Content · population density of wildlife and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used, increasing their interaction, thus resulting in increased physical conﬂ ict

ContentWild Life1. .............................................................. 06-32

Man-Animal Confl icts in India .................................................................................. 6

Critical Wildlife Habitat ............................................................................................. 8

Poaching Activities in India ......................................................................................10

Tiger Conservation ..................................................................................................12

Bengal Tigers may not Survive Climate Change .........................................................15

Elephant Conservation ............................................................................................16

Eco-Bridges & Bio-Diversity Management .................................................................18

Use of Drones for Wildlife Conservation ...................................................................20

Urban Land Acting as Death Trap for Birds ................................................................21

International Treaties for Wildlife Conservation .................................................................23

Sunderban Mangroves at Risk ..................................................................................25

Protect the Little Helpers: Concern Over Declining Population of Pollinators ..............26

DNA Forensics Providing Greater Convictions in Wildlife Crime .................................30

Combatin2. g Pollution .............................................. 33-68 Indoor Air Pollution and Its Impact. ..........................................................................33

Beach (Coastal) Pollution ........................................................................................35

Arsenic Contamination in Ground water ....................................................................36

Impact of Particulate Matter ....................................................................................38

Smog and Its Impact ...............................................................................................39

Aerosols Shrinking India’s Monsoon .........................................................................41

Light Pollution.........................................................................................................42

Plastic Pollution ......................................................................................................43

Idol Immersion & Pollution .......................................................................................46

Stubble Burning and its Impact ................................................................................48

Uranium Contamination ...........................................................................................51

Heavy Metal Water Pollution ....................................................................................52

Oil Spill ...................................................................................................................54

E-waste Management Rules 2016 ............................................................................56

E-waste as Treasure ................................................................................................56 Garbage Dumping and its Environmental Impact .......................................................59 Groundwater Contamination ....................................................................................62 Bharat Stage Norms ................................................................................................63 What is Polluters Pay Model? ...................................................................................64 Pesticide Management Bill, 2017 .............................................................................65 Lancet Study Report: Most Pollution Linked Deaths Occur in India .............................67

Climate Change3. .................................................. 69-114 23rd Conference of Parties (cop-23 at Bonn) .............................................................69 UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic Framework ...................................................................70 Third Pole and Climate Change ................................................................................72 Scientists Explore Geo-Engineering Technique to Curb Global Warming ......................73 Marrakech Climate Change Conference .......................................................................................74 Global Cooling Coalition .......................................................................................75 Paris Agreement .....................................................................................................77 US Moved out of Paris Agreement ............................................................................78 Outcome of 24th Session of Conference of Parties (COP) ............................................. 78 Kigali Agreement .....................................................................................................82 Kyoto Protocol (2nd Commitment 2013-20) ................................................................83 International Solar Alliance ......................................................................................84 Concept of Green Bond ............................................................................................85 Green Climate Fund .................................................................................................86 Accounting Methods of Climate Fund Questioned .....................................................87 Carbon Tax Feasibility in India..................................................................................88 Concept of Green Building .......................................................................................89 Concept of Carbon Credit ........................................................................................90 IPCC Report 2018 ....................................................................................................92 Climate Change and Cities .......................................................................................96Climate Change and its Impact on Human Health .....................................................97 Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture .................................................................98 Ocean Warming .....................................................................................................100 Climate Change and Sea Level Rise .......................................................................104 Melting of Gangotri Glacier and its Impact ..............................................................106 Programmes and policies Initiated for Mitigating Climate Change by India ...............107 International Collaboration for Mitigating Climate Change .......................................109 Ethical Issue Involved in Climate Change ...............................................................110 India’s Response to Climate Change: Challenges and Way forward ...........................111

Renewabl4. e Energy ..............................................115-126 Biogas ..................................................................................................................115 National Solar Mission ..........................................................................................117

Status of Hydro Power Energy ................................................................................118

Alternative Fuels in India .......................................................................................120

Critical Analysis of Draft Energy Policy ...................................................................122

Photo-Voltaic Industry and CPSU Scheme ...............................................................124

Environmental Conservation5. ................................127-157 Compensatory Afforestation Funds Act ..................................................................127

Western Ghats Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges, Threats & Conservation Steps 129

Island Protection Zone (2019) Notifi cation for Andaman and Nicobar Islands ..........133

Draft National Wildlife Action Plan .........................................................................134

2017 Wetland Rules: Critical Analysis .....................................................................135

Initiatives to Enhance Green Cover .........................................................................137

Policy on Promotion of City Compost ..............................................................................139

Depleting Water Resources in India .......................................................................141

Ancient Bawadis and Water Management ................................................................................ 144

Living Status to Rivers ...........................................................................................146

Ganga River Pollution ............................................................................................148

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ........................................................................150

Environmental Compliance and Enforcement in India ..............................................153

Public Participation for Environmental Conservation ...............................................155

Environmental Institutions6. ...................................158-169 Pollution Control Board: Analysis ...........................................................................158

The 25 Year Environment Plan ...............................................................................159

National Green Tribunal: analysis ...........................................................................161

Supreme Court’s verdict on Forests Rights Act, 2006 ...............................................162

Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee .............................................................164

Traditional Knowledge Digital Library .....................................................................166

India State of Forest Report 2017 ...........................................................................167

Miscellaneous Environmental Issues7. .....................170-183 Impacts of Dam on Fishing ....................................................................................170

EnviStats-India 2019 ..............................................................................................171

Issue of Land Degradation .....................................................................................173

Algal Bloom Issue .................................................................................................175

Melting of Antarctic and its Impact ........................................................................176

River Linking Project .............................................................................................178

Illegalities in Beach Sand Mining ............................................................................179

Bottom Trawling to Deep Sea Fishing: Sustainable Fishing ......................................181

Mass Coral Bleaching ............................................................................................182

6 www.iasscore.in ENVIRONMENT

QUALITY IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMME

Man-Animal Conflicts in India Man-Animal confl ict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when growing human populations overlap with established wildlife territory, creating reduction of resources or life to some people and/or wild animals. The confl ict takes many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to humans, and animals both wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources to loss and degradation of habitat.

Animals like elephant, tiger, leopard, wild dog, monkey, wild boar; Nilgai, bear, sambar deer, etc. are major animals involved in human-animal confl ict in India.

Data:

Data presented in Parliament showed that 1,360 people were killed by tigers and elephants in the last three years, higher than human fatalities in Maoist red zones.

This was about a 20-25% increase in human deaths by the two dominant species compared to the previous three years (2010-2013), as the confl ict zone spread to new areas in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Odisha.

It is not that only people are getting killed. Animals, too, are at the receiving end of this confl ict. Data shows that for every four people killed, an endangered animal is also lost. As many as 189 elephants and around 110 tigers were killed in man-animal confl ict zones between 2012 and 2015, according to latest government data. Many animals were captured and summarily sentenced to a life inside enclosures, which animal activists say is the cruelest form of punishment to be given to animals born free.

Causes of Man-Animal Confl ict

The primary cause of wildlife-human confl icts is the loss, degradation and fragmentation of many wildlife habitats, thereby increasing the chances of wild animals moving out of natural habitat and encountering cultivation and people.

Land-use change outside forest areas, with irrigation from tube wells and canals aiding the cultivation of crops for longer time periods which may also attract animals such as elephants.

Adverse climatic events such as droughts have been implicated in increased confl icts between lions and people as well an elephants and people.

Wildlife species are also impacted by accidental deaths due to development of infrastructures, such as railway lines, roads, etc. Confl ict-related mortality of wildlife does not bode well for conservation.

Such confl ict situations generally lead to growing antipathy among the people towards wildlife conservation resulting in retaliatory killings or injuries to animals.

1. WILD LIFE

7ENVIRONMENT www.iasscore.in


Impact of Man-Animal Confl ict in India In India, man-animal confl ict is seen across the country in a variety of forms, including monkey menace in the urban areas, crop raiding by ungulates and wild pigs, depredation by elephants, and cattle and human killing by tigers and leopards.The major outcomes of the man-animal confl ict are:

Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife. Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of managed wildlife stock. Damage to human property. Trophic cascades. Destruction of habitat. Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of geographic ranges.

