consider material stored… info (reduces uncertainty) processing = cognition 1- input = senses capture all experiences >>> impulses (NS) brain accept

• consider material stored…• info (reduces uncertainty) processing = cognition

1- input = senses capture all experiences >>> impulses (NS)

brain accept all?

2- central processing =

3- output =

• memory-

Human memory…

information processing systemencodestoreretrieve information

What is Memory?

• Information-Processing model– encoding-

select*identify*tag / label

automatic - especially?elaboration (concrete exs)

– storage-

– retrieval-

each stages encodes & storesdifferent waywork together

transform sensory experience

{lasting record}

How Do We Form Memories?

Stages of MemoryStages of MemorySensory Sensory MemoryMemory

Working Working MemoryMemory LTMLTM

• hold fraction of second >>> disappearsnerve impulses

• 12-16 items– forgetforget--- no attention & transfer--- no attention & transfer

sense (register) assistance--- tone/smells/touchsense (register) assistance--- tone/smells/touch

• next stage…

• conscious mind @ any moment --- limitedlimited– selects SS >>>> (encodes) LTM

• ““working memory”working memory”**items? ** seconds?

– sensitive to interruptionssensitive to interruptions

hippocampus & frontalhippocampus & frontal

{rehearsal}

• 7 unrelated items --- packaged = 1 item– related items >>> LTM

group connections = memorize faster & more

• info chunked >>> temporary & “interest”must be rehearsed!!

-maintenance-elaborative

• what is good memory??what is good memory??• items STM >>> chunk / rehearsal >>> encoded

– unlimited capacity!!unlimited capacity!!meaningmeaning stored stored {interests / similarity}{interests / similarity}

recall events BUT lose…recall events BUT lose…time & blockstime & blocks

• declarative [explicit]

– conscious knowledge

*semantic – *episodic –

• procedural [implicit]

– skills >>>> simple – complexrepetition / hard to unlearn

gain skill lose ability to explain

**conditioning – learn responses w/o consciously aware

eidetic / “flash bulb”

(time / location)

• retrieval --- organization

• influenced >>> knowledge / attitudes / expectations– memories --- simplified / enriched / distorted

orderconfabulation

– index w/ various headingsinfo req >>> experience / situation

ability suggests limitless storagePriming [meaningful organization]

Other factors affecting…

• Encoding specificity-

»state dependent memory (AP 2009)

• Mood-congruent memory-

• TOT experience-

Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?

Most problems arise… “7 sins” – by-products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory

• not retrievable

Decay- sensory & STM

Amnesia (retrograde/anterograde)

{frustrating}

Transience** • new experience & age

Absent-Mindedness

Blocking

– proactive

– retroactive

– serial position effectrepression

**Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Recall decreases rapidly plateau little more is forgotten

Pe

rce

nt r

eta

ined

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Days

5 10 15 20 25 30

Misattribution – wrong time, place, or person

Suggestibility– misinformation effect

Bias– Expectancy bias

– Self-consistency bias

Persistence

• meaningful = • associate =

– senses & experiences• interference =

degree of original learning

Mnemonic Devices• techniques for using associations

1) rhyme2) acronym

Eyewitness Accuracy:

Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned

Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information

Age of the witness matters

Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy

• situation?• Broadbent >>> selection theory --- interpretation limited

• Treisman >>> attenuation theory --- filter suppressed

others >>>> limited ability to respond

Input Sorting = priority1- satisfaction of needs

2- strange & novel3- interests

– identify: car / artist [reading]

• ability to extract >>> identify & compare – distinguish faces {resemblance: family}

– depends on experience experts??

evaluative process

The First Stage: Sensory MemoryOn the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second

Try to remember as many letters as you can

D J BX H GC L Y

• acomplishment

• acheivement

• consolidate

• consistant

• reccommend

• maintainance

• accomplishment

• achievement

• consistent

• recommend

• maintenance

Word Exercise: heat >>>> cold

PEACH

BOOK

SWORD

CAR

ENEMY

MIRROR

SHOE

THERMOMETER

CLOCK

BRICK

BED

SALT

FLOWER

CALENDAR

AIRPLANE

• #s / words / nonsense syllables

• measure of implicit [advantage??]

Thinking- cognitive processThinking- cognitive process

• brain uses info… brain uses info… ((senses / emotions / memorysenses / emotions / memory))

……create & manipulate create & manipulate

Components of ThoughtComponents of Thought

ConceptsConcepts – – mental representations of categories of mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experienceitems or ideas, based on experience• NaturalNatural - - represent objects & events represent objects & events

prototypeprototype

• ArtificialArtificial - - defined by rules defined by rules

– organize much of declarative memoriesorganize much of declarative memories

concept hierarchiesconcept hierarchies

Animal

FishBird

SalmonSharkOstrichCanary

Has skinEats

Breathes

Has finsCan swimHas gills

Has wingsCan fly

Has feathers

Can singIs yellow

Can’t flyIs tall

Can biteIs dangerous

Is pinkIs edible

Imagery & Cognitive Maps

Event-related potentialsEvent-related potentials – –

brain waves (EEG) show response to stimulationbrain waves (EEG) show response to stimulation

lobe?lobe?

