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Systems Approach to Designing Instructional Materials
Conducting a Spelling Instruction Intervention
To Improve the Teaching of Spelling
At A Primary School
Stephanie J. Lionel St.Ville
A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfilment
Of the Requirements of
EDID 6505 Systems Approach to Designing Instructional Materials
Trimester 2, 2016-2017
31-03-17
2
Table of Contents
Table of Figures
Introduction … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … ... .. 04
Needs Assessment Plan … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … ... … 05
Task Analysis … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … . 12
Goals And Performance Objectives … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … 22
Assessment … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … …… … ... … 25
Learner Contextual Analysis … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … ... … 30
Instructional Strategies … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … … … ... … 32
Lesson Plan Using Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction … … … … … … … … 32
Analogies … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … … ... .. 35
Reflections … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … … … … … … … … ... … 38
References … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … … ... … 39
Appendix A - Questionnaire for Task Inventory … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … 41
Appendix B - Task Selection Worksheet … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … 43
Appendix C - Contextual Analysis Worksheet … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … 44
Appendix D - PowerPoint Presentation for Day One … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ... … 49
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Table of Figures
Figure 1 – Professional Development Spelling Instruction Workshop Plan … … … … … … … 07
Figure 2 - Planned Schedule for the Two-Day Workshop … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 08
Figure 3 - Hierarchical Task Analysis of Topic … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. 19
Figure 4 – Causal Diagram… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 37
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Introduction
A systems approach to designing instructional materials begins with a needs assessment.
"Needs assessments gather information to assist professionals in making data-driven and
responsive recommendations about how to solve the problem or introduce new technology"
(Rosett, 1995, p. 183 in Reeves & Hedberg, 2003). This needs assessment therefore, gathered
information based on observations and research, and revealed discrepancy gaps in the teaching
of Spelling at a primary institution. Based on the results of this assessment, critical and feasible
instruction to guide teachers through the construction of Spelling games was designed. This
included not only instruction but diagnostic, formative and summative assessments and
evaluations as well. Such a systematic design should result in institutional and instructional
change. The influence of this instruction should immediately reveal immediate outcomes in terms
of improvement in teaching by using the new materials created during the instruction. In the long-
term impacts on the school’s performance in future national examinations should be seen.
Additionally, this should spark interest and motivation in applying the skills learnt to other subject
areas and to other types of games.
5
Needs Assessment Plan
Work Environment
The current policy for teacher evaluation stipulates that senior subject teachers observe,
provide feedback and report to the principal on instruction in the classrooms of less experienced
teachers. In our institution, the senior teachers also are the subject coordinators. One of their
responsibilities is conducting monthly subject meetings with teachers of the various subject areas
to discuss their observations and to establish ways forward after discourse.
One of the most recent observations which was tabled was that teachers who are all
certified, are in the habit of assigning random spelling word lists to students, expecting them to
memorize them independently and pass the oral spelling test by that Friday or the following
Monday. However:
a. the termly Spelling examination results do not indicate the students are mastering
Spelling
b. the Writing examination results indicate poor Spelling as students often fail to secure
the two (2) marks allotted because of six (6) or more spelling errors
c. generally, Spelling skills are not being taught, using contemporary methods or
otherwise
d. Spelling Bee performance is dwindling. The school has not reached the national level
for at least eight years.
While students must take responsibility for their learning, these factors indicate a deficient
Spelling programme. Word lists is only one way to enhance spelling. Wallace (2006) agreed with
the use of word lists but added that they should include words encountered in students’ reading
6
as well as those encountered in other subject areas. Research indicates the teaching of letter
sound relationships, whole words and word parts through direct instruction is a highly effective
spelling instruction practice (Simonson & Gunter, 2001). Phonics is on the Infant grades’ times
tables only and is taught there only. This does not continue in the upper grades. Hence the need
to begin conducting workshops on Spelling instruction. These will re-energize teachers, re-equip
teachers with the skills and best practices for Spelling instruction. However, this, the current
professional development(PD), sessions will address the use of games which facilitate the
integration of multiple best practices, and test taking strategies.
a. Selected Audience – the entire teaching staff of the school will be part of this PD
session. This includes sixteen (16) grade level teachers, all of whom have attained a a first degree,
pre-dominantly in a literacy related area. Half of these grade level teachers teach Literacy and
Social Studies while the other half teaches Numeracy and Science. There is also a Computer
Assisted Learning teacher who instructs students in areas which all teachers assign, a Music
teacher, a Special Education Needs teacher and the principal.
b. Topic of Instruction – Spelling instruction. A two-day PD session will respond to two
questions – a) What do needs to be taught? b) How can it be taught? Therefore, teachers will
examine Spelling topics and test taking tips. Test-taking strategies such as tackling multiple choice
items “are cognitive abilities to deal with any testing situation in appropriate manner and to know
what to do during tests” (Dodeen, 2015). Even though students may be able to spell, without test
taking strategies, their best performance is not a guarantee. These strategies help students do
7
well in tests irrespective of their knowledge of the materials and content covered in the test
(Sarnacki, 1979 in Dodeen, 2015). Thus, refreshing teachers’ knowledge, helping them develop
materials and helping them develop the test taking strategies to empower students, should also
motivate them to broaden their skillset of the best practices in Spelling instruction.