Steps needed to tackle Man Animal Confl icts Early Warning system - In order to mitigate that early help is signifi cant. Such system is successfully deployed by Tamil Nadu forest department in Valparai region of the state. With the use of technology such as television, bulk sms services, elephant alert indicators, broadcast system in public transport people are informed about the location of elephants so that they can plan accordingly to avoid confl icts.Restoration of habitats - As a long term measure, restoration of already degraded habitats is of utmost necessity. Protection and proper management planning should be immediately made to foster natural regeneration of forest. Communities living within or near forest can be an essential component of forest conservation, by actively engaging with forest management activities and defending their territories against poachers and loggers. Involvement of community - Involvement of the local community in minimizing elephant depredation and managing the critical issues of HEC could be strong initiative in the fringe areas. Improving the livelihood security, introduction of alternative living options and improved agricultural practices will reduce the pressure for annual land expansion too, which should in turn reduce the need for forest clearance.Conservation education and awareness - Eco-development initiatives need to be encouraged in the fringe villages, along with a series of conservation education and awareness programmes. Elephant deterrent cash crops - The alternative elephant deterrent cash crop concept could be a promising move towards minimizing the confl ict. Speeding up compensation process - the compensation process should be prompt for loss of life and property. This will help to get back the lost faith of the local community to the forest department.

Recently Animals have been declared as vermin to reduce man-animal confl ict Recently the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has declared Wild Pig (sus scrofa) as vermin in Uttarakhand for a year. The state of Uttarakhand has reported harm to life and property, including large-scale destruction of agriculture, due to overpopulation of wild pig in areas outside forests. The central government has considered it necessary to balance local population of this species to mitigate the damage to human life, crops and other properties of the state for ensuring conservation of wildlife in forests. Wild pigs are a protected species under Schedule III of the Wildlife (Protection) Act).

How IT is used in Mitigating Man-Animal confl icts? Some devices of Information Technology, viz., Radio Collars with Very High Frequency, Global Positioning System and Satellite uplink facilities, are being used by the research institutions to monitor the movement of Lions, Tigers, Elephants, Olive Ridley Turtles, and other wild animals to understand their movements and their pattern of the habitat.



Legal & Ethical issue According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, a wild animal can also be deprived of its life and personal liberty just like Article 21 of the Constitution, which states that “no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”As human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in confl ict. The population density of wildlife and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used, increasing their interaction, thus resulting in increased physical confl ict. Byproducts of human existence offer un-natural opportunity for wildlife in the form of food and sheltered interference and potentially destructive threat for both man and animals. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such as fi sh and grassland pasture.

Critical Wildlife HabitatCONTEXT:

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA) in March 2018 decided to participate indirectly through Chief Principal Secretaries in states in Expert Committee for determination of Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH). Before this Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC) came up with guidelines for determination and notifi cation of CWH within national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Through this MoTA made it clear that it has accepted the guidelines.This raised concerns with the forest rights activists, who are criticizing this decision to accept MoEF&CC’s guidelines without inviting comments from public.

What is Critical Wild Life Habitat CWHs ? Forest Rights Act defi nes CWHs as ‘ areas of national parks and sanctuaries where it has been specifi cally and clearly established, case by case, on the basis of scientifi c and objective criteria, that such areas are required to be kept as inviolate for the purposes of wildlife conservation’. The Act requires state governments to establish that the presence of right-holders is causing irreversible damage to wildlife and their habitats. Only when its established that coexistence between right holders and wildlife was not reasonably possible, the areas should be notifi ed as such.

How both ministries got involved? Section 2 (b) of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) identifi es MoEF&CC to issue guidelines on CWH, while Ministry of Tribal Affairs is the authority for FRA.

Issues: Guidelines in March included states’ participation in the process but eliminated the scope for discussions with public. This can lead to denial of respresentation to traditional forest dwellers infringing upon their rights to land there.In the existing guidelines, CWH notifi cation does not stand any public scrutiny once ‘open consultations’ have been carried out. This is in contrast to the notifi cation of Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZ) around protected areas, where the draft notifi cation of every ESZ is put in public domain for 60 days before it is fi nalized.The Delay - After more than a decade of FRA coming into existence , not a single CWH had been notifi ed creating dissatisfaction among wildlife conservation groups.For instance in 2014, Mumbai-based non-profi t, Vanashakti fi led a PIL in the Bombay High Court against the Maharashtra forest department for failing to demarcate a single Protected Area in the state as a CWH.



Even though over 72 lakh ha of forestland has been granted under the FRA since 2008, not one hectare of Critical Wildlife Habitat has been notifi ed.

The Role of NTCA- In March 2017, the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) denied forest rights in critical tiger habitats (core areas of tiger reserves) by issuing an order in the absence of CWH guidelines.Forest rights activists versus Wildlife Conservation Groups- Forest rights activists see the guidelines as a dilution of FRA.The guidelines have surpassed the informed consent of the Gram Sabha (required under Rule 4(1)(e) of FRA).Environment conservationists’ viewpoint- Habitat fragmentation or breaking up of large forest blocks into smaller pieces giving out to forest dwellers is a threat to long-term conservation of forests and biodiversity. Hence, the need of Critical Wildlife Habitat for conservation.

Key Features of the Guidelines: The Chief Wildlife Warden of a state will notify an Expert Committee to identify critical wildlife habitats (CWH) in a national park or sanctuary.The Expert Committee will identify areas within national parks and sanctuaries, based on scientifi c and objective criteria relevant to the protected area, required to be kept inviolate for the purpose of wildlife conservation.The Expert Committee shall issue a public notice on the intention to notify CWH. The public notice shall include details of areas required to be kept inviolate, criteria adopted for CWH identifi cation, implication of the notifi cation on existing rights, and all options of resettlement and rehabilitation schemes, if applicable.The Expert Committee shall carry out open consultations with all stakeholders, and the proceedings of the consultations, especially the objections, will be documented appropriately.The committee will submit the CWH proposal to the Chief Wildlife Warden. The decision on the proposal will taken by the Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife. A MoTA representative would be invited during the deliberation of the proposal by the standing committee. Following the committee’s recommendation, the notifi cation of CWH will be published in the offi cial gazette.

Critical ‘tiger’ habitats (CTHs) v/s Critical ‘wildlife’ habitats (CWLHs) Critical ‘tiger’ habitats (CTHs) are known as core areas of tiger reserves which are identifi ed under the Wild Life Protection Act (WLPA), 1972 based on scientifi c evidence that “such areas are required to be kept as inviolate for the purpose of tiger conservation, without affecting the rights of the Scheduled Tribes or such other forest dwellers”.The Section 38V (5) of WLPA, 1972 states: “…no Scheduled Tribes or other forest dwellers shall be resettled or have their rights adversely affected for the purpose of creating inviolate areas for tiger conservation unless the process of recognition and determination of rights and acquisition of land or forest rights of the Scheduled Tribes and such other forest dwelling persons is complete”.Critical ‘wildlife’ habitats (CWLHs)are defi ned only in the Forest Rights Act, 2006. Unlike CTHs, the notifi cation of CWLHs is done with the consent of the Gram Sabhas and stakeholders which are affected. After notifi cation, the forest rights in CWLHs can be resettled .These two processes are independent of each other and settlement of forest rights comes at different stages.

SC views and Implications The Supreme Court in its February 2019 order said forest lands should be recovered from bogus claimants whose claims stand rejected. It has not directed any action against claimants who have been granted titles by Ministry of Tribal affairs.



The FRA recognizes pre-existing forest rights only and thus it is not a land grant or land distribution act. Only those people in occupation of forest land as on 13th December 2005 are eligible. Further, people belonging to Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) category have to establish a continuous 75-year occupation for eligibility.

WAY FORWARDIdentifi cation of CriticalWildlife Habitats (CWH) needs to be based on sound knowledge and democratic processes which should not be hurried but time-bound.

The criteria for identifi cationshould involve factors related to ecosystems and species.

Committees for identifi cation of CWHs be set up both at the level of the state and of the Protected Area and its landscape and involve local experts.

Impact assessment must be in consultation with the people to be affected.

Co-existence and cultural model of conservation needs to be understood better and applied as conservation measure.

Cultural model of Conservation Best Practices: It respects for the right of indigenous people and makes use of their traditional knowledge for conservation. For eg.Chenchu tribe of Andhra Pradesh is involved in tiger conservation at NagarjunasagarSrisailam Tiger Reserve.

