 267Plato 223Plectrudis ( fl. early C8), widow of Pippin II

264–8

poets 246, 308, 477(n44)Poitiers 160Poitiers: battle (732/3) xvii, 148, 270,

482(n23)Poitiers: Sainte-Croix monastery 327Poland/Poles 413, 422, 509(n91)Pollentia (battle, 402) 56Pomerania 422Pontus region 50popes/bishops of Rome

monastic 253; see also Gregory the Great

political loyalty to Constantinople 232–3Syrian 224, 231, 233title not used before eleventh

century 69see also papacy

Poppo (German priest) 370populi adgravati 469(n56)‘Pornocracy’ (C10 papacy) 405, 507(n37)Portugal 157, 387post-modernism 95–6Postumus, Gallic emperor 6Potamius, bishop of Lisbon 65pottery 223Poznan 422, 424praedicatio (‘preaching’) 253Praetextatus, senator 117Praetorian Guard 3–4Praetorian Prefecture 10, 45, 216Prague 421, 423, 426principes (‘princes’) 332, 343, 499(n58)Priscian (grammarian) 221Priscus (historical writer) 48Priscus Attalus 58Probus, emperor (276–82) 6, 7, 25Procopius, usurper (365–6) 42Procopius (Byzantine historian, fl.

C6) 121–2, 124, 126–9, 131, 140, 198–200, 295, 451–3, 466–7, 487(n52), 514

Programmatic Capitulary 312–13prosopographers 167, 460(n62)Prosper (Aquitanian chronicler) 80, 85,

514Protasius, St. 66Protospatharios (Byzantine title) 426Provence xvii, 108, 112, 164, 204, 266,

270–1, 273–5, 280, 304Prudentius (Galindo), bishop of Troyes

(843–61) 315Przemyslid dukes (Bohemia) 420–3Pseudo-Clementine Epistle 71‘Pseudo-Fredegar’ 161, 459(n37)public buildings 217, 470(n91)Pulcheria, empress (wife of Marcian) 84,

89f

Qayrawan (Kairouan) 148Quadi people 43Quedlinburg annals 416Quedlinburg convent

(936–) 418Quentovic (port) 347, 352


PROOF

550 Index

Quinisext Council (692) 231–2Quintillus, emperor (270 AD) 7Qur’an 143–4Quraysh tribe 144, 145

Radbod, king of Frisians (d. 719) 258–9, 265, 266

Raedwald of East Angles (d. c.625/7) 191Raganfred, mayor of palace, Neustria

(C8) 264, 266, 269Raginpert, king of Lombard Italy

(700–1) 212f, 219Ralph, king of West Francia (923–36) 358Ramiro I, king of Asturias (842–50)

383–4, 391Ramiro II of León (931–51) 390–2Ramiro III (966–85) 392, 393ransom 354, 355, 365, 394Raoul, king of West Francia (d. 936) 341Ratchis, king (744–9) 234Rath Melsigi monastery 257–8Rather, bishop of Verona 410, 508(n57)Ravenna 56–8, 60, 83, 94, 106, 108, 118,

129–31, 202–3, 206, 212, 222, 232–4, 294, 397

captured by Lombards (751) 394imperial capital (402–50) 81

Reading (battle) 361rebels 302Reccared, king of Visigothic Spain

(586–601) 151, 154, 210conversion to Catholicism (587) 214

Rechiarius, Suevic ruler 90Recitach (d. 484), son of Theoderic

Strabo 105Reconquista 377‘refusal of power’ 292, 295Regensburg 261–2, 311–12, 421, 424Regensburg Marchfield (791) 288reges (kings) 349, 497(n22)Reggio 395Regino of Prüm (monk/chronicler)

