Consequences of Consequences of WarfareWarfare

The Soldiers and their The Soldiers and their FamiliesFamilies

The disaster at Lake TrasimeneThe disaster at Lake Trasimene217 BC217 BC

This was the famous battle at Trasumennus, and a disaster This was the famous battle at Trasumennus, and a disaster for Rome memorable as few others have been. for Rome memorable as few others have been. Fifteen Fifteen thousandthousand Romans were killed in action; Romans were killed in action; ten thousandten thousand fugitives were scattered all over Etruria and reached the fugitives were scattered all over Etruria and reached the City by diverse routes; City by diverse routes; two thousand five-hundredtwo thousand five-hundred of of the enemy perished on the field, many in both armies the enemy perished on the field, many in both armies afterwards of their wounds. Other authors give the loss on afterwards of their wounds. Other authors give the loss on each side as many times greater, but I refuse to indulge in each side as many times greater, but I refuse to indulge in the idle exaggerations to which writers are far too much the idle exaggerations to which writers are far too much given, and what is more, I am supported by the authority of given, and what is more, I am supported by the authority of Fabius, who was living during the war. Hannibal dismissed Fabius, who was living during the war. Hannibal dismissed without ransom those prisoners who belonged to the allies without ransom those prisoners who belonged to the allies and threw the Romans into chains. He then gave orders for and threw the Romans into chains. He then gave orders for the bodies of his own men to be picked out from the heaps the bodies of his own men to be picked out from the heaps of slain and buried; careful search was also made for the of slain and buried; careful search was also made for the body of Flaminius that it might receive honourable body of Flaminius that it might receive honourable interment but it was not found. interment but it was not found.

News of Trasimene reach News of Trasimene reach RomeRome

As soon as the news of this disaster reached Rome the As soon as the news of this disaster reached Rome the people flocked into the Forum in a great state of panic and people flocked into the Forum in a great state of panic and confusion. Matrons were wandering about the streets and confusion. Matrons were wandering about the streets and asking those they met what recent disaster had been asking those they met what recent disaster had been reported or what news was there of the army. The throng in reported or what news was there of the army. The throng in the Forum, as numerous as a crowded Assembly, flocked the Forum, as numerous as a crowded Assembly, flocked towards the Comitium and the Senate-house and called for towards the Comitium and the Senate-house and called for the magistrates. At last, shortly before sunset, M. the magistrates. At last, shortly before sunset, M. Pomponius, the praetor, announced, "We have been Pomponius, the praetor, announced, "We have been defeated in a great battle." Though nothing more definite defeated in a great battle." Though nothing more definite was heard from him, the people, full of the reports which was heard from him, the people, full of the reports which they had heard from one another, carried back to their they had heard from one another, carried back to their homes the information that the consul had been killed with homes the information that the consul had been killed with the greater part of his army; only a few survived, and these the greater part of his army; only a few survived, and these were either dispersed in flight throughout Etruria or had were either dispersed in flight throughout Etruria or had been made prisoners by the enemy. been made prisoners by the enemy.

Waiting for loved-onesWaiting for loved-ones

The next day and several days afterwards, a large crowd, The next day and several days afterwards, a large crowd, containing more women than men, stood at the gates waiting for containing more women than men, stood at the gates waiting for some one of their friends or for news about them, and they some one of their friends or for news about them, and they crowded round those they met with eager and anxious inquiries, crowded round those they met with eager and anxious inquiries, nor was it possible to get them away, especially from those they nor was it possible to get them away, especially from those they knew, until they had got all the details from first to last. Then as knew, until they had got all the details from first to last. Then as they came away from their informants you might see the different they came away from their informants you might see the different expressions on their faces, according as each had received good expressions on their faces, according as each had received good or bad news, and friends congratulating or consoling them as they or bad news, and friends congratulating or consoling them as they wended their way homewards. The women were especially wended their way homewards. The women were especially demonstrative in their joy and in their grief. They say that one demonstrative in their joy and in their grief. They say that one who suddenly met her son at the gate safe and sound expired in who suddenly met her son at the gate safe and sound expired in his arms, whilst another who had received false tidings of her his arms, whilst another who had received false tidings of her son's death and was sitting as a sorrowful mourner in her house, son's death and was sitting as a sorrowful mourner in her house, no sooner saw him returning than she died from too great no sooner saw him returning than she died from too great happiness. For several days the praetors kept the senate in happiness. For several days the praetors kept the senate in session from sunrise to sunset, deliberating under what general or session from sunrise to sunset, deliberating under what general or with what forces they could offer effectual resistance to the with what forces they could offer effectual resistance to the victorious Carthaginian. (Livy 22.7.11)victorious Carthaginian. (Livy 22.7.11)

