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Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1450–1462

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Content-area teachers and scaffolded instruction forEnglish language learners

Faridah Pawan�

Indiana University, Language Education, Wright Education Building, 201 North Rose Avenue, Room 3030, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA

Received 20 April 2006; received in revised form 27 January 2008; accepted 7 February 2008

Abstract

Scaffolding provides content-area teachers (CATs) with an effective means to integrate language instruction into

content-area instruction for English language learners (ELLs). Data for this study were derived from 33 CAT discussions

while they were pursuing professional development in an American university classroom over 32 weeks. The discussions

yielded 408 scaffolding statements that were coded and analyzed. The findings identified linguistic, conceptual, social and

cultural scaffolding as part of the CATs’ personal practical knowledge. Also, the findings demonstrated that CATs’

knowledge of cultural scaffolding is limited in comparison to other scaffolding strategies. The findings have an impact on

the nature of ELL instruction and its effectiveness.

r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Scaffolding; English language learners; Content-area teachers; Content-based language instruction; Teacher personal practical

knowledge; Cultural scaffolding

1. Introduction

Research on approaches to instruction for Englishlanguage learners (ELLs) indicates that integratingcontent into language instruction introduces anauthentic academic challenge to learners via itsdemand for higher order thinking skills (Snow,1998). In addition to accelerating English Languagelearning (Bunch, Abram, Lotan, & Valdes, 2001;Dong, 2002), the authenticity of the challengeinherent in the approach sustains intellectual pro-gress and provides motivation to succeed. Analysesof several studies (Arhar, 1997; National Associa-tion for Core Curriculum, 2000; Vars, 1996) point to

ee front matter r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

te.2008.02.003

2 856 8274; fax: +1 812 856 8287.

ess: fpawan@indiana.edu

the same general conclusion: students in any type ofinterdisciplinary or integrative curriculum do as wellas, and often better than, students in a conventionalcompartmentalized program.

Scaffolding is an approach that provides teachersan effective means to integrate ELL instruction intocontent-area instruction and to enable ELLs todemonstrate their knowledge without completereliance on language. Effective scaffolding is thusa critical element of the knowledge base of allteachers who have ELLs in their charge. Content-based language instruction and scaffolded instruc-tion for ELLs is a timely subject in the United States(US) given the 65.03% growth in ELL enrollmentgrowth over the last 10 years in kindergarten tosecondary (K-12) schools in the US (US Depart-ment of Education, 2006). Additionally, 77% of

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content-area teachers (CATs) report lacking pre-paration of any kind in working with ELLs(National Centre for Educational Statistics, 2002).Given their direct involvement with ELLs, and thefact that the latter spend 80% of their school daywith CATs (Dong, 2002), it is thus important tounderstand CATs’ practical knowledge or knowl-edge in the practice of scaffolding instruction forELLs.

Research on scaffolding has primarily focused onthe impact on learning of various scaffoldingstrategies and applications. Current research onscaffolding, however, lacks data on teachers’ knowl-edge of scaffolding strategies. These data areessential for identifying those areas of pedagogythat should be reinforced or added to teachereducation programs.

The purpose of this study is to identify majortypes of scaffolding recognized by CATs in the USas well as a significant variation and emphasis inteachers’ practical knowledge (TPK) of scaffoldingstrategies. The research questions for the study arethus as follows:

a.

Do CATs perceive, as effective, scaffoldingpractices for ELLs in the learning of academiccontent areas or subject matter in English?

b.

What scaffolding categories do these practicesfall under?

c.

In what ways do these categories inform us abouthow CATs’ ELL instruction can be supportedand reinforced?

1.1. Theoretical framework

1.1.1. Scaffolding as practical knowledge of teachers

Shulman (1986, p. 9) conceptualized teachers’pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) as theintersection between teachers’ knowledge of theirspecific subject area and the ways of representingand formulating the subject in a way that makes itcomprehensible to others. Scaffolding is a pedago-gical component of PCK and thus that of teachers’practical knowledge (TPK) of how to teach how toteach. TPK arises out of prior experiences includingteacher education, life experiences, interaction withcolleagues and students, perceived values andconstraints operating within the school and class-room environment, as well as teacher interpreta-tions of the particular circumstances encountered inclassroom situations. The current study focuses onan aspect of teacher knowledge involving CATs’

knowledge of scaffolding, what this constitutes andwhat is prioritized by teachers when the instructionof ELLs is concerned.

1.1.2. Types of scaffolding

Vygotsky (1978) defines ‘‘scaffolding’’ as thesocial interaction between experts and novicesduring which the former engage in supportivebehaviors and create supportive environments fornovices to acquire skills and knowledge at a highercompetency level. Nevertheless, the concept of‘‘scaffolding’’ has evolved from learning supportand assistance at the interpersonal level to one thatincludes the use of a multitude of tools, guides andresources (Brush & Saye, 2001). Studies at theinterpersonal level include Ulanoff and Pucci(1999), Nassaji and Cumming (2000), and Mohanand Beckett (2003). The common thread in all thesestudies is the effect of expert assistance on languagelearners. For example, Ulanoff and Pucci (1999)looked at teachers’ use of the concurrent translationand preview–review approaches amongst 60 bilin-gual elementary students (third graders) in LosAngeles and found that the preview–review ap-proach contributed to the highest scores in vocabu-lary tests.

