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Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
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YEXNR-11932; No. of pages: 14; 4C:
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Experimental Neurology
j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate /yexnr
Regular Article
Conditional genetic deletion of PTEN after a spinal cord injury enhancesregenerative growth of CST axons and motor function recovery in mice
OFCamelia A. Danilov a, Oswald Steward a,b,c,d,⁎
a Reeve–Irvine Research Center, University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA 92697, USAb Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA 92697, USAc Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA 92697, USAd Department of Neurosurgery, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
⁎ Corresponding author at: Reeve–Irvine Research CIrvine, 1105 Gillespie Neuroscience Research Facility,Fax: +1 949 824 2625.
E-mail address: [email protected] (O. Steward).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.02.0120014-4886/© 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Stewaof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp
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Article history:Received 13 November 2014Revised 2 February 2015Accepted 6 February 2015Available online xxxx
Keywords:Spinal cord injuryMouseAxonal growthAxon regenerationCorticospinal tractCSTSproutingMotor systemRecovery of functionCre-mediated recombination
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Previous studies indicate that conditional genetic deletion of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) in neona-talmice enhances the ability of axons to regenerate following spinal cord injury (SCI) in adults. Here, we assessedwhether deleting PTEN in adult neurons post-SCI is also effective, and whether enhanced regenerative growth isaccompanied by enhanced recovery of voluntarymotor function. PTENloxP/loxPmice receivedmoderate contusioninjuries at cervical level 5 (C5). One group received unilateral injections of adeno-associated virus expressing CRE(AAV-CRE) into the sensorimotor cortex; controls received a vector expressing green fluorescent protein (AAV-GFP) or injuries only (no vector injections). Forelimb function was tested for 14 weeks post-SCI using a gripstrength meter (GSM) and a hanging task. The corticospinal tract (CST) was traced by injecting mini-ruby BDAinto the sensorimotor cortex. Forelimb gripping ability was severely impaired immediately post-SCI but recov-ered slowly over time. The extent of recovery was significantly greater in PTEN-deleted mice in comparison toeither the AAV-GFP group or the injury only group. BDA tract tracing revealed significantly higher numbers ofBDA-labeled axons in caudal segments in the PTEN-deleted group compared to control groups. In addition, inthe PTEN-deleted group, there were exuberant collaterals extending from the main tract rostral to the lesionand into and around the scar tissue at the injury site. These results indicate that PTENdeletion in adultmice short-ly post-SCI can enhance regenerative growth of CST axons and forelimb motor function recovery.
© 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.
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Axon regeneration in the mature mammalian brain and spinal cordis extremely limited after injury. Consequently, spinal cord injury causespersistent paralysis due to disconnection of descending axons fromtheir normal targets. Presumably, recovery would be improved if axonregeneration could be achieved and if regenerating axons re-established functional synapses below the injury level.
The extent of axon regeneration depends on the intrinsic capacity ofmature neurons to re-grow axons (Goldberg, 2004; Sun and He, 2010)and extrinsic inhibitors in myelin and the glial scar (Tang et al., 2003;Selzer, 2003;Wanner et al., 2008; Cafferty et al., 2010). Intrinsic growthcapabilities of neurons are regulated by gene transcription, which inturn controls the neuron's protein synthesis critical for axon regenera-tion. Intrinsic factors that have been shown to affect axon growth arethe components of signaling pathways and include axon growth en-hancers such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) (Cai et al.,
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enter, University of California,Irvine, CA 92697-4265, USA.
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2001; Rodger et al., 2005), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)(Verma et al., 2005) and repressors such as phosphatase and tensinhomolog (PTEN), Kruppel-like transcription factors (KLFs) (Dang et al.,2000; Moore et al., 2011) and suppressor of cytokine signaling 3(SOCS3) (Smith et al., 2009; Hellstrom et al., 2011).
Of the intrinsic repressors, PTEN has emerged as a promising targetfor manipulations to enable axon regeneration after injury. PTEN is anegative regulator of the PI3K/AKT–mTOR pathway, which plays animportant role in controlling cell growth (Sabatini, 2006; Ma andBlenis, 2009). PTEN converts PtIns(3)P to PtIns(2)P reversing thereaction catalyzed by phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). Inactivation ofPTEN results in the accumulation of PtIns(3)P, activating AKT andmTOR, which is a central regulator of cap-dependent protein synthesisand cell growth.
