Conjunction s in english

8/9/2019 Conjunction s in english

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CONJUNCTIONS

Definition

Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right

out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't

happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and

they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects

(conjoins) parts of a sentence.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click

on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):

Coordinating Conjunctions

and but or yet for nor so

(It may help you remember these conjunctions by

recalling that they all have fewer than four letters. Also,

remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-

Yet-So. Be careful of the words then and now; neither is a

coordinating conjunction, so what we say about coordinating

conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not

apply to those two words.)

When a coordinating conjunction connects two

independent clauses, it is often (but not always)

accompanied by a comma:

• Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had

trouble meeting the academic requirements.

Click on "Conjunction

Junction" to read and hear Bob Dorough's "ConjunctionJunction" (from Scholastic

Rock, 1!#$Schoolhouse Rock% and its

characters and other elements are trademarks and

ser&ice marks of mericanBroadcasting Comanies, )nc$

*sed +ith ermission$

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#and

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#but

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#or

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#yet

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#for

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#nor

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#so

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/clauses.htm

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/grammarrock.htm#conjunctions

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#and

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#but

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#or

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#yet

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#for

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#nor

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#so




When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely

balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:

• Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.

The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connectedby a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses for

further help.

A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although

many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:

• Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading

comprehension.

When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma

is not used:

• Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant

congregations in Oklahoma.

A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:

• This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.

In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that

is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a

comma.

• Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the

between-the-wars era.

• Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American

notions of male identity.

• It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting

cultural icon of his day.

• Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal

of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some

sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.

Beginning a Sentence with And or But

freuentl- asked uestion about conjunctions is +hether and or but

can be used at the beginning of a sentence$ .his is +hat R$/$

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/indep_clauses.htm

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/indep_clauses.htm



Burchfield has to sa- about this use of and 0

.here is a ersistent belief that it is imroer to begin a

sentence +ith And , but this rohibition has been cheerfull-

ignored b- standard authors from ngloSa2on times

on+ards$ n initial And is a useful aid to +riters as the

narrati&e continues$ uthorit-0 The New Fowler's Modern English Usage

edited b- R$/$ Burchfield$ Clarendon 3ress0 42ford, 5ngland$ 16$

*sed +ith the ermission of 42ford *ni&ersit- 3ress$

The same is true with the conjunction but . A sentence beginning with and or

but will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers

should examine such sentences with two questions in mind: (1) would the

sentence and paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction?

(2) should the sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If

the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use it.

Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and , but ,

and or . It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples

below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.

ANDa. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda

sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."

b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather

report and promptly boarded up his house."

c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but

in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.

d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage):

"Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."

e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually

the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and

you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."

f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became

addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."

BUTa. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost

a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite

comfortably."



b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied

in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never

invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."

c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then

the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is

trying out for the team."

ORa. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the

other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."

b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken

on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.

c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier

all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College

alumnae."

d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence:

"There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."

e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the

rather grim "Live free or die."

f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use

of and above): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep

electing him mayor."

uthorit- used for this section on the uses of and, but , and or 0 A University Grammar of English b- Randolh7uirk and Sidne- 8reenbaum$ 9ongman 8rou0 5sse2, 5ngland$ 1$ *sed +ith ermission$ 52amles

our o+n$

The Others . . .The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other

conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or

writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor

(see below):

• He is neither sane nor brilliant.

•

That is neither what I said nor what I meant.

>It can be used with other negative expressions:

• That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an

admission of guilt.

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#above

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#below

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#above

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#below





• Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister,

and his Uncle Chet.

where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a

semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is

acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the

task:

• Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he

avoids crowds of his adoring fans.

Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or

transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:

• So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his

parents.

The Case of Then and Than

)n some arts of the *nited States, +e are told,

then and than not onl- look alike, the- sound

alike$ 9ike a teacher +ith t+ins in her classroom,

-ou need to be able to distinguish bet+een these

t+o +ords: other+ise, the-'ll become

mischie&ous$ .he- are often used and the-should be used for the right uroses$

Than is used to make comarisons$ )n the sentence "3igg- +ould

rather be rescued then sta- on the island," +e ha&e emlo-ed the

+rong +ord because a comarison is being made bet+een 3igg-'s

t+o choices: +e need than instead$ )n the sentence, "4ther than

Pinher Martin, 8olding did not +rite another oular no&el," the

ad&erbial construction "other than" hels us make an imlied

comarison: this usage is erfectl- accetable in the *nited States

but careful +riters in the *; tr- to a&oid it (Burchfield#$

Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide

whether the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a

preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then

the word that follows it should be in the object form.



• He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me.

• Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play

better than him.

<ost careful +riters, ho+e&er, +ill insist that than be used as aconjunction: it's as if art of the clause introduced b- than has been

left out0

• He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am

handsome].

• You can play better than he [can play].

)n formal, academic te2t, -ou should robabl- use than as a

conjunction and follo+ it +ith the subject form of a ronoun (+here a

ronoun is aroriate#$

Then is a conjunction, but it is not one of the little conjunctions listed

at the to of this age$ /e can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to

connect t+o indeendent clauses: usuall-, the- +ill be accomanied

(receded# b- a comma$ .oo man- students think that then +orks the

same +a-0 "Caesar in&aded 8aul, then he turned his attention to

5ngland$" =ou can tell the difference bet+een then and a coordinating

conjunction b- tr-ing to mo&e the +ord around in the sentence$ /e

can +rite "he then turned his attention to 5ngland": "he turned his

attention, then, to 5ngland": he turned his attention to 5ngland then$"

.he +ord can mo&e around +ithin the clause$ .r- that +ith a

conjunction, and -ou +ill uickl- see that the conjunction cannot

mo&e around$ "Caesar in&aded 8aul, and then he turned his attention

to 5ngland$" .he +ord and is stuck e2actl- there and cannot mo&e

like then, +hich is more like an ad&erbial conjunction (or conjuncti&e

ad&erb > see belo+# than a coordinating conjunction$ 4ur original

sentence in this aragrah > "Caesar in&aded 8aul, then he turned

his attention to 5ngland" > is a comma splice, a fault- sentence

construction in +hich a comma tries to hold together t+o indeendent

clauses all b- itself0 the comma needs a coordinating conjunction to

hel out, and the +ord then siml- doesn't +ork that +a-$

Subordinating Conjunctions

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#fanboys

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/runons.htm#splice

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/#fanboys

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/runons.htm#splice



A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or

subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and

establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It

also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its

meaning.

