CONTEMPORARY TEACHING STRATEGIES

Discovery – Inductive Strategy. This strategy moves from the particular to the general and is used to guide students to develop a concept by discovering common features and using the features as basis for grouping the items. The main steps are the following:

1. Observe and discuss items or data to be used in developing the concept.2. Identify common features for use in grouping them, noting distinguishing differences.3. Decide on a basis for grouping them.4. Label, name, or define each group.5. Have children use the term and find new examples.

Discovery – Deductive Strategy. This strategy moves from the general to the particular. A rule or attributes that students have learned, or that the teacher provides, are given so that students can discover applications or new examples. Students proceed deductively from what they know or what is given to find supporting instances as shown in the following example:

1. Review or teach rule or main attributes to be used by students.2. Have students supply the rule or main attributes. 3. Review the rule or main attributes.4. Have students find or do other examples.

Directed – Inductive Strategy. In this strategy the teacher directs instruction step by step from the particular to the general, moving from examples or attributes to a generalized meaning of the concept. The expository role of the teacher in the following example of instruction on the concept valueshould be noted.

1. Identify the examples or critical attributes of the concept to be developed.2. Identify non-examples (nonexemplars) of the concept.3. Have students give examples (exemplars) and non-examples (nonexemplars) of the

concept.4. State the general meaning of the concept.5. Have students use the term and find other examples and non-examples.Directed – Deductive Strategy. In this strategy, the teacher starts with the definition of the

concept and moves to particular examples of it. The teacher provides direct instruction in all phases except the last one in which students state the definition and give examples of the concept.

1. State the concept to be learned.2. Identify critical attributes of the concept.3. Provide examples to clarify the concept.4. Present non – examples to further clarify the concept.5. Have students state or write a definition and give examples.

Discovery – Transductive Strategy. This strategy is useful in creative expression in a variety of forms in which divergent thinking is emphasized. It is also used in situations in which students are to associate, relate, or compare words, numbers, patterns, themes, forms, and other items in a variety of ways. The teacher’s role is primarily that of facilitator and stimulator. The student’s role is that of manipulator and experimenter. Main phases of the strategy are the following:

1. Arrange materials or provide data for students to use.

1

2. Stimulate creative thinking by questions or comments.3. Provide time for students to use the materials or process the data.4. Provide opportunities for students to share, enjoy, and discuss the different outcomes

of the activity.

Directed – Transductive Strategy. Convergent thinking is emphasized in this strategy which is highly structured in moving students from particular to particular. It is used in teaching specific motor skills, word association skills, map skills, and the like. Main steps are:

1. Direct students’ attention to the items to be associated or related.2. Provide opportunities for practice.3. Provide assistance to students who need it.4. Provide for application in other situations.

Strategies for Using Techniques of Inquiry and Selected teaching Procedures

Interviews

Interviews are especially helpful in getting firsthand information from individuals who have expertise on topics under study. Possibilities for using interviews exist in all subjects as needs for fresh data are related to contributions that may be made by artists, musicians, nutritionists, scientists, minority group members, energy and environmental technologists, public officials, or other experts. Preliminary preparation by the teacher includes clarification of objectives to be served by the interview, formulating questions related to the objectives, and identifying the individual(s) to be interviewed .

Introduction. Discuss needs for new or additional data. Identify interviewee(s). make specific plans, including questions to ask, how to introduce oneself to the interviewee, recording procedures during the interview, and importance of expressing thanks when finished.

Development.Have students conduct the interview according to plan. Urge students to raise additional questions to clarify points and to get data on unanticipated topics.

Conclusion. Have students summarize data and report findings. Use data to solve problems. Carry out related activities in the unit under study.

Evaluation. Have students identify needed improvements in response to such questions as, Which of our questions were answered? How can we improve interviewing procedures? Recording procedures? Reporting procedures?

Experiments

Experiments are used extensively in the science education program and somewhat less in health education, art, music, and other areas of curriculum. To be effective, experiments must be planned and conducted so that students are involved in actually testing a hypothesis, not trying to prove a foregone conclusion by following a recipe. Preparation by the teacher includes clarification of the hypothesis to be tested, gathering needed equipment and materials, and arranging working spaces for students.

Introduction. Clarify hypothesis to be tested and procedures to use. Have students explore equipment, demonstrating use as necessary. Discuss conditions and procedures, inviting questions from the group. Discuss procedures for recording data.