Peers and/or equal non-experts (Anton, 1999) arealso included in scaffolding studies focusing oninterpersonal interactions. Ewald (2005) argues thatpeer interactions proceeded naturally even withoutthe attainment of a good common grade (positiveinterdependence) as motivation. de Guerrero andVillamil (2000) undertook a study of scaffoldingmechanisms used during interactions between twomale college English-as-a-second-language (ESL)learners engaged in writing revisions. Resultsindicated the importance of the peer reader tomediate learning; the establishment and mainte-nance of a feeling of intersubjectivity and sharedfocus between the reader and the writer; and theconsequent assumption of independent action andlearning on the part of the peer writer. A relatedaspect of peer-to-peer scaffolding is its multi-dimensionality and fluidity. Cumming-Potvin, Re-nshaw, and van Kraayenoord (2003), for example,stress that scaffolding has been inadequately con-ceived as a linear process of providing and removinglearning support for learners. They argue for amulti-tiered notion of scaffolding involving thedynamic interplay and interactions between mem-bers in a group working together, whereby the

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Language Acquisition for School

The Prism Model

L1 + L2 Cognitive Development

L1 +

L2

Aca

dem

ic D

evel

opm

ent L1 + L2 Language D

evelopment

Social andCultural

Processes

Fig. 1. Prism Model (copied with permission).

F. Pawan / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1450–14621452

boundaries between expert and novices are blurredand interchangeable.

Cultural scaffolding is exemplified by scholarlyworks in the early and mid 1990s on ‘‘primary andsecondary discourses’’ (Gee, 2000), ‘‘funds of knowl-edge’’ (Moll, 1994) and ‘‘cultural responsive teach-ing’’ by Ladson-Billings (1994). In this respect,current pedagogy strives for the interconnectivitybetween students’ out-of-school and school experi-ences that provides a means for students to enter into‘‘an intellectual partnership or at least be greatlyhelped by cultural artefacts in the form of toolsand information resources’’ (Salomon & Perkins,1998, p. 5) culturally and historically familiar tothem (Gee, 2000; Street, 2005). Cultural scaffoldingdefines a pedagogical approach, which, according toSalomon and Perkins (1998), involves the manipula-tion of ‘‘cultural tools.’’ The authors explain thatthese tools range from information sources tosocially shared symbol systems that are culturallyand historically situated. The tools form the basis forlearning systems, action reorganization and thedetermination of what can be carried out (p. 5).From an instructional perspective, this means thatthe use of cultural referents is central in impartingknowledge, skills and attitudes (Ladson-Billings,1994, p. 18). If undertaken well, this pedagogicalapproach will result in ‘‘culturally responsive’’teaching whereby students’ cultural differences inbackgrounds, knowledge base and experiences areused as conduits to teach them more effectively (Gay,2002).

Virginia Collier’s ‘‘Prism Model’’ that emergedfrom a study on factors for school effectiveness forlanguage minority students (LMS) (Thomas &Collier, 2002) specifically contributed to the typesof scaffolding most relevant to ELLs. The researchinvolved a macroscopic study of the impact ofinstructional strategies on LMS long-term achieve-ment that was undertaken by five large schooldistricts (700,000 students). The utility of the modelstems from its ability to identify and demonstratethe interdependency of four factors, namely linguis-tic, academic, cognitive and socio-cultural support,in helping ELLs to succeed. Linguistic factors coverall aspects of language development support includ-ing formal, informal, conscious and sub-consciousaspects of the acquisition and learning of oral aswell as written language skills in students’ first andsecond languages. Academic and cognitive factors,on the other hand, involve sustaining conceptualand intellectual support in school work and through

the use of students’ ‘‘first language at least throughthe elementary school years’’ (p. 43). Finally, socio-cultural factors include the facility given to studentsto incorporate into their school learning experi-ences, their past, present and future experiences athome, in school, in their community and in thebroader society. The importance of these fourfactors provides the rationale for the use of thePrism Model as the basis for coding in our study(Fig. 1).

As can be seen from the review above, research onscaffolding has focused on investigations on theimpact of scaffolding on student learning. Interestin cultural scaffolding, in particular, has emergedfrom efforts to expand the conceptions of literacyand to engage in culturally relevant and meaningfulteaching, given the diversity of students in theAmerican public school systems. This study takes adifferent turn and investigates practical knowledgeof scaffolding among CATs who work with ELLs.The findings from this paper will demonstrate thatCATs’ pedagogical knowledge of cultural scaffold-ing in ELL instruction is significantly overshadowedby their knowledge of conceptual, linguistic andsocial scaffolding.