55.55. Publius Furius Philus and Marcus Pomponius, Publius Furius Philus and Marcus Pomponius, the praetors, called the senate together in the Curia the praetors, called the senate together in the Curia Hostilia, to consult about the defence of Rome; [2] Hostilia, to consult about the defence of Rome; [2] for they made no doubt that the enemy, after for they made no doubt that the enemy, after wiping out their armies, would be advancing to wiping out their armies, would be advancing to besiege the City, which was all that remained to do besiege the City, which was all that remained to do to end the war. [3] But when, amid dangers at once to end the war. [3] But when, amid dangers at once so immense and so incalculable, they failed to think so immense and so incalculable, they failed to think of even any tolerable plan of action, of even any tolerable plan of action, and were and were deafened with the cries and lamentations of deafened with the cries and lamentations of the women, both the living and the deadthe women, both the living and the dead — —in in the lack as yet of any announcement —being the lack as yet of any announcement —being [4] indiscriminately mourned in almost every [4] indiscriminately mourned in almost every house,house, (Livy 22.55) (Livy 22.55)

Ancient Sources on Roman Ancient Sources on Roman CasualtiesCasualties

at Lake Trasimeneat Lake TrasimeneThe battle at Lake Trasimene under The battle at Lake Trasimene under

cos. C. Flaminius – Livy cos. C. Flaminius – Livy Ab UrbeAb Urbe 22.7.2: 15,000 citizen and Italian 22.7.2: 15,000 citizen and Italian allies, many afterwards of their allies, many afterwards of their wounds wounds

Appian, Appian, HannibalicaHannibalica 10: 20,000 dead, 10: 20,000 dead, 10,000 prisoners10,000 prisoners

Eutropius 3.9, Orosius 4.15.5: Eutropius 3.9, Orosius 4.15.5: 25,000 dead25,000 dead

Sources on the disaster at Sources on the disaster at Cannae 216 BCCannae 216 BC

Polybius 3.117.3-4: 70,000 Romans killed, Polybius 3.117.3-4: 70,000 Romans killed, 10,000 captured10,000 captured

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Antiquitates RomanaeRomanae 2.17.4: 75,630 out of a total force of 2.17.4: 75,630 out of a total force of 86,000.86,000.

Livy 22.49.15: 48,200, Livy 22.49.15: 48,200, 22.49.13; 49.18; 50.11, 51.1-2: 18,700 22.49.13; 49.18; 50.11, 51.1-2: 18,700

capturedcaptured Appian, Appian, HannibalicaHannibalica 25, and Plutarch, Fabius 25, and Plutarch, Fabius

Maximus 16: 50,000 even.Maximus 16: 50,000 even. Difficult to accurately quantify ancient Difficult to accurately quantify ancient

casualties, but they were very high in these casualties, but they were very high in these battlesbattles

Length of ServiceLength of Service

Until 2Until 2ndnd century BC – warfare a seasonal century BC – warfare a seasonal affairaffair

In 2In 2ndnd century BC a minimum of 6 years of century BC a minimum of 6 years of continuous service (especially for those in continuous service (especially for those in Spain)Spain)

In period from 200-168 BC – men under In period from 200-168 BC – men under arms between 182,400 – 101,000 – always arms between 182,400 – 101,000 – always above 100,000above 100,000

Until late 1Until late 1stst century BC soldiers primarily century BC soldiers primarily from Italian peasantryfrom Italian peasantry

Widows and OrphansWidows and Orphans The Census of 465 BC:The Census of 465 BC: Then the census was made and the Then the census was made and the

"lustrum " closed by Quinctius. The numbers of the census are "lustrum " closed by Quinctius. The numbers of the census are stated to have been one hundred and four thousand seven stated to have been one hundred and four thousand seven hundred and fourteen, exclusive of widows and orphans. Nothing hundred and fourteen, exclusive of widows and orphans. Nothing further of any importance occurred amongst the Aequi. They further of any importance occurred amongst the Aequi. They withdrew into their towns and looked on passively at the rifling withdrew into their towns and looked on passively at the rifling and burning of their homesteads. After repeatedly marching and burning of their homesteads. After repeatedly marching through the length and breadth of the enemies' territory and through the length and breadth of the enemies' territory and carrying destruction everywhere, the consul returned to Rome carrying destruction everywhere, the consul returned to Rome with immense glory and immense spoil. (Livy.3.3)with immense glory and immense spoil. (Livy.3.3)