7. Where co-existence is not possible, relocation options with appropriate processes of consultation and consent should be followed.

8. Some suggest that defi nition of inviolate areas should be suitably modifi ed to allow minimal human activity which is not a threat to species or ecological communities.

Poaching Activities in IndiaPoaching is the illegal hunting, killing or capturing of animals. People poach because animal products, such as hide, ivory, horn, teeth and bone, are sold to dealers who make clothes, jewelry and other materials from them.

What is Poaching and what are its motives? The key motives for poaching are the lack of employment opportunities, poverty and a limited potential for agriculture and livestock production. This combined with commercial value of animal body parts and meat creates incentives for poaching.

Body parts of wildlife are also in demand for traditional medicine and ceremonies.

Another major cause of poaching is due to the cultural high demand of wildlife products, such as ivory, that are seen as symbols of status and wealth.

Deep-seated cultural beliefs also provide a motive for poaching.

Traditional Chinese medicine often incorporates ingredients from all parts of plants, the leaf, stem, fl ower, root, and also ingredients from animals and minerals.

Effects of poaching The detrimental effects of poaching can include:

Loss of forests - Predators, herbivores and fruit-eating vertebrates cannot recover as fast as they are removed from a forest; as their populations decline, the pattern of seed predation and dispersal is altered.Reduction of animal populations in the wild and possible extinction.The effective size of protected areas is reduced as poachers use the edges of these areas as open-access for resources.



Wildlife tourism destinations face a negative publicity and employment opportunities are reduced.Emergence of diseases caused by transmission of highly variable retrovirus chains. For ex. Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in the Congo Basin and in Gabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering of apes and consumption of their meat. The illegal ivory trade has been linked to terrorist organizations like Boko Haram for terror fi nancing.

International Efforts against poaching Globally, efforts to address poaching and wildlife traffi cking have evolved over time and are focused upon reducing both the supply and demand aspects of the illegal wildlife trade. Both governmental and non-governmental organizations are actively engaged on the ground and overseas in efforts to prevent poaching and wildlife traffi cking. Some positive steps undertaken by International community are:

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora , also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention was opened for signature in 1973 and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. Its aim to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants.The UN Offi ce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the leading department working on issues related to wildlife and forest crime. In 2010, UNODC and 4 other International bodies formed an International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC). ICCWC’s mission is to strengthen criminal justice system and provide coordinated support at national, regional and international level to combat wildlife and forest crime.In September 2016, United States and China agreed on working together to enact “nearly complete bans” on the import and export of ivory. It is especially signifi cant for China because the Chinese government itself controls - and for years essentially encouraged - the ivory trade in the country.

Action Taken by India to Check Poaching Activities Hunting and commercial exploitation of wild animals included in various schedules of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 is prohibited. Offences committed in respect of these species attract punishment prescribed under the Act. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, has been amended and made more stringent. The punishments for offences have been enhanced. The Act also provides for forfeiture of any equipment, vehicle or weapon that is used for committing wildlife offence(s). Protected Areas, viz., National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves covering important wildlife habitats have been created all over the country under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to conserve wild animals and their habitats. Financial and technical assistance is provided to the State/Union Territory Governments under the Centrally Sponsored Schemes of ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’ and ‘Project Elephant’ for providing better protection to wildlife and improvement of its habitat. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to apprehend and prosecute wildlife offenders. The State/Union Territory Governments have been requested to strengthen the fi eld formations and intensify patrolling in and around the Protected Areas. National Tiger Conservation Authority has been constituted for strengthening tiger conservation by, inter alia, ensuring normative standards in tiger reserve management, preparation of reserve



specifi c tiger conservation plan, laying down annual audit report before Parliament, constituting State level Steering Committees under the Chairmanship of Chief Ministers and establishment of Tiger Conservation Foundation.

India has a bilateral understanding with Nepal on controlling trans-boundary illegal trade in wildlife and conservation, apart from a protocol on tiger conservation with China. A protocol has also been signed in September, 2011 with Bangladesh for conservation of the Royal Bengal Tiger of the Sunderbans.

A sub-group on tiger/leopard conservation has been constituted for cooperation with the Russian Federation.

A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing international issues related to tiger conservation.

Role and Mandate of Wildlife Crime Control Bureau In India Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been formed in 2007, by amending the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, a special Act to protect the wildlife in the country. The bureau would complement the efforts of the state governments, primary enforcers of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and other enforcement agencies of the country.

It is mandated to collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime activities and to disseminate the same to State and other enforcement agencies for immediate action so as to apprehend the criminals; to establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank; co-ordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement of the provisions of the Act; assist foreign authorities and international organization concerned to facilitate co-ordination and universal action for wildlife crime control; capacity building of the wildlife crime enforcement agencies for scientifi c and professional investigation into wildlife crimes and assist State Governments to ensure success in prosecutions related to wildlife crimes; and advise the Government of India on issues relating to wildlife crimes having national and international ramifi cations, relevant policy and laws. It also assists and advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the consignments of fl ora & fauna as per the provisions of Wild Life Protection Act, CITES and EXIM Policy governing such an item.

Tiger ConservationTigers are terminal consumers in the ecological food pyramid, and their conservation results in the conservation of all trophic levels in an ecosystem. Considering this fact Project Tiger, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Government of India, was launched on the 1st of April, 1973 for in-situ conservation of wild tigers in designated tiger reserves. Under this project the strategy involves exclusive tiger agenda in the core/critical tiger habitat, inclusive people-wildlife agenda in the outer buffer, besides fostering the latter agenda in the corridors.

How Development Process can lead to Tiger Extinction? Like other large carnivores, tigers require vast swathes of jungle to hunt and thrive, and are particularly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. But Large-scale habitat destruction and decimation of prey populations are causing threats to the existence.

A key threat to tiger populations is the increase in road traffi c.

Further Humans are even extending their reach into portions of land that have been set aside for the purpose of conserving tigers. This presence of humans causes extra stress on this species and can further decrease their roaming range, making it harder to fi nd other Tigers to mate with. There is a serious need for balancing the needs of tigers and humans so these animals can be protected while limiting the risk to humans.

Further, poaching has become a huge problem for the tigers..



This can lead to loss of Genetic Diversity. This decrease in genetic diversity has the potential to decrease the overall fi tness of these tigers and make them more susceptible to having these small populations being individually wiped out. Thus Project Tiger, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Government of India, was launched on the 1st of April, 1973 for in-situ conservation of wild tigers in designated tiger reserves. Under this project the strategy involves exclusive tiger agenda in the core/critical tiger habitat, inclusive people-wildlife agenda in the outer buffer, besides fostering the latter agenda in the corridors.

Achievement of Project Tiger Project Tiger has saved the endangered tiger from extinction, and has put the species on an assured path to recovery by improving the protection and status of its habitat. The core buffer strategy of Project Tiger has provided scope for eliciting local public support through site specifi c eco development in the buffer/fringe areas. The Project has contributed towards several intangible environmental benefi ts to society, such as absorption of carbon dioxide, improvement of micro climate, rainfall and river fl ow. The Project has generated considerable wages for the benefi t of fringe dwelling communities, who are deployed as local work force for protection.While conserving the fl agship species, the Project has saved several other species of plants and animals from extinction. The local communities are benefi ting from eco-tourism apart from eco developmental inputs in fringe areas. The Project has served as a role model for wildlife management planning, habitat restoration, protection and eco-development. States have been provided funding support for enhancing protection through deployment of local work force, ex-army personnel. The fi eld staff have been provided allowance as an incentive for working in diffi cult conditions.

Challenges However, there are still challenges ahead for the effective implementation and desired results of the project. Some of the challenges include-

Protection against poaching especially in North-east part of the country, Securing inviolate space for tiger to facilitate its social dynamics, Addressing tiger-human interface, Restoration of corridors and, Eliciting public support of local people by providing ecologically sustainable options.

Government Efforts Government has taken several efforts to ensure continuous growth of the population of tigers in the country while at the same time keeping the poachers and smugglers away from the tiger reserves.

Field protection The main focus of Project Tiger is fi eld protection. Every tiger reserve has beat level (or analogous units in some States) patrolling camps with basic day to day monitoring done by fi eld staff, assisted by local people on contract/daily wages. Communication using wireless, mobile phones, networking with neighboring fi eld units, surveillance through day to day patrolling and Phase-IV monitoring using camera traps (with a database of minimum number of tigers in each reserve) are ensured.

