Connecting University Science Experiences to Middle School Science Teaching

G o r d o n J o h n s o n , L a u r a L a u g h r a n , R a y T a m p p a r i , and P e r r y T h o m a s

Northern Arizona University

Beginning teachers are understandably, but often ex- cessively, concerned with how well they are performing in the classroom and, usually, too little concerned with the progress of individual learners. There are many reasons for this misplaced emphasis. Among them are the necessities of orienting to the administrative procedures of the school and coping with student behavior problems. There are often several different classroom preparations and even activity responsibilities beyond the school curriculum. Neither the time nor the energy is available to develop or even locate the science activities that can allow the first year teacher to focus on the learning of science by individual students. To encourage an early transition from emphasizing teacher performance to directing student learning seniors in North- em Arizona University's Science and Mathematics Middle School Teacher Training Program identify, test, and com- pile a resource file of hands-on inquiry activities for use in their first year classrooms.

To initiate the development of a resource file of inquiry activities for the program, sixteen master teachers from across the state of Arizona were invited to a 3-week Summer Writing Project. Their task was to develop a set of model activities for the preservice teachers to use and emulate. The involvement of experienced middle level teachers in devel- oping the resource file was essential to insure that the model activities developed were both realistic in terms of content level and of interest to students at those grade levels. Se- lected university faculty members and consultants also par- ticipated.

The master teachers were given the task of developing middle school activities from the inquiry investigations that the preservice teachers do during their college science labo- ratory sessions. This seemed to be the appropriate starting point since it would likely be the basic reference for preservice teachers as they develop their own activities. Master teach- ers were specifically charged with the task oftranslathtg the college investigations into appropriate middle school activi- ties. Translation focused on analyzing the college investiga- tions to determine which basic concepts and skills implied in each laboratory exercise would be important for middle school students to comprehend as they build a conceptual framework of science. Such translations seem to be the key

to effectively utilizing university science and mathematics experiences in middle school science teaching.

To a large extent, and somewhat surprisingly, the activi- ties that the experienced teachers developed were often repetitions of the college investigations, but in a simplified and miniaturized format. This behavior suggests that not only do teachers teach the way that they are taught but also, in many cases, they tend to teach what they are taught. Thus, in order to facilitate the development of a resource file of inquiry activities it seemed necessary to provide a set of guidelines for use by prospective teachers and project per- sonnel in order for them to be better able to translate college laboratory experiences into effective middle school activi- ties.

Expected Outcomes of Middle School Science Activities

A prerequisite for the development of a set of middle school science and mathematics activities was a concise statement of what such activities should accomplish. Analy- ses of learning abilities, the likely experiences of young adolescents, and the relevant literature led to the identifica- tion of six expected student outcomes of middle school science activities. Middle school science activities should enable the student to:

. Develop or modify his or her understanding of a significant science concept. In order for the middle level student to readily comprehend the nature of the task, the middle school activity should focus on a basic concept to be introduced or rein- forced and should identify a clearly defined out- come. Whereas in a university laboratory exercise a concept can be rather complex or may include several concepts, at the middle school level there should be a single basic concept. For example, a university laboratory exercise might isolate and analyze the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. This exercise requires a firm grasp of the concepts involved in photosynthesis, chromatography, and spectroscopy. Related middle level activities might

Journal of Science Teacher Education • Summer 1991 Volume 2. Number 3, Pages 79-82 Copyright © The Association for the Education of Teachers in Science

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to: Dr. Laura Laughran, Northern Arizona University, Box 6010, Flagstaff, AZ 8601 i.

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lead to understandings such as: (a) green plants need to be green to stay alive, (b) something is green because it reflects green light, or (c) pigments can often be separated into different colored com- ponents. Separate activities ought to be used for each of the understandings. Using all three of the middle school activities (on different days) as part of a unit of study would effectively illustrate inte- gration of three of the traditional sciences--biol- ogy, physics, and chemistry.

2. Practice process skills. Young adolescents are excited by activities where they are challenged to analyze and synthesize data, pose questions, ex- plore, develop explanations, and apply different strategies and solutions to problems (California State Department of Education, 1987). Science activities promote these processes intrinsically as they seek answers to questions. Hands-on activi- ties that stress scientific processes help learners to understand the underlying science concepts (Brunkhorst & Padilla, 1986). The activities to which this paper refers utilized process skills.

Many scientists and educators now feel that teaching process skills is more important than teaching the details of science. Scientific literacy does not involve memorizing details that can be retrieved from a reference source, but rather it involves exploring questions, arguing, doing and understanding (American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, 1989). These skills are learned only through practice.