The Census 131/131 BCThe Census 131/131 BC The first two plebeian censors, The first two plebeian censors, Quintus Pompeius and Quintius Metellus, performed the Quintus Pompeius and Quintius Metellus, performed the lustrumlustrum ceremony.  318,823 citizens were registered, wards and widows ceremony.  318,823 citizens were registered, wards and widows not included.  Censor Quintus Metellus suggested that everyone not included.  Censor Quintus Metellus suggested that everyone ought to be forced to marry to create more children.  (His speech ought to be forced to marry to create more children.  (His speech still exists, and was quoted in the Senate by the emperor still exists, and was quoted in the Senate by the emperor Augustus as if it had recently been written, when he proposed a Augustus as if it had recently been written, when he proposed a marriage law.) (Livy, Periochae 59 )marriage law.) (Livy, Periochae 59 )

The Cult of Venus VerticordiaThe Cult of Venus Verticordia

New cult introduced 215 BC (during 2New cult introduced 215 BC (during 2ndnd Punic War) Punic War) Venus Verticordia = The Turner of HeartsVenus Verticordia = The Turner of Hearts Purpose: to discourage adulteryPurpose: to discourage adultery

Reason: in first year of war at least 108,000 men Reason: in first year of war at least 108,000 men called to serve in the legionscalled to serve in the legions

213 BC: “L. Villius Tappulus and M. Fundanius 213 BC: “L. Villius Tappulus and M. Fundanius Fundulus, the plebeian aediles, summoned several Fundulus, the plebeian aediles, summoned several matrons before the people on a charge of matrons before the people on a charge of shameful conduct; some of them were convicted shameful conduct; some of them were convicted and sent into exile.” (Livy 25.9)and sent into exile.” (Livy 25.9)

Effects on Female Effects on Female GuardianshipGuardianship

When a guardian is captured by the When a guardian is captured by the enemy, a substitute should be enemy, a substitute should be demanded under these laws, and he demanded under these laws, and he will cease to be guardian if the one will cease to be guardian if the one who was taken captive should return, who was taken captive should return, for, on his return, he will recover the for, on his return, he will recover the guardianship by the law of guardianship by the law of postliminiumpostliminium.[1] (Gaius, Institutes .[1] (Gaius, Institutes 187)187)

Wives left on the farm (upper-Wives left on the farm (upper-class)class)

256 BC (consul M. Atilius Regulus on 256 BC (consul M. Atilius Regulus on campaign in Africa - informed the Roman campaign in Africa - informed the Roman Senate): “that the manager of his farm, a Senate): “that the manager of his farm, a property of seven iugera [4.35 acres] in property of seven iugera [4.35 acres] in the Pupinian district, had died, and a hired the Pupinian district, had died, and a hired hand had taken advantage of the hand had taken advantage of the opportunity to run off with the whole of his opportunity to run off with the whole of his equipment and livestock. He therefore equipment and livestock. He therefore beseeched the senators to send ut a new beseeched the senators to send ut a new general, lest his wife and children be left general, lest his wife and children be left to starve on this derelict property.” to starve on this derelict property.” (Valerius Maximus 4.4.6)(Valerius Maximus 4.4.6)