• He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his

life.

• Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the

movies.

• Unless we act now, all is lost.

Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after,

before, since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to

introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in

the sentence.

Coon Subordinating Conjunctions

after

althoughas

as if

as long as

as though because

beforeeven if

even though

if

if onlyin order that

now that

once

rather thansince

so thatthan

that

though

tillunless

until

when

whenever where

whereaswherever

while

The Case of Like and As

Strictl- seaking, the +ord li!e is a reosition, not a conjunction$ )t

can, therefore, be used to introduce a reositional hrase ("<-

brother is tall like m- father"#, but it should not be used to introduce a

clause ("<- brother can't la- the iano like as he did before the

accident" or ")t looks like as if basketball is uickl- o&ertaking

baseball as merica's national sort$"#$ .o introduce a clause, it's a

good idea to use as, as though, or as if , instead$

• Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.





• It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.

• Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had

someone waiting for him.

)n formal, academic te2t, it's a good idea to reser&e the use of li!e forsituations in +hich similarities are being ointed out0

• This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.

?o+e&er, +hen -ou are listing things that ha&e similarities, suh as is

robabl- more suitable0

• The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as

the Mark Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut

Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.

Oitting That

.he +ord that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate

clause to a receding &erb$ )n this construction that is sometimes

called the "e2leti&e that"# )ndeed, the +ord is often omitted to good

effect, but the &er- fact of eas- omission causes some editors to take

out the red en and strike out the conjunction that +here&er it

aears$ )n the follo+ing sentences, +e can hail- omit the that (or

kee it, deending on ho+ the sentence sounds to us#0• Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.

• She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported

her.

• I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.

Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flo+ of a

sentence, a break that can be adeuatel- bridged +ith the use of a

comma0

• The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.

• Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she

started working here.

s a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good +ithout the that, if

no ambiguit- results from its omission, if the sentence is more

efficient or elegant +ithout it, then +e can safel- omit the that"



.heodore Bernstein lists three conditions in +hich +e should maintain

the conjunction that 0

• When a time element intervenes between the verb and the

clause: "The boss said yesterday that production in this

department was down fifty percent." (Notice the position of"yesterday.")

• When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report

revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the

third quarter of last year were worse than previously thought."

(Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb,

"were.")

• When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The

CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that

production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Didthe CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of

what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes

the sentence clear.)

Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by

Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples

our own.

Beginning a Sentence with Because

Someho+, the notion that one should not begin a sentence +ith the

subordinating conjunction beause retains a m-sterious gri on

eole's sense of +riting rorieties$ .his might come about because

a sentence that begins +ith beause could +ell end u a fragment if

one is not careful to follo+ u the "because clause" +ith an

indeendent clause$

• Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our

communications industry.

/hen the "because clause" is roerl- subordinated to another idea

(regardless of the osition of the clause in the sentence#, there is

absolutel- nothing +rong +ith it0

• Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our



communications industry, the postal service would very much

like to see it taxed in some manner.

Corre!ati"e Conjunctions

Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative

conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should

be treated as grammatically equal.

• She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.

• Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."

• Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your

best.

Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for

help with those problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.

both . . . and

not only . . . but also

not . . . buteither . . . or

neither . . . nor

whether . . . or

as . . . as

Conjuncti"e Ad"erbsThe conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently,

as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on

Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs

categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application

within sentences (including punctuation issues).

S#NT#NC# SUBJ#CTS

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/parallelism.htm#correlative


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/transitions.htm#transitions


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/transitions.htm#transitions



The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being

something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. Ask the

question, "Who or what 'verbs' or 'verbed'?" and the answer to that question is the subject.

For instance, in the sentence "The computers in the Learning Center must be replaced,"

the verb is "must be replaced." What must be replaced? The computers. So the subject is

"computers." A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers. The

simple subject of the following sentence is issue:

The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other considerations,

is the morality of the nation.Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an entire

clause. In the following sentence —

What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes,—the simple subject is not "computer repair," nor is it "what he had forgotten," nor is it

"he." Ask what it is that "could fill whole volumes." Your answer should be that the

entire underlined clause is the simple subject.

In English, the subject of a command, order, or suggestion — you, the person being

directed — is usually left out of the sentence and is said to be the understood subject:

• [You] Step lively there or I'll leave you behind!

• Before assembling the swingset, [you] read these instructions carefully.

For purposes of sentence analysis, the do-er or the initiator of action in a sentence is

referred to as the agent of the sentence. In an active sentence, the subject is the agent:• The Johnsons added a double garage to their house.

• The jury returned a verdict of manslaughter.

In a passive sentence, the agent is not the subject. In fact, sometimes a passive sentence

will not contain an agent.

• The dean's report was reviewed by the faculty senate.

• Three cities in the country's interior were bombed.

Subject$%erb In"ersionThe normal English order of subject-verb-completer is disturbed only occasionally

but under several circumstances. Burchfield* lists about ten situations in which the

subject will come after the verb. The most important of these are as follows (subjects in

blue):

1. In questions (routinely): "Have you eaten breakfast yet?" "Are you ready?"

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm



2. In expletive constructions: "There were four basic causes of the Civil

War." "Here is the book ."

3. In attributing speech (occasionally, but optionally): "'Help me!' cried Farmer

Brown."

4. To give prominence or focus to a particular word or phrase by putting thepredicate in the initial position: "Even more important is the chapter dealing

with ordnance."

5. When a sentence begins with an adverb or an adverbial phrase or clause:

"Seldom has so much been owed by so many to so few."

6. In negative constructions: "I don't believe a word she says, nor does my

brother. Come to think of it, neither does her father."