. Use quantitative thinking. The inclusion of quantitative analysis in science activities demon- strates that mathematics has important, practical applications in the real world. Any activity that involves measurement, timing, counting, and so forth, will necessitate the analysis of numerical data.

The use of quantitative analysis in science activities also illustrates the utility of science in meeting the new goals of mathematics teachers as stated in the new curriculum standards of the Na- tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989). These goals include preparing students for open- ended problem situations, exposing students to varied interrelated experiences involving math- ematics, and giving students the ability to recog- nize the applicability of mathematical ideas to common and complex problems.

4. Integrate science subjects. Traditionally, science has been subdivided into numerous disciplines for

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the convenience of scientists studying similar prob- lems. However, these breakdowns do not neces- sarily match the way the world works. In fact, new disciplines are continuously being created and de- stroyed along the fringes of existing ones. Unify- ing themes can be found throughout all the disci- plines (American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, 1989). On a broader scale sci- ence, mathematics, and technology are interdepen- dent and reinforce each other. Children who see science as a single unit, as opposed to isolated studies of animals, rocks, or motion, will have a stronger grasp of the underlying fundamentals of how the natural world works.

Finding activities that integrate science with other academic areas develops the global perspec- tive that is essential in a technologically sophisti- cated society. An example of an activity that integrates subject material across the curriculum is to ask students to identify and analyze the factors to be considered when choosing a site for an astro- nomical observatory or a wildlife preserve. Stu- dents work in t e a ms i o n e team examines scien- tific needs, another analyzes the technological re- quirements, a third team studies the political and economic factors, and a fourth team might investi- gate the social impact.

Utilize an inquiry approach. The heart of science is investigation and discovery. Young adolescents are excited by situations that challenge them to explore and experiment (Van Hoose & Strahan, 1988, pp. 19-26). Inquiry activities dem- onstrate the truest sense of science while allowing the children to have fun and enhance their process skills mastery. For example, a teacher may ask, "How does acid rain affect plants?" or, "How does alkaline irrigation water (a growing problem in the West) affect crops?" Then, rather than being pre- sented with textbook information the students can set up an experiment spraying an acidic solution on plants or watering seedlings with an alkaline solu- tion. Controls would be sprayed or watered with a neutral solution.

Experience success and build self-confidence. Success or failure in school has a significant impact on a child's self-concept. Students identified as at- risk, academically, rarely experience either suc- cess or affirmation (Bruukhorst & Padilla, 1986). It has been reported that academic success in the middle grades is highly correlated to academic performance in high school (Van Hoose & Strahan, 1988). A learner who perceives himself as a failure

80 Journal of Science Teacher Education ° Summer 1991

at school, based on his middle school experiences, may continue to do poorly even if he has a high IQ. Thus, nurturing a positive self-image by providing experiences that permit the student to view himself as academically successful can permanently influ- ence his lifelong ability to achieve.

An example of this sort of activity is one where students set up a school weather station. The class can build some simple instruments such as a barometer, wind vane, rain gauge, and so forth. Then they can take turns collecting weather data each day. After a set amount of time, say a month, the class as a whole can analyze and discuss weather trends during that time period.

Guidelines for translating the university science experiences of preservice teachers

into middle school activities

Bearing in mind the six outcomes discussed above, teachers can utilize their university laboratory experiences as they choose or develop science activities that are appro- priate for middle school students. Translation is the key to taking college experiences into the middle school class- room. The following guidelines have been developed to aid in such translations.

. Analyze the middle school curriculum content and tile experiences of tile middle school chil- dren. Good teaching usually begins by asking students questions about objects or events that are familiar to them rather than by presenting them with situations with which they have had no expe- rience (American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, 1989). When confronted by a new occurrence.or a new concept, all individuals will compare and contrast that phenomenon with what they already know (Saunders, 1988). Using situa- tions or materials familiar to the young adolescent will allow the student to more readily assimilate the new information into his or her existing body of knowledge.

If a standard text is used as the basis of the science class (as is usually the case), one must first determine what major concepts are to be taught. Then one may ask, "What specific science topics are being used to introduce these concepts? How do these topics relate to the experiences of the learner? Can the topics be made more meaningful to the learner by using familiar situations, such as bikes, athletics, cooking, rock music, orbody aware- ness?"

A single exposure to a new concept is highly unlikely to make a permanent impact on the learner.

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Students need repeated exposure to the same con- cept in a variety of settings before the idea is permanently incorporated into their repertoire of knowledge. Thus, it is better to take extra time for teaching new ideas rather than to rush through the material in hopes of covering everything in the textbook.