::The Career of Spurius LigustinusThe Career of Spurius Ligustinus

"Quirites, I am Spurius Ligustinus, a Sabine by birth, a member of the "Quirites, I am Spurius Ligustinus, a Sabine by birth, a member of the Crustuminian tribe. My father left me a jugerum of land and a small cottage Crustuminian tribe. My father left me a jugerum of land and a small cottage in which I was born and bred, and I am living there today. [3] As soon as I in which I was born and bred, and I am living there today. [3] As soon as I came of age my father gave me to wife his brother's daughter. She brought came of age my father gave me to wife his brother's daughter. She brought nothing with her but her personal freedom and her modesty, and together nothing with her but her personal freedom and her modesty, and together with these a fruitfulness which would have been enough even in a wealthy with these a fruitfulness which would have been enough even in a wealthy house. [4] We have six sons and two daughters. Four of our sons wear the house. [4] We have six sons and two daughters. Four of our sons wear the toga toga virilis,virilis, two the two the praetextapraetexta, and both the daughters are married. [5] I , and both the daughters are married. [5] I became a soldier in the consulship of P. Sulpicius and C. Aurelius. For two became a soldier in the consulship of P. Sulpicius and C. Aurelius. For two years I was a common soldier in the army, fighting against Philip in years I was a common soldier in the army, fighting against Philip in Macedonia; in the third year T. Quinctius Flamininus gave me in Macedonia; in the third year T. Quinctius Flamininus gave me in consideration of my courage the command of the tenth company of the consideration of my courage the command of the tenth company of the hastati.hastati. [6] After Philip and the Macedonians were vanquished and we were [6] After Philip and the Macedonians were vanquished and we were brought back to Italy and disbanded, I at once volunteered to go with the brought back to Italy and disbanded, I at once volunteered to go with the consul M. Porcius to Spain. [7] Men who during a long service have had consul M. Porcius to Spain. [7] Men who during a long service have had experience of him and of other generals know that of all living commanders experience of him and of other generals know that of all living commanders not one has shown himself a keener observer or more accurate judge of not one has shown himself a keener observer or more accurate judge of military valour. It was this commander who thought me worthy of being military valour. It was this commander who thought me worthy of being appointed first centurion in the appointed first centurion in the hastatihastati. [8] Again I served, for the third time, . [8] Again I served, for the third time, as a volunteer in the army which was sent against Antiochus and the as a volunteer in the army which was sent against Antiochus and the Aetolians. I was made first centurion of theAetolians. I was made first centurion of the principes principes by Manius Acilius. After by Manius Acilius. After Antiochus was expelled and the Aetolians subjugated we were brought back Antiochus was expelled and the Aetolians subjugated we were brought back to Italy. [9] After that I twice took service for a year at home. Continued to Italy. [9] After that I twice took service for a year at home. Continued …..…..

Spurius Ligustinus - Spurius Ligustinus - continuedcontinued

Then I served in Spain, once under Q. Fulvius Flaccus and again under Ti. Then I served in Spain, once under Q. Fulvius Flaccus and again under Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. I was brought home by Flaccus amongst those Sempronius Gracchus. I was brought home by Flaccus amongst those whom, as a reward for their courage, he was bringing home to grace his whom, as a reward for their courage, he was bringing home to grace his triumph. [10] I joined Tiberius Gracchus at his request. Four times, within a triumph. [10] I joined Tiberius Gracchus at his request. Four times, within a few years, have I been first centurion in the few years, have I been first centurion in the triarii;triarii; four-and-thirty times four-and-thirty times have I been rewarded for my courage by my commanders; I have received have I been rewarded for my courage by my commanders; I have received six civic crowns. [11] I have served for twenty-two years in the army and I six civic crowns. [11] I have served for twenty-two years in the army and I am more than fifty years old. But even if I had not served my full time and am more than fifty years old. But even if I had not served my full time and my age did not give me exemption, still, P. Licinius, as I was able to give my age did not give me exemption, still, P. Licinius, as I was able to give you four soldiers for one, namely, myself, it would have been a right and you four soldiers for one, namely, myself, it would have been a right and proper thing that I should be discharged. [12] But I want you to take what I proper thing that I should be discharged. [12] But I want you to take what I have said simply as a statement of my case. [13] So far as anyone who is have said simply as a statement of my case. [13] So far as anyone who is raising troops judges me to be an efficient soldier, I am not going to plead raising troops judges me to be an efficient soldier, I am not going to plead excuses. [14excuses. [14] What rank the military tribunes think that I deserve is ] What rank the military tribunes think that I deserve is for them to decide;for them to decide; I will take care that no man shall surpass me in I will take care that no man shall surpass me in courage; that I always have done so, my commanders and fellow-courage; that I always have done so, my commanders and fellow-campaigners bear witness. And as for you, my comrades, though you are campaigners bear witness. And as for you, my comrades, though you are only exercising your right of appeal, it is but just and proper that as in your only exercising your right of appeal, it is but just and proper that as in your early days you [15??] never did anything against the authority of the early days you [15??] never did anything against the authority of the magistrates and the senate, so now, too, you should place yourselves at magistrates and the senate, so now, too, you should place yourselves at the disposal of the senate and the consuls and count any position in which the disposal of the senate and the consuls and count any position in which you are to defend your country as an honourable one." Livy, 42.34-35you are to defend your country as an honourable one." Livy, 42.34-35