2. Methodology

2.1. The research setting

The research was conducted in 2004–2005 withCAT participants in the Collaborative Teaching

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Table 1

Participant characteristics

Teacher

role

Male Female Years

teaching

Elementary

school

Middle school High school Adult

education

Total number

of participants

Content 7 26 5–20 15 6 11 1 33

Area All subjects Lang Arts,

Math, Science

Math, Science,

Health/

Physical Ed,

Art,

Journalism,

History

Remedial

Ed, GED

F. Pawan / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1450–1462 1453

Institute (CTI).1 The main thrust behind theprogram is that ELLs are not just the responsibilityof English-as-a-second-language teachers (ESLTs)but also the responsibility of all teachers. Hence, allteachers must undergo teacher education in ELLinstruction as language and content instructioncannot be separated (Kaufman & Crandall, 2005).CATs in the program pursue a 9-month, sustainedin-service professional program development onELL instruction through online classes that aresupplemented with onsite visits by their instructorsand workshop consultants.

The participants in this study were in-serviceteachers in the 2004–2005 CTI cohort from sevenschool districts that were identified by the Depart-ment of Education in a Midwestern state as districtsthat are highly impacted by ELL enrollment. Theteachers participated in two identical online gradu-ate classes that were taught by the same instructorand specifically designed for CTI participants. Theclass is student-centered in that members of the classselect and choose themes for discussion andengagement. After 2 weeks in which the instructormodelled online engagement by leading and mod-erating discussions, participants assumed leadershiproles in conducting discussion for the remainder ofthe course.

3. Respondents

The study involved gathering data from 33 CATsin the program. Table 1 provides a profile of theteacher-participants in the study.

The respondents were primarily female teachersand consisted mostly of teachers who have had atleast 15 years of classroom teaching experiencesthough one-third of the teachers had only 5 years of

1CTI is a pseudonym.

teaching experiences. Fifteen teachers taught at theelementary level, 11 at the high school level and sixwere middle school teachers. The elementary schoolteachers taught all subjects but not ESL. At themiddle school level, three teachers taught Englishlanguage arts, two taught mathematics and onetaught science. At the high school level six taughtmath and science, two taught health and physicaleducation, and the rest of the teachers each specia-lized in history, art and journalism. One teachertaught adult education whose students neededremedial help to obtain a high school diploma.

3.1. Data for the study

Besides data from a survey at the end of theprogram, data from the study are primarily derivedfrom textual discussions in an online, asynchronousforum. Hence, the main sources of data were:

a.

3734 CATs’ online postings on scaffolding across32 weeks of instruction and

b.

two teacher surveys (open-ended and Likert) onopportunities and challenges in scaffolding in-struction for ELLs.

3.2. Data collection and analyses

There were three phases in the data collection andanalyses. In the first phase, daily textual postingsand discussions in the asynchronous forum wereprinted out and analyzed for instances of scaffold-ing statements. In the second phase, coders usedThomas’ and Collier’s Prism Model as a basis,to code the statements into scaffolding categories.In the final phase and upon the completion of thecoding of the postings, we twice surveyed theparticipants’ opinions on scaffolding in order tocontextualize our findings in the previous phases.

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Phase 1: Three coders analyzed statements fromthe participants’ daily postings and identified 408(10% of 3734) as those containing informationrelated to scaffolding. The unit of analysis consistedof a segment of words—most often a sentence(declarative or interrogative) or a paragraph of eachposting; 298 such statements alluded to variousmeans for assisting and helping students to keep upwith content-area instruction and 110 were state-ments that mentioned scaffolding in particular.

An example of each is included below:Implied statements on scaffolding:

I realize that I need to do more than just rewritethe assignments; I need to alter my delivery anduse supportive material as well, so students areboth learning the content and being givenopportunities to practice language.

Direct mention of scaffolding:

It does help to speak the child’s language but it isnot a requirement for getting licensed in ESLhere. What is more beneficial is how you teach. Itneeds to be hands-on, interactive, etc. This isscaffolding, right?

The coders undertook ‘‘check-coding’’ (Miles andHuberman, 1984) whereby they coded separatelyand later reviewed the data together. There was93% inter-rater reliability for the three coders basedon the number of agreements over the total numberof agreements and disagreements.

Phase 2: As noted previously, we utilized thelanguage acquisition factors in ELL success identi-fied in Collier’s Prism Model (Thomas & Collier,2002) as a basis for our coding. We undertook aninitial coding of 104 messages using the model. Theinitial coding led us to the following modificationsof the model:

a.

Linguistic scaffolding: Simplifying the Englishlanguage, for example, by shortening selections,speaking in the present tense, avoiding the use ofidioms, etc.

b.

Conceptual scaffolding: Providing students withsupportive frameworks for meaning by providingorganizational charts, metaphors, etc.

c.

Social scaffolding: Using social interaction tosupport and mediate learning (e.g. group work).

d.

Cultural scaffolding: Using artifacts, tools andinformational sources that are culturally andhistorically situated within a domain familiar tolearners.

Our modifications of the PrismModel (see Table 2)included the following:

1.

We specified that in linguistic scaffolding, thelanguage to be scaffolded is English in order toapply more specifically to the place where the studywas undertaken, i.e. where state law establishes thatEnglish is the official medium of instruction.

2.