7. After so: "I believe her; so does my brother."

8. For emphasis and literary effect: "Into the jaws of Death, / Into the mouth of

Hell / Rode the six hundred."**

There are other uses of inversion, but most of those result in a strained or literary

effect.

@The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited b- R$/$ Burchfield$ Clarendon 3ress0 42ford, 5ngland$

16$ *sed +ith the ermission of 42ford *ni&ersit- 3ress$ 52amles our o+n$

@@from lfred 9ord .enn-son's "Charge of the Light Brigade" (1A#$

ARTIC&#S' D#T#R(IN#RS'AND )UANTI*I#RS

Definition

Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are those little words that

precede and modify nouns:

the teacher, a college, a bit of hone-, that erson, those eole,

whatever urose, either +a-, your choice

Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a

specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a

Ju+ toArtic!es

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/concise.htm#expletive

http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/rp/poems/tennyson1c.html


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/determiners/#articles


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/concise.htm#expletive







horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great

deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or

noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English,

nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance

language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle

on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European

countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different

system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create

problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.

Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be

followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three

articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless

as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however,explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a

modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new

adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are

well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories

of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns

(Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.);

numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both,

some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these,

those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the

possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often

accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's

life."

.his categoriation of determiners is based on Understanding English Grammar b- <artha ;olln$ rth

5dition$ <ac<illan 3ublishing Coman-0 Ee+ =ork$ 1$

Soe Notes on )uantifiers

Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us

how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding

the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose

the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:



http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/pronouns1.htm#demonstrative

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/noun_exercise.htm


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/pronouns1.htm#demonstrative

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/noun_exercise.htm



The following $uantifiers will wor! with ount nouns% many trees

a few trees few trees

several trees

a couple of trees none of the trees

The following $uantifiers will wor! with non&ount nouns% not much dancing

a little dancing little dancing

a bit of dancing

a good deal of dancing

a great deal of dancing

no dancing

The following $uantifiers will wor! with both ount and non&ount nouns% all of the trees/dancing

some trees/dancing

most of the trees/dancing

enough trees/dancing a lot of trees/dancing

lots of trees/dancing

plenty of trees/dancing a lack of trees/dancingIn formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases

such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of .

There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-

count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that

Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no

great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for

our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that

she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin

American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but

probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin

American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better

go to the library.

Unless it is combined with of , the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and

negative statements:



• Much of the snow has already melted.

• How much snow fell yesterday?

• Not much.

Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it

modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the

instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a

general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the"

is dropped:

• Most colleges have their own admissions policy.

• Most students apply to several colleges.

uthorit- for this last aragrah0 The ott, Foresman (andboo! for )riters b- <a2ine ?airston and John J$

Ruskie+ic$ th ed$ ?arerCollins0 Ee+ =ork$ 16$ 52amles our o+n$

An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many,

thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):

• Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.

• Many an apple has fallen by October.

This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or

archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.

Basic Quiz on Choosing Quantifiers

Quiz on Quantifiers

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/cross/quantifiers2.htm

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/cross/quant_gap2.htm

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/cross/quantifiers2.htm

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/cross/quant_gap2.htm



,redeteriners

The predeterminers occur prior to other determiners (as you would probably guess

from their name). This class of words includes multipliers (double, twice, four/five times .

. . .); fractional expressions (one-third, three-quarters, etc.); the words both, half, and all;

and intensifiers such as quite, rather, and such.

The multipliers precede plural count and mass nouns and occur with singular count

nouns denoting number or amount:

• This van holds three times the passengers as that sports car.

• My wife is making double my / twice my salary.

• This time we added five times the amount of water.

In fractional expressions, we have a similar construction, but here it can be replaced

with "of" construction.

• Charlie finished in one-fourth [of] the time his brother took.

• Two-fifths of the respondents reported that half the medication was

sufficient.

The intensifiers occur in this construction primarily in casual speech and writing and

are more common in British English than they are in American English. The intensifier

"what" is often found in stylistic fragments: "We visited my brother in his dorm room.

What a mess!"

• This room is rather a mess, isn't it?

• The ticket-holders made quite a fuss when they couldn't get in.

• What an idiot he turned out to be.

• Our vacation was such a grand experience.

Half, both, and all can occur with singular and plural count nouns; half and all can

occur with mass nouns. There are also "of constructions" with these words ("all [of] the

grain," "half [of] his salary"); the "of construction" is required with personal pronouns

("both of them," "all of it"). The following chart (from Quirk and Greenbaum) nicelydescribes the uses of these three predeterminers:

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/nouns.htm










Exception:

When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will

continue to be indefinite:

"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.

"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by using

any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article

altogether.

• A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.

• An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.

• The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.

• Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun

is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle

will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.

Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

• Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West,

the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper

noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We

went swimming at the Ocean Park)

•

Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, theBahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots

• Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the

Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church

• Newspapers: the Hartford Courant , the Times

• Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of

the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are

sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

• The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of

mind.

• Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the

judge to correct the injustice.

• Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.



Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with

the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers

to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get

the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and

academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")

When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used

without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses

for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We

adore the music of the Baroque." Also when a generic noun is used without an article and

then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a

definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this

summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."

Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:

idiomaticexpressions

using be and go

We'll go by train. as opposed to !We'll ta"e the train.#$e must be in school.

with seasons In spring, we li"e to clean the house.

with institutions $e's in church/college/jail/class.

with meals%rea"fast was delicious.

$e's preparing dinner by himself.

with diseases

$e's dying of pneumonia.

&ppendicitis nearly "illed him.

he has cancer (ou will sometimes hear !the measles,! !the mumps,! but these,too, can go without articles.#

with time of dayWe traveled mostly by night.

We'll be there around midnight.

,rinci+!es of Choosing an Artic!eChoosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-

marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There

is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word



http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrases.htm#noun


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrases.htm#noun



or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an

image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.

Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that

kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.

If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.

Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an

"unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you

will hear the difference between these two:

• That is SOME car you've got there!

• I don't want to hear ANY excuse!

&s opposed to. . .• We have some cars left in the lot.

• Isn't there any furniture in the living room?

In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify

singular count nouns.