Fig. 1 – Professional Development Spelling Instruction Workshop Plan
c. The Formats – To encourage the implementation of learning, teachers will need to
be re-energized. The two-day, face-to-face, PD workshop should therefore include a variety of
strategies. The first day will mainly use backward teaching method along with lecture and audio-
visual aids, role-play, games and team work. The second day will involve role-play, team work,
independent work and teacher sharing or presentation. They will make use of the computer and
internet and the yard.
Spelling Instruction
What needs to be taught?
Word ListsDecoding Skills
rules
Subject Specific Words
High Frequency Words
How can it be taught?
Direct Instruction
Games
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Day One Day Two
• Objectives
• Optimals in terms of student
performance, spelling content,
spelling instruction (lecture,
discussion)
• Role play using spelling games
• Create at least one game
• Role play
• Finish creating three games
• Share at least one game
• examination strategies for Spelling
examination
• evaluation of workshop
Fig. 2 - Planned Schedule for the Two-Day Workshop
d. Optimals – In the ideal spelling instruction programme
i. Students should be scoring highly, at least 80% (8/10 items) in national
examinations
ii. The schools average in national examinations should be at least 80%
iii. teachers should be using the best practices in spelling instruction. That
however, is not currently the case.
Therefore, rating scales which formed part of a questionnaire(See Appendix A) were used
to help teachers self-report and reflect on their instruction of decoding skills, their use of word
lists, pre-tests and post-tests to determine impact on learning, teaching students strategies for
learning words, direct spelling instruction, subject specific words use, high frequency words use,
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syllabification, spelling rules instruction, spelling strategies instruction, integration of Spelling into
other subject areas, particularly reading and writing and spelling examination skills instruction.
These rating scales, specify through criteria, the skill, strategies or behavioural standards
indicate the degree or frequency by which it is to be demonstrated (Manitoba Education
Citizenship & Youth, 2004). Using this, helped the teachers recognize their area of need, and
motivated them to engage fully in the exercise. It also helped the presenter prioritize the topics to
be covered in the session.
e. Actuals – What was really happening, and had been observed and reported by
senior teachers conducting evaluations were:
I. phonemic and phonetic instruction taking place mainly in the Infant Classes.
Despite the deficiency in each grade, where a few students still had not mastered
letter sounds, other than the Special Needs irregularly scheduled programme, no
phonics instruction in the upper grades
II. weekly random word lists are assigned, especially on Fridays
III. dictated post-tests are administered on the following Monday as assessment and
to guide evaluation
The both the optimals, and actuals identified thus far by senior teachers were used to
create teacher questionnaire Additionally, formative, summative and national assessment results
were used to assess Spelling performance data. This data determined the discrepancy gap.
However, all areas of this gap were not addressed in this workshop as the following section (Task
10
Analysis) further explains. The workshop addresses the need to teach a) Spelling rules, phonics
skills, high frequency words and words from other subject areas through Spelling games, as well
as b) spelling examination strategy instruction.
f. Feelings – oral communication with teachers, combined with the results of the
rating scale indicated the following:
I. Teachers do want to teach spelling. However, especially in the upper grades, it is
felt that the skills should have been developed in the lower grades but were not,
thus compounding the problems.
II. With the access to technology, words like because are replaced by ‘cuz’ and you
replaced by ‘u’. Teacher lamented the negative effect of technology on spelling
and are weary that it is worsening and beyond their control.
III. Teachers felt that the students’ attitude towards reading is the main contributing
factor to their inexperience with towards and thus their general poor spelling.
IV. Teachers felt that the proposed training would be beneficial but are skeptical
about the amount of preparation time required, the rigidity of the time table and
the inability to use the school’s technology resources beyond the normal work
day.
V. Teachers felt that computers are unreliable, kids make so much noise
A questionnaire or another rating scale will be used to determine teachers’ actual feelings
about the teaching of spelling using those best practices.
11
g. Causes – Teachers feelings and opinions of the causes of the students spelling
difficulties may indeed have been on point. However, a rating scale was used to determine
whether their interpretation is correct.
h. Solutions – To address the need, a two-day workshop was designed. It did not
address all the best practices but mainly:
• use of word lists
• spelling rules
• subject specific words use
• high frequency words use
• spelling examination skill instruction
Following this, teachers’ spelling grades can help determine whether the approach was
applied and successful. Senior teachers’ observations can provide further details comparing
changes in teaching. Questionnaires and rating scales can be re-distributed to determine whether
the attitude have changed and whether the frequency of instruction using best practices have
improved.
This intervention was not designed to solve all spelling problems but to determine the most
crucial and most feasible needs to address. Thus, it sought to enhance teacher skill in spelling
instruction through the use of Spelling games later to influence an improvement in spelling
12
performance at all examinations. There will be a need for further interventions to address other
needs to maximize Spelling performance.