We collapsed the ‘‘academic’’ and ‘‘cognitive’’factors into a single category of conceptualscaffolding. In both factors, the use and acknowl-edgement of students’ first language to accessschoolwork and to demonstrate existing knowl-edge are central in Thomas’ and Collier’s model.Hannafin, Land, and Oliver (1999) capture theessence of those factors at the macro level in theirdefinition of ‘‘conceptual scaffolding’’ as theincorporation of various possible tools, methodsor informative elaborations to achieve and shareunderstanding.

3.

We separated the socio-cultural factor into twoscaffolding categories. We found the two cate-gories (social and cultural) necessary as students’engagement in classroom social activities thatwere developed to support learning are notnecessarily related to ELLs’ cultural heritage.For example, students are put into social dyadsas conversation partners for the completion of anactivity rather than as a means to put them in aculturally familiar context. The following quotesare illustrative:� Group work and social scaffolding: I also set

up group work as I have also found thatstudents do help each other out. And whatbetter way to learn than to teach it yourself. Ihave found while going from group to groupas the year progressed, students tend to feelmore open to get involved in the discussions,or even sometimes start discussions.� Group work and cultural scaffolding: Even

though it may seem like my beginning level 1student could get lost in the task, she hasbegun to open up when I put her with one ortwo friends who speak Spanish. She has beenvery quiet, yet when she has her group’ssupport, she has been more willing to shareand to participate.

Using the modified coding scheme, the inter-raterreliability rate for this coding phase was at 95%.

Phase 3: We administered two survey forms tostudents. The first was a set of two open-ended

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Table 2

Scaffolding types

Linguistic: Simplifying and

making the ‘‘English’’ language

more accessible

Conceptual: Providing supportive frameworks

for meaning, providing organizational charts,

metaphors, etc.

Social– cultural: Mediating and situating students’

learning in a social context involving the engagement

and support of others (expert and novice, peer and peer)

(social). Also using artifacts, tools and informational

sources that are specifically culturally and historically

situated within a domain familiar to learners (cultural)

Social Cultural

� Free journalling

� Prewriting

� Oral presentation of

materials

� Reading out louda

� Conversational mode in

lesson delivery

� Written instructions

� Simplified language

� Slowed pacinga

� Direct instruction of form

and meaning

� Direct instruction of form

� Vocabulary teaching

� Reading instruction

� Modellinga

� Show instead of explaina

� Body languagea

� Think-alouds

� Structured step and choicesa

� Pre-teaching difficult concepts

� Frequent practice test sessions

� Bookmarking relevant websites

� Explicit connections between in class and

out of class experiences (life experiences)

� Explicit/transparent expectations

� Sourcebooks

� Condensed material

� Computers

� Realia/authentic artifacts

� Visualsa

� Charts

� Checklists

� Posters

� Pictures

� Simulation

� Experiments

� Games

� Teacher: one-to-one

assistance and

encouragementa

� Pairing ELLs with

NS

� Combination of

individual and

group work

� Peer-coaching on

assignments

� Specific role

assignment in small

groups

� Students’ prior knowledge

� Literature from students’

culture

� Students’ learning styles

� L1 peer work

� Spanish-speaking teacher

colleagues for translation

and instruction

Total: 21.6% Total: 47.2% Total: 23.4% (Social) Total: 6.3% (Cultural)

Total postings: 408 (298+110)

aIdentified also as special education strategies.

F. Pawan / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1450–1462 1455

survey questions that we shared during onsite visitswith the teachers in their schools in the middle ofthe program, after they had been in the program for4 months (Table 3). Then by focusing on the mostfrequently occurring themes, we developed a set ofLikert scale survey questions (Table 4) and dis-tributed the survey in the face-to-face weekendretreat in July at the end of the program. We thentallied the percentages of agreement of responses foreach item, i.e. numbers 4 and 5 on the Likert scale.

4. Findings

4.1. Posting analyses

From the 408 postings analyzed, the majorityof statements (47.2%) consisted of references to

conceptual scaffolding. Linguistic and social scaf-folding both received relatively equal attentionat 21.6% and 23.4%, respectively. References tocultural scaffolding, however, occurred in only6.3% of the statements in the sample (Table 2).

Conceptual scaffolding is multi-faceted and acombination of teacher-initiated and student-centered activities. Teacher-initiated activities includeteacher modelling, ‘‘showing instead of explaining’’,teachers using body language and total physicalresponse, and think-alouds. The scaffolding alsoincludes ‘‘direct teaching’’ involving teachers struc-turing choices for students, pre-teaching difficultconcepts, practicing tests with students, pre-select-ing websites, demonstrating explicit in- and out-of-school connections to a topic, and explicitlystating expectations. Scaffolding in this category

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Table 3

Open-ended survey questions

a. Enclosed are 2–5 sentence reflections about a current

scaffolding practice related to ELLs that I undertake. (Indicate

the practice, reflections and other additional comments.)

b. Enclosed are 2–5 sentence reflections about a current belief I

hold about scaffolding. (Indicate the belief, reflections and

other additional comments.)