SchemaSchema – – knowledge cluster or general framework that knowledge cluster or general framework that provides expectations… provides expectations…

topics / events (individual situations)topics / events (individual situations)objects / peopleobjects / people

ScriptScript – – cluster of knowledge about sequences of events cluster of knowledge about sequences of events & actions expected & actions expected particular sett particular settings

**thinking… directed / metacognition(non)

• repertoire of effective…algorithms & heuristics

• avoid common impediments

Abilities of Good ThinkersAbilities of Good Thinkers

Good problem solvers are skilled at…Identifying problemSelecting strategy

Algorithms- guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied

Heuristics- shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks

**no guarantees

**insight- sudden realization/emergence of solution

• recombination of elements

• creativity- mental process novel responses contributing to solutions

– use info >>> new / original / meaningful

Mental set – respond to a new problem in previous manner

Functional fixedness – inability to perceive a new use for an object associated w/ a different purpose

Other obstacles:• Self-imposed limitations• Lack of interest• Fatigue• Drugs (legal & illegal)

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

Anchoring BiasAnchoring Bias

Representativeness Representativeness BiasBias

Availability BiasAvailability Bias

Unscramble These Words

nelinenscesdlenlecamslfaldlchineque

raspeklstanolemdlscohsflenaorgegsta

Unscrambled Wordslinenscenelendscamelfallschildqueen

pearstalksmeloncoldsshelfgroangates

The algorithm you used to solve the first column probably kept you from seeing the multiple

solutions for the words in the second column

Creativity- flexibility

Judging & Making Decisions

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

Hindsight Bias

Anchoring Bias

Representativeness Bias

Availability Bias

Ignoring or finding fault w/ info that does not fit our opinions, & seeking info w/ which we agree


Confirmation Bias

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

Anchoring Bias


Availability Bias

Tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance


Confirmation Bias

Hindsight Bias

Anchoring BiasAnchoring Bias


Availability Bias

Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007


Confirmation Bias

Hindsight Bias

Anchoring Bias

Representativeness Representativeness BiasBias

Availability Bias

Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once a person or event is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category


Confirmation Bias

Hindsight Bias

Anchoring Bias


Availability BiasAvailability Bias

Faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience

-Human Memory is Good at Information…

• attention is focused

• interesting

• arouses us emotionally

• fits our previous experiences

• that we rehearse

Practical Application-how to study useless information

• Make it personal.

• Make it emotional.

• Use your senses. Make it visual/auditory.

• Associate

• Do it Freaky.

• Mnemonic Aids-acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, etc.

• Rehearsal



Encoding and Storage in Working Memory

Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units

Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory


Acoustic encoding – Conversion of information to sound patterns in working memory

Encoding and Storage in Working MemoryElaborative rehearsal –

Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM


Encoding and Storage in Working Memory

Levels-of-processing theory – Explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered


Semantic memory

Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge

Episodic memory

Includes memory for:events, personal experiences

Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning

Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory


The Biological Basisof Long-Term MemoryEngram –

The physical trace of memory

Anterograde amnesia –Inability to form memories for new information

Retrograde amnesia –Inability to remember information previously stored in memory


The Biological Basisof Long-Term Memory

Consolidation –The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories


How Do WeRetrieve Memories?

Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful

retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how

they are cued


Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled

How Do WeRetrieve Memories?

Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness


Retrieval Cues

Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior


Retrieval Cues

Priming – Technique for retrieving implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory


PrimingIf you are presented with the following words:

assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate


PrimingAn hour later, you would easily be able to

identify which of the following words you had previously seen:

twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery


ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _

_ l _ m _ te

PrimingHowever, an hour later, you would also have a

much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:


PrimingWhile you did not actively try to remember

“octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task

chipmunk

octopus

bogeyman

climate


Retrieving Explicit Memories

Anything stored in LTM must be “filed” according to its pattern or meaning


Recall and RecognitionRecall –

Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information

Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented


Other Factors Affecting Retrieval

Encoding specificity principle –The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered


The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of MemoryDespite the grief they cause us, the “seven

sins” may actually be by-products of adaptive features of memoryFor example, absent-mindedness is the by-product

of the useful ability to shift our attention

Misattributions, biases, and suggestibility result from a memory system built to deal with meaning


Improving Memory with MnemonicsMnemonics –

Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory

Mnemonic strategies includeMethod of loci

Natural language mediators

The Nine-Dot Problem

. . .

. . .

. . .

Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?

Working Backwards

Documents

consider material stored… info (reduces uncertainty) processing = cognition 1- input = senses capture all experiences >>> impulses (NS) brain accept