Conflict, Stress, & Coping

The Concept of Stress

Stress – the physical and psychological response to events, called stressors, that challenge a person’s normal functioning (homeostasis); the strain that results from demands or changes in the environment.

Everyone has stress – it is a normal part of life. Some stress can be good because it motivates us or leads to something desirable (eustress), while other stress can be maladaptive because it is overwhelming or causes problems (distress).

Stressor – Any physical or psychological challenge that threatens homeostasis; stressors can be unique to the individual.

• Physical stressors – injury, physical exertion, noise, overcrowding, excessive heat or cold, etc.

• Psychological stressors – interpersonal conflict, isolation, traumatic life events, time-pressured tasks, peer pressure, expectations of others, high standards for achievement, change in routine, etc.

Categories of Stressors:

Frustration – the process by which we are blocked or hindered from reaching goals.

Anxiety – a vague generalized apprehension or feeling that one is in danger; results when frustration builds too high or we cannot resolve a conflict.

Conflict – a problem that demands a choice between alternatives.

Types of Psychological Conflict:

1. Approach-approach – A person must choose between one of two attractive goals.

example: you can either go out to a game or spend time with a friend who is usually busy, but you cannot do both.

2. Avoidance-avoidance – A person must choose between two unattractive options, or the “lesser of two evils.”

example: you need to make a choice between cleaning the bathroom or studying for your psychology exam.

3. Approach-avoidance – A person must choose a goal that has both attractive and unattractive alternatives.

example: you want to purchase a game system that is great fun to have, but requires extra work hours to pay for; you want to go with your friends to a particular movie, but you know that your parents disapprove.

4. Double approach-avoidance – a person must choose between two alternatives, both of which have positive and negative features.

example: when you need to choose between two colleges that you like, but both have negative features as well.

THIS IS THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF CONFLICT!

Appraisal of Stress

All events are processed within the corticolimbic system, which is responsible for the appraisal of threat and the processing of emotions.

Primary appraisal – determining whether an event is a threat, and the magnitude of that threat.

Secondary appraisal – evaluating ways in which to cope with the stressor.

Responses to Stress

Stress is associated with emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses. Some responses do not affect functioning, while other can severely disrupt normal functioning.

Emotional symptoms – crying, nervousness, irritability, anger, sadness, anxiety, fear, feelings of dissatisfaction, feeling overwhelmed and powerless, apathetic, or empty.

Cognitive symptoms – memory problems, distractibility, obsessiveness, nightmares, or problems in concentration.

Behavioral reactions – problems in relationships, alcohol and substance abuse, compulsive eating, teeth

grinding, lowered sex drive, or uncommunicativeness.

Physiological (Physical) Response to Stress

Fight or Flight Reaction-- the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic branch) kicks into gear to prepare us for the threat at hand.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex.

Part of the limbic system

Master gland of the

endocrine system

Adrenal medulla

Adrenaline

The hypothalamus communicates with the endocrine system, whichreleases cortisol and adrenaline.

Cortisol increases sympathetic nervous system activity, releases stored fats for energy, and suppresses immune system function.

Adrenaline (epinephrine) stimulates heart muscles and increases heart rate and oxygen consumption so as to prepare the body to respond.

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

• Identified the body’s response to stress and described the three phases as follows.• Alarm: recognize you are facing a change or challenge; the

stress response begins.• Resistance: all resources are mobilized—attention, strength, and

fuel; the body is operating above homeostasis (until adaptation occurs—if it does).

• Exhaustion: adaptation does not occur; the body becomes exhausted, resources are depleted. Person suffers fatigue, can become sick, or even die.

• Chronic Stress

• Short-term stress can be helpful to us because it can give us the

energy we need to perform or meet our goals.

• Chronic stress, on the other hand, is not helpful. Chronic stress

involves prolonged activation of the stress response.

• Hormones released during the stress response have negative effects

when released continuously.

• Cortisol suppresses immune function and can disrupt sleep —thus

increasing susceptibility to illness.

• Chronic stress can also cause other symptoms in the body, such as

acne, muscle tension, stomach pain, weight gain, headaches, etc.

Chronic Stress (Movie Preview)

Stress and Heart Disease

Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the U.S. today.

Early research has found a relationship between stress and heart disease.

•Friedman & Rosenman (1959) monitored the cholesterol levels of tax accountants just before and up to the tax deadline (April 15th).

•They found cholesterol levels increased dramatically before April 15th and returned to normal by June. Research only included white men.

During stress, cortisol causes fat to be released into the bloodstream. It serves to fuel the muscles, but it may not be used up if no physical action occurs. The fat then collects along artery walls, damaging them, while also causing the heart to work harder. Adrenaline also causes the heart to beat faster and work harder.