Table 4

Survey items and response percentages

Survey items % of strong

agreement (4 and 5)

i. Scaffolding is important for all

students and not just ELLs.

52.6 out of 100%

Disagree 1–2–3–4–5 Strongly agree

ii. Collaboration with ESLTs is

essential in ELL scaffolding

instruction

38.5 out of 100%

Disagree 1–2–3–4–5 Strongly agree

iii. Scaffolding for ELLs is the

responsibility of all teachers

19.2 out of 100%

Disagree 1–2–3–4–5 Strongly agree

iv. Scaffolding training is needed 9.4 out of 100%

Disagree 1–2–3–4–5 Strongly agree

v. Scaffolding for ELLs is difficult 7.6 out of 100%

Disagree 1–2–3–4–5 Strongly agree

vi. ELLs’ cultural background is

essential in scaffolding content area

instruction

2.5 out of 100%

Disagree 1–2–3–4–5 Strongly agree

F. Pawan / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1450–14621456

also includes many other assistive elements such asteachers’ use of supplementary materials includingsource books, ‘‘condensed texts,’’ computer andmulti-media resources, artifacts from real life orrealia and visuals (e.g. posters). Simulations, experi-ments and games either on the computer or live inthe classroom are also among those mentioned aspart of student-centered conceptual scaffolding.

Below is a quote that illustrates conceptualscaffolding. In addition, the quote also illustratesa common position that the field works hard toovercome, that is, good teaching of ELLs isequivalent to good teaching for all students (seeHarper & de Jong, 2004).

As I read the author’s examples (pre-teaching,giving real-life examples, etc.) I was thinking thatI have done all of those things over the course ofmy teaching career, but I never considered itsheltered instruction, or scaffolding, or whatever.I just considered it common sense and goodteaching. Are we all looking for magic bulletsthat we (as good teachers) already possess?

Linguistic scaffolding refers to making theEnglish language accessible by situating it within apersonal realm (free journalling), in a process(prewriting) and expanding literacy as a multi-modal practice (oral presentations of material,reading out loud, using a conversational deliverymode and writing down instructions). Direct teach-ing involves form- and meaning-based instruction,as well as the teaching of vocabulary and readingskills. Simplifying language and slowing downspeech are also part of CATs’ efforts to assist ELLslinguistically. The following quote illustrates a fewof the scaffolding strategies as well as a caution thatunless ELLs’ developmental stages are clearlyunderstood, their learning struggles could be mis-labelled as a learning disability:

This year for the first time I had ELLs mixed inwith Native English speakers, but still continuedwith the Julius Caesar activity (this is where I firstbegan to wish that my ELLs were mixed in withnon-learning disabled students). I modelled read-ing for them but slowed down my reading. Mylevel 3 students and a few of my level 2 studentsdid a good job; my level 1 students struggled andI had to modify by allowing them more time forthem to read to me directly rather than have thewhole class staring at them.

Engagement of students in a social and non-structured setting with teachers and peers consistedof 23.4% of activities that were categorized undersocial scaffolding. There is individualized learning

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(Merrill, Reiser, Merrill, & Landes, 1995) wherebystudents work with teachers during which time thereis one-to-one assistance and encouragement fromteachers. Peer learning (Blumenfeld, Marx, Solo-way, & Krajcik, 1996) is undertaken by virtue of theflexible grouping of students in dyads, small groupsand a combination of individual and group work.Groupings of students with specified tasks (peercoaching, collaboration via specific roles to com-plete tasks) are also evident. In terms of ELLs,CATs have placed ELLs in dyads and small groupswith native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers(NNS) of English. Below is a quote illustrating aparticular type of peer group work as part of asocial scaffolding approach:

It has been very difficult for me to adapt mycurriculum to meet the needs of my ESLstudents. Recently I have had students that arein Upper level Spanish classes work with the ESLstudents or translate assignments into Spanish.

When participants reported grouping ELLs withother NNS with similar linguistic (L1) and culturalbackgrounds, the grouping was categorized under‘‘cultural scaffolding.’’

Cultural scaffolding is the use of artifacts, toolsand informational sources that are culturally andhistorically situated within a domain familiar tostudents. A total of 6.3% of statements in thediscussions called for helping students make con-nections between the target content-area knowledgeand that gained from home and communityexperiences. Scaffolding strategies thus includedacknowledging and using students’ prior knowl-edge, literature from the students’ home culture andtheir different learning styles. As mentioned above,teachers also reported placing ELLs with peerworking groups with others who share similarlanguage backgrounds. Finally, CATs also reportedcollaborating with Spanish-speaking colleagues forassistance in ELL instruction and translation.

Most of our ESL/ELLs could not read even thelowest level books offered in the program, so thelibrarian got Spanish books in for them. Weconstantly debate whether or not that is bene-ficial or not. I also use diaries and as my studentswrite their ‘‘Diarios,’’ or weekly journals inSpanish, they begin writing in ‘‘Spanglish.’’ Theywrite what they know in Spanish, but use Englishfor what they don’t know. The resource teacherhelps to translate the Spanish information.