Task Analysis
A task analysis is the methodical compilation of data about a job, to determine knowledge
or skills which employees should be taught in order to perform that job at the optimal level
(Krishnaveni, 2008). As such in order for teachers to effectively teach spelling a task analysis needs
to be done to identify their learning needs in terms of content, skill or even attitudes so that they
can bridge that discrepancy gap between the actuals (what is happening now in the teaching of
spelling) and the optimal (the best practices for spelling instruction) identified.
It is therefore necessary to perform cognitive task analysis using the task analysis steps
proposed by Jonassen (1999). These are 1) to do a task inventory, 2) to prioritize and select tasks,
3) to decompose task, 4) to sequence them and their components and 5) to classify the learning
outcome.
1. Step One of Task Analysis: Task Inventory
The task inventory lists the following as best practices for spelling instruction or optimals
of effective spelling programmes. Based on a questionnaire (see Appendix B) distributed teachers
ranked their frequency of use of these practices as well as their degree of expertise in using these
strategies. A scoring of their responses was done using the Task Inventory Worksheet (see
13
Appendix B). This led to the conclusion that the topics most needed to be addressed in the
professional development session are:
I. word lists
II. spelling rules
III. high frequency words
IV. subject specific words
V. spelling examination skills instruction
2. Step Two of Task Analysis: Prioritize and Select Tasks
The Task Inventory, revealed a need for development of phonetic instruction skills.
However, as reported by the senior teachers, this is being done in the infant block but not in the
junior block. So, a special professional development session must be designed for the teachers in
the junior block. Additionally, phonetic instruction is a very complex topic and will be difficult to
conduct detailed session within the time frame. Therefore, sub-sequent sessions on this topic will
have to be conducted.
Word lists are easily accessible and modifiable to include high frequency words as well as
subject specific words and spelling rules. Thus, the topics to be tackled in this professional
development session are Word Lists, High Frequency Words, Spelling Rules and spelling
examination techniques. The administration of dictations on Mondays after giving lists on Fridays
will be supplemented by spelling games. Spelling games facilitate direct instruction of spelling.
research has shown that children’s use of games integrated into instruction assist in the
understanding of concepts and skills (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2007; Squire, 2008; Virvou, Katsionis &
14
Manos, 205 in Zheng & Gardner, 2017, p. 171). The games approach is learner centred- and
fosters active learning. Carlisle (2009) explained that the use of memory games, spelling games
and parts of speech games facilitate faster processing and learning in students (p.2). In order to
create a great impact on learning, teachers need to have the tasks analysed to ensure sequence.
3) Step Three and Four of Task Analysis: Decompose and Sequence Tasks.
Procedural Task Analysis
Outline Format
The analysis of the task ensures the organization and sequencing of tasks to facilitate
decision making in terms to the content or the learning which need to take place in order to
achieve the goals set (Jonassen, Tessmer, & Hannum, 1999, p. 8). This can be done through many
methods including the procedural and hierarchical methods presented here. A procedural analysis
for the first main task is presented below using the whole task presentation format. On the second
day however, whole task presentation was used.
Task for Day One: Creating Spelling Games Using Snakes and Ladders Template
Objective: By the end of the afternoon session, teachers will
1. use a digital Snakes and Ladders template to create a complete,
grade level appropriate spelling game, based on one spelling topic.
Definition of Learning:
Teachers will perform the step-by-step process of creating the game.
15
Prior Learning:
▪ Teachers know how to operate the workplace’s computers.
▪ Teachers can surf the internet
▪ They can create and print documents.
▪ They know that when working on a task on the computer, it is wise to save
document after inputs to avoid losing data.
Essential Learning:
1) Prepare for creating the games
a. Get the materials or equipment
I. Notepad or blank sheet for jotting down words
II. Ruler for drawing a table
III. Writing tool
IV. Dictionary to do word search
V. Students’ texts from the grade to identify words
VI. Scheme and curriculum guide to help identify word categories
VII. Computer with internet access
2) Access precise tools
a. Turn on the computer and verify that you are connected to the internet
b. From the desktop, open the folder ‘Spelling games’
c. from the folder ‘Spelling Games’, open the Microsoft Word
document “Snakes and Ladders”
16
3) Create the word lists
a. Draw a table
i. Use a clean page and draw a large three column table.
ii. Head each of the columns phonics, structural analysis and
high frequency words respectively then
b. obtain and insert words in the table
I. refer to the Spelling section of the Language Arts guide and
locate the spelling areas which students in your grade must
study:
a. spelling rules (including phonics)
b. affixes
c. high frequency words and other subject areas
II. identify a topic under each area
III. write each topic in the respective column of the table in the
notepad
IV. select one of those topics to begin
V. use students’ texts to get words which fall under the topic
selected and write or type them in the column
a) begin with the Language Arts texts
b) use texts from all other areas
c) get words from the internet
17
i. minimize the documents open
ii. open an internet browser
iii. do a google search for words with ‘your
selected topic’
Please note: Infant grade teachers need at least 25 words while Junior grade teachers need a
minimum of 35.
c. Identify 2 exceptions (infant grades) or 5 exceptions (junior grades) to
the topic and add it to your list and if help is needed do a web search for
exceptions too if you need help
d. verify the list and ensure that you are satisfied. You may want to consider,
based on your students’ levels, varying the levels of the words in the list
4. Create the game
1. using the template opened, type in one word in each table cell.