2

Development. Have students proceed according to plan. Respond to questions and give assistance as needed. Be sure students record data.

Conclusion. Discuss findings to find out if hypothesis is supported or not. Consider needs for more data. State conclusion.

Evaluation. Was the hypothesis clear and testable? Were procedures for testing the hypothesis adequate? What changes should be made in the procedures, equipment and materials, and instructions to students?

Field Trips

Field trips give students a firsthand view of people at work, business and industrial activity, farming and processing of produce, exhibits and collections, plants and animals in natural or man – made settings, environmental problems, and other items and activities related to topics under study. They may be used in any neighborhood to an extended trip to another community. Preliminary preparation by the teacher includes specification of objectives for the trip., obtaining administrative and parental approval, making travel arrangements, obtaining any needed assistance to help supervise students, making eating and toileting arrangements, planning the time schedule, and informing the guide on the questions to be raised and the maturity and background of the students.

Introduction. Clarify objectives with students. Identify specific questions to be answered. Plan recording and reporting procedures. Plan individual and small – group assignments. Review standards of behavior, safety precautions, appropriate dress, time schedule.

Development. Assist guide as appropriate .Have students raise questions. Ask additional questions to clarify difficult points. Check on students’ completing of assignments and recording of information for later sharing. Have students raise questions as needed to complete collection of data.

Conclusion. Have students summarize data and report findings. Develop charts, diagrams, displays, or other materials as appropriate. Have students state main idea or other conclusions. Plan and send a letter of thanks.

Evaluation. What improvements in procedures do students suggest? What changes are needed to attain initial objectives more adequately? How can ideas be more effectively applied in follow – up activities?

Demonstrations

Demonstrations are widely used to teach students how to use equipment and materials, rhythm and other musical instruments, and rulers, compasses, and other items. They are also used to develop skills and concepts such as skipping, waltzing, lifting, candle making, weighing, measuring, graphing, and a host of other activities. Expository demonstrations are designed to impart information directly or to illustrate a skill as students observe. Questing demonstrations are designed to foster discovery of a concept or its application. Preliminary preparation by the teacher includes clarifying objectives, collecting needed materials, deciding who is to do the demonstration.

Introduction. Clarify objectives for students. Respond to any questions. Be sure each child can see and hear the demonstration.

Development. Do each step according to plan. Respond to any questions that arise. Repeat to any questions that arise. Repeat any steps as needed to clarify understanding. Involve students in any steps in which their involvement will clarify understanding.

3

Conclusion. Use a chart or the chalkboard to summarize, or ask students to summarize or demonstrate steps in order. Provide for immediate follow-up and application in learning activities.

Evaluation. In what ways are students applying what was demonstrated? What aspects need further clarification? To what extent are initial objectives being achieved? What changes should be made if the demonstration is to be repeated?

Role Playing

In role playing students enact situations that arise in daily living, are encountered in units of instruction, or are presented by the teacher. Values may be clarified, insight into the feelings of others may be developed, and practice in decision-making maybe provided. The main steps in a strategy for role playing are as follows (Shaftel, 1967):

1. Warming up the group (problem confrontation)2. Selecting the participants in role playing3. Preparing others to participate as observers4. Setting the stage5. Having the role playing or enactment of the situation6. Discussing and evaluating the enactment7. Having further enactments to play revised roles, next steps, and so forth8. Providing for further discussion and evaluation9. Having students share experiences and generalize

Simulation Games

Simulation games serve as simplified models of real activities. Roles, rules, and materials restrict players to realistic portrayal of the activity being simulated. Clarifying objectives and relating the game to the unit under study are critical elements to emphasize both during the introduction and the debriefing at the conclusion. The main steps of procedure for any simulation game are the following (Michaelis, 1972):

Introduction. Clarify concepts, skills, or other objectives. Describe player’s roles, rules, use of materials, and time limits.

Development. Observe players and handle questions on roles and adherence to rules. Note points to consider in debriefing.

Conclusion. Focus debriefing discussion on objectives. Consider any problems and summarize key learnings. Relate learning to the unit under study.

Evaluation. How can use of the game to attain objectives be improved? What needs to be done to clarify roles, rules, and use of materials? How can any distortions of reality be corrected?