As the quote illustrates, collaboration is also animportant component in the work of CATs insupporting their ELLs.

4.2. Survey analyses

The open-ended mid-term survey provided uswith the most frequently occurring items related toteachers’ scaffolding opinions that we used in theLikert scale survey (see Tables 3 and 4). In terms ofthe latter, in Table 4, question 1 is targeted atidentifying the importance of scaffolding in terms ofthe overall responsibility of CATs’ job; questions 2and 3 targeted collaboration and engagement of allteachers in ELL scaffolded instruction, i.e. centralCTI components; questions 4 and 5 focused on theneed for training; and question 6 focused onthe study’s findings under ‘‘cultural scaffolding.’’Table 4 shows the survey items and the percentagesof agreement responses to each of the items.

Survey findings in this study situate CATs’scaffolding efforts in a larger context of teachers’professional world impacting their pedagogicalknowledge. Although half (52.6%) of CATs re-sponding to question 1 in Table 4 acknowledge thatscaffolding is important for all students and slightlyless than half (38.5%) indicated that collaborationwith their ESL counterparts are important inscaffolding instruction for ELLs, only 19.2% ofthose responding to question 3 agree that it is theresponsibility of all teachers. Also, only a smallpercentage (9.4%) indicated that CATs need train-ing in the area, and only 7.6% think that scaffoldingis difficult. Finally, only 2.5% report that culturalknowledge is important for scaffolding in thecontent area.

5. Discussions and implications

At the overall level, the data included in this studyprovide insight into the multi-dimensional andmacro aspects of ‘‘teaching presence’’ (Anderson,Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001) that includesperformance assistance (Bliss, Askew, & Macrae,1996) in a combination of teacher design andadministration of classroom procedures, learningfacilitation and direct instruction. The data providean indication of what CATs do in the classroom,particularly in instructing and assisting ELLs. Atmore specific levels, and in addition to demonstrat-ing the frequency and the types of scaffoldingundertaken by CATs, the findings of the postings

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also demonstrate the opportunities and the chal-lenges the teachers encounter in the instruction ofELLs.

5.1. Findings from postings

5.1.1. Cultural scaffolding

The posting and survey analyses therefore in-dicate that cultural scaffolding is seldom referencedby CATs and presumably seldom used in theclassroom. However, amongst the postings categor-ized under the category, there were also those suchas the use of literature from students’ culture (seeTable 2) that demonstrated an orientation towardLee’s (2001) ‘‘cultural modelling framework’’ inwhich supports were developed to lead students toreflect on their prior knowledge and its relevance tothe task at hand.

A closer look at the cultural scaffolding items inthe postings also suggest efforts to help studentsbridge the particularities of their experience, knowl-edge and cultural heritage with elements in theircurrent classroom circumstances. However, it isnot evident that scaffolding included interpersonalengagements for the purposes of developing cross-cultural relationships with their students. Effectiveteaching must include teachers’ competency todevelop these relationships with their students, theabsence of which can hinder students’ academic andsocial progress (Nieto, cited in Burns, Keyes, &Kusimo, 2005). Kramsch (1995) has argued thatteaching culture is a social process during whichmeaning and understanding emerged through socialinteraction. Taken from this perspective, Americanpublic school teachers such as the CTI teachers inthis study as well as teachers elsewhere who plan onundertaking cultural scaffolding should see theclassroom as a ‘‘privileged site of cross-culturalfieldwork’’ (Kramsch, 1993, p. 29). Through tea-chers’ interpersonal engagements with studentsand direct communication with them, teacherswould have opportunities to listen, watch andinterpret students’ successes and struggles to achievemeaning as well as to engage with them in theirdevelopment of a cross-cultural personality, in all itscomplexities.

Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier in the introduc-tion, a majority of US teachers lack training inworking with ELLs, even though nationally almosthalf (41%) of public school teachers reported instruct-ing limited English proficient students (NationalCentre for Educational Statistics, 2002, p. 43). In this

study, the teachers’ lack of training is reflected amongstthe challenges they reported. The following quote isindicative of the situation:

With ESL students, it’s hard to tell if they’re notmaking the connections because of learningdifficulties, or because of a language deficit, orbecause of cultural differences. How do youprovide ESL students with a link to something inour American real world, when the only realworld they know may be a totally differentculture? I don’t know how to do thisy

5.1.2. Social scaffolding

While we separated cultural from social scaffold-ing, the two are sometimes intertwined in teaching.Teacher postings, on the whole, indicated clearlywhether the scaffolding that teachers used wassocially or culturally based (see Section 2). Althoughon the whole, an overview of scaffolding items listedfrom the posting findings suggests that a majority areteacher-fronted or teacher-led activities, the postingscoded under ‘‘social scaffolding’’ show that almost aquarter of the time, teachers are also engaged instudent-centered activities, mediated and un-mediated by them. One the one hand, the findingssupport assertions such as those by Cazden’s (2001)that teacher talk dominates classroom discourse, buton the other, the findings suggest teachers’ use offlexible groupings (one-to-one, peer-to-peer dyads,small groups, etc.) at least some of the time anddemonstrate a certain level of awareness of thebenefits of differentiated instruction.