315–16, 339, 491(n48), 495(n81), 514

regionalism 322, 325Reichenau monastery 339Reims 315, 340, 356religion 12–14, 141religious exclusivity 13, 14, 19–20, 22Remigius, bishop of Reims 110, 112Renovatio Imperii Romanorum 426Reolus, bishop of Reims 267‘Republic of St Peter’ 294, 492(n8)Reric (Baltic site) 348Res Gestae Saxonicae (Widukind of

Corvey) 415, 515rex (king) 107Rex Francorum (title) 284, 321Rex Langobardorum/king of Lombards

(title) 283–4, 321, 335Rhine frontier 5, 29, 31–6, 42–4, 59,

79–80, 83, 99, 434–5, 438(n46)Rhineland 164Rhône valley 394

Rhos (people) xviii, xxi, 369, 500(n93)Riade (battle, 933) 403Ribe bishopric 419Richard, count of Autun 357Richer of Reims 357Richomer, Frankish general 100Ricimer, MSP (457–72) 86, 87, 90–2, 94,

102, 445(n45)Ricsig, king of Northumbria

(872–3/4) 361Riddah (‘Apostasy’) 146–7Rimbert 366, 500(n88)Rimini 129‘Ring’ (Avar ceremonial centre) 288Rioja 157Riojan monastery 377Riotamus, army commander 111rioting 119, 121Ripon monastery 368Ripuarians 112, 513roads (Roman) 376Robert, count of Anjou (d. 866) 335Robert I, king of West Francia

(922–3) 341–2, 357–8‘duke of Neustria’ ( fl. 921) 357

Rochester 183, 185, 359Roda de Isábena (Pyrenean see) 377Roderic, king (710/11–711) 159–60Rodoald, king of Lombards (652–3) 212f,

470(n80)Rodríguez, J. 504–5rois fainéants 163, 264, 459(n42)Rollo xx, 357–8Romaioi (‘Romans’ of Eastern

Empire) 115, 396Roman Army 16, 25, 28–30, 44, 52, 59,

79, 86, 100, 133, 176, 437(n19)‘mysterious disappearance’ 93–4quality destroyed 46reforms by Diocletian and

Constantine 10–11Roman Empire

civil wars (363–95) 41–6, 435–6civil wars 54cultural durability 95, 99, 236, 446(n2)defence (350–95) 31–46, 434–6division into East and West (285–) 8–10economic exchange with Baltic 347educational attainment 307‘fall’ 236frontier defence (350–61) 31–6, 434–5frontier defence (Cs4–7) 352problems of administration and

defence 1–8reforms of Diocletian 8–15third century AD 301, 332rulers (364–533) 89f

Roman Empire: Eastern 14, 28, 31, 65, 93, 298

attitudes towards Frankish and Ostrogothic kingdoms (C6) 113

East–West schism 220–35, 471–4eastern neighbours 133–41, 453–5end to cultural unity 220–5, 471–2


PROOF

Index 551

longevity 97relations with Goths (C6) 117–18war with Persia and Mesopotamia

(502–5) 115, 134see also Byzantine Empire

Roman Empire: Western xxviii, 14, 25, 29–32, 53, 61, 65

‘cultural degradation’ 95‘delegated itself out of existence’ 93disappearance of administrative

structure 96end (455–80) 85–94, 444–5formal end (476–80) xiiiideological continuity 93, 95last emperors (476–80) 95‘twilight’ (518–68) xv, 114–32, 450–3

Roman generalsand barbarian kings 99–103, 446–7

Roman History (Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus) 116

Roman History (Paul the Deacon) 307Roman-Goth treaty (382) 52, 53, 54–5Romano-British population 177, 462(n21)‘Romans’ (Eastern Empire) 115Romanus I Lecapenus (920–44) xx, 403Rome

Arab raids 335attacked by Arab fleet (846) 395city 395, 406duchy 213, 234–5, 278–9, 290, 294,

474(n53)‘fall’ 94–8, 445–6Lombard attempts to capture 212–13Lombard reluctance to conquer 234–5,