Quiz on A, An, and The

http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/determiners/determiners_printout2.htm


http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/cross/articles_quiz.htm




http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/determiners/


















Acti"e / ,assi"e %erb *ors

Sentences can be acti&e or assi&e$ .herefore, tenses also ha&e "cti&e Forms" and "3assi&eForms"$ =ou must learn to recognie the difference to successfull- seak 5nglish$

ACTI%# *OR(

)n acti&e sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thingrecei&ing the action is the object$ <ost sentences are acti&e$

G.hing doing actionH I G5RBH I Gthing recei&ing actionH

#0A(,&#S1

.he rofessor teaches the students$ (subject# (acti&e &erb# (object#(doing action# (recei&ing action#

John +ashes the dishes$(subject# (acti&e &erb# (object#(doing action# (recei&ing action#

PASSIVE FO!

In some sentences, spea"ers use the passive form. In the passive form, the thing receiving the action isthe subject and the thing doing the action is the object. (ou can use the passive form if you thin" the thingreceiving the action is more important or should be emphasi)ed.

*Thing receiving action+ *%-+ *past participle of verb+ *by+ *thing doing action+

E"A!P#ES$

The students are taught by the professor.subject# passive verb#

receiving action# doing action#

The dishes are washed by ohn.subject# passive verb#

receiving action# doing action#

,resent Conditiona!s



3resent Real Conditional *OR(

G)f K /hen $$$ S)<395 3R5S5E.$$$, $$$ S)<395 3R5S5E. $$$ H

US#

.he 3resent Real Conditional is used to talk about +hat -ou normall- do in reallife situations$

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) go to a friends house for dinner, ) usuall- take a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$

/hen ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) often go to the beach$

)f the +eather is nice, she +alks to +ork$

Jerr- hels me +ith m- home +ork +hen he has time$

) read if there is nothing on .$

/hat do -ou do +hen it rainsL

) sta- at home$

/here do -ou sta- if -ou go to S-dne-L

) sta- +ith m- friends near the harbor$

I(,ORTANT If / 2hen

Both "if" and "+hen" are used in the 3resent Real Conditional$ *sing "if" suggests that something

haens less freuentl-$ *sing "+hen" suggests that something haens regularl-$

#0A(,&#S0

/hen ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- go to the beach$

() regularl- ha&e da-s off from +ork$#

)f ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- go to the beach$

() rarel- ha&e da-s off from +ork$#

3resent *nreal Conditional *OR(

G)f $$$ S)<395 3S. $$$, $$$ +ould I 5RB $$$ H

US#

.he 3resent *nreal Conditional is used to talk about +hat -ou +ould do in imaginar- situations in

general$

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) had a car, ) +ould dri&e to +ork$ But ) don't ha&e a car$

She +ould tra&el around the +orld if she had more mone-$ But she doesn't ha&e muchmone-$

) +ould read more if ) didn't ha&e a .$

<ar- +ould mo&e to Jaan if she soke Jaanese$

)f the- +orked harder, the- +ould earn more mone-$

/hat +ould -ou do if -ou +on the lotter-L

) +ould tra&el$



/here +ould -ou li&e if -ou mo&ed to the *$S$L

) +ould li&e in Seattle$

#0C#,TION If I were ...

)n the 3resent *nreal Conditional, the form "+as" is not considered grammaticall- correct$ )n

+ritten 5nglish or in testing situations, -ou should al+a-s use "+ere$" ?o+e&er, in e&er-da-con&ersation, "+as" is often used$

#0A(,&#S0

)f he +ere French, he +ould li&e in 3aris$

)f she +ere rich, she +ould bu- a -acht$

) +ould la- basketball if ) +ere taller$

) +ould bu- that comuter if it +ere cheaer$

) +ould bu- that comuter if it +as cheaer$ NOT CORR#CT 3But often said in

con"ersation.4

#0C#,TION Conditiona! with (oda! %erbs.here are some secial conditional forms for modal &erbs in 5nglish0

+ould I can M could

+ould I shall M should

+ould I ma- M might

.he +ords "can," "shall" and "ma-" must be used in these secial forms: the- cannot be

used +ith "+ould$"

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) +ent to 5g-t, ) +ould can learn rabic$ NOT CORR#CT

)f ) +ent to 5g-t, ) could learn rabic$ CORR#CT

)f she had time, she +ould ma- go to the art-$ NOT CORR#CT

)f she had time, she might go to the art-$ CORR#CT

.he +ords "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include conditional, so -ou cannot

combine them +ith "+ould$"

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) had more time, ) +ould could e2ercise after +ork$ NOT CORR#CT

)f ) had more time, ) could e2ercise after +ork$ CORR#CT

)f he in&ited -ou, -ou reall- +ould should go$ NOT CORR#CT

)f he in&ited -ou, -ou reall- should go$ CORR#CT

I(,ORTANT On!5 use 6If6

4nl- the +ord "if" is used +ith the 3resent *nreal Conditional because -ou are discussing

imaginar- situations$ "/hen" cannot be used$

#0A(,&#S0



) +ould bu- that comuter +hen it +ere cheaer$ NOT CORR#CT

) +ould bu- that comuter if it +ere cheaer$ CORR#CT

52ercises and Related .oics

7o to ,resent Conditiona! #8ercises

.est -our kno+ledge of 3resent Real Conditional &s$ 3resent *nreal Conditional

,ast Conditiona!s

3ast Real Conditional *OR(

G)f K /hen $$$ S)<395 3S.$$$, $$$ S)<395 3S.$ H

US#

.he 3ast Real Conditional describes +hat -ou used to do in articular real life situations$ )t

suggests that -our habits ha&e changed and -ou do not usuall- do these things toda-$

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) +ent to a friend's house for dinner, ) usuall- took a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$ ) don't

do that an-more$

/hen ) had a da- off from +ork, ) often +ent to the beach$ Eo+, ) ne&er get time off$