Legal steps Constitution of the National Tiger Conservation Authority and the Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau through Amendment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 in 2006.



Enhancement of punishment for offence in relation to the core area of a tiger reserve. Administrative steps

Strengthening of anti-poaching activities, including special strategy for monsoon patrolling, by providing funding support to tiger reserve States. Special Tiger Protection force has been created for this purpose.

A scientifi c methodology for estimating tiger (including co-predators, prey animals and assessment of habitat status) has been evolved and mainstreamed. The fi ndings of this estimation and assessment are bench marks for future tiger conservation strategy.

Financial steps

100% central assistance is provided for non-recurring items of expenditure to the States, besides 50% matching grant for recurring items (90% for North Eastern States), based on the Annual Plan of Operations of tiger reserve, proposed by the State vis-à-vis the Tiger Conservation Plan.

Funding support is also provided for 24X7 e-surveillance in some sensitive reserves like Corbett, Kaziranga, Ratapani Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh etc.

International efforts

India has a bilateral understanding with Nepal on controlling trans-boundary illegal trade in wildlife and conservation, apart from a protocol on tiger conservation with China.

A protocol has been signed with Bangladesh for conservation of the Royal Bengal Tiger of the Sundarban.

A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing international issues related to tiger conservation.

India is signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

A sub-group on tiger/leopard has been constituted with Russia for co-operation on tiger & leopard conservation.

Trans-boundary Cooperation Protocols with Bhutan and Myanmar are being processed.

Other initiatives

In collaboration with TRAFFIC-INDIA, an online tiger crime data base has been launched, and Generic Guidelines for preparation of reserve specifi c Security Plan has been evolved.

Steps taken for modernizing the infrastructure and fi eld protection, besides launching ‘Monitoring system for Tigers’ Intensive Protection and Ecological Status (M-STrIPES)’ for effective fi eld patrolling and monitoring.

Special assistance is being provided for mitigation of human-tiger confl icts in problematic areas.

Regional offi ces of the National Tiger Conservation Authority are operational at Nagpur, Bengaluru and Guwahati.

A ‘Standard Operating Procedure’ for dealing with tiger deaths has been issued, based on advisories of Project Tiger / National Tiger Conservation Authority, with inputs from Wildlife Crime Control Bureau; State offi cials and experts, fi ne tuned to meet the present challenges.

Launching of Phase-IV tiger reserve level, continuous monitoring of tigers using camera traps and building up data on photo captures of individual tigers have been done.

Steps Needed for Sustainable Development

Educating local peoples on the need and benefi ts of conservation, and making them part of the management process are important steps in saving tigers and their habitat. For instance, villagers and government offi cials in Chitwan, Nepal, are working together to preserve tall grasses. These



valuable grasses are used in home building, and have been overharvested outside the tiger reserve. By helping to conserve tall grasses in the preserve, the villagers are ensured a continual supply of grasses, which they are allowed to harvest once a year.

The conservative strategy should seek to integrate the indigenous communities into the conservation scheme. The bottom-up management approach will enable communities surrounding protected areas to be actively involved in the management and administration of their regions.

Bengal Tigers may not Survive Climate ChangeCONTEXT:

According to a recent UN report, Royal Bengal Tiger, which dominates the marshy areas of the Sundarban forest reserves, may be pushed into extinction due to the rising sea levels and climate change.

Background: The Sunderbans, a 10,000-km area of wet and marshy land sprawled across Bangladesh and India, is among the world’s richest mangrove forest reserves, and supports a host of species, including the Bengal Tiger. It is the single-largest mangrove ecosystem still in existence. The region is extremely volatile, given its close proximity to the sea and it is easily susceptible to cyclonic storms and heavy rains.

Key fi ndings: By 2070, there will be no suitable tiger habitats remaining in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. 70% of the Sundarbans is just a few feet above sea level. This puts it at grave risk from climate change and rising sea water levels.Changing weather patterns, heat waves and extreme weather events could have an even greater effect on the decline in the big cats’ numbers than the rise in sea level.Rising sea levels can push these animals to venture into uncharted territories, thus raising the probability of human-wildlife confl ict in the region.If greenhouse gas emissions continued at the current rate, the atmosphere would warm as much as 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit above preindustrial levels by 2040. This increase would have signifi cant consequences for food chains, coral reefs and fl ood-prone areas.Changes wrought by a warming planet will be “enough to decimate” the few hundred or so Bengal tigers remaining there.

Steps taken by Bangladesh: Crops that can survive higher levels of water salinity are being introduced The government has built storm surge walls. Sediment redistribution has also naturally raised the height of some islands.Simply moving Bengal tigers to another reserve, for instance, is not a “viable solution.

WAY FORWARD:The population of Bengal tiger could still survive in the region if conservation of tigers and the local ecosystem is made a priority.The government of Bangladesh should make accommodations – designate larger areas for tiger conservation, make more corridors for tigers to move around safely, and remain vigilant about poaching and hunting in the area to avoid any further decline in their population.



An approach with closer cooperation on sharing the forest resources, tiger habitat and upkeep of freshwater supply in the Sundarban area is important.

CONCLUSION:Any big effort needs time. The fi ght against habitat loss in the Sunderbans needs to begin immediately. It could take 20 years or more for these efforts to even begin showing results, but there won’t be a forest or tigers to save in 50 years if action isn’t taken soon.

Elephant Conservation India has about 30,000 wild elephants, which constitute over 50% of the species’ estimated global population, the release said. The growing resource needs of India’s human population have led to the destruction and fragmentation of wild habitats across the country, depleting the area available for elephants to roam and causing the loss of their traditional migratory paths.

Project Elephant Project Elephant (PE) was launched by the Government of India in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with following objectives:

To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors

to address issues of man-animal confl ict

welfare of domesticated elephants

Financial and technical support are being provided to major elephant bearing States in the country. The Project is being mainly implemented in 13 States / UTs, viz. Andhra pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Small support is also being given to Maharashtra and Chattisgarh.

Main activities under the Project are as follows:

Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants;

Development of scientifi c and planned management for conservation of elephant habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India;

Promotion of measures for mitigation of man elephant confl ict in crucial habitats and moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats;

Strengthening of measures for protection of Wild elephants form poachers and unnatural causes of death;

Research on Elephant management related issues;

Public education and awareness programmes;

Eco-development

Veterinary care

Findings of the elephant census, 2017 Population of the elephant has been pegged at 27, 312 across 23 states which shows decrement in population as compared to last 2012 census.

As per the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the population of Asian elephants was about 41,410 to 52,345 and of that India alone accounts for nearly 60%.

The population was recorded in the following geographical regions: northern, east-central, northeast, and southern.



Among the states, the highest population was recorded in Karnataka (6,049), followed by Assam (5,719) and Kerala (3,054). As far as regions are concerned, the highest population was in southern region (11,960) followed by the northeast region (10,139), east-central region (3,128) and northern region (2,085).

Techniques used Techniques like direct count, indirect count, waterhole methods and elephant distribution mapping were used for the estimation.Water hole count: The water hole count is, as the name implies, a direct method of counting which is based on the fact that wild elephants normally come to drink from sources of water in the evening, especially during the drought season. It is by far one of the most complex methods of direct counting, because it involves actually counting the number of all elephants at all selected water holes during the specifi c period of the census (in this case two/three consecutive days).

Awareness campaign under Gaj Yatra In a bid to raise awareness about the shrinking space for wild elephants in the country, a ‘gaj yatra’ campaign has been launched by the Wildlife Trust of India. The campaign is planned to cover 12 elephant range states.

About the campaign Over the next 15 months, artists and craftsmen will create life-size works on the theme of elephants in places along the route of the roadshow, covering 12 states that have wild elephants, using local art and craft.Specially fabricated vehicles will be deployed to display these on pre-determined routes with campaignersThe ‘Gaju’ mascot, which was released by the Ministry in 2012, will be helm the campaign Besides, a “gaj mahotsav” will be organized at different venues along the way, with concerts, parades, street plays and activities for children in particular.