2. enhance the aesthetic appeal of the game
i. resize snake and ladder graphics
a. left click on the graphic.
b. use the edge lines or corners to make the image smaller or larger
ii. add more photos
a. do a google image search for ‘transparent snakes’ or ‘transparent
ladders’
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b. select desired and copy and paste into the Word Document
iii. change your table borders
a. in the menu, select ‘table properties’. Go to ‘border’ and modify as
you desire
iv. substitute the snakes or the ladders given for others, or for different items such
as chutes or frogs or flies
a. do a google image search for ‘transparent chutes’ or ‘transparent
flies’
b. select desired and copy and paste into the Word Document
iv. change the cell colours
a. go to menu with a pouring bucket.
b. select use drop down menu to select a colour for the cell
5. Save the document
6. Print the document and test it (to be done by lab tech)
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Hierarchical Task Analysis Graphic Format
Fig.3 Hierarchical Task Analysis of Topic
20
Procedural Task Analysis in an Outline
Strategy for Completing Examination Skills
Objective:
Given a past national Spelling examination paper, teachers will create a flow chart
which their students can use to guide them when writing a multiple choice
Spelling test.
Definition of Learning:
Teachers will use past examination papers to create a simple multiple choice
exam strategy flow chart for their students.
Prior Learning:
▪ Teachers know the different spelling topics.
▪ They are familiar with the format – ten (10) multiple choice items. One word is
incorrectly spelt.
Essential Learning:
1) Prepare for the examination
a. Get the materials
i. Art supplies
ii. Notepad or blank sheet for jotting down steps
iii. Hb pencil
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iv. Sample answer sheet
v. Flow chart template
vi. A past exam paper for the grade. (Grades 2, 4 and 6 write national exams. So any
grade before, writes the exam of the next grade. For example, grade Five uses the grade six
format.)
2) Do the exam one question at a time.
i. Examine all four options
ii. Determine the commonalities or topic (for example, silent letter, long A…)
iii. Which is the odd one out?
a- does not follow the rule
b- has letters wrong rule
c- has letters ill-sequenced
d- is not a word
iv. Put a dot by it. (to facilitate review)
v. Shade its letter on the answer sheet
3. Review
4. Jot down the procedure in the flow chart template
5. Create the class chart or checklist with that information
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5) Step Five of Task Analysis: Classify the Learning Outcome.
In this last stage of the task analysis process, the leaning outcomes are classified based on
the level of thinking and performance which is to be exhibited. Such classification is done through
the identification and statement of the goals and objectives.
Goals and Performance Objectives
Based on the analyses presented the goal of the intervention and the objectives were
listed. Bloom’s and Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomies, as cited by Wilson (2008) were used
to identify the main levels of knowledge to be acquired are factual, procedural and metacognitive.
Goal of the Intervention:
To re-equip teachers with the skills and best practices for Spelling instruction.
a. To engender an appreciation for the variety of methods of teaching spelling
b. To foster an interest in using best practices in spelling instruction
c. To create spelling instructional materials which can be used for spelling instruction
Terminal Objectives:
1) By the end of the first day, teachers will use digital Snakes and Ladders template
to complete spelling games which can be used to teach spelling topics and skills to their
respective classes. (procedural– synthesis/creating)
23
2) By the end of the second day, teachers will create a class flow chart for students
to use when completing objectives spelling tests. (procedural – synthesis/creating)
Enabling Objectives for the first day:
Cognitive: By the end of day one teachers will:
1. use curriculum guides to select three, Grade appropriate Spelling topics which they need to
teach during the term. (factual - knowledge/remembering)
2. Examine Fry’s List and students’ texts, to create a grade appropriate word list of twenty-
five or thirty-five exemplary words in each category (conceptual - knowledge/remembering)
3. Examine Fry’s List and students’ texts, or an internet search engine to create a grade
appropriate word list of five exceptions in each category (conceptual -
knowledge/remembering)
4. Use one of the word lists created to modify a Snakes and Ladders game template for the to
create a Spelling Snakes and Ladders game
Psychomotor: By the end of day one teachers will:
1. Create word lists for their grades which combine a. High Frequency Words, b. Spelling
Rules and c. words from subject areas (procedural – synthesis/create)
2. Use the word lists created and pre-designed template to develop at least one spelling
games for students (procedural – synthesis/create)
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Enabling objectives for the second day:
Cognitive: By the end of the session, teachers will
1. use one of the word lists created to modify a Draught game template for the to create a
Spelling Draught game
2. use one of the word lists created to modify a Start-End game template for the to create a
Spelling Start-End game
3. assuming the role of examinees, examine a group of four words in a sample national
spelling test question to correctly Identify the relationship
4. having identified the relationship or commonality among the four words, identify the
word which is incorrectly spelt in the in each spelling examination question
Psychomotor: By the end of the session, teachers will
1. Examine past national spelling examination tests to develop a pattern for test examination
(conceptual – apply)
2. Create a checklist of steps in completing a national spelling examination (procedural –
synthesis/create)
Affective:
1. Use a rating scale to rate the applicability of knowledge learnt (metacognitive-evaluate)
2. Use a rating scale to rate the likelihood of using knowledge learnt (metacognitive -
evaluate)
25
These objectives guided the creation of the lesson plans and the assessment activities.