Life on the farmLife on the farm

““the populace was burdened with the populace was burdened with military service and poverty. While military service and poverty. While the generals carried off the spoils of the generals carried off the spoils of war and shared them with a few war and shared them with a few friends, the parents or small children friends, the parents or small children of the soldiers, if they had powerful of the soldiers, if they had powerful neighbor, were being driven from neighbor, were being driven from their homes.” their homes.” (Plutarch, Tiberius (Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 8-9)Gracchus 8-9)

““The wild beasts that wander about Italy have, The wild beasts that wander about Italy have, each and every one of them, a cave or lair that each and every one of them, a cave or lair that they call home. The men, however, who fight and they call home. The men, however, who fight and die for Italy enjoy the common air and light, and die for Italy enjoy the common air and light, and nothing else; bereft of house and home, they nothing else; bereft of house and home, they roam aimlessly about with their wives and roam aimlessly about with their wives and children. The generals are, therefore, resorting to children. The generals are, therefore, resorting to outright lies when they ehort the soldiers entering outright lies when they ehort the soldiers entering battle to engage the enemy in defence of their battle to engage the enemy in defence of their tombs and shrines: among these many Romans, tombs and shrines: among these many Romans, there is not a man to be found who has an there is not a man to be found who has an hereditary altar or a family tomb.” (Sallust Bellum hereditary altar or a family tomb.” (Sallust Bellum Jugurthinum 41.7-8; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus Jugurthinum 41.7-8; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 8-9)8-9)

The Marriage Ban for Roman The Marriage Ban for Roman SoldiersSoldiers

13 BC – Soldiers prohibited from entering into legal 13 BC – Soldiers prohibited from entering into legal marriage during their period of service marriage during their period of service

Commanders of equestrian and senatorial ranks Commanders of equestrian and senatorial ranks were exempted from the ban.were exempted from the ban.

Unclear whether centurions were exempted.Unclear whether centurions were exempted. Many formed informal marriage unions (Many formed informal marriage unions (iniusta iniusta

matrimoniamatrimonia) – they were NOT concubinage ) – they were NOT concubinage Inscriptions describe spouses with same Inscriptions describe spouses with same

terminology as legally married husband (terminology as legally married husband (maritusmaritus) ) and wife (and wife (uxoruxor) )

By end of 2By end of 2ndnd century, Septimius Severus ‘allowed’ century, Septimius Severus ‘allowed’ soldiers to live with their wivessoldiers to live with their wives

By 4By 4thth century – soldiers were married century – soldiers were married

Roman MarriageRoman Marriage Largely a Largely a de factode facto institution: no ceremony or public registration institution: no ceremony or public registration

required;required; A wedding ceremony and a dowry contract were customary but A wedding ceremony and a dowry contract were customary but

private – not legally requiredprivate – not legally required A Roman citizen had A Roman citizen had conubiumconubium = legal right to marry another = legal right to marry another

Roman citizen with Roman citizen with conubiumconubium. . Legal marriages: Legal marriages: iusta matrimoniaiusta matrimonia Individuals without conubium still married, although not ‘legally’ – Individuals without conubium still married, although not ‘legally’ –

the children were illegitimate (the children were illegitimate (spuriispurii) – received social/legal status ) – received social/legal status of mother, could not inherit from their father;of mother, could not inherit from their father;

Such marriages existed socially – were called Such marriages existed socially – were called iniusta matrimoniainiusta matrimonia Concubinatus: long term monogamous relationship – but Concubinatus: long term monogamous relationship – but

distinguished from legal and social marriage since marriage was distinguished from legal and social marriage since marriage was not intendednot intended

Concubinatus could not be entered into with a woman of Concubinatus could not be entered into with a woman of respectable social status – only with a woman of significantly lower respectable social status – only with a woman of significantly lower status; status;

i.e. a consul could not marry a freedwoman but could live in i.e. a consul could not marry a freedwoman but could live in concubinatusconcubinatus

The families of Roman The families of Roman soldierssoldiers

Matrimonium iniustum – not Matrimonium iniustum – not recognized in law, illegitimate recognized in law, illegitimate children no right to father’s propertychildren no right to father’s property

Soldiers granted the right to make a Soldiers granted the right to make a will; could make illegitimate children will; could make illegitimate children heirs; (see Campell # 263)heirs; (see Campell # 263)