World Elephant DayWorld Elephant Day is an annual global event celebrated across the world on August 12, dedicated to the preservation and protection of elephants. The goal of World Elephant Day is to create awareness about the plight of elephants and to share knowledge and positive solutions for the better care and management of captive and wild elephants. African elephants are listed as “vulnerable” and Asian elephants as “endangered” in the IUCN Red List of threatened species. As per the available population estimates, there are about 400,000 African elephants and 40,000 Asian elephants.World Elephant Day is celebrated to focus the attention of various stakeholders in supporting various conservation policies to help protect elephants, including improving enforcement policies to prevent illegal poaching and trade in ivory, conserving elephant habitats, providing better treatment for captive elephants and reintroducing captive elephants into sanctuaries. The elephant is part of India’s animal heritage and the Government celebrates this day to spread awareness about the conservation of the species.

Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme Mandated by COP resolution of CITES , MIKE program started in South Asia in the year 2003 with following purpose:To provide information needed for elephant range States to make appropriate management and enforcement decisions, and to build institutional capacity within the range States for the long-term management of their elephant populations



The main objectives of the MIKE are: to measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants; to determine changes in these trends over time; and to determine the factors causing or associated with such changes, and to try and assess in particular to what extent observed trends are a result of any decisions taken by the Conference of the Parties to CITES

Under the programme data are being collected from all sites on monthly basis in specifi ed MIKE patrol form and submited to Sub Regional Support Offi ce for South Asia Programme located in Delhi who are assisting Ministry in the implementation of the progremme.

MIKE sites in India Chirang Ripu (Assam) Dhang Patki (Assam) Eastern Dooars (WB) Deomali (Arunachal Pradesh) Garo Hills (Meghalaya) Mayurbhanj (Orissa) Mysore (Karnataka) Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu) Shivalik (Uttarakhand) Wayanad (Kerala)

Eco-Bridges & Bio-Diversity Management Wildlife corridor, also known as eco-bridges, is an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations that would otherwise be separated by human activities or structures such as roads, other infrastructure development, or logging and farming.Hereby analyzing the concept of Eco-bridge or wildlife corridor in biodiversity management.

INTRODUCTION A wildlife corridor is a link of wildlife habitat, generally made up from native vegetation, which joins two or more larger areas of similar wildlife habitat. Wildlife corridors play a very important role in maintaining connections between animal and plant populations that would otherwise be isolated and therefore at greater risk of local extinction. Eco-bridges may include: underpass tunnels, viaducts, and overpasses (mainly for large or herd-type animals); amphibian tunnels; fi sh ladders; Canopy bridge (especially for monkeys and squirrels), tunnels and culverts (for small mammals such as otters, hedgehogs, and badgers); green roofs (for butterfl ies and birds).Ecoduct is natural landscaping above the main carriageway to provide connectivity to wildlife. It allows animals and humans to live alongside in safety and peace without having to face death.Eco-bridges are a practice in habitat conservation, allowing connections or reconnections between habitats, combating habitat fragmentation.

Why eco-bridges needed? Human activity and intervention in our natural environment leaves fragmented patches of intact or relatively intact ecosystems whose ties with others are severed. If human activities continue in the area, those islands of biodiversity become even smaller and grow further apart putting the ecosystems at risk. This ultimately leads to a break down in the various ecological processes such as species migration, recycling of nutrients, pollination of plants and other natural functions



required for ecosystem health. As a result, the habitat will suffer severe biodiversity decline and local extinction of sensitive species.Animals may also suffer by not being able to access particular habitats. In times of drought, roads can prohibit animals from reaching water. Further, when animals cross roads, mortality is often the result. This rate of mortality can severely threaten animals and has been identifi ed as a leading cause of decline in some populations. In such circumstances, wildlife corridors can help halt biodiversity loss and redress some of the impacts of the degradation and isolation of ecosystem.

Signifi cance of Eco-bridges To prevent genetic-isolation of fragmented fl ora and fauna populations, the bridge would encourage the interaction of wildlife by facilitating movement between the once separated forests and effectively expand habitat, mating and foraging ranges of fl ora and fauna.With wildlife crossing the expressway from one nature reserve to another, the chances of pollination and dispersion of rare native plants could greatly increase.Eco-bridges would also bring about greater interaction between individuals leading to a healthy exchange of genetic materials, thereby reducing the occurrence of inbreeding and increasing the long-term survival of our native species.Providing crossing infrastructure at key points along transportation corridors is known to improve safety, reconnect habitats and restore wildlife movement. Throughout Europe, Asia, Australia and North America, wildlife crossing structures have been implemented with demonstrable success.Species that prefer natural areas (urban avoiders or urban adaptors) have not evolved as fast as the rapid pace of developments. Thus, they prefer to remain within the natural areas or their edges. The species that prefer urban areas (urban exploiters) are usually different to those found in natural areas. Therefore, appropriate corridors for the dispersal of species are necessary to link between natural areas if they are far apart or isolated.

Challenges The challenging aspects of wildlife corridors are the lack of funding because of the lack of research into the actual benefi ts of these corridors. Many organizations involved in spreading the world about wildlife corridors fi nd it hard to generate a response. As many wildlife corridors intersect busy roads or places where a lot of humans are, many species shy away from the area. Corridors also need to be built very wide to maintain the wilderness effect, but this land is very hard to get approved for usage as a wildlife corridor in some cases. More study needs to be conducted on specifi c animal migratory patterns as well as the overall benefi ts of these corridors in order to know if they are truly worth the cost of building and maintaining. In the meantime, the existing corridors should be taken care of and used as stepping stones for the future of localized animal conservation.

WAY FORWARDThus overall corridor management should aim to ensure that ecological processes and corridor function are maximized: Maintain and increase vegetation cover and habitat quality to maximise connection between larger remnants of vegetation. This will help dispersal of wildlife populations between larger remnants and ensure genetic interchange and seasonal wildlife movement; Provide specifi c habitat resources and ecological needs, particularly for threatened species (e.g. Koalas);

Maximise corridor width and function by revegetation and control of weeds and feral animals; andMaximise the protection / linkage of landforms (i.e., valley fl oors, fl oodplains, gullies, mid-slopes and ridges).



Use of Drones for Wildlife ConservationThe use of drones has grown quickly in recent years because unlike manned aircraft they can stay aloft for many hours; they are much cheaper than military aircraft and they are fl own remotely so there is no danger to the fl ight crew. Surveillance applications include livestock monitoring, wildfi re mapping, pipeline security, home security, road patrol, and anti-piracy.

What are drones? Drones are unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) either controlled by ‘pilots’ from the ground or increasingly, autonomously following a pre-programmed mission. Drones basically fall into two categories: those that are used for reconnaissance and surveillance purposes and those that are armed with missiles and bombs.

Applications related to wildlife Animal management & conservation

Animal/fl ock counting Camera trap image retrieval Vessel monitoring (e.g. whaling ships) Animal tracking (e.g. via radio tracker collars/triangulation) Migration tracking Perimeter assessment Habitat management Anti-poaching activities (identifi cation, deterrence) Nest surveys Species identifi cation

Forestry Vegetation health analysis Biomass estimation Fire detection & tracking Storm damage assessment Planting/re-planting campaign planning Deforestation/illegal logging/farming/incursion monitoring Forest mapping

Benefi ts of drones Flexibility

A drone can be launched on demand - weather and regulation permitting - without needing to source and book manned aircraft services (if these exist in the region) or commission and wait for satellite imagery.

Timely A UAV produces completely up-to-date imagery. This makes drones suited to time-sensitive projects and for monitoring locations at regular intervals (i.e. using the same fl ight plan each time).

Effi cient Unlike traditional surveying techniques, using a drone is fast and requires minimal staff, plus using an aerial approach overcomes common site access issues such as impenetrable vegetation, boulders, crevasses etc.



Cost-effective

Used regularly, the per-project cost of a professional drone system is typically lower than third-party alternatives such as manned imaging aircraft, with a drone system often providing a complete ROI in as little as a few months for a few large projects.

Discrete

Small and light electric-powered drones, especially fi xed-wing aircraft, make little noise and are often bird-shaped, meaning animals on the ground are rarely disturbed by these tools, if they notice them at all.

Rotary (helicopter) drone systems are best suited to monitoring and charting smaller areas, enabling operators to capture video imagery and respond to this feedback live.