474(n53)Lombard siege (593) 233miscellaneous xi, 131, 202, 222, 295,

336–7, 340–1occupied by Belisarius 128–9‘political dependency of Francia’

(C9) 320–1sacked by Vandals (455) xiii, 88, 123sacked by Visigoths (410) xiii, 57,

58–9, 60, 61–2, 70, 78, 88sieges 16, 17

Rome: catacomb of San Sebastiano 21Rome: Lateran basilica 20, 21, 70Rome: Santa Maria Antiqua church 232Rome: St Peter’s basilica 19, 20, 70Rome: Synod (680) 222Rome-Vandal treaty (442) xiii, 79, 82, 88,

91, 92, 443(n20)Rome–Vandal treaty (460) 91Romuald, duke of Benevento

(662–87) 218Romulus, emperor (deposed 476) 92–3,

291, 444(n33)Roncesvalles, second battle (824) 383Rosamund, wife of Alboin 202–3Rostovtzeff, M. I. 98Rothari, king of Lombards (636–52) xv,

205, 212f, 213–14, 216, 470Rothari’s Edict (law code, 643/4) 216–17,

470(n85–6)

Rothari, duke of Bergamo ( fl. C8) ‘briefly king’ 219Rouen 263, 268, 352, 357–8Rudolf (monk/chronicler, from Fulda, d.

865) 315Rufinus of Aquileia 65Rugi (people) 102, 106, 108, 130, 199‘Ruin’ (OE poem) 185Rule of Benedict 239–40, 250, 323,

475(n10)Rule of Master (anonymous, c.525) 239,

240, 475(n10)ruler ‘of the Greeks’ (title) 396runic inscriptions 345, 496(n5)rural areas 158, 217

royal residences 185–6Russia xxviii 369Russian steppes 236, 369, 402

Saeculum 251saga material 350, 497(n22)St Alessio monastery 426, 509(n95)St Riquier monastery (Centula) 356St Vaast monastery 356Saintonge 353Salamanca 157Salerno 395, 397–8, 403, 412Salona (battle, 535) 128Salvian 175Salzburg bishopric 262Samarra, ‘Abbasid capital (836–) xviiiSamo, Frankish adventurer 274Sampiro, chronicler 385–6, 390, 504–5,

514Sancho I Garcés, king of Navarre

(905–25) 390Sancho II Abarca of Navarre

(970–94) 392Sancho III the Great of Navarre

(1004–35) 393Sancho (based in Galicia; d. 929), son of

Ordoño II 390Sancho I the Fat, king of León (956–8,

959–67) 391–3half-brother of Ordoño III 391

Sandwich (battle, 850) 360Sardinia 123–4Sarmatians 50Sasanians 1, 5, 28, 133–41, 146, 236,

453–5Saucy (battle, 881) 356Saxons xiii, xvii, 165, 175–7, 179, 204,

206, 241, 269, 274–5, 279, 281–6, 298, 351, 462(n16, n21)

conquered by Charlemagne 293forced conversion 293, 296social and political organisation 282

Saxony 261, 286–8, 291–2, 343, 346–7, 400–4, 409, 416–17, 420, 426

ecclesiastical administration 418Scandinavia 102, 199, 236–7

evangelisation 366–70, 500–1Scheldt valley 253, 255, 257, 356Schleswig bishopric 419


PROOF

552 Index

Sciri people 101, 106Scotland 244Scriptores Historiae Augustae 3, 514sculpture 9–10, 187Scythians 47, 50Sebastian, bishop 377Sebastian, MSP (432–3) 82, 86Sebastian, usurper ( fl. 413) 80Secundus, Bishop of Trento

(d. 612) 202, 205, 209, 216, 467(n20)

Seine valley 249, 268, 352–6, 360, 365Viking stronghold regularised

(911) 357Senate 13, 19, 21–2, 24, 31, 66, 68, 88,

90, 92, 100, 107Senators 3, 6, 38, 43, 45, 57–8, 70, 83, 98,

116, 117, 127, 131Septimania (province) 153, 164–5, 280,

326, 330Septimius Severus, emperor (193–211) 2, 6Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople

( fl. 620s-30s) 140, 221–2Sergius I, pope (687–701) 231–2, 233,

258Sergius III, pope (897 and 904–11) 406,

407f, 407Seven Books of History against Pagans

(Orosius, 418) 62Seven Books of Miracles

(Gregory of Tours) 161Severans 26Severus, Western emperor (306–7) 16Severus III, emperor (Libius Severus,

461–5) 91, 445(n45)Severus Alexander

(222–35) 2–3, 13Seville 152–5, 352, 373Shapur I (241–72) xi, 5, 7, 431(n10)Shapur II (309–79) xi, 28, 36, 42Sheppey, Isle of 353, 359Sicily xviii, 128, 230, 234, 394–5, 398–9,

411, 412Sidonius Apollinaris (d. c.486) 100, 111,

514Sigebert I, king of Franks (561–75) 165,

204, 275Sigebert III, king of Austrasia

(634–56) 168, 169, 254, 256, 274, 276

illegitimate son of Dagobert I 254Sigefred, king of Denmark ( fl. 782) 351Silentiarii (overseers of court protocol) 20Silesia 422silk 136Silo, king of Asturias (774–83) 380Silos (monastery) 386Silvanus, usurper (d. 355) 33, 34, 100Silverius, pope (530s) 131Simancas (battle, 939) xx, 388, 390Simeon Stylites, saint (388–460) 77Singidunum (Belgrade) 200Sirmium 115, 200–1, 402Sisbert ( fl. 585) 152

Sisenand, king of Visigothic Spain, 631–6) 153

Sixtus III, pope (432–40) 440(n29)Skelig Michael 247slavery/slave trade 217, 243, 354–5,

365, 369, 394, 417, 419, 469(n56), 498(n43)

Slavnikid family 423Slavs xv, 50, 118, 140, 211, 230, 236–7,

254, 274, 287–8, 325, 334, 347, 349, 351, 369, 400–3, 417–18, 420, 422–3, 425, 427, 479(n79)

Soissons 186, 263Soissons: St Médard monastery 329solidus (gold coin) 165, 217, 296Sophia (abbess), daughter of Otto II 416South Saxons 179Southampton 347Spain 326

imperial enclave (551–620s) 152, 153Islam 156–7last of Roman emperors to visit

(460) 91links with Ireland 248, 478(n53)miscellaneous xvii, xxv, 6, 28, 44, 60,

79, 81, 90, 97, 102–3, 108, 112, 131, 150, 161–3, 176, 209, 214, 220–1, 223, 293, 352–4

Muslim conquest xvi, 148, 151, 159–60, 224–5

northern kingdoms (c.718–910) 376–85, 502–4

population migration 375–6Visigothic kingdom (c.589–711) 151–

60, 371, 377, 457–9western frontiers of Christendom

(711–1037) 371–93, 501–5see also Al-Andalus

Spitignevo (Bohemian leader) 421Spoleto (duchy) 131, 205, 206, 212, 214,

234, 284, 294, 405conquered by Berengar II (959) 408

‘state’ 428‘stem-duchies’ 401Stephanus, author 257, 480(n91), 515Stephen I, king of Hungary

(1001–38) 425Stephen I, pope/bishop of Rome

(254–7) 68–9Stephen II, pope (752–7) 235, 278, 293Stephen III, pope 280Stephen IV, pope (816–17) 319Stephen V (VI), pope (885–91) 340Stephen VI (VII), pope 340–1Stephen the Younger (ascetic,

d. 765) 230, 473(n38)Stilicho, MSP (395–408) xii, 53, 54–7, 58,

86–7, 437–8Stilo, Calabria (battle, 982) 413Strasbourg (battle) 34(map), 35Suabia (Alamannia) 343, 400, 404sub-kings 245–6substantiae 208, 469(n59)