Match general middle school curriculum and experiences with university lab experiences. For instance, if some aspect of photosynthesis is in- cluded in the curriculum, was there a college lab experience that also covered photosynthesis? If the middle school students are interested in bikes or skate boards, was there a college lab experience on the physics of motion that might provide useful insight? If physiology of the human body is to be covered, what university labs included physiologi- cal investigations, and can the eating habits of the young adolescent be used to unify these concepts?

Search for supplemental activities that relate to the middle school learner and contain informa- tion related to college experiences (familiar tech- niques, materials, subjects, etc.). Two examples are presented below to illustrate this guideline. In each instance the university experience provides a familiarand comfortable background for the teacher yet presents ideas or concepts appropriate to the middle school student.

(a) In biology laboratories, emphasis is often given to the relationship of structure to func- t i o n - s o m e plant seeds have wing-like struc- tures that aid in seed dispersal (via wind) over a wide area; stegosaurus had fin-like protru- sions along its back that appear to have pro- vided a means of dissipating body heat. In the middle school classroom a collection of uni- dentified, unusual objects, such as unusual athletic gear, odd hair and body care objects such as an eyelash curler, and unusual kitchen objects, can be presented to students. Their task is to invent a function to account for the object's structure. Any invented function is valid as long as the student can justify it based on the object's structure.

(b) The amount of energy involved in phase changes from solids to liquids to gases are often studied in university chemistry and physics laboratories. The middle school stu- dents can construct simple evaporative cool- ers using a small fan in a box that has holes in

Journal of Science Teacher Education • Summer 1991 81

the front and back. A moist towel is placed over the rear opening and thermometers are placed at several locations along the path of moving air to measure changes in tempera- lure. Thermometer readings are taken at set intervals. By analyzing the different tem- perature readings the students learn that evapo- ration (of water from the moist tower) in- volves the absorption of heat energy resulting in cooler air (Accent Arizona, 1988).

. Analyze supplemental activities for the six im- portant outcomes. Not every activity will in- clude all six of the outcomes described above. But wise use of a variety of activities with the goal of including these elements as often as is practical will provide a set of strong, effective activities.

. Utilize activities that best meet all the criteria. Meeting all of these criteria at once is no easy task. In the beginning teachers might try focusing on one or two criteria at a time until they feel comfortable with all of them. Activities that do not fit all the guidelines but still contain appealing ideas can be modified by the teacher. Many excellent supple- mentary activities that illustrate science as a pro- cess of inquiry (e.g. Activities Integrating Math- ematics and Science (AIMS), Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS), Physics Resources and Instructional Strategies for Motivating Stu- dents (PRISMS), Outdoor Biology Instructional Strategies (OBIS)) have been developed by various science education organizations. These supple- ments provide a rich source of activities that can enhance the standard texts used in the middle school.

Summary

Science teachers naturally rely on their university sci- ence experiences as a foundation for teaching middle school science. This foundation consists of knowledge far too complex for the middle level students to comprehend. In order for middle school science teachers to utilize their

university science training they must search for ways to adapt their college experiences into appropriate middle school learning experience.

The criteria set forth above provide broad-based guide- lines for translating university science laboratory experi- ences into middle school activities. These guidelines are used by preservice teachers in our project as they identify, test, and organize a resource file of hands-on inquiry activi- ties for use in their first year classrooms. It is anticipated that this file will provide a basis for future curriculum develop- ment as the teacher becomes more comfortable and more experienced in teaching hands-on science.

The presentation of these guidelines is not meant to preclude any other criteria or considerations which a teacher or science department deems important. This is merely one example of how teachers may proceed to utilize their ad- vanced science training as a basis for teaching middle school science.

References

Accent Arizona. (I 988). Unpublished project report. Flag- staff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. (Available from: Ray Tamppari, Project Director)

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989). Project 2061: Science for All Americans. Washington, DC: Author.

Brunkhorst, B. F., & Padilla, M. J. (1986). Science educa- tion for middle and junior high students. Science Scope, 10(1): 13-14.

Califomia State Department of Education. (1987). Caught hz the Middle: Education Reform for Young Adoles- cents in California Public Schools. Scaramento: Au- thor.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Cttrricuhtm and Eralnation Standards for School Math. Reston, VA: Author.

Saunders, W. L. (1988). The constructivist perspective: Implications and teaching strategies for science. Un- published manuscript.

Van Hoose, J., & Strahan, D. (1988). Yottng Adolescent Derelopment and School Practices: Promothlg Har- mony. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Asso- ciation.

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