Urban Land Acting as Death Trap for BirdsBirds face a range of threats in today’s times, among which habitat loss is the most common. Rapid urbanisation in the last three decades is responsible for the disappearance of over 70% species of migratory and endemic birds in south Haryana’s Aravalli range. Thus, hereby analyzing the impact of urbanization on Birds.

Introduction Birds are often considered to be outstanding indicators of the health of the overall environment. They are readily affected by physical and chemical impacts on their ecosystems, whether these are caused by natural or man-made infl uences.

Reasons for decline in the population of the birds:

Crop residue burning in the summer and beginning of winter is a potential threat to avian livelihood. It has not only aggravated deterioration of air quality and choking of birds, but is also a threat to their habitat during the breeding period.

Air pollution, degradation of water sources, alien urban planning that includes high-rises and ample use of glass, and the noise levels near urban areas.

Chemical fertilizers in agricultural produce: Heavy use of chemical fertilizers leads to agricultural produce being placed by them, hence ruining the food of birds.

Chemical scourge in wetlands: Wetlands are among the main habitats of birds in India about 20 per cent of birds depend on them. These aquatic areas are under serious pressure.

Widespread use of concrete: Birds like Sparrows are known to take two types of bath—one with water and one with dust. With the extensive use of concrete in urban areas, the species are unable to take dust baths.

Cell phone radiation: The electromagnetic fi elds and radiation created by mobile towers are known to affect sparrows. The effects range from damage to the immune and nervous system of sparrows to interference with their navigating sensors.

The climate factor: Rivers getting fl ooded during breeding season nests in colonies on low sandbanks are destroyed. This is commonly attributed to deforestation in watersheds of major rivers and consequently rapid runoff. But another reason cannot be ruled out changing climate and consequent glacier retreat and change in monsoon patterns.

Birds are also prone to respiratory infections due to the poor air quality in NCR, with survival rate as low as 5%. It is speculated that more than 70% of birds around this area have vanished.

Habitat fragmentation and chemical contamination have proved hazardous for those that have a short range and also a short life span. Birds which require specifi c habitats are threatened when their habitats get degraded due to developmental activities.



Felling of trees: The spike in the felling of trees in the urban areas is a major reason why sparrows and other birds are facing a loss of habitat.

Increased use of packaged food: Modern grocery stores with air-conditioning and plastic packaging take away any chance of fi nding food grains to feed on.

Absence of native plants: Native plants are outdone by fancy non-native ones, as the trend of modern landscaping catches on. Native plants are the natural habitats of birds, providing them insects. Birds need a diet of insects in their formative years to grow into healthy adults.

More than 57 million birds are killed each year from collisions with vehicles. This averages out to about 15 bird deaths per mile per year.

Solutions

Habitat protection: As the loss and destruction of habitat is the most serious threat faced by many bird species, conservation organizations and government agencies tasked with protecting birds work to protect areas of natural habitat.

Kitchen waste can be utilized to make birds feed by making microbes through decomposition.

Reintroductions of captive breed populations can occur to replenish wild populations of an endangered species, to create new populations or to restore a species after it has become extinct in the wild.

Artifi cial nests outside homes could be building for a safe breeding and roosting place.

Setting up a water bath, especially in summer, to allow the birds to drink and bathe.

Adopting a nest box and a feeder with the right kind of grain in it, to encourage sparrows to feed. This way, constant source of food for them is ensured.

Captive breeding: Captive breeding, or ex-situ conservation, has been used in a number of instances to save species from extinction. The principle is to create a viable population of a species in either zoos or breeding facilities, for later reintroduction back into the wild.

Planting native species of plants to help build a sparrow-friendly habitat and to espouse insect population.

Minimizing or avoiding pesticide use and taking care to dispose of oil, lead and other toxic materials safely and responsibly so there is no environmental contamination that can affect birds. If a spill occurs, participating in cleanup efforts can help protect both local and migratory birds.

Supporting strong enforcement of local hunting laws and measures to prevent poaching or illegal hunting activities.

Raise awareness of birds in every season and encourage more people to protect migrating birds.

Government Initiatives for Conservation of Birds

Rare and endangered species of birds, including migratory birds, are included in Schedule-I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 thereby according them highest degree of protection.

Stringent punishments have been provided for in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 for violation of the provisions of the Act.

Important habitats of birds, including migratory birds, have been notifi ed as Protected Areas under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 for better conservation and protection of birds and their habitats.

Financial and technical assistance is provided to the State/UT Governments for protection and management of Protected Areas.

Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established for control of illegal trade in wildlife and its parts and products.



Current initiativesSave the sparrow: World Sparrow Day, celebrated on March 20 annually, is an initiative of the Nature Forever Society. In less than four years, this popular event has been celebrated in more than 50 countries around the world; including in Europe and parts of South Asia. World Sparrow Day is not only about house sparrows. It includes all 26 species of sparrows found in the world.Seminary hills in Nagpur is designated as a sparrow conservation site.

International Cooperation Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES): In order to regulate international trade in endangered species of Wild Life, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and fl ora (CITES) was signed in March 1973.World Heritage Convention: India is a member of World Heritage Convention responsible for listing of World Heritage Sites, which include both Cultural and natural sites. The World Heritage Convention is a Convention under the aegis of the United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Wild Life wing of the Ministry of Environment and Forests is associated with the conservation of the Natural World Heritage sites.Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS): The Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) or Bonn Convention aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range. The Convention came into force in 1979. India is a signatory to the convention since 1983.International Whaling Commission: The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the International Commission for the Regulation of Whaling which was signed in Washington on 2nd December 1946.

CONCLUSION The number of migratory birds arriving in the country depends on various factors including habitat quality and preference, human disturbances along their migratory route, pollution, hunting and other biotic factors etc. However, as per the latest ‘Asian Water bird Census’ coordinated by the Wetlands International, the population of threatened migratory birds in the entire fl yway region which includes Central Siberia, Mongolia, Central Asian republics, Iran, Afghanistan, Gulf States and the Indian sub-continent, are largely decreasing. Along with the government initiative people should come forward to save these birds.

International Treaties for Wildlife ConservationConserving biodiversity is not an issue confi ned to any one country or community. It is a crucial global concern. Several international treaties and agreements are in place in the attempt to strengthen international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity.

Brief introduction about various treaties Some of these are: (See Table)

Convention on Biological Diversity

For conserving biodiversity, sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefi ts arising from its use.

CITES To protect wild plants and animals affected by international trade.



Bonn Convention To conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range.

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and

Agriculture

For the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefi ts arising out of their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.

International Plant Protection Convention

To protect world plant resources, including cultivated and wild plants by preventing the introduction and spread of plant pests and promoting the appropriate measures for their control.

London ConventionTo promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.

Basel Convention

It is designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifi cally to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs).

Nagoya Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress

(Supplementary Protocol) to the CPB

The term “liability” is normally associated with the obligation under the applicable law to provide for compensation for damage resulting from an action for which that person is deemed to be responsible.

Minamata ConventionTo protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.

Rotterdam Convention

The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans.

Lacunas in implementation of Policies Ineffective public participation is the most common weaknesses of laws relating to environmental protection and the authorities under the Acts are essentially government offi cials. There is no involvement of people or environment groups or activists in any of the authorities constituted under the various laws. The scheme of the Acts revolves only around government agencies.Ineffectiveness of bureaucrats, the cost of enforcement for local offi cials, the cost of compliance for polluters, confl icting interests of state and central authorities, rivalry with other state or central departments have failed the environmental bureaucracy of India, making the government administration corrupted and near-total criminalized.Environmental laws and related amendments are prepared by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in the Government of India in consultation with other relevant ministries at the Centre and in the States. The Central Parliament approves the laws and the implementing structure at the Centre and State levels implements it which create an issue of coordination. The authorities under the various Act s are entrusted with numerous responsibilities but they are not entrusted with commensurate power to carry out the same. For example, under the Water and Air Pollution Control Acts, the powers of the Pollution Control Boards were largely advisory in



nature. The only measure of control they could exercise was in issuing consent certifi cates which were deemed to be given after expiry of four months in the Water Act and merely on application in the Air Act..

Sunderban Mangroves at RiskSundarbans is the world’s largest contiguous mangrove forest and is a designated world heritage site. Shared by India and Bangladesh. It is home to several fl ora and fauna species and approximately 4.5 million people. It gets its name from Sundari mangrove tree.