PROOF

Index 553

succession conflicts 25–30Suetonius 317Sueves/Suevi 59, 82, 90, 101–3, 152, 162,

206, 251, 283, 457(n7)Suinthila, king of Visigothic Spain

(621–31) 153Sulpicius Severus 251sun god 19–20supply and demand 11Sussex 191Sutton Hoo 191, 347, 449(n50),

497(n15)Sventopulk I, ruler of Moravia (c.869–

93) 420Sweden/Swedes 344, 347, 349, 366–7, 417Sweden: Vendel kingdom 344Swithberht, bishop of Frisia 258Syagrius, son of Aegidius 112Syburg (Frankish fort) 281, 2 82Sylvester I, pope (314–35) 20, 396, 424Sylvester II, pope (999–1003) 414, 424–5,

427previously Gerbert, abbot of

Bobbio 414‘Symeon of Durham’ 195, 514Symmachi family 61Symmachus, pope

(498–514) 406Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius, pagan

orator (C4) 66, 116, 121Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius Memmius

(C5) 116–17Syracuse (Sicily) xvi, 218, 398Syria xvii, 74, 76–7, 136, 148–9, 224, 373,

411, 442(n51)monasticism 244, 247Muslim conquest (635) 147

Syrians (in Spain) 372

Tacitus, emperor (275–6) 6, 7Tacitus, historian 29, 107, 199Tamarón (battle) 393Taranto 395, 413Tarbert (Easter Ross) 181Tarraconensis province (Spain) 79, 90Tassilo III, duke of Bavarians (deposed

788) 273, 280, 287–8, 399taxation 132, 135, 150, 162–3, 207–9,

229, 233–4, 361, 401, 428Teias, successor to Baduila 130–1telonea (customs duties) 170Ten Books of History (Gregory of

Tours) 109–10, 160–1, 449, 459(n31), 512

Tertry (battle, 687) xvi, 170, 172, 276Tertullian 68Tetrarchic system 9–10, 16–19, 22, 24,

26, 29Tetricus 6Thames valley 364Thanet 353Thankmar, half-brother of Otto I 404Thegan, auxiliary bishop of Trier 317,

491(n51), 514

Themes (military commands) 229–30, 398

Theodebert II ( fl. 604) 218Theodehad, king of Ostrogothic Italy

(534–6) 127–9, 212fTheodelinda (d. of duke Garibald of

Bavaria) 210–13, 215Theoderic I, king of Visigothic Toulouse

(418/19–51) 81, 83–4, 88Theoderic II, king (453–6) 88, 90Theoderic ‘the Amal’, Ostrogothic king of

Italy (493–526) 102, 105–9, 110, 112–18, 126–7, 162, 199–200, 203, 212f, 213, 216, 291, 295

ancestry 103–4‘Master of Soldiers’ (476/7–8, 483–7) 107‘MSP’ (476, 477–8) 86son of Theodemer 105visit to Rome (500 AD) 108

Theoderic Strabo, ‘the Squinter’ (d. 481) 105, 106, 200, 452(n38)

MSP (474–9) 86Theodora, empress

(d. 548) 406, 407fMonophysite 139wife of Justinian I 120f, 122

Theodore, pope (642–9) 224Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of

Canterbury (669–90) 221–2, 257Theodosian Code 99–100, 216, 511Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) 235Theodosius I, emperor (379–95) xii,

44–5, 46, 52–4, 56, 62, 65, 66–7, 87, 89f, 100, 126, 324, 437(n22), 439(n4), 493(n25)

Theodosius II, emperor (402–50) 73, 77, 81, 84, 87, 89f, 101, 134

Theodulf, bishop of Orleans (798–818; d. 821) 289, 308, 323, 485–6, 489(n18), 492(n18)