Assessment
Without assessment, be it overt or covert, there is no way to determine the effectiveness
of the teaching or the accuracy of the learning. Okey (1991) indicates that during assessment,
learners operate independently in demonstrating the exact behaviour described in the objectives
(p. 202). Therefore, the following extracts are meant to observe the exact behaviours described
can are exhibited.
Rubrics
Rubrics and rating scales were used before the actual instruction to determine teachers’
perceptions of the status of instruction. However, the following rubric can be used either by the
presenter or by a fellow teacher as a peer evaluation tool, to determine the process of completing
the independent task of creating one of the games after teachers viewed the instructional video.
Terminal Objective:
By the end of the first day, teachers will create spelling games which can be used to
teach spelling topics and skills to their respective classes. (procedural– synthesis/creating)
Enabling Objectives:
Cognitive: By the end of day one teachers will:
26
1. Use the curriculum guides assigned to their respective grades, to select three, Grade
appropriate Spelling topics which they need to teach during the term. (factual -
knowledge/remembering)
2. Examine Fry’s List and students’ texts, to create a grade appropriate word list of twenty-
five or thirty-five exemplary words in each category (conceptual –
knowledge/remembering)
Rubric Evaluating the Process of Creating a Spelling Game
This rubric will be used to assess your performance in creating the game.
8-7 6-5 4-3 2-0
a.
Preparation
(pen, pad, Fry’s
list, curriculum
guide, student
text)
Got all the
materials ready
before beginning
the task.
Got four of the
materials ready
before beginning
the task.
Got two of the
materials ready
before beginning
the task.
Got none of the
materials ready
before beginning
the task.
b.
Follow
Instructions
Followed every
instruction
provided to
complete the
task.
Followed 75% of
the instructions
provided to
complete the
task.
Followed 50% of
the instructions
provided to
complete the
task.
Followed 25% of
the instructions
provided to
complete the
task.
c.
Focus
Always stayed on
the task all the
time.
Stayed on the
task 75% of the
time.
Stayed on the
task half of the
time.
Stayed on the
task none of the
time.
27
c. Collaboration
{ignore if b.
was successful)
Sought the
needed
clarification or
assistance from
fellow teachers
or presenters at
least three times.
Sought
clarification or
assistance from
fellow teachers
or presenters at
least twice.
Sought the
needed
clarification or
assistance from
fellow teachers
or presenters at
least once.
Sought the
needed
clarification or
assistance from
fellow teachers
or presenters
none of the time.
Positivity
(listening for
complaining,
signs of
agitation)
Illustrated
patience or
tolerance;
remained
positive
throughout the
entire process.
Illustrated
patience or
tolerance;
(remained
positive)
throughout 75%
of the process.
Illustrated
patience or
tolerance
(remained
positive) at least
50% of the time.
Illustrated
patience or
tolerance
(remained
positive) none of
the time.
Time Completed the
entire task within
the time.
Completed most
of the task
within the time
Completed a
little of the task
within the time
Completed none
the entire task
within the time
Comments:
28
Assessment Day One: end of day
After creating and sharing the game created, teacher will complete the following activity.
Get Ready for Next Term
Task: Use your curriculum guide and other resources to complete the table with information for
next term.
Topic:
Words
1.
2.
3.
4.
5……
11.
2.
4.
6.
8.
10…..
20
Exceptions:
1.
2….
5.
Assessment for Day Two:
1. assuming the role of examinees, examine a group of four words in a sample national
spelling test question to correctly Identify the relationship
2. having identified the relationship or commonality among the four words, identify the
word which is incorrectly spelt in the in each spelling examination question
29
Let’s Sit Teachers’ Common Entrance
Part A: In each set, the words fall under the same spelling category. Write the category in the
box.
heat
beat
seat
wheat
government
responsible
neighbourhood
secretive
appoint
possible
success
affection
category category category
Ans: ea Ans: suffix Ans: Double consonant
Part B: In each word across, one word is incorrectly spelt. Shade its letter on your answer sheet.
9. a) conceal b) complete c) refferee d) athlete
10. a) fracture b) skripture c) furniture d) miniature
11. a) commitee b) immediately c) community d) gradually
12. a) devious b) remeedy c) squeeze d) melody
30
Further assessment activities include this situation which can be used to help teachers
demonstrate fluency in giving and using the instructions to create the tasks.
Application One:
You are a bit pressed for time but you want to create a game for students to use during
the review week before examinations. Your niece who has an ‘advance certificate in basic
computing’ has agreed to help you by doing it as long of you can give him/her clear instructions.
Using your cellular phone recorder, give her a step by step voice instructions for how to create
one of the games for you.
Application Two:
A prospective teacher is doing her practicums in your class. He wants to create a draught
game help students learn their multiplication tables. Guide him through the process.
Contextual Analysis
The Professional Development session on creation of spelling games occurs in a context where
there are discrepancies between the optimal teaching of spelling and the actual teaching of spelling
as revealed in the Needs Assessment.
