CHAPTER 4CHAPTER 4ConsciousnessConsciousness

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ConsciousnessConsciousness

• Consciousness– a person’s awareness of everything that is

going on around him or her at any given moment

• Waking consciousness– state in which thoughts, feelings, and

sensations are clear and organized, and the person feels alert

ConsciousnessConsciousness

• Altered state of consciousness– state in which there is a shift in the quality or

pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness

– Medical Definition of altered state of consciousness. : any of various states of awareness (as dreaming sleep, a drug-induced hallucinogenic state, or a trance) that deviate from and are usually clearly demarcated from ordinary waking consciousness.

SleepSleep

• SleepSleep is a naturally recurring state of mind characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles, and reduced interactions with surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli. Mammalian sleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body alternates between two highly distinct modes known as non-REM and REM sleep. REM stands for "rapid eye movement" but involves many other aspects including virtual paralysis of the body.

Necessity of SleepNecessity of Sleep

• Circadian rhythmCircadian rhythm: a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a twenty-four-hour period– “circa”: about “diem”: day

• HypothalamusHypothalamus: tiny section of the brain that influences the glandular system

– suprachiasmatic nucleus deep within the hypothalamus the internal clock that tells people when to

wake up and when to fall asleep

Necessity of SleepNecessity of Sleep

• Hypothalamus tells the pineal gland to secrete melatoninmelatonin which makes a person feel sleepy.

• MicrosleepsMicrosleeps: brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds

• Sleep deprivationSleep deprivation: any significant loss of sleep results in irritability and problems with concentration

Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults

Necessity of SleepNecessity of Sleep• Adaptive theoryAdaptive theory: theory of sleep proposing

that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active

Necessity of SleepNecessity of Sleep• Restorative theoryRestorative theory: theory of sleep proposing

that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage

Stages of SleepStages of Sleep

• Rapid eye movement (REM): stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream

• NREM (non-REM) sleep: any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM

Brain Wave PatternsBrain Wave Patterns

• Electroencephalograph (EEGElectroencephalograph (EEG))– allows scientists to see the brain wave activity as

a person passes through the various stages of sleep and to determine what type of sleep the person has entered alpha waves: brain waves that indicate a state of

relaxation or light sleep theta waves: brain waves indicating the early stages of

sleep delta waves: long, slow waves that indicate the

deepest stage of sleep

Brain Activity

During Sleep

Stages of SleepStages of SleepAmerican Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) rulesAmerican Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) rules

• N1N1 (R&K Stage 1): light sleep– may experience:

hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual events

hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks

• N2N2 (R&K Stage 2): sleep spindles – sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity only

lasting a second or two

Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) criteria is an older standard.

Stages of SleepStages of SleepAmerican Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) rulesAmerican Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) rules

• N3N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): delta waves pronounced– deepest stage of sleep: 50 percent or more of

waves are delta waves– body at lowest level of functioning– time at which growth occurs

Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) criteria is an older 4 stage standard.

REM Sleep and DreamingREM Sleep and Dreaming

• REMREM sleep is paradoxicalparadoxical sleep (high level of brain activity)– If wakened during REM sleep, sleepers

almost always report a dream.

• REM reboundREM rebound: increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights

A Typical Night’s SleepA Typical Night’s Sleep

Sleep DisordersSleep Disorders

• NightmaresNightmares– bad dreams occurring during REM sleep

• REM behavior disorder: REM behavior disorder: In a person with REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), the paralysis that normally occurs during REM sleep is incomplete or absent, allowing the person to "act out" his or her dreams. RBD is characterized by the acting out of dreams that are vivid, intense, and violent.

Stage Four Sleep DisordersStage Four Sleep Disorders• SleepwalkingSleepwalking (somnambulism)

– episode of moving around or walking around in one’s sleep– occurs in deep sleep– more common among children than adults

Stage Four Sleep DisordersStage Four Sleep Disorders• Night terrorsNight terrors

– the person experiences extreme fear and screams or runs around during deep sleep

– doesn’t wake fully– relatively rare disorder

Problems during SleepProblems during Sleep

• InsomniaInsomnia:: the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep

• Sleep apneaSleep apnea: disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more– continuous positive airway pressure device (CPAP) is

the leading therapy for sleep apnea. Patients wear a face or nasal mask during sleep. The mask, connected to a pump, provides a positive flow of air into the nasal passages in order to keep the airway open. 