Theophanes (chronicler), abbot of Megas Agros (d 818) 226, 228, 230, 289–90, 473–4, 514

Theophanu, empress (d. 991) 423daughter of John I Tzimisces 413regent for Otto III 414

Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria (385–412) 71–2

Theophilus, emperor (829–42), 397, 500–1(n93)

Theophylact the ‘consul’ (d. 920) 406, 407f

Theophylact, exarch ( fl. early C8) 232Theophylact Simocatta 140, 200, 514Theoto, duke of Bavaria

(d. 717) 262, 481(n106)Theotpert, duke of Bavarians 219thermo-luminescence dating 156Thérouanne 356Theruingi 42, 48–51, 53, 55Thessalonica 24, 67Thetford 361Theudebald, king of Franks

(548–55) 131, 165


PROOF

554 Index

Theudebert I, king of Franks (533–48) 131, 165, 203, 453(n74)

Theudebert II, Merovingian king (596–612) 168, 275

Theuderic I, king of Franks (d. 533) 165son of Clovis 164

Theuderic II, king of Austrasia (596–613) 248, 254, 275

Theuderic III, Merovingian king (673, 675–690/1) 168, 170

Theuderic IV, Merovingian king (721/2–37) 266

Theudoald (d. 741)‘infant’ mayor of palace in Neustria

(714–717/18) 264–5, 265f, 268son of Grimoald (d. 714) 265f

Thietmar, bishop of Merseburg (1009–18) 415–16, 422–4, 426, 508–9, 514

Thietrich (Theoderic), warden of Saxon North March (965–85) 422

Thionville 313Thorismund, King (Visigothic Toulouse,

451–3) 84Thrace xxi, 230Thrasamund, Vandal king (496–523) 89f,

108, 125, 126Three Chapters Controversy 215, 220,

470(n77), 471(n3)Thuringia 108, 212f, 259, 261, 343, 400,

402–3Thuringians xv, 111, 112, 165, 269,

274–6, 296, 298Tiberius II (578–82) 201tin 222–3Tingitana 1Tintagel 223, 472(n12)Tírechán 242tituli 70Toda, queen (regent of Navarre) 391, 392Tolbiac (battle, 506) 112Toledo 225, 372, 379

Church councils 153–4Muslim conquest 160special status (urbs regia) 371supremacy of see within Spain 154–5

Toledo: church of Santa María de Melque 156, 458(n20)

Toledo: synod (580) 152–3Toledo: Third Council (589) xiv, 151,

154, 214Toledo: Fourth Council (633) 154Toledo: Fourteenth Council (684) 222tolls 348Tolmo de Minateda (Albacete

province) 158Tome of Leo I 73–4Totila (same as ‘Baduila’) 130Toulouse 80, 83, 88, 112, 332, 352–3Tournai 111Tours: monastery of St Martin 327towns 183–5, 217, 245, 250, 285, 354,

360–1, 463–4(n46)

‘cities’ 13–14, 139functions 185pressure to convert to Islam 374‘urban life’ 96, 121‘urban self-government’ 304–5, 488(n4)

trade 96, 141, 222–3, 369Trajan Decius

(249–51) see Decius‘Transductine Promontories’ (battle) 160Trebonianus Gallus, emperor

(251–3) 4–5, 6, 25Trento 202Tribal Hudeage 188, 464(n56)Tribonian the Quaestor

( fl. C6) 121tributarii (‘taxpayer’) 207Trier 20, 24, 64, 317Trinity doctrine 71Tripartite Life (of Patrick, c.895/900) 242Troyes 315Troyes (battle, 451) 84tuath 246Tudela 384Tunisia xviii, xxi, 148, 372, 375, 411,

412Turin 219Type (Constans II, 648) 222, 232

Uldin, Hun khan 56‘Umar, caliph (634–44) xv, 147Umayyads xv, 156, 284–5, 326, 372–4,