)f the +eather +as nice, she often +alked to +ork$ Eo+, she usuall- dri&es$

Jerr- al+a-s heled me +ith m- home+ork +hen he had time$ But he doesn't do that

an-more$

) usuall- read if there +as nothing on .$

/hat did -ou usuall- do +hen it rainedL

) usuall- sta-ed at home$

I(,ORTANT Used to

.he form "*sed to" is often used to emhasie that the ast action +as a habit$ )f -ou are not

familiar +ith the form "*sed to," -ou can read about it in the 5nglish 3age's 6Used to ,age.6

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) +ent to a friends house for dinner, ) used to take a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$ ) don't

do that an-more$ /hen ) had a da- off from +ork, ) used to go to the beach$ Eo+, ) ne&er get time off$

)f the +eather +as nice, she used to +alk to +ork$ Eo+, she usuall- dri&es$

Jerr- used to hel me +ith m- home+ork +hen he had time$ But he doesn't do that

an-more$

/hat did -ou do +hen it rainedL

) used to sta- at home$

http://www.englishpage.com/conditional/conditionalexercise1.html

http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/usedto.html


http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/usedto.html



I(,ORTANT If / 2hen

Both "if" and "+hen" are used in the 3ast Real Conditional$ *sing "if" suggests that something

haened less freuentl-$ *sing "+hen" suggests that something haened regularl-$

#0A(,&#S0

/hen ) had a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- +ent to the beach$

() regularl- had da-s off from +ork$#)f ) had a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- +ent to the beach$

() rarel- had da-s off from +ork$#

3ast *nreal Conditional *OR(

G)f $$$ 3S. 35RF5C. $$$, $$$ +ould ha&e I 3S. 3R.)C)395 $$$ H

US#

.he 3ast *nreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginar- situations in the ast$ =ou can

describe +hat -ou +ould ha&e done differentl- or ho+ something could ha&e haened differentl-

if circumstances had been different$

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) had had a car, ) +ould ha&e dri&en to +ork$ But ) didn't ha&e one, so ) took the bus$

She +ould ha&e tra&eled around the +orld if she had had more mone-$ But she didn't ha&e

much mone-, so she ne&er tra&eled$

) +ould ha&e read more as a child if ) hadn't had a .$ *nfortunatel-, ) did ha&e a ., so )

ne&er read for entertainment$

<ar- +ould ha&e gotten the job and mo&ed to Jaan if she had studied Jaanese in school

instead of French$

)f the- had +orked harder, the- +ould ha&e earned more mone-$ *nfortunatel-, the- +erela- and the- didn't earn much$

/hat +ould -ou ha&e done if -ou had +on the lotter- last +eekL

) +ould ha&e tra&eled$

/hat cit- +ould -ou ha&e chosen if -ou had decided to mo&e to the *nited StatesL

) +ould ha&e chosen Seattle$

#0C#,TION Conditiona! with (oda! %erbs

.here are some secial conditional forms for modal &erbs in 5nglish0

+ould ha&e I can M could ha&e

+ould ha&e I shall M should ha&e+ould ha&e I ma- M might ha&e

.he +ords "can," "shall" and "ma-" must be used in these secial forms: the- cannot be

used +ith "+ould ha&e$"

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) had gone to 5g-t, ) could ha&e learned rabic$ CORR#CT



)f she had had time, she might ha&e gone to the art-$ CORR#CT

.he +ords "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include conditional, so -ou cannot

combine them +ith "+ould$"

#0A(,&#S0 )f ) had had more time, ) +ould ha&e could e2ercise after +ork$ NOT CORR#CT

)f ) had had more time, ) could ha&e e2ercised after +ork$ CORR#CT

)f he had in&ited -ou, -ou +ould ha&e might go$ NOT CORR#CT

)f he had in&ited -ou, -ou might ha&e gone $ CORR#CT

I(,ORTANT On!5 use 6If6

4nl- the +ord "if" is used +ith the 3ast *nreal Conditional because -ou are discussing imaginar-

situations$ "/hen" cannot be used$

#0A(,&#S0 ) +ould ha&e bought that comuter +hen it had been cheaer$ NOT CORR#CT

) +ould ha&e bought that comuter if it had been cheaer$ CORR#CT


,ast Conditiona! #8ercises .est -our kno+ledge of 3ast Real Conditional &s$ 3ast *nreal

Conditional &s$ 3resent Real Conditional

*uture Conditiona!s

Future Real Conditional *OR(

G)f K /hen $$$S)<395 3R5S5E.$$$, $$$ S)<395 F*.*R5$ H

Eotice that there is no future in the ")f" or "/hen" clause$

US#

.he Future Real Conditional describes +hat -ou think -ou +ill do in a secific situation in the

future$ )t is different from other real conditional forms because unlike the resent or the ast, -ou

do not kno+ +hat +ill haen in the future$ lthough this form is called a "real conditional," -ou

are usuall- imagining or guessing about the future$ )t is called "real" because it is still ossible






that the action might occur in the future$ Carefull- stud- the follo+ing e2amles and comare

them to the Future *nreal Conditional described belo+$

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) go to a friend's house for dinner tonight, ) +ill take a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$

() am still not sure if ) +ill go to his house or not$#

/hen ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) am going to go to the beach$() ha&e to +ait until ) ha&e a da- off$#

)f the +eather is nice, she is going to +alk to +ork$

()t deends on the +eather$#

Jerr- +ill hel me +ith m- home+ork +hen he has time$

() ha&e to +ait until he has time$#

) am going to read if there is nothing on .$

()t deends on the . schedule$#

/hat are -ou going to do if it rainsL

) am going to sta- at home$

I(,ORTANT If / 2hen

Both "if" and "+hen" are used in the Future Real Conditional, but the use is different from other

real conditionals$ )n the Future Real Conditional, "if" suggests that -ou do not kno+ if something

+ill haen or not$ "/hen" suggests that something +ill definitel- haen at some oint: +e are

siml- +aiting for it to occur$ Eotice also that the Simle Future is not used in "if' clauses or