It was therefore necessary to re-examine the teaching context, in more detail, and from a
different perspective as it relates to the instruction which was going to be taking place during the two
31
day period in order to better formulate real world problems which will help motivate these adult
learners to begin and to complete the tasks during this professional development session.
Analysis of this teaching context, will provide qualitative data which can assist is formulating
authentic scenarios (Tessmer & Richey, 1997) for participants to respond to during the session. This
analysis of orienting, instructional and transfer contexts (Tessmer & Richey, 1997) helped reveal the
factors in this institution which will be conducive and unconducive, facilitate and non-facilitating of
the instruction and of consequent performance expected of participants. This is what facilitated the
actual plan for the professional development sessions and ensured that the instruction using
technology and first hand experiences, guided the environment in which it was to be done. Results
from the rating scale and an online survey are indicated in Appendix C and are summarized below.
Instructional decisions
Organization. The decision has been made that all teachers will participate as there is a
designated day nationwide for professional development. Teachers of language arts are not the only
ones to teach it as spelling correctly is a skill that must be done across the board. Teachers of other
subject areas are frequently being instructed to integrate language arts into their areas as theirs is
usually integrated into Language Arts. This will provide another avenue for the transfer. Some of the
skills which will be learnt if done in an engaging manner will facilitate application in other subject
areas.
Designer’s Decision. Teachers of other subject areas are the ones at whom most of the pre-
instructional strategies will be focused as they do not see the need for the session in their work.
32
Applicability of the performance in other areas will also be addressed. Preparing teachers for the
session by emailing the graphs of performance will cater to their need to see, as adult learners, the
relevance and practicality (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015) of their impending learning and
performance.
During instruction, although there will be lecture, teachers will role play, will be actively
involved in creating games to suit their scenarios. Teams will be used to help reduce the perceived
stress of creating the games. The laboratory technician will be used for assistance. Teachers will also
print and present their games critiquing.
Instructional Strategies
Lessons utilizing Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction, will be used. These will incorporate the
use of comparative advance organizers exemplified in PowerPoint slide 11 of Appendix D. Such
advance organizers allow for the integration of new ideas into existing ideas while discriminating
between those two sets of concepts to prevent the confusion which may be caused by their similarities
(Siddiqui, 2008). Thus, teachers will be comparing the games approach to the actuals in terms of
current teaching approaches.
This lesson will use technology integration methods, role play, discussion and peer assessment
and will allow full engagement so that teachers. Having experienced the benefits of the strategies
used in this Professional Development session, teachers should be encouraged and motivated to do
the same in their classrooms.
33
Lesson Title: Create Snakes and Ladders Spelling Game
Lesson Description:
In this lesson teachers will get a brief overview of the instructional situation,
discuss the purpose for the session and create the first game.
Activation Principle:
A short PowerPoint presentation applying Merrill’s First Principles of
instruction will be used for this professional development session. See Appendix
D for sample slides.
To activate prior knowledge of spelling errors, spelling needs and
spelling topics teachers will observe slides such as slides 2 to 4. In spotting or
not spotting errors teachers will discuss students’ difficulties and even the
difficulty in spotting errors in the spelling examination. Slides 5-7 will also be
used to help teachers conceptualize the problem and the need to address it.
Following this, teachers will engage in a spelling game in the yard – relay
competition in which teachers will race to spell words. Others will play spelling
hopscotch. When they return using the prompt on the slide they will discuss their
impressions of the game, its benefits, disadvantages and how it is different from
their normal class or can enhance spelling instruction. Other teachers will be
encouraged to determine the possible use in other subject areas as well. The
Causal Diagram will then be used to help motivate teachers to actively engage in
the session. As per the contextual analysis (Appendix C) teachers have a tendency
34
to go scribbling during presentations. However, with a causal diagram teachers
can identify the impact on this session on the future performance of their
students.
Slide 10 will illustrate the analogy for discussion. This is explained in the
next section.
Demonstration Principle:
Slide 11 contains a graphic comparative advance organizer in the form of a Venn
diagram comparing the use of word lists to the use of games. Teachers then
examine this teachers will examine slide 12, a picture of the kind of game they
will be creating. They will discuss similarities and difference between the spelling
game and the ordinary snakes and ladders game. This is followed by slide 13, a
short video clip of how to create the game. These steps are repeated for other
games the next day. Teachers are encouraged to continue at home.
Application Principle:
Then teachers will try it themselves. The laboratory technician will assist in
ensuring that technical glitches are dealt with or that teachers follow the
directions closely.
Integration:
Teachers will then discuss how they can apply what is learnt to spelling in other
subject areas or developing skills in other subject areas.
35
Conclusion:
Teachers will review using a shared narration in response to the scenario in the
assessment.
Assessment:
Rubrics, and the other activities such as the one illustrated in the section on
Assessment will serve as assessment for this lesson.
Materials:
Projector, PowerPoint presentation, folder containing files needed including
templates on the server,
Strategies: Discussion, use of media, game, tutorials
Analogies
Teacher need to understand that instruction needs to be varied and that creating a game
is not as challenging to create or use as it seems.