“ “ But this strict observance of legal formalities in the But this strict observance of legal formalities in the drawing up of will has been relaxed through drawing up of will has been relaxed through imperial decisions in respect of soldiers because of imperial decisions in respect of soldiers because of their extreme ignorance. For even though they do their extreme ignorance. For even though they do not employ the established number of witnesses, or not employ the established number of witnesses, or transfer their property, or formally announce their transfer their property, or formally announce their wills, nevertheless their testamentary dispositions wills, nevertheless their testamentary dispositions are valid. Moreover, they are permitted to institute are valid. Moreover, they are permitted to institute as heirs both non-Roman and Latins or to leave as heirs both non-Roman and Latins or to leave them legacies, althogh as a general rule non-them legacies, althogh as a general rule non-Romans are prohibited from taking an inheritance Romans are prohibited from taking an inheritance or legacies by the process of civil law, and Latins by or legacies by the process of civil law, and Latins by the Junian law.” (Gaius (2the Junian law.” (Gaius (2ndnd entury AD) Institues 2. entury AD) Institues 2. 109-10, in Campbell # 259 pg. 157)109-10, in Campbell # 259 pg. 157)

Intestate estateIntestate estate (Letter by Trajan to Prefect of Egypt): …I know…that (Letter by Trajan to Prefect of Egypt): …I know…that

children whom their parents accepted as their offspring children whom their parents accepted as their offspring during their military service, have been prevented from during their military service, have been prevented from succeeding to their father’s property, and that this was not succeeding to their father’s property, and that this was not considered severe since they had acted contrary to military considered severe since they had acted contrary to military discipline…despite the fact that those children… are not the discipline…despite the fact that those children… are not the legitimate heirs of their fathers, ..I decide that they too are legitimate heirs of their fathers, ..I decide that they too are able to claim possession of the property in accordance with able to claim possession of the property in accordance with that part of the edict that allows a claim to relatives by that part of the edict that allows a claim to relatives by birth. It will be your duty to make this benefaction of mine birth. It will be your duty to make this benefaction of mine known both to my soldiers and to the veterans, not in order known both to my soldiers and to the veterans, not in order that I may appear to be extolled among them, but so that that I may appear to be extolled among them, but so that they may make use of this if they do not know about it.” they may make use of this if they do not know about it.” BGU 140, Campbell # 260)BGU 140, Campbell # 260)

However – a claim by an illegitimate child would take a However – a claim by an illegitimate child would take a backseat to any claim made by legitimate children or backseat to any claim made by legitimate children or legitimate agnates. (Campbell # 260 pg. 158)legitimate agnates. (Campbell # 260 pg. 158)

Military ‘Diplomas’ = discharge Military ‘Diplomas’ = discharge diplomasdiplomas

small personal bronze copies of official documents (surviving from the reign of Claudius onward) record privileges conferred upon new veterans of the metropolitan guards, the fleets, and provincial auxiliary units.

Non-citizens were granted citizenship; all veterans were received right to marriage (conubium)

with one (and only one) existing partner or future wife regardless of her civic status: i.e. an enfranchised veteran could not enter into more than one legitimate union with a non-citizen woman,

was free to marry another Roman citizens. Until c. AD 140, existing children of auxiliary soldiers also

received citizenship;

Claudian Military diploma, AD 52 Claudian Military diploma, AD 52

for the sailors of the fleetfor the sailors of the fleet Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus,

chief priest, in the twelfth year of his tribunician chief priest, in the twelfth year of his tribunician power, acclaimed power, acclaimed imperatorimperator twenty-seven times, twenty-seven times, father of the fatherland, censor, consul for the fifth father of the fatherland, censor, consul for the fifth time, has granted to the triearchs and oarsmen time, has granted to the triearchs and oarsmen who served in the fleet which is at Misenum under who served in the fleet which is at Misenum under the command of Tiberius Julius Optatus, freedman the command of Tiberius Julius Optatus, freedman of the Emperor, and who were honourably of the Emperor, and who were honourably discharged, and whose names are written below, to discharged, and whose names are written below, to them, their children, and their posterity, citizenship them, their children, and their posterity, citizenship and the right of marriage (and the right of marriage (conubiumconubium) with the ) with the wives they and when citizenship was granted to wives they and when citizenship was granted to them, or, if they were unmarried, with those whom them, or, if they were unmarried, with those whom they married afterwards, limited to one wife for they married afterwards, limited to one wife for each man. ….each man. ….