"+hen" clauses$

#0A(,&#S0

/hen -ou ca!! me, ) +ill gi&e -ou the address$

(=ou are going to call me later, and at that time, ) +ill gi&e -ou the address$#

)f -ou ca!! me, ) +ill gi&e -ou the address$

()f -ou +ant the address, -ou can call me$#

Future *nreal Conditional *OR(

G)f $$$ S)<395 3S. $$$, $$$ +ould I 5RB $$$ H

Eotice the form looks the same as 3resent *nreal Conditional$

US#

.he Future *nreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginar- situations in the future$ )t is not ascommon as the Future Real Conditional because most 5nglish seakers lea&e oen the

ossibilit- that an-thing <)8?. haen in the future$ )t is onl- used +hen a seaker needs to

emhasie that something reall- is imossible$

#0A(,&#S0

)f ) had a da- off from +ork ne2t +eek, ) +ould go to the beach$

() don't ha&e a da- off from +ork$#





)f Sarah should haen to sho+ u late to the birthda- art-, it +ould ruin the surrise$

Comare Both Forms

.o hel -ou understand the difference bet+een the t+o forms abo&e, comare the e2amles

belo+0

#0A(,&#S0

)f -ou hel me mo&e tomorro+, ) +ill bu- -ou dinner$ *UTUR# R#A& CONDITIONA&

() don't kno+ if -ou can hel me$#

)f -ou heled me mo&e tomorro+, ) +ould bu- -ou dinner$ *UTUR# UNR#A&

CONDITIONA&

(=ou can't hel me, or -ou don't +ant to hel me$#


*uture Conditiona! #8ercises .est -our kno+ledge of Future Real Conditional &s$ Future *nreal

Conditional

$

CONDITIONA& O%#R%I#2 2IT9 #0A(,&#S

,resent Rea! Conditiona! ,resent Unrea! Conditiona!

)f ) ha&e time, ) stud- 5nglish$ (Sometimes ) ha&e time$#

)f ) had time, ) +ould stud- 5nglish$ () don't ha&e time$#

,ast Rea! Conditiona! ,ast Unrea! Conditiona!

)f ) had time, ) studied 5nglish$ (Somtimes ) had time$#

)f ) had had time, ) +ould ha&e studied5nglish$






() didn't ha&e time$#

*uture Rea! Conditiona! *uture Unrea! Conditiona!

)f ) ha&e time, ) +ill stud- 5nglish$ )f ) ha&e time, ) am going to stud-

5nglish$ () don't kno+ if ) +ill ha&e time or not$#

4ther forms ossible$

)f ) had time, ) +ould stud- 5nglish$ () +on't ha&e time$#

4ther forms ossible$

)f -ou ha&e an- conditional uestions go to #ng!ish ,age *A)

(oda! %erb

Introduction

<odals are secial &erbs +hich beha&e &er- irregularl- in 5nglish$ 5nglishage$com hascreated one of the most indeth modal tutorials in rint or online$ Stud- the modal e2lanationsand comlete the associated e2ercises and take another ste to+ard 5nglish fluenc-$ )f -ou +antto use the <odal erb 3ages as a reference onl- and do not +ant to comlete the tutorial C!ic-9ere$

The tutoria! shou!d be co+!eted as fo!!ows1

1$ Read this "<odal )ntroduction" comletel-$ 5ach <odal 52ercise has associated grammare2lanations to hel -ou imro&e -our kno+legde of the <odal erbs and related e2ressions$

N$ .he first e2ercise, (oda! :, focuses on the basic modals can, cou!d, ha"e to, ust,

ight and shou!d$

$ 52ercise (oda! ; focuses on the differences bet+een ha"e to and ust$

$ 52ercise (oda! < first focuses on ight, ust and shou!d$ fter+ards, -ou can reeat

http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/tensefaq.html

http://www.englishpage.com/modals/modalforms.html


http://www.englishpage.com/modals/interactivemodal1.htm

http://www.englishpage.com/modals/can.html


http://www.englishpage.com/modals/could.html


http://www.englishpage.com/modals/haveto.html

http://www.englishpage.com/modals/must.html



http://www.englishpage.com/modals/might.html

http://www.englishpage.com/modals/should.html











http://www.recommend-it.com/p.e?471019

http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/tensefaq.html





















Can Could

<a-

<ight

<ust

4ught to Shall Should

/ill

/ould

I(,ORTANT0 For the uroses of this tutorial, +e ha&e included some e2ressions +hich

are not <odal erbs including had better , ha"e to and ha"e got to$ .hese e2ressions are

closel- related to <odals in meaning and are often interchanged +ith them$

Can

<odal *se1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future

Eegati&e Forms=ou canalsouse0

can

general abilit-

1$ ) can seak Chinese

N$ S?)F.S .4

"C4*9D" ) could seak Chinese +hen

) +as a kid$

$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

) +ill be able to seak

Chinese b- the time ) finish

m- course$

1$ ) can't seak S+ahili$

N$ S?)F.S .4"C4*9D"

) couldn't seak S+ahili$

$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

) +on't be able to seak

S+ahili$

to beable

can abilit- during asecific e&ent

1$ /ith a burst ofadrenaline, eole can icku cars$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

/ith a sudden burst of

1$ 3eole can't ick ucars$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

5&en the +eight lifter,

couldn't lift the car off the

to beable



adrenaline, he +as able to

lift the car off the child's leg$

$ S?)F.S .4 "B5 B95 .4"

/ith a sudden burst of

adrenaline, he +ill be able

to lift the car$

child's leg$

$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

5&en three men +orking

together +on't be able to lift

the car$

can

oortunit-

1$ ) ha&e some free time$ )can hel her no+$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

) had some free time

-esterda-$ ) +as able to hel

her at that time$

$ )'ll ha&e some free

time tomorro+$ ) can hel

her then$

1$ ) don't ha&e an- time$ )can't hel her no+$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

B95 .4"

) didn't ha&e time

-esterda-$ ) +asn't able to

hel her at that time$

$ ) +on't ha&e an-

time later$ ) can't hel her

then$

to beable

can

ermission

1$ ) can dri&e Susan's car+hen she is out of to+n$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

994/5D"