Signifi cance of Sunderbans The Sundarbans account for 85 per cent of all mangrove habitats found in India; including 63 of the 69 mangrove plant species found in the countryThe local population relies heavily on the mangroves as it provides fodder, fuel wood, tanbarks, fi sh, honey and medicines.The Sundarbans also provides a several signifi cant environmental services such as nutritional inputs to coastal water, generation of nutrients by mangrove roots and biomass deposition. The mangrove swamps and backwaters form a natural barrier to cyclones, tropical storms and tidal surges, providing protection to the inhabited areas and to the coastal fringes and form a protective margin which stabilizes the shoreline.They are also the most carbon rich forests in the tropics with high carbon sequestration potential, meaning their degradation and loss substantially reduce our ability to mitigate, and adapt to, predicted changes in climatic conditions. Their degradation also releases large amounts of ‘blue carbon’ stored in sediments to the atmosphere, a process that has been underestimated up until recently.It is world largest mangrove delta forest also designated as UNESCO world heritage site; it is also a Ramasar Wetland site and a biosphere reserve.The forests have the endangered royal Bengal tiger and many other threatened fl ora and fauna. The mangrove forests of the Sundarbans provides an important defence in limiting climate change impacts, providing protection to coastal areas from tsunamis and cyclones.

Threats faced by Sunderbans mangrove due to climate change Increasing temperatures: The temperature of waters in sunderbans increased at the rate of 0.5°C whereas that of the global sea temperature. They have affected both the fauna and the mangroves growth.Rising sea-levels: Submergence of Mangroves leads to lesser photosynthesis resulting in lower absorption of carbon di oxide. It also threatens complete submergence of certain islands.Cyclones: Frequency of cyclones has increased which leads to frequent crop failure and massive of lives and property.Rise in Salinity: This is due to lower fresh water outfl ow, it has led to failure of agriculture and reduction in number of mangroves.Change in agricultural patterns: The conventional varieties of rice have depleted in number and due to ever rising demand for food grain Malta and Hamilton rice variety are being grown because they are salt tolerant. Deforestation: 5% forests reduced in last two decades and the land deforested is also submerged in sea thus not rendering it fi t for agriculture.Pollution: Due to less freshwater, less oxygen is added and this results in untreated wastes. Additionally the haldia port complex releases many chemicals in dredging creating an unsuitable environment for the sunderbans.



Higher water events: Increased levels and frequency of extreme high water events may affect the position and health of mangroves in some of the same ways that storms have been observed to effect mangroves, including through altered sediment elevation and sulfi de soil toxicity, however, the state of knowledge of ecosystem effects from changes in extreme waters is poor”Reduction in fresh water fl ow: When freshwater infl ow is missing, there is a change in mangrove succession, and freshwater loving species of mangroves are replaced by salt-water loving ones.

Mitigation Strategies Mitigation Strategies that may be implemented immediately

Zoning Sundarbans according to vulnerability: This would help particularly the vulnerable population living on the islands prone to submergence. Also, this would help prevent the man animal confl ict by proper patrolling of the area.Regional planning and rehabilitation & relocation: The planning of resettlement in nearby safe areas and by providing them with jobs like forest guard and promoting tourism in the delta, the expertise of these people can be utilized.Creating opportunities that don’t depend on nature: The opportunities of resettlement and rehabilitation should not put additional pressure on the environment and should rather be furthering protection.Developing effi cient disaster management systems and disaster resistant homes.Protection & distribution of saline resistant food grains and seeds. Due to extinction of traditional varieties these varieties must be protected and distributed.

Long Term Mitigation Strategies Bolstering existing livelihood patterns: Extensive research to develop saline water tolerant species and sustainable jobs and livelihood options for the people. Awareness and information: The information regarding climate change should be given to people and two way knowledge sharing on the traditional practices to counter the same.Tourism versus Eco-tourism: However tourism increase exponentially but the tourists were not practicing eco-tourism. So the special efforts should be taken to educate tourist about same and penalize any aberrations. Release of additional fresh water: This is an extremely important exercise that needs to be done and it has not been focused properly.Afforestation Programs: For the degraded mangroves, but it should be accompanied with conservational practices and proper nourishment should follow.Appropriate fundraising mechanism should be initiated.

Protect the Little Helpers: Concern Over Declining Population of Pollinators

CONTEXTRecent Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services (IPBES) report has observed that across India’s agrarian plains, plantations and orchards, millions of birds, bats and insects toil to pollinate crops.The report concerns with the decline of thousands of species of pollinators.

Background Pollination is the vital process in fl owering plant reproduction involving the transfer of pollen grains from the anther (or male part) to the stigma (or female part) of the same, or another plant of the



same species. The fertilised egg cells grow into seeds which are then spread in the many fruits and vegetables that are eaten.

This transfer of pollen can be done by the wind, birds, bats, mammals and insects most important of them are the honey bees that pollinate on a huge commercial scale.

Pollination is not just important for the food that is consumed, it’s also vital for the foraging crops, such as fi eld beans and clover, used to feed the livestock.

It helps to feed many other animals in the food chain and maintains the genetic diversity of the fl owering plants.

About Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services (IPBES)

Akin to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it is an independent intergovernmental body that seeks to provide scientifi c information about biodiversity and ecosystem services to policymakers of the member countries.It was created in 2012 by more than 100 governments. At present around 130 states are member of it.The IPBES, with its secretariat in Germany, is administered by the UN, including the UNEP and the UNDP.The mission of IPBES is to strengthen knowledge foundations for better policy through science, for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being and sustainable development.

Ecosystem ServicesEcosystem Services are the many benefi ts which society derives from nature. They include fresh water; fertile soil; wild plant resources such as foods, fi bres, medicinal plants and the wild relatives of crops; wild pollinators and the natural enemies of crop pests; carbon sequestration from the atmosphere; and the important spiritual; aesthetic and recreational values of nature.

Signifi cance of Pollinators Most of our staple food crops such as wheat, rice, sorghum, barley and maize do not require animals for their pollination. However, wild pollinators play a very important role in the production of other crops such as some pulses, sunfl ower seeds, cardamom, coffee, cashew nuts, oranges, mangoes and apples.More than 20,000 species of pollinators including birds, bats and insects serve these crops. Species of bees are the most important pollinators for most of our food crops.The annual economic value of the crops pollinated by animals worldwide is estimated to be between 235billionand235billionand577 billion (in 2015).In 2015, IPBES found that pollinators lead to huge agricultural economic gains. The report estimated pollinator contribution in India to be $0.831-1.5 billion annually for just six vegetable crops. This is an underestimation considering that nearly 70% of tropical crop species are dependent on pollinators for optimal yields.The wild pollinators now are declining, and their loss will imperil human food supply.

Reasons for decline of Pollinators The decline of moths, bees, butterfl ies, hoverfl ies and other pollinators is undeniably linked to human activity.

Large tracts of natural habitats have been cleared for monoculture cultivation, while the use of pesticides and fertilisers is pushing out nature’s little helpers.



In a series of studies, researchers have showed that native Indian bees, when exposed to multiple pesticides, suffer from memory and olfactory impairment, lower response rates, and oxidative stress which damage cells.For the period of 1964 to 2008, researchers have estimated 40-60% growth in relative yields of pollinator-dependent crops while pollinator-independent crops such as cereals and potatoes saw a corresponding 140% rise in yields.

Effect on Indian Biodiversity In India important pollinators of food crops are various species of honeybee (Apis) such as A. Dorsata, A. Cerana, A. Florae, A. Andreniformes and A. Laboriosa. The European honeybee, A. Mellifera, also pollinates many crops and fruits such as apples.Many of these pollinators are declining. Researchers have reported that the number of bee colonies have shrunk signifi cantly over the last decade.Declining population of pollinators is a potential crisis not only for biodiversity but also for India’s agricultural economy.The economic stakes involved is also huge. The value of animal-pollinated crops in India is in the tens of billions of dollars.In the Himalayas, particularly in Kashmir, apple yields in recent years have decreased. The decrease has been attributed to reduction in the number of bees.In North India, lowering yields of mustard cultivation may be caused by disappearing pollinators.