Teaching Strategies for Cognitive, Thinking, or Inquiry Processes

A variety of teaching strategies may be used to develop cognitive, thinking, or inquiry processes. Three strategies that have been developed by Hilda Taba and refined by her associates for use in the social studies may be used in any subject field in connection with concept development, generalizing, and predicting. The strategies are presented below with focusing questions in the order in which they are recommended for use:

Concept Development(Classifying)

4

1. What do you see (notice, find, etc.) here?2. Do any of these items seem to belong together?3. Why would you group them this way?4. What would you call these groups?5. Could some of these belong to more than one group?

Inferring and Generalizing

1. What did you see (notice, read, etc.)?2. What differences did you notice (with reference to a particular question)?3. Why do you think this happened? Or, How do you account for these differences?4. What does this tell you about...?

Applying Generalization(Predicting)

1. Suppose that a particular event occurred given certain conditions, what would happen? (What would happen if…?

2. What makes you think that would happen?3. Can someone give a different idea about what would happen?4. If that happened, what do you think would happen after that?

Teaching Strategies for Developing Skills

Teaching strategies for the development of basic skills in reading, arithmetic, physical education, and other areas of the curriculum are among the most highly refined approaches to instruction. They have been systematized in developmental programs of instruction based on researches and studies over the years. Although there are differences among various strategies for skill development, it is possible to identify several common features. First, the emphasis on preparation, readiness building including development of meaning, and clarification of need for the skill. Second, demonstration or explanation of the skill followed by actual practice on the part of students, practice being recognized as the essential ingredient in skill development. Diagnosis of needs and assistance at the point of need are ongoing activities of the teacher during skill development. Extension and application of the given direct attention so that students will be able to use them in other situations. Finally, evaluation is systematically provided in most programs.

Two examples have been selected to illustrate skill development strategies. The first is used in many programs of developmental reading instruction. The second is used to develop motor skills in physical education, music, and other areas of the curriculum.

Teaching Strategies for Reading. This strategy begins with preparation for reading which serves as an introduction and the establishing of specific objectives for reading the selection. The next phase typically involves silent reading in line with objectives, followed by the discussion and sharing of ideas and by oral reading of selected passages, especially in the early grades. Follow-up, practice, extension, and evaluation are provided through the use of workbooks or independent activities provided by the teacher.Main steps in the strategy are as follows:

1. Preparation for Reading. Development of readiness and background for reading selection; presenting vocabulary to be encountered in the selection; building interest; setting purposes of reading; introducing and explaining skills to be developed.

5

2. Reading of the Selection. Silent reading in line with the objectives; individual assistance by the teacher as requested by the students; taking notes or completing exercises related to the selection.

3. Discussion and Sharing. Opportunities for students to discuss and share interesting parts, answer to questions, new ideas obtained, how the ideas might be applied, and other objectives set during the preparation.

4. Guided Oral Reading. Opportunities for students to read aloud while the teacher observes to note any aspects needing attention; sharing of most interesting passage; emphasis on interpretation of selected parts.

5. Follow-up, Extension, Practice, Evaluation. Use of workbook and independent activities prepared by the teacher; practice on vocabulary development, word analysis, reading for main ideas, reading for details, and other skills; related activities in art, individualized practice materials, applications in other areas of curriculum.

Teaching Strategy for Developing Motor Skills. This strategy may be used for developing psychomotor skills in physical education, music education, or other areas of curriculum. The strategy involves demonstration plus immediate involvement or participation on the part of students. In fact, at times students may do the demonstrating themselves beginning with simple aspects and moving to increasingly more complex ones as they develop the skill being emphasized.

The principal steps in the teaching strategy for developing motor skills are as follows:1. Clarify need for the skill.2. Demonstrate the skills, or have a student demonstrate them.3. Provide for immediate practice, observing to note those in need of guidance.4. Provide individual assistance as needed.5. Provide for immediate use of the skill.

OTHER TEACHING STRATEGIES

There are other teaching strategies, which may also be labeled contemporary, not included in the preceding discussion. We now turn our attention to some of these strategies.

Teaching Strategies in Science

Waetjen has suggested the following teaching strategies in science:

1. Pose a problem.2. Establish an experimental design aimed at solving the problem.3. Have students gather data related to solution of the problem.4. Have students graph, study, and interpret their data.5. Have students generalize on the basis of their data.6. Proceed to a group discussion of the meaning and limitations of the data, the

relationship of the data to the other problems and so forth.7. If enough interest has been generated and there is sufficient demand, a short lecture

might even be in order at this point.8. Related readings in a textbook take on genuine meaning now that they can reinforce

and argument the results of the of the student’s personal experience.