) +as allo+ed to dri&e

Susan's car +hile she +as

out of to+n last +eek$

$ ) can dri&e Susan's

car +hile she is out of to+n

ne2t +eek$

1$ ) can't dri&e Susan's car+hen she is out of to+n$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5

994/5D"

) +asn't allo+ed to dri&e

Susan's car +hile she +as

out of to+n last +eek$

$ ) can't dri&e Susan's

car +hile she is out of to+n

ne2t +eek$

ma-

can

reuest

Can ) ha&e a glass of+aterL

Can -ou gi&e me a lift

to schoolL

Can't ) ha&e a glass of+aterL

Can't -ou gi&e me a lift

to schoolL

could ma-



(Reuests usuall- refer

to the near future$#

(Reuests usuall-

refer to the near future$#

can

ossibilit- Kimossibilit-

n-one can become rich

and famous if the- kno+ theright eole$

9earning a language

can be a real challenge$

(.his use is usuall- a

generaliation or an

suosition$#

)t can't cost more than a

dollar or t+o$

=ou can't be P )

thought -ou +ere about 1A

-ears old$

(.his use is usuall- a

generaliation or an

suosition$#

could

Cou!d


Eegati&e Forms=ou canalso use0

could

ossibilit-

1$ John could be the one+ho stole the mone-$

N$ John could ha&e been

the one +ho stole the

mone-$

$ John could be

charged +ith the crime +hen

the olice finish the

in&estigation$

1$ <ar- couldn't be the one+ho stole the mone-$

N$ <ar- couldn't ha&e

been the one +ho stole the

mone-$

$ <ar- couldn't ossibl-

be charge +ith the crime after

the olice e2amine the

e&idence$

might, ma-

could

conditional (can, could#

1$ )f ) had more time, ) couldtra&el around the +orld$

N$ )f ) had had more

time, ) could ha&e tra&eled

1$ 5&en if ) had more time, )couldn't tra&el around the+orld$

N$ 5&en if ) had had more



around the +orld$

$ )f ) had more time this

+inter, ) could tra&el around

the +orld$

time, ) couldn't ha&e tra&eled

around the +orld$

$ 5&en if ) had more timethis +inter, ) could tra&el

around the +orld$

could

suggestion

1$ E4 3R5S5E. F4R<

N$ =ou could ha&e sent

-our &acation in ?a+aii$

$ =ou could send -our

&acation in ?a+aii$

E4 E58.)5 F4R<S

could

ast abilit-

) could run ten miles in m-t+enties$

) could seak Chinese

+hen ) +as a kid$

) couldn't run more than a milein m- t+enties$

) couldn't seak S+ahili$

be ableto

could olitereuest

Could ) ha&e something todrinkL

Could borro+ -ourstalerL

(Reuests usuall- refer

to the near future$#

Couldn't he come +ith usL

Couldn't -ou hel me +ith

this for just a secondL

(Reuests usuall- refer to

the near future$#

can, ma-, might

9a"e to

<odal*se

1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future

Eegati&e Forms

=oucan

alsouse0



ha&e to

certaint-

1$ .hat has to be Jerr-$ .he-said he +as tall +ith brightred hair$

N$ .hat has to ha&e

been the right restaurant$

.here are no other

restaurants on this street$

$ E4E5

1$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S."

.hat must not ha&e been Jerr-+e sa+$ ?e +as suosed toha&e red hair$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S." .hat must not ha&e been the

right restaurant$ ) guess there is

another one around here

some+here$

$ E4E5

must, ha&egot to

ha&e to

necessit-

1$ She has to read four

books for this literatureclass$

N$ She had to finish the

first book before the

midterm$

$ She +ill ha&e to finish

the other books before the

final e2am$

1$ She doesn't ha&e to read"8raes of /rath$" )t's otional

reading for e2tra credit$

N$ She didn't ha&e to +rite a

critiue of ".he Scarlet 9etter$"

She had to gi&e a resentation to

her class$

$ She +on't ha&e to take

another literature classes$

merican 9iterature 1O1 is the

onl- reuired course$

must

don'tha&e to

choiceK no

obligation

1$ ) don't ha&e to take an-tests$ .he course is just forfun$

N$ ) didn't ha&e to take

the test$ .he teacher let me

do a reort instead$

$ ) +on't ha&e to takethe test$ )t's going to be for

e2tra credit and ) don't need

the oints$

R#(#(B#R1 6Do not ha"e to6 "s. 6(ust not6



"Do not ha&e to" suggests that someone is not reuired to do something$ "<ustnot" suggests that -ou are rohibited from doing something$

(ust


Eegati&e Forms=ou canalso use0

must certaint-

1$ .hat must be Jerr-$ .he-said he +as tall +ith bright

red hair$

N$ .hat must ha&e


.here are no other


$ E4 F*.*R5 F4R<

1$ .hat must not be Jerr-$?e is suosed to ha&ered hair$

N$ .hat must not ha&e

been the right restaurant$ )

guess there is another one

around here some+here$

$ E4 F*.*R5

F4R<

ha&e to

must not rohibition

=ou must not s+im in that

ri&er$ )t's full of crocodiles$

=ou must not forget to

take -our malaria

medication +hile -our are

in the troics$

(3rohibition usuall-


must strong recommendation

(mericans

refer

the form

1$ =ou must take some timeoff and get some rest$

N$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou should ha&e taken

some time off last +eek to

1$ =ou mustn't drink somuch$ )t's not good for-our health$

N$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou shouldn't ha&e drunk

should



"should$"#

get some rest$

$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou should take some time

off ne2t +eek to get some

rest$

so much$ .hat caused the

accident$

$ S?)F. .4"S?4*9D"

=ou shouldn't drink at the

art-$ =ou are going to be

the designated dri&er$

must necessit-

(mericans

refer

the form

"ha&e to$"#

1$ =ou must ha&e a ermitto enter the national ark$

N$ S?)F. .4 "?5

.4"

/e had to ha&e a ermit to

enter the ark$

$ /e must get a

ermit to enter the ark

ne2t +eek$

1$ S?)F. .4 "?5 .4" /e don't ha&e to get aermit to enter thenational ark$

N$ S?)F. .4 "?5.4"