Stress Flow ChartYour Perception of

an Event

Threatening Non-Threatening

Acute (Short-Term) Stress

No Stress

Stress Response

Stressor Continues/Person Does Not Adapt/Stress Is Not

ManagedPerson Performs/Stressor

Ceases/Person Adapts/Stress Is Managed

Strength Gained Illness or Disease

Chronic (Long-Term) Stress

Coping Devices/Defense

Mechanisms UsedAlarm

Resistance

Recovery Exhaustion

Stress can be helpful

(Acute/Eustress)

Stress can be harmful

(Chronic/Distress)

Mediators of Stress

• Many things impact how we respond to stress, including our personality type, the intensity and duration of the stressor, history of previous stressors, our individual beliefs about ourselves and the world, the relationships we have, the culture we are raised in, and even our gender.

Early research has revealed a relationship between Type A personality and heart attacks (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974).

Type A – Hard-driving, operating at full-speed, impatient.

Type B – Laid-back personality, enjoy the moment, usually easy-going and flexible.

Type A men are more likely to have heart attacks. The sympathetic nervous system works overtime; the increases hormone secretion increases plaques of cholesterol deposits.

Newer research has identified hostility as the key factor in Type A personalities that contributes to heart disease. There are, of course,

advantages to being a type A personality. Type A’s get work done, and they don’t let obstacles get in their way. However, they should be aware the dangers of being “under the gun” too often and learn to relax at least some of the time.

• The negative effect of a stressor is magnified if we look at the stressor negatively and as something beyond our control.

• Examples:• Judith Rodin compared nursing home

patients who perceived little control over their activities with similar patients who did control some of their daily routines. Rodin found those perceiving less control declined in health more rapidly and died sooner than those who felt they had more control of their daily routines.

• Other researchers found lowered immunity to disease among rats exposed to uncontrolled stress. When two rats simultaneously receive the same amount of mild electric shock, the rat that can turn off the shock stays just as healthy as a rat receiving no shock. And these “empowered” rats are healthier than shocked rats that have no control over the shocking mechanism.

• Optimism--a tendency to expect the best possible outcome or dwell on the most hopeful aspects of a situation--also seems to offer some protection against the effects of stress. • In one study, those students identified as optimists had stronger immune systems and were less likely to become ill or fatigued during the last month of the semester than students identified as pessimists—those who expect the worst or dwell on the negative.

• Optimists also recover more quickly from heart surgery than pessimists do.

• A study of 2400 Finnish men revealed that those with a hopeless, bleak outlook on life were twice as likely to die during a 10 year span than were those labeled optimists.

• Why is this the case?

• The answer is the interplay between mind (your perception or appraisals) and body (your physiology).

• Both pessimism and perceived loss of control lead to the production and release of stress hormones. This weakens and hinders your immune system.

• This brings us to…

Locus of Control

The study of locus of control dates back to the 1960s, with Julian Rotter's investigation into how people's behaviors and attitudes affected the outcomes of their lives. Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them.

Internal locus of control – belief that outcomes result from one’s own behaviors

External locus of control – belief that luck, chance, and powerful people determine outcomes

• Those with an internal locus of control tend to be happier, less depressed, and less stressed.

• Yet another factor that seems to meditate stress is how we view ourselves.

• Having a positive self-concept (the image we have of ourselves) and high self-esteem (the degree to which we think we are worthwhile) help to maintain a sense of well-being.

• According to positive psychology, we have ultimate control over how we respond to stress.• Regressive coping: sleeping too much, avoiding or denying

problems, taking our anger out on others, or adopting destructive habits.

• Transformational coping: creating something good out of something bad—admitting our anger, addressing the problem logically, adjusting priorities, and exploring solutions.

Defense Mechanisms

• When under stress, we all do our best to keep some kind of balance. We often use defense mechanisms, or mostly unconscious psychological distortions or “tricks” designed to keep us stable.

• Defenses are normal, but they can be used too often. When this happens, we are refusing to face reality, and this is not adaptive.

• Ten common defense mechanisms:• Repression—pushing painful material out of consciousness.• A traumatic experience is forgotten because it

is too painful. • Denial—refusing to admit there is a problem.• A drug addict says, “I don’t have a problem.”

• Displacement—venting our feelings on something or someone other than the true or original target.• A child is angry at his friend so he yells at his

mother.• Reaction formation—expressing the opposite of what we feel.• A person who brags may actually feel very

unsure of himself. • Intellectualization—removing our feelings about an event and discussing it in a coolly rational and unemotional way.• A surgeon puts aside his emotions during

surgery.

• Identification—process of taking on characteristics of someone who has mistreated us in order to psychologically avoid the abuse.• A prisoner begins to view the

guards as friendly.• Brian starts to act like the

bullies that push him around.• Regression—going backward in behavior and thought to a period when we were taken care of as a child.• A 20-year-old throws a

temper tantrum when under stress.

• Rationalization—the process of explaining away a problem so we don’t have to take the blame.• A student who can’t find a

date for the prom says he “can’t afford to go.”

• Projection—the process of attributing our thoughts to someone else.• An employee who cheats the company complains that

the company is cheating her. • Sublimation—the process of channeling emotional energy into constructive or creative activities.• A sexually frustrated woman takes up kick-boxing.

• More on Transformational Coping• See 70 Proven Stress Reducers to see how you can

reduce stress and cope with stress in healthy ways!