Problems during Sleep• NarcolepsyNarcolepsy: sleep

disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning

With cataplexy:

sudden loss of muscle tone  triggered by strong emotions such as laughter. (Things you didn’t know #8)

DreamsDreams

• FreudFreud: : dreams as wish fulfillment– manifest manifest content: the dream itself– latent latent content: the true, hidden meaning of a dream

Why People Dream and What They Dream about

DreamsDreams• Activation-synthesisActivation-synthesis hypothesis: dreams are

created by the higher centers of the cortex to explain the brain stem’s activation of cortical cells during REM sleep periods

The Brain and Activation-Synthesis TheoryAccording to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, the pons in the brainstem sends random signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep. These random signals pass through the thalamus, which sends the signals to the proper sensory areas of the cortex. Once in the cortex, the association areas of the cortex respond to the random activation of these cortical cells by synthesizing (making up) a story, or dream, using bits and pieces of life experiences and memories

DreamsDreams

• Activation-information-mode model (AIM)Activation-information-mode model (AIM)

– revised version of the activation-synthesis explanation of dreams

– information that is accessed during waking waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreamssynthesis of dreams

DreamsDreams

AIM AIM Activation-

information-mode model

HypnosisHypnosis

• HypnosisHypnosis: state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion

HypnosisHypnosis

• Four elements of hypnosisFour elements of hypnosis:1. hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is

being said

2. person is told to relax and feel tired

3. hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept suggestions easily

4. person is told to use vivid imagination

• Hypnotic susceptibilityHypnotic susceptibility: degree to which a person is a good hypnotic subject

Hypnotic susceptibilityHypnotic susceptibility measures how easily a person can behypnotized. Several types of scales are used; however, the most common are the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales.

Theories of HypnosisTheories of Hypnosis

• Social-cognitive theory of hypnosisSocial-cognitive theory of hypnosis: people who are hypnotized are notnot in an altered state, but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation

• The premise of socio-cognitive theory is that being a hypnotized subject is a social role. People voluntarily immerse themselves in this role, and like all social roles, the way people behave and even how they perceive events is influenced by their expectations and knowledge regarding the rules of this particular social role.

Theories of HypnosisTheories of Hypnosis

• Hypnosis as dissociationHypnosis as dissociation: According to dissociation theory, hypnosis represents a special altered state of awareness in which their consciousness is split into two components: a hypnotized component (the hypnotized self) and a non-hypnotized part (the hidden observer). The hidden observer maintains an accurate perception of the world, exerting its influence to maintain limits on the behaviors produced by the hypnotized self.

Psychoactive DrugsPsychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive drugsPsychoactive drugs: drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memory

• Physical dependencePhysical dependence– tolerance: more and more of the drug is needed

to achieve the same effect– withdrawal: physical symptoms resulting from a

lack of an addictive drug in the body systems can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and

high blood pressure

Psychoactive DrugsPsychoactive Drugs

• Psychological dependencePsychological dependence: the feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being is a form of dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., a state of unease or dissatisfaction, a reduced capacity to experience pleasure, or anxiety) upon cessation of drug use or engagement in certain behaviors.

StimulantsStimulants

• Stimulants:Stimulants: drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system– amphetamines: drugs that are synthesized

(made in labs) rather than found in nature– cocaine: natural drug; produces euphoria,

energy, power, and pleasure– nicotine: active ingredient in tobacco– caffeine: the stimulant found in coffee, tea, most

sodas, chocolate, and even many over-the-counter drugs

NicotineNicotine• The harmful effects of nicotine are now well

known, but many people continue to smoke or chew tobacco in spite of warnings

DepressantsDepressants

• Depressants: drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system– barbiturates: depressant drugs that have a

sedative effect– benzodiazepines: drugs that lower anxiety

and reduce stress– Rohypnol: the “date rape” drug

AlcoholAlcohol• Alcohol:Alcohol: the chemical resulting from fermentation

or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter– often mistaken for a stimulant, alcohol is actually a CNS

depressant

NarcoticsNarcotics

• NarcoticsNarcotics– opium-related drugs– suppress the sensation of pain by binding to

and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins. opium: substance made from the opium poppy and

from which all narcotic drugs are derived morphine: narcotic drug derived from opium; used to

treat severe pain heroin: narcotic drug derived from opium that is

extremely addictive

HallucinogensHallucinogens

• Psychogenic Drugs– drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana

that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of relaxation and intoxication hallucinogens: drugs that cause false sensory

messages, altering the perception of reality LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide): powerful synthetic

hallucinogen PCP: synthesized drug now used as an animal

tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects

HallucinogensHallucinogens• Psychogenic Drugs • MDMA (Ecstasy or X): designer drug that can have

both stimulant and hallucinatory effects Stimulatory hallucinogenics: drugs that produce a

mixture of psychomotor stimulant and hallucinogenic effects

MarijuanaMarijuana– marijuana (pot or weed): mild hallucinogen

derived from the leaves and flowers of a particular type of hemp plant

HallucinationsHallucinations

• Hypnogogic hallucination: hallucination that can occur just as a person is entering N1 (light) sleep

• Hypnopompic hallucination: hallucination that happens just as a person is in the between-state of being in REM sleep (in which the voluntary muscles are paralyzed) and not yet fully awake

The End CHAPTER The End CHAPTER 44

consciousnessconsciousness

psychologypsychologyfourth editionfourth edition