/e didn't ha&e to get a

ermit to enter the

national ark$

$ S?)F. .4 "?5

.4"

/e +on't ha&e to get a

ermit to enter the

national ark$

ha&e to

(ight

<odal *se

1$ 3resent

N$ 3ast $ Future Eegati&e Forms

=ou can

also use0

might ossibilit-

1$ She might be on the bus$ )think her car is ha&ingroblems$

N$ She might ha&e taken

1$ She might not be on thebus$ She might be +alkinghome$

N$ She might not ha&e

could, ma-



the bus$ )'m not sure ho+ she

got to +ork$

$ She might take the busto get home$ ) don't think Bill

+ill be able to gi&e her a ride$

taken the bus$ She might

ha&e +alked home$

$ She might not takethe bus$ She might get a

ride from Bill$

might conditional (ma-, might#

1$ )f ) entered the contest, )might actuall- +in$

N$ )f ) had entered the

contest, ) might actuall- ha&e

+on$

$ )f ) entered the contest

tomorro+, ) might actuall- +in$

*nfortunatel-, ) can't enter it$

1$ 5&en if ) entered thecontest, ) might not +in$

N$ 5&en if ) had

entered the contest, )

might not ha&e +on$

$ 5&en if ) entered

the contest tomorro+, )

might not +in$

might suggestion

1$ E4 3R5S5E. F4R<

N$ =ou might ha&e tried the

cheese cake$

$ =ou might tr- the

cheesecake$

1$ E4 3R5S5E. F4R<

N$ 3S. F4R<

*EC4<<4E

$ =ou might not +ant

to eat the cheese cake$ )t's

&er- calorific$

could

might reuest

(British

form#

<ight ) ha&e something todrinkL

<ight ) borro+ the stalerL

(Reuests usuall- refer to

the near future$#

E58.)5 F4R<S*EC4<<4E

could, ma-, can

R#(#(B#R1 6(ight not6 "s. 6Cou!d not6

"<ight not" suggests -ou do not kno+ if something haens$ "Could not" suggeststhat it is imossible for something to haen$

Shou!d



<odal *se 1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future

Eegati&e Forms=ou can also use0

should

recommendation ad&isabilit-

1$ 3eole +ith high cholesterolshould eat lo+ fat foods$

N$ Frank should ha&e

eaten lo+ fat foods$ .hat might

ha&e re&ented his heart

attack$

$ =ou reall- should start

eating better$

1$ Sarah shouldn'tsmoke so much$ )t'snot good for herhealth$

N$ Sarah

shouldn't ha&e

smoked so much$

.hat's +hat caused

her health roblems$

$ Sarah

shouldn't smoke

+hen she &isits

<artha ne2t +eek$

<artha hates +hen

eole smoke in her

house$

ought to

should

obligation

) should be at +ork before0OO$

/e should return the &ideo

before the &ideo rental store

closes$

("Should" can also e2ress

something bet+een

recommendation andobligation$ "Be suosed to"

e2resses a similar idea and

can easil- be used in the ast

or in negati&e forms$#

E4 E58.)5F4R<S

besuosed,to

should 1$ Susan should be in Ee+=ork b- no+$

1$ Susan shouldn'tbe in Ee+ =ork -et$

ought to, be



assumtionK e2ectationK robabilit-

N$ Susan should ha&e

arri&ed in Ee+ =ork last +eek$

9et's call her and see +hat she

is u to$

$ Susan should be in Ee+

=ork b- ne2t +eek$ ?er ne+ job

starts on <onda-$

N$ Susan

shouldn't ha&e

arri&ed in Ee+ =ork

until -esterda-$

$ Susan

shouldn't arri&e in

Ee+ =ork until ne2t

+eek$

suosedto

9a"e to

<odal*se

1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future

Eegati&e Forms

=oucan

alsouse0

ha&e to

certaint-

1$ .hat has to be Jerr-$ .he-said he +as tall +ith bright

red hair$

N$ .hat has to ha&e


.here are no other


$ E4E5

1$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S." .hat must not ha&e been Jerr-+e sa+$ ?e +as suosed to

ha&e red hair$

N$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S."

.hat must not ha&e been the

right restaurant$ ) guess there is

another one around here

some+here$

$ E4E5

must, ha&egot to

ha&e to necessit-

1$ She has to read fourbooks for this literatureclass$

N$ She had to finish the

first book before the

1$ She doesn't ha&e to read"8raes of /rath$" )t's otionalreading for e2tra credit$

N$ She didn't ha&e to +rite a

critiue of ".he Scarlet 9etter$"

She had to gi&e a resentation to

must






$ E4 F*.*R5 F4R<

around here some+here$

$ E4 F*.*R5

F4R<

must not rohibition

=ou must not s+im in thatri&er$ )t's full of crocodiles$

=ou must not forget to

take -our malaria

medication +hile -our are

in the troics$

(3rohibition usuall-


must strong

recommendation

(mericans

refer

the form

"should$"#

1$ =ou must take some timeoff and get some rest$

N$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou should ha&e taken

some time off last +eek to

get some rest$

$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou should take some time

off ne2t +eek to get some

rest$

1$ =ou mustn't drink somuch$ )t's not good for-our health$

N$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou shouldn't ha&e drunk

so much$ .hat caused the

accident$

$ S?)F. .4

"S?4*9D"

=ou shouldn't drink at the

art-$ =ou are going to be

the designated dri&er$

should

must necessit-

(mericans

refer

the form

"ha&e to$"#

1$ =ou must ha&e a ermitto enter the national ark$

N$ S?)F. .4 "?5

.4"

/e had to ha&e a ermit to

enter the ark$

$ /e must get a

1$ S?)F. .4 "?5 .4" /e don't ha&e to get a

ermit to enter thenational ark$

N$ S?)F. .4 "?5

.4"

/e didn't ha&e to get a

ermit to enter the

ha&e to



ermit to enter the ark

ne2t +eek$

national ark$

$ S?)F. .4 "?5

.4" /e +on't ha&e to get a

ermit to enter the

national ark$

Documents

Conjunction s in english