380–1, 383–4, 386, 388, 390, 392amirate in Spain (f. 756), xvii, 394cease to be caliphs (Syria, 750) xvii,

235, 373Ungari (Hungarians) 402Uppsala 344Urraca, spouse of Ordoño III and IV and

of Sancho II 392Usdibad (Gepid king) 201‘Uthman, caliph (644–56) 143Utrecht (Traiectum) 258Uzès diocese 255

Vaclav (Wenceslas), prince (d. c.935) 421

‘vagrant monks’ 251, 479(n64)Vahram VI (first non-Sasanian ruler,

590–1) 138Valamer, Ostrogothic leader 105Valens, emperor (364–78) xii, 42–3, 49,

51–2, 64–5, 89fValentinian I, emperor (364–75) xii,

42–3, 65–6, 89fValentinian II, Western emperor

(375–92) 43–5, 66, 100Valentinian III, Western emperor

(425–55) xiii, 81–3, 85, 87–8, 89f, 92, 117, 126, 174

Valerian (r 253–60) xi, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 25, 431(n10)

Valerius Valens (co-emperor, 314) 23Valerius, hermit of Bierzo 157Valkas, shah (484–8) 134


PROOF

Index 555

Vandals 59, 80, 82, 90, 97, 100, 102–3, 108, 122, 220, 283, 348, 462(n16)

invasion of North Africa (429) xiii, 78–9

Justinian’s expedition (533–4) 123–7kings 89fVandal piracy 123treaty with Rome (442) xiii, 79, 82, 88,

91–2, 443(n20)sack of Rome (455) xiii, 88, 123

Vasconia, counts of 275Vegetius 445–6(n58), 514Vendel (Sweden) 347Venetia 131, 234Vennianus (C6) 477(n37)Verden massacre 286Verdun Treaty (843) xviii, 331–2, 337,

399, 401, 494(n52)Vermandois, count of 358Vermudo I, ‘the Monk’, king of Asturias

(788–91) 381, 383, 391Vermudo II, ‘the Gouty’ (982–99) 385,

393Vermudo III (1027–37) 393Verona 108, 201, 202, 410, 413Verulamium (St Albans) 185Vetranio, imperial claimant ( fl. 350)

31, 33Vicarii (count’s deputies) 170Vicarii (deputy praetorian prefects) 10vici (trading centres) 347Victor, bishop of Vita ( fl. 500) 125Victor, bishop of Tunnunna (Tunis),

chronicler 221Victoricus 243Victorinus 6Vienne 342Vigilius, pope (mid-C6) 215Vik region (Norway) 344Vikings

and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms xxi, 359–65, 499–500

bases 353–4complexity 346conversion and expansion 366–70,

500–1conversion to Christianity 357–8, 365,

366–70, 500–1destructiveness 344–5, 496(n2)first wintering in Britain (850/1) xviiiand Francia xix, 351–9, 498–9‘Great Army’ 360–5miscellaneous 194, 196, 279, 316, 318,

334, 338, 340, 343, 394–5, 422motivation 345–6, 497(n9)numbers of ships involved in raids 352permanent settlements 355, 357, 358,

363–5raiders and traders 344–51, 496–8‘rather misleading name’ 344sack of Bordeaux (848) 332territory exchanged for military

assistance 358wars and conquests (865–79) 197

Vimara, brother of Fruela I 380Vinchy (battle, 717) 266Vinniau 180, 248, 478(n50)Virgil, bishop of Salzburg 261Visigoths xii, xiii, 49, 53–6, 80, 82–4,

88–92, 102, 110, 114, 176, 213–14, 437(n22)

kings 89f, 278sack of Rome (410) 57, 58–9, 60settlement in Aquitaine (418/419) 79,

443(n5)Spain 381–2, 384

Vita Amandi see Life of AmandusVitalian, MSP (518–20) 86Vitalian, pope (657–72) 221Vivarium monastery (south Italy) 239Vladimir, ruler of Kiev