(ILS 1986, # 322 in Campbell, pg. 195)(ILS 1986, # 322 in Campbell, pg. 195)

Imperial Decree – granting Imperial Decree – granting privileges for veteransprivileges for veterans

Imperator Caesar…I have decided to proclaim that all Imperator Caesar…I have decided to proclaim that all veterans shall be granted [exemption from] tribute […], to veterans shall be granted [exemption from] tribute […], to bestow on them, their parents and children, and the wives bestow on them, their parents and children, and the wives they have or shall have, exemption in every respect, and so they have or shall have, exemption in every respect, and so that they may be Roman citizens with every proper legal that they may be Roman citizens with every proper legal right, they are to be exempt [from taxation], free from right, they are to be exempt [from taxation], free from military service, and excused from the performance of military service, and excused from the performance of compulsory public services. Moreover, … to have the right compulsory public services. Moreover, … to have the right of registering their vote and being enrolled in the census in of registering their vote and being enrolled in the census in any tribe they wish, ….the veterans themselves, their any tribe they wish, ….the veterans themselves, their parents, wives, and children. Moreover, … I grant that they parents, wives, and children. Moreover, … I grant that they may be permitted to have, use, and enjoy whatever may be permitted to have, use, and enjoy whatever priesthoods, offices, rewards, benefits, and emoluments priesthoods, offices, rewards, benefits, and emoluments they possessed. ..they are not to be appointed against their they possessed. ..they are not to be appointed against their will to other magistracies or as ambassador or will to other magistracies or as ambassador or superintendent or tax-farmer; ..that no one is to be billeted superintendent or tax-farmer; ..that no one is to be billeted in their homes in order to lodge or spend the winter there in their homes in order to lodge or spend the winter there (?). ( BGU 628 late 1(?). ( BGU 628 late 1stst century BC, Campbell # 340, pg. 208) century BC, Campbell # 340, pg. 208)

The vulnerability of a soldiers’ The vulnerability of a soldiers’ womenwomen

To his excellency Gaius Caecilius Salvianus…from Aitete Phrontis. To his excellency Gaius Caecilius Salvianus…from Aitete Phrontis. Concerning whom, my lod, Gaius (Fabullius) Macer, veteran of the Concerning whom, my lod, Gaius (Fabullius) Macer, veteran of the praetorian Misenian fleet, left a Roman will; he left as heir Gaius Longinus praetorian Misenian fleet, left a Roman will; he left as heir Gaius Longinus Castor his fellow veteran, and according to this same will he wanted to Castor his fellow veteran, and according to this same will he wanted to bequeath to me a legacy of 2000 silver drachmas and a naturally colored bequeath to me a legacy of 2000 silver drachmas and a naturally colored hooded cloak. That man, taking possessionof the inheritance and having hooded cloak. That man, taking possessionof the inheritance and having taken all the bequests for himself, did not want to give me the legacy. taken all the bequests for himself, did not want to give me the legacy. Therefor I request you, if it please your fortune, to hear me against him, so Therefor I request you, if it please your fortune, to hear me against him, so that I in receiving the legacy may be able to rejoice foreover by your that I in receiving the legacy may be able to rejoice foreover by your fortune. Fareweill. I, Aitete Phrontis, have presented (this petition). Gaius fortune. Fareweill. I, Aitete Phrontis, have presented (this petition). Gaius Longinus Apolinarius, veteran, wrote it for her, as she is illiterate. ….(BGU Longinus Apolinarius, veteran, wrote it for her, as she is illiterate. ….(BGU 327327

Unclear exactly why she was refused the legacy – possible reasons: 1 – was Unclear exactly why she was refused the legacy – possible reasons: 1 – was a woman of dubious reputation, 2 – Macer had died more than a year after a woman of dubious reputation, 2 – Macer had died more than a year after his missio and lost soldier’s will’s right to legate to peregrines. 3 it could be his missio and lost soldier’s will’s right to legate to peregrines. 3 it could be the dowry – soldiers’ wives had not claim to return of dowry, or 4 Castor the dowry – soldiers’ wives had not claim to return of dowry, or 4 Castor was in the wrongwas in the wrong

Generally – soldiers’ women were in weak position, often made worse by Generally – soldiers’ women were in weak position, often made worse by their illiteracy, could be vulnerable to fraudtheir illiteracy, could be vulnerable to fraud