5.1.3. Conceptual scaffolding

Analyses of teacher postings indicate that formany of the CATs in the study, teaching strategiesinvolve scaffolding the conceptual understandingof the subject matter being taught. The teachers’postings indicate that they undertake transmedia-tive (Siegel, 1995) and multi-modal approaches tohelping students access specialized knowledge. Theapproaches require that teachers use multiple signsystems to transfer understandings derived from onesystem to understand another. A social studiesteacher in the study explained the utility of themulti-modal approach in her teaching:

Some kids like to talk about what they read,some like to perform as a response, some like towrite or draw about what they read, and I like togive them a variety of opportunities to respondand construct their own learning.

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It is a scaffolding approach that would be similarlyundertaken by effective teachers of all students in allareas, for example, in literacy by means of multi-modal communications (Richards, 2002); musicusing visual, aural and kinesthetic resources (Ham-mel, 2003); science education through the explora-tions of visual, action and linguistic communication(Jewitt, Kress, Ogborn, & Charalampos, 2001);math using manipulatives (Weiss, 2005/2006); andhistory via engagement in multi-media learningenvironments (Saye & Brush, 2002).

5.1.4. Linguistic scaffolding

CATs also spent time on linguistic scaffolding.Gee (2000) sees literacy as discourse involving waysof using language, of acting and thinking withinspecified domains. Defined as such, literacy instruc-tion is an inherent element of all instruction. This isevident in the following comment from a CAT:

Teaching US History to Juniors I see that theESL standards as being very close to what wealso work with. Things such as vocabulary,comprehension, reading, writing, listening skillsare what we are really teaching all of thestudents.

Researchers from content-area instruction are inagreement. For example, Akerson (2001) points outthat teaching reading, writing and communicatingare essential components of teaching scientificinquiry to elementary students. Similarly, Fang(2006) adds that explicit attention to the languageof science should be an integral part of scienceliteracy pedagogy. Draper (2002) argues that byengaging students in literacy activities withinmathematics instruction keeps students engagedand interested in the subject and more importantlyprovides them an avenue to access mathematicalconcepts. These activities include teaching studentshow to make meanings out of text and sustainingconversations regarding the text. (For additionalefforts on the juxtaposition of literacy in content-area instruction, see also Bing and Thomas (2005,chemistry), Bintz and Shelton (2004, social studies),Witherell, (2000, arts) and Panell (2005, computerclassroom).)

5.2. Survey findings

Survey findings in this study situate CATs’scaffolding efforts in a larger context of teachers’professional world impacting their pedagogical

knowledge. Although half of CATs acknowledgethat scaffolding is important for all students,including ELLs, only 19.2% indicate that it is theresponsibility of all teachers. On the other hand, lessthan half (38.5%) of the CATs indicated thatcollaboration with their ESL teacher counterparts(ESLTs) is necessary in undertaking scaffoldedinstruction. These findings suggest several interpre-tations. They include that the CATs do not feelequipped to undertake ELL instruction and thusthey rely on ESLTs to provide assistance. Addi-tionally, CATs may feel that they do not share asimilar ‘‘community of practice’’ (Wenger, 1998)with ESLTs that engages them jointly in commontasks over an extended period of time and in whichthey share resources, common practices, back-ground knowledge, beliefs and understandings(Wenger, 1998). Also, unlike their ESLT counter-parts, CATs are responsible for mainstream, ELLs,as well as other students with individualized needs.The professional lives of these teachers are thusencumbered with a multitude of standards to beaddressed for each set of students, a stressfulsituation derived from ‘‘role overload’’ (Conley &Woosley, 2000). In this respect, specialized trainingin scaffolding may be required in order to giveteachers options for helping ELLs master contentmaterial. For example, Saye and Brush (2002)conceptualized a distinction between ‘‘soft andhard’’ scaffolds. Soft scaffolds involve teachersconstantly monitoring and providing timely supportto students and thus are generally more associatedwith intensive, individualized and ongoing attentionfrom teachers. Hard scaffolds, on the other hand,are supports that can be embedded ahead of time ininstructional materials (e.g. guiding questions).When computer software is utilized, hard scaffoldscan be individually adapted to the level of students’ability and to the difficulty of the task.

Also of note in the data is that only a smallpercentage (9.4%) indicated that CATs need train-ing in the area, and only 7.6% think that scaffoldingis difficult. One possible interpretation of the findingis that the majority of CATs in the study feel thatthey already know how to scaffold for ELLs and/orcurrently undertaking the process without addi-tional training. This interpretation could be linkedto what is observed across the four scaffoldingcategories in the survey findings. CATs associatedsome scaffolding strategies they used with ELLswith those used for special education students; theseare marked with an asterisk accompanying items in

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Table 2. The following comment illustrates thepoint:

As others have pointed out, a lot of theapproaches are very similar to teaching SpecialEd studentsy Modifying and scaffolding forELLs is just like modifying for Special Ed. Manyof the modifications I make for the special needsstudents transfer very well for the ESL students.