Thus, three analogies to help reduce complexities and motivate teachers are as follows.
The first will be used as prior to instruction of objectives and the third, prior to creating the second
and third games. The second analogy can be used as a culminating reflection before assessment.
36
First Analogy
Spelling Instruction is like an Aquafresh Triple Action Toothpaste. Each approach is a special
flavour in the triple action band which addresses a spelling need. Put together, the strategies help
reduce or reverse the toothache of spelling problems. If not used the tooth decay widens faster.
The spelling list addresses some needs, phonics drill another. Add games it addresses motivation,
interest. Put all together we help reduce the problem. See slide 10 In Appendix D.
Second Analogy (same topic)
Spelling Instruction is like a broth (bouillon). There are some required and optional
ingredients. In a like manner spelling instruction must include phonics instruction, site words and
subject specific words. The optional ingredients are the approaches like the use of modified board
games which will help enhance and enliven the instruction to engender motivation and learning.
Third Analogy (different topic)
Creating a Spelling Board Game is like making a broth (bouillon). There are some basic
ingredients. In a like manner the board game has some basic parts. However without the seasoning
and the extra spices the broth would be bland. These extras are what motivate consumers to go
for seconds or even to keep consuming. With a snakes and Ladders selling game, there are rows
and columns. The words go on the page too. Without the modifications of snakes, board colour,
ladders and other graphics properly placed to balance challenge and interest, children will not be
motivate to continue playing.
37
Fig. 4. Causal Diagram
38
Reflection
The systematic approach to instructional design is a meticulous but wholesome design
process, which if done properly should help design instruction which is effective and efficient.
Using this approach through models such as the Dick and Carey or the Morrison, Ross and Kemp
requires the addressing of a need, rather than teaching with the curriculum guide as the only
guiding point. This then ensures that learners are motivated because they can identify the need
for the instruction.
Initially, I found it tasking and intimidating to submit to the team for approval before
uploading an improved copy. However, this allowed me to appreciate the importance of multiple
perspectives and interpretation. Working as a team helps to identify gaps in explanation and
presentation and thus improve and strengthen the design of the instruction. Peer review, even
before it was formally done in the course helped me to broaden feedback opportunities.
Additionally, the entire process has enabled me to focus on continuous improvement of the design
and to “think more systematically and logically about the objectives relevant to” (Information
Resources Management Association, 2011, p. 1273) the needs of the teachers and by extension
the students. Therefore, attempts were made to align strategies and assessments as closely as
possible to those needs.
Clearly, this helps me understand why there are so many names listed in the curriculum
guide or each subject. Instructional design cannot and should not be individualistic but rather
collectivistic. It should not include just what one person thinks is best but rather the perspectives
of everyone in what is best for the facilitators and the ones being instructed.
39
References
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41
Appendix A
Questionnaire for Task Inventory
Instruction: Please describe your use of the strategies for teaching and developing spelling skills
enlisted here.
Frequency
In your weekly Spelling lessons, how often do you engage in the following?
Weekly Monthly Termly Yearly
1. Use of phonemic instruction ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
2. Use of phonetic instruction ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
3. Use of word study lists ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
4. Diagnostic Spelling tests ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
5. Summative Spelling tests ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
6. Teaching students strategies for learning to spell words
⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
7. Direct Spelling instruction ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
8. Teaching spelling of subject specific words ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
9. Teaching spelling of high frequency words ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
10. Teaching spelling of basic sight words ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
11. Teaching spelling rules ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
12. Integrating Spelling into other subject areas ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
13. Teaching Spelling test taking strategies ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
Second part
42
Degree
In implementing your weekly Spelling lessons, how skilled are you in applying the following?
Expert Above Average
Average Unskilled
1. Use of phonemic instruction ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
2. Use of phonetic instruction ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
3. Use of word study lists ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
4. Diagnostic Spelling tests ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
5. Summative Spelling tests ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
6. Teaching students strategies for learning to spell words
⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
7. Direct Spelling instruction ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
8. Teaching spelling of subject specific words ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
9. Teaching spelling of high frequency words ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
10. Teaching spelling of basic sight words ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
11. Teaching spelling rules ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
12. Integrating Spelling into other subject areas ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
13. Teaching Spelling test taking strategies ⃝ ⃝ ⃝ ⃝
Prioritize three (3) of the above mentioned topics which you think should be covered in our next
professional development.
1. … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
2. … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
3. … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
43
Appendix B
Task Selection Worksheet
Criteria for
Task Selection Worksheet
Criticality
Un
iversal
ity
Frequ
enc
y
Stand
ardi
zation
Difficu
lty
Total
Notes
TASKS /40 /10 /10 /10 /30 /100
1. Use of phonemic instruction 40 10 5 9 30 94 Cannot be done due to level of difficulty.
2. Use of phonetic instruction 40 10 5 9 30 94
3. Use of word study lists 40 8 8 5 20 81
4. Diagnostic Spelling tests 40 2 2 2 10 56
5. Summative Spelling tests 40 9 8 8 10 75
6. Teaching students strategies for learning
to spell words 40 2 2 8 20 72
7. Direct Spelling instruction 40 5 5 10 24 84
8. Teaching spelling of subject specific words 30 4 4 4 30 72
9. Teaching spelling of high frequency words 40 4 4 4 30 82
10. Teaching spelling of basic sight words 35 4 5 4 10 58
11. Teaching spelling rules 40 4 4 10 30 88
12. Integrating Spelling into other subject areas 30 2 2 4 24 62
13. Teaching Spelling test taking strategies 30 3 3 8 30 74
Key for prioritization of optimals to be addressed in the professional development workshop.