International Initiatives The U.S. has established a Pollinator Health Task Force and a national strategy that focuses on increasing the monarch butterfl y population and planting native species and fl owers in more than 28,000 sq. km to attract pollinators.The U.K. developed 23 key policy actions under its National Pollinator Strategy. Meanwhile, after the IPBES report, almost 20 countries have joined the Coalition of the Willing on Pollinators.The EU has formed Pollinators’ Initiative. This can provide pointers to India, particularly as a policy of direct payment support to farmers to provide buffer strips for pollinators for nectar- and pollen-rich plants.

WAY FORWARDThe IPBES report makes a number of recommendations to restore the integrity of pollinators: improvements in the science of pollination, better land management, strong regulations underlying pesticide use, and restoration and protection of habitats for wild pollinators.There is an urgent need for monitoring wild pollinators, and for strengthening the governance of natural assets.Pollinators in urban areas can serve and enhance food production in peri-urban areas. Wild biodiversity, including pollinators, must become a signifi cant component of future ‘Smart Cities’.Policies and governance for managing landscapes — natural, agricultural, urban — are equally important.Apart from promoting organic farming and lowering pesticide usage, landscape management is the key.India has millions of hectares of reserve forests, some of which have been converted to pulpwood plantations. Much of this can be restored to become thriving homes for pollinators. The same can be done at gram panchayat level.Fallow areas and government land can be used to plant fl owering species for pollinators. The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change has launched a programme to establish a network of Indian Long Term Ecological Observatories (I-LTEO) to monitor the country’s ecosystems. The I-LTEO network offers tremendous opportunities to monitor wild pollinators.



has found that

correlated

(e.g. bees suffer from olfactory impairment, i.e. lose their sense of smell and consequently, can’t

pollinate effectively)

(for monoculture cultivation)

(quantity as well as quality)

Threat to Pollinators

The pollination process

Pollination can be done by wind, water, birds, bats, mammals and insects

One of themost important pollinators are the honey bees that pollinate on a huge commercial scale.

Intergovernmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity

and Ecosystem (IPBES)

Pollinators lead to huge agricultural economic gains

Nearly 70% of tropical crops depend on pollinators for

optimal yields

Pollinator diversity Plant biodiversity

Pollinators : Benefits

Why declining numbers ?

Case StudiesClearing of Natural Habitats

Rapid urbanisation

Pesticides and Fertlizers

KashmirLowering yields of

apple trees▼

linked to declining frequency of bee

visits

North IndiaLowering yields of

mustard▼

likely caused by disappearing

pollinators

Threat to pollinators

How to preserve pollinators

Organic Farming

Lowering excess pesticide usage

Landscape management

DBT support to farmers to provide buffer strips for

pollinators for nectar- and pollen-rich plants

Hectares of reserve forests have been converted into

pulpwood plantations. Much of this can be restored to becomethriving homes for pollinators.

Fallow areas and government land can be used to plant flowering species for

pollinators.



DNA Forensics Providing Greater Convictions in Wildlife CrimeCONTEXT:

In 2016, some 16 poachers were jailed for killing lions in Gir National Park in Gujarat, home to the only wild population of Asiatic Lions.

It was the fi rst case of wildlife crime where cutting-edge forensics was deployed. Criminal investigation department in Ahmedabad cracked the case using DNA fi ngerprinting and narcoanalysis.

With investigating agencies facing increased challenges of collecting evidence to ensure convictions in wildlife crimes, DNA forensics are providing a major headway.

Background: In November 2017, 23-year-old youth from North 24 Parganas in West Bengal killed a wild animal and posted photographs on a social media platform.

State Forest Department offi cials tracked down the man but by then the meat were half cooked and the accused denied all allegations.

A forensic DNA analysis showed that the meat was that of the Asian Palm Civet (Paradoxurus Hermaphroditus), a Schedule II species protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

The analysis helped Forest Department offi cials press charges against the youth and in further prosecution of the case.

Zoological Survey of India recently published a report, titled “Ascertaining species of origin from confi scated meat using DNA forensics and Wildlife forensics in nullifying the false accusation”.

Status of Wildlife crimes and rate of conviction: Illegal wildlife crime is not confi ned to a region.

This is an organized crime where several people are involved — from local hunters to the end buyers. This calls for an urgent need to employ techniques of DNA forensics to improve conviction rate which at present remains very low.

Morphology-based identifi cation protocol: In most cases the samples ZSI receive from investigating agencies in cases of wildlife crime are disfi gured and have lost characters of morphological identity, which poses a major challenge.

Attempt is to create a ‘database’: Efforts are not confi ned up to species identifi cation but are also involved in creating a reference database to assign the seizures to the source of origin, identifying sexes from seizures to understand poaching/ hunting pressure on the species which might impact the species demography in coming year.

ZSI is one of four organizations authorized by the Government of India to submit species identifi cation reports from the confi scated materials.

DNA analysis at the ZSI : It can identify samples at the molecular level using DNA forensics.

Universal Primer Technology (UPT ): Developed by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, is essentially a DNA barcoding method used for accurate and quick identifi cation of species from tiny biological samples.

How UPT works: UPT is based on the concept that a genome segment can serve as a ‘molecular signature’. Variations in its DNA sequence can be used to identify any animal, bird or fi sh from a biological sample.



The technology would provide scientifi c evidence admissible in a court of law, in cases related to poaching, bush meat hunting, and illegal trade in wildlife products.It will also help food safety offi cials detect adulteration of animal meat in food products. So, if traders or hoteliers have substituted mutton with cheaper beef, it will show up in the test results.

What is DNA forensics? DNA forensics is a branch of forensic science that focuses on the use of genetic material in criminal investigation to answer questions pertaining to legal situations, including criminal and civil cases.

Involvement of locals in poaching: A tribe called Baheliyas or Pardhis is notorious for its involvement in poaching (or helping a poacher).Bloodstains found on their clothes and the scrapings of the underside of their fi ngernails were forensically validated in the Gir lion killing incident and the forensics experts found that the blood on the clothes and in the scraping was of a lion.This scientifi c evidence helped the prosecution to successfully convict the tribe members.

How to make convictions effective: Convictions can come in less than two years after the crime. This could be very quick for wildlife cases. Till now wildlife forensics have been limited to identifying an animal by parts. Forensics can easily be used in wildlife investigation, but the forest department does not have the training to do a proper investigation. Coordination among forest offi cials, police and customs is also needed.What is required is a national database on poachers and traders, and exchange of information between states and countries.

UNEP has been recognizing Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) of India for its excellent work in combating trans-boundary environmental crimes.

WCCB has been conferred award for 2018 in ‘Innovation’ category for adopting techniques that have dramatically increased enforcement of trans-boundary environmental crimes in India.International conventions related to Wild Life conservation of which India is a party :

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES): In order to regulate international trade in endangered species of Wild Life, the CITES was signed in March 1973. The Government of India signed the Convention in July 1976, which was ratifi ed in October 1976.The Director, Wild Life Preservation has been designated as the CITES Management Authority for India.World Heritage Convention: India is a member of World Heritage Convention responsible for listing of World Heritage Sites, which include both cultural and natural sites. The World Heritage Convention is a Convention under the aegis of UNESCO. Wild Life wing of the Ministry of Environment and Forests is associated with the conservation of the Natural World Heritage sites. Currently, six natural World Heritage Sites have been recognized by UNESCO in India, viz., Nanda Devi National Park, Kaziranga National Park, Manas National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Sundarbans National Park. Apart from these, the Valley of Flowers National Park has also been included in the list of World Heritage Sites as an extension of Nanda Devi National Park.Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS): Or Bonn Convention aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range. The Convention came into force in 1979. India is a signatory to the convention since 1983.International Whaling Commission: The purpose of the Convention is to provide for conservation of whale stocks. The main duty of the International Whaling Commission is to keep under review and revise as necessary the measures laid down in the schedule to the



Convention which governs the conduct of whaling throughout the world. These measures, among other things, provide complete protection of certain species, designate specifi ed areas as whale sanctuaries, limit the number of whales which may be taken, prescribe open and closed seasons and designate areas for whaling; prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves. India has been a member of the International Whaling Commission since 1981.Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): It entered into force on 29 December 1993. It has 3 main objectives: The conservation of biological diversity; the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity; the fair and equitable sharing of the benefi ts arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

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Content · population density of wildlife and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used, increasing their interaction, thus resulting in increased physical conﬂ ict