The association may indicate that for some CATs,ELL scaffolded instruction may not be anythingnew but similar to what they are already doing fortheir special education students. Indeed, Case andTaylor (2005) provide another perspective. Theyfound that ESL students are heavily over-repre-sented in special education programs. They pointout that one of the reasons for this is that severalELL ‘‘developmental processes of acquiring secondlanguage skills may resemble signs of learningdisabilities’’ (p. 127). These include articulationdisorders in pronunciation, difficulty in understand-ing and use of negation, word order and mood insyntax, and challenges in the semantics and use offigurative language. Confusion emerges when ELLs’developmental stages in learning a second languageare seen as defining the overall limit of their learningabilities. Clear guidance is essential for CATs indistinguishing natural language learning processesfrom learning difficulties. More importantly, CATsmust be forewarned that if they begin with theassumption that ELLs are in the same category asphysically and mentally challenged students; theymay be subscribing inadvertently to instructionalapproaches that underestimate ELL abilities.

Finally, only 2.5% report that cultural knowledgeis important for scaffolding in the content area. Thefinding suggests both lack of training and awarenessas to the importance of cultural scaffolding in thecontext of subject area teaching and confirms thefindings on cultural scaffolding described earlier.The situation makes a strong statement regardingthe importance of teachers’ cultural knowledge oftheir students, and in this study, the use of thatknowledge to scaffold instruction. The lack ofknowledge and the cultural mismatch betweenteachers and their ethnically diverse students oftenlead to the latter’s underperformance, a phenomen-on well documented in research (Phuntsog, 1999).For the trend to be reversed, teachers’ culturalknowledge must be seen as a permanent feature ofinstruction necessary for building meaningfulnessand sense-making through effective scaffolding.

6. Conclusions and limitations

This study on the content-area teacher (CAT)knowledge base emerged out of teachers’ dailytextual discussions in a classroom that is triangu-lated with surveys that are open-ended and based onitems on a Likert scale. The findings suggestempirically that cultural scaffolding is an elementof content-area instruction that requires focusedattention by all English Language Learners (ELLs).Similarly, the findings also support other researchasserting that literacy instruction is an inherentcomponent of subject matter instruction and that afoundation in literacy instruction needs to be a partof the teacher education experience of all contentarea teachers, especially those working with ELLs.

Finally, the findings address, to a certain extent,the question as to whether effective ELL instructionis similar to effective instruction for all students, aquestion CTI’s program consultants and instructorsencountered often throughout the program. Theanswer to this question is both yes and no. EffectiveELL teaching is an element of good teaching ingeneral but good teaching for ELLs must alsoinclude teachers’ competency to develop cross-cultural relationships with their students. Thisimplication extends beyond the contexts of CTIand American public schools with ELLs. Accordingto Windschitl (2002), ‘‘in classrooms where teachersare unaware of students’ interests and life experi-ences, they not only fail to build on local knowledgebut essentially offer ‘disinvitations’ to participate inclassroom discourse’’ (p. 18). Buzzelli and Johnston(2002) remind us that teaching is ‘‘fundamentallyrelational’’ (p. 8). Taken in that light, teachers’cultural competency should constitute more thanteachers striving for universality or for maintainingthe cultural particularities of students (Kramsch,1995, p. 92). Rather, cultural competency should alsoinclude teachers’ dialogic engagement and relation-ship building with students. In foreign and secondlanguage teaching, this competency is evident inKubota’s (1998, p. 406) ‘‘responsive teaching’’ andPrabhu’s (1990, p. 172) ‘‘teachers’ sense of plausi-bility’’. In both cases, the value of language teachingis not a question of their ability to implement goodor bad methods but rather their ability to maketeaching ‘‘active, alive or operational enough tocreate a sense of involvement for both teachers andstudents’’ (Prabhu, p. 173). Consequently, in thepost-method era (Kumaravadivelu, 2006), teachingsecond and foreign languages centers on teachers’

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and students’ building of and engagement in criticalrelationships that allow for the interrogation andproblematization of what each brings into theclassroom.

The findings in this study would have benefitedfrom classroom teacher observations to provide aperspective on the actual manifestation of the teacherknowledge base and its place in enacted practice(Ernest, 1994). Nevertheless, the findings in the studyprovide guidance on the priorities to be undertakenby professional development programs and in-services targeted for CATs who work with ELLs.They also establish a foundation for action researchto be undertaken by CATs. Teachers can use thefindings to reassess their classroom teaching in termsof its components in the learning environmentthat they want to create for their ELLs. The findingsand the modified ‘‘Prism Model’’ categories canalso be instrumental in eliciting student input as tothe scaffolding strategies that are meaningfuland purposeful to them. Such information will beessential if teachers are to recognize legitimate andnecessary practices (Saye & Brush, 2002) in theclassroom that are worthy of use in ELL instruction.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank George Cheu-jey Lee for hisinsights on this paper. Also, I wish to thank thethree coders, Daniel Craig, Erin Schmeidl and AnnaLynch. Finally, I am grateful to the anonymousreviewers for their instructive comments.

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