56 - 70 mildly important
71 - 85 very important
85 - 100 critical
44
Appendix C
Contextual Analysis Worksheet
Directions: Identify relevant factors in categories (only where and when appropriate) and indicate the
effect they will have by circling appropriate number.
- 2 greatly impedes -1 slightly impedes
+2 greatly facilitates +1 slightly facilitates
Orienting Context
Learner Factors – which influence instruction
-2 -1 +1 +2
Participants’ entering characteristics
a. Teachers are aware of the effects of students’ poor spelling skills. -2 -1 +1 +2
b. Teachers know the importance of Spelling Skills. -2 -1 +1 +2
Participants’ goals
a. Based on the results of the rating scale, teachers generally want to
broaden their spelling instruction strategies.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. Teachers want to improve their students’ spelling performance. -2 -1 +1 +2
Participants’ Perceived utility
a. Language teachers see this as an avenue to broaden their Spelling
instruction strategies and to differently engage learners.
-2 -1 +1 +2
45
b. Other subject area teachers do not perceive this valuable to them
since they do not teach spelling.
-2 -1 +1 +2
Participants perceived accountability
a. Teachers teaching national examination grades, know that learning
this will be reflected in national examination results which are
analyzed and compared to internal examination grades.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. Teachers not teaching national examination grades are less
accountable since they get less scrutiny during examination results
analysis.
-2 -1 +1 +2
c. Other subject are teachers feel little accountability for not learning
this.
-2 -1 +1 +2
Immediate Environment Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. School has a computer lab with enough computers for each
participant.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. School has a projector for presentation. -2 -1 +1 +2
c. School has printing faculties and materials connected directly
accessible from the laboratory.
-2 -1 +1 +2
d. All devices school or personal can be connected on the internet. -2 -1 +1 +2
e. Participants have access to school’s email and their own. -2 -1 +1 +2
46
Organizational Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. There are no free periods or times when teachers meet to develop
instructional materials.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. Professional Development sessions are mandatory for all. -2 -1 +1 +2
Instructional Context
Learner Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. Teachers are generally passive during meetings and professional
development sessions.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. If the session is not engaging or covers familiar concepts, teachers
doodle.
-2 -1 +1 +2
c. Most teachers already know how to use the computer to create
tables.
-2 -1 +1 +2
d. Language teachers and some others already know the topics they
will have to teach.
-2 -1 +1 +2
e. Except for the Music teacher, everyone has had training in the
teaching of Spelling from 7 – 30 years ago.
-2 -1 +1 +2
f. Most teachers can insert pictures from the internet into a
document.
-2 -1 +1 +2
g. There are varying degrees of skill in manipulating graphics to fit a
space.
-2 -1 +1 +2
h. Before the session, teachers re-examine the internal and external
spelling performance data emailed to them.
-2 -1 +1 +2
47
i. Teachers can procure the list of needed materials for the
programme.
-2 -1 +1 +2
j. Teachers can continue to practise skills acquired at home. -2 -1 +1 +2
k. Learners are the ones deciding on which topics to work on. -2 -1 +1 +2
Immediate Environment Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. Teachers have the curriculum guides and students text books to use. -2 -1 +1 +2
b. Participants can assist each other while working on tasks. -2 -1 +1 +2
c. Sample games are provided. -2 -1 +1 +2
d. Teachers role play as children and use sample games to enhance
practise spelling.
-2 -1 +1 +2
e. Teachers receive immediate feedback during the process. -2 -1 +1 +2
Organizational Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. There are two teachers per grade to facilitate team work. -2 -1 +1 +2
b. School has a laboratory technician who can assist with instruction. -2 -1 +1 +2
48
Transfer Context
Learner Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. Teachers have a tendency not to implement what is learnt at
workshops.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. School has a laboratory assist who can continue to provide assistance. -2 -1 +1 +2
c. Teachers can use their classes’ Computer Assisted Learning Session to
practise.
-2 -1 +1 +2
d. Teachers can use the templates to create games for other subject
areas or topics.
-2 -1 +1 +2
Immediate Environment Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. All equipment remains at school for further use and practice. -2 -1 +1 +2
b. Equipment can only be used while principal is on the school compound. -2 -1 +1 +2
Organizational Factors
-2 -1 +1 +2
a. Senior teachers and departments heads can observe application of
skills acquired.
-2 -1 +1 +2
b. In subject teacher meeting teachers can create further materials. -2 -1 +1 +2
49
Appendix D
PowerPoint Presentation for Day One
(with materials for Day Two)
1 2
3 4
50
5 6
7 8
9 10
51
11 12
13 14
15 16
52
17 18
19 20
21 22