6

According to Waetjen, teaching-learning activities in science may be structured or unstructured. The following is an example of a structured activity:

1. Pose a problem2. Suggest a procedure for gathering data.3. Allow the student time to gather the data in the way prescribed.4. Require the student to organize his data in both tabular and graphical form whenever

possible.5. Require the student to answer a series questions about his data.6. Require the student to generalize on the basis of his data and to be prepared to defend

his generalizations in front of the class.

Here is an example of an unstructured activity:

1. Pose a problem.2. Allow the student complete liberty to devise his own procedure, organize his own

data, and arrive at his own generalizations.

The Closure Procedure in Reading

According to Alegre (1974), the cloze procedure, developed by Wilson Taylor in 1953, was adapted from the word cloze by Gestalt psychologist which means filling in the parts in an incomplete message in order to arrive to a conclusion. Taylor” said that a person who understands the message of a printed passage even with the words removed from it can replace these words exactly and therefore experience a form of closure, hence the term cloze.

Programmed Instruction

Instruction which makes use of a programmed text, instead of conventional texts, is called programmed instruction. A programmed text is one in which the content is arranged in either a linear or branching of a program.

Modern Method of Teaching History

History is the study of controversies and demands interpretations. Understanding why and how major events happened will enable our schools to develop among our youth enlightened patriotism and make them better equipped for dealing with today’s events. Accordingly, the teaching of history must be done through the mode of inquiry. With the mode of inquiry, teachers do not focus on knowledge objectives or memory level learning. They focus, rather, on four major objectives: attitudes, values, inquiry skills, and knowledge.

Attitudes to be promoted in history and/or social studies classes are willingness to listen to all sides of an argument, willingness to make decisions based on proof, and wanting to continue to learn. Students are also led into identifying values and develop their own value systems. Inquiry skills are developed through the use of “analytical concepts” and “analytical questions”. These steps of mode of inquiry-namely, recognizing a problem, formulating hypothesis, gathering data, and making tentative conclusions-are utilized in the modern method of teaching history.

7

1. Students are confronted with problem situations, cases, conflicts, or dilemmas that encourage identification of issues and development of tentative hypothesis.

2. Following the presentation of data, students are expected to question the authenticity of the source material.

3. Once evidence is accepted as authentic, internal analysis follows. Evidence is weighed and evaluated as students compare various primary and secondary source materials. They consider conflicting testimonies and probe for internal consistency and logic.

4. As evidence is renewed, students gain practice in interpreting data. They develop their ability to separate fact, fiction, and opinion. Students should be urged to consider their own values as they synthesize explanations, preparatory to rendering a judgment.

5. Finally, students arrive at conclusions or make generalizations. After all available evidence has been evaluated and the students consider their own values, they make decisions always subject to later revision.

The P-A-C StrategyAccording to a relatively recent psychological theory called transactional analysis,

there are three basic modes or ways of behaving. These are Parent, Adult and Child. The child in us wants to have fun, is emotional, wants what he want and is spontaneous. We need our Child when we want to express emotion, enjoy ourselves, or be creative. We are in our Parent when we nurture another, love a small child, help someone, teach someone, conduct a meeting, and criticize, control and order people about. We use our Adult to process information and decide upon a course of action-in its broadest sense, to think.

There is nothing good or bad about Parent, Adult and Child behavior. Each has its own purpose. Without our Parent we could not teach, and we could not order students out of the classroom in case of emergency. Without our Adult, we could not reason and resolve conflict constructively. Without our child we could not enjoy ourselves or be creative.

The only “bad” aspect of P-A-C is becoming stuck in any one mode of behavior to the point where one cannot shift into using the appropriate mode at the right time. If we are Parent all the time, we would appear so domineering that all people would feel stifle and be wary of us. If we are constantly in our Child, we might experience a lot of fun but we would get little or nothing done. If we are always in our Adult, we could make a great deal of sense but we would probably be a pretty dull company. In practice, everyone uses each of the three modes of behavior at times, but some of us use them as needed while others favor one of the three to the exclusion of the other two, or some may favor two of them to the partial inclusion of the third.

8