(c.980–c.1015) xxi, 370Volga valley 369–70Völkerwanderungzeit/Age of Migrations 47,

96, 102–3, 467(n25)Volusian, emperor (251–3) 5, 25Vortipor, ruler of Demetae (mid-C6)

176Vouillé (battle, 507) xiii, 112

Waco, king of Lombards (d. c.540) 210Waiofar, duke of Aquitaine (745–68) 279,

280Wala, count 310

abbot of Corbie (826–) 324, 325Walcheren 352, 358Wales xxi, 176, 179–80, 188–9, 196–7,

364, 462(n21)Welsh-language poetry 174–5,

462(n9–11)wali (governor) 372Wallia, king of Visigothic Toulouse

(415–18) 83, 90Wamba, king of Visigothic Spain

(672–80) xvi, 155, 159Wandregisel 249Waratto, mayor of palace (Neustria,

680s) 268Wareham 362Warendorf 282warlords (fifth century) 79–98, 443–6Wearmouth: monastery of St Peter 186,

187Welf, count of Bavaria 322Wends (people) 274, 276, 417Werla (fortress) 403Weser valley 281Wessex xix, xx, 177–9, 188–9, 191–2,

194–7, 251, 346, 360–3, 364, 367, 383, 421, 509(n102)

‘first dynasty’ 462(n22)historiography 195, 196–7Viking raids (835–) xviii

Westphalian Saxons 281–2, 285Whig Interpretation of History 163Whitby: monastery 186, 187Whitby: Synod (663/4) xv, 186, 257,

464(n49)


PROOF

556 Index

Whithorn 180, 182Wicgeanbeorg (battle, 850) 360Wickham, C. 467–8, 470–1Widukind, Saxon leader 286, 287, 400Widukind of Corvey, historian 415, 515Wielbark culture 48, 50Wigbert, bishop of Merseburg

(1004–9) 415Wiglaf, king of Mercia (827–41) 196Wilfred, bishop of York (d. 709) 186,

257, 258, 368, 480Willibrord 258–61, 480Wilton (battle) 361Wiltzi (Liutzi) 417, 420Winwaed River (battle, 655) 189Witizla (Bohemian leader) 421Wittigis (r 536–40) 129–32, 164Wittiza, king of Visigothic Spain

(693/4–710) 159Wittiza (Benedict of Aniane, d. 821) 323,

494(n22)Wood, I. xxivWorcester, see of 368Worms 288Worms: assembly (787) 287Worms: assembly (839) 329Wroclaw 424Wroxeter 185Wulfheard, ealdorman 360

Wulfhere, king of Mercia (r. 658–74) 190

Wynfrith see Boniface

Yarmuk (battle, 636) xv, 147Yazdgard III (632–51) xv, 147Yazid II (720–4) 227–8, 473(n27)‘Years of Anarchy’ 5–6Yeavering 186, 264(n47)Yemen 136–7, 146York xix, xx, 183–5, 194, 196, 257, 308,

361, 368Yusuf al-Fikri (Al-Andalus) 380

Zachariah of Mitylene (chronicler) 134Zacharias, pope (741–52) 233, 234, 277Zamora 386Zaragoza 91, 159, 284–5, 326, 371Zeitz 419Zeno (474–91) xiii, 102, 106, 114–16,

122–3, 134, 452(n38)MSP (473–4) 86Zeno (Tarasis, son of Codissa) 87

Zirid kingdom (Tunisia) xxiZoroastrianism 133, 137, 141, 236Zosimus 24, 515Zwentibald of Moravia (c.869–93) 420Zwentibold, king of Lotharingia

(895–900) 333f, 341, 399, 400


PROOF

Documents

Contents...the sack of Rome, 378–410 47 ‘The coming of the Huns’ 47 The Goths and the Empire, 376–95 51 Stilicho or Honorius? Alternative strategies, 395–410 54 5 A divided