Using an optic nerve crush model, Park et al. (2008) demonstratedthat conditional genetic deletion of PTEN in the retina promoted thesurvival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells and enabled robustregeneration of injured optic nerve axons. Subsequent studies revealedthat conditional deletion of PTEN in the sensorimotor cortex of develop-ing mice (at day 1 postnatal) enabled adult corticospinal tract (CST)axons to regenerate following spinal cord injuries at the thoracic level(Liu et al., 2010). An unresolved question, however, was whether this
letion of PTEN after a spinal cord injury enhances regenerative growthi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.02.012
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regeneration was sufficient to support recovery of motor function andwhether regeneration could be achieved by deleting PTEN in matureneurons after an injury.
Accordingly, here we assess whether deletion of PTEN after a spinalcord injury in adult mice enables CST regeneration and enhancesrecovery of motor function. We use an injury model and functionalassessments that are thought to measure functions related to the CST,specifically a moderate contusion injury at C5 and assessments ofvoluntary forelimb motor function (Aguilar and Steward, 2010). TheC5 contusion model is of high relevance for human SCI, because abouthalf of the spinal cord injuries in people are at the cervical level, andrecovery of upper extremity function is a high priority for individualswith such injuries (Anderson et al., 2009).
Materials and methods
Experimental animals
Experimental animals were adult female mice (PTENloxP/loxP strainC;129S4-Ptentm1Hwu/J) (http://jaxmice.jax.org/strain/004597.html) thatwere between 5 and 7 weeks of age (20–25 g) at the beginning of theexperiment. Female mice were used because their bladders are easierto manually express following SCI, leading to fewer complications dueto urinary tract infections. All procedures involving animals wereapproved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee(IACUC) of the University of California, Irvine.
Thirty eight mice received spinal cord injuries on two consecutivedays (13 mice on the first day and 25 mice on the second day). Micefrom each cage were assigned to 3 groups by a technician who wasnot involved in either surgeries or AAV-CRE/GFP injections. Groupswere: 1) injury only, 2) vector control (AAV-GFP) and 3) PTEN-deleted (AAV-CRE) groups. Assignment to groups was not explicitlyrandom; assignment to groups was made at the time the mice wereremoved from the cage maintaining approximately equal numbersbetween groups. The individuals performing the spinal cord injurysurgery were blind to group assignment. At the end of the surgery,mice were assigned a code by the technician so that testing could bedone blind.
A total of 3 out of 13mice operated on thefirst day of surgery died orwere euthanized. Two of those were a result of anesthesia complica-tions during SCI surgery and one was euthanized due to excessiveweight loss. A total of 4 out of 25 mice operated on the second day ofsurgery died or were euthanized, 3 of which were a result of anesthesiacomplications during SCI surgery and one was euthanized due toexcessive weight loss. Behavior data were included in the analyses formice that survived until the tracer injection surgeries (see below).Thus, after attrition due to all causes, total animal numbers at the endof all experiments were: injury only group n = 10, vector controlgroup n = 10 and PTEN-deleted group n = 11 (Table 1).
Spinal cord surgical procedures
The spinal cord injury model was previously described by (Aguilarand Steward, 2010). Mice were anesthetized by intraperitoneal injec-tion of ketamine and xylazine (100 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg,respectively). When supplemental anesthesia was required, one-fourth of the original dose was given. Hair overlying the cervicalvertebrae was removed by shaving, the skin was incised and the
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Table 1Final number of mice per group in each experiment.
Group Injury only AAV-GFP AAV-CRE Total
Exp #1 3 3 4 10Exp #2 7 7 7 21Total 10 10 11 31
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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connective and muscle tissue was dissected to expose the vertebralcolumn from C4 to C6. A dorsal laminectomy was performed on C5.The spinal column was clamped at C4 and C6 using forceps attachedto the Infinite Horizon (IH) device platform. The impacting tip (1 mmdiameter) was positioned at the middle of the dorsal spinal cord at C5to generate the bilateral contusion. Impact force was 80 kilodynes(kdyn) to produce a moderate contusion. After creating the lesion, themuscle was sutured with 5–0 chromic gut and the skin was closedwith 7-mmwound clips.
AAV-CRE injections
About 20 min following the contusion injury, mice weretransferred to a stereotaxic device, the scalp was shaved and drillholes were placed over the sensorimotor cortex. Mice receivedunilateral intra-cortical injections of either AAV-CRE to delete PTENor the control vector AAV-GFP 6.8 × 1010 genome copies. Injectionswere made at 4 sites (0.4 μl/site) in the right sensorimotor cortexat 1.0 mm lateral, 0.5 mm deep to the cortical surface and +0.5,−0.2, −0.5, and −1 mm with respect to the bregma. The totaltime required to complete the intra-cortical injections was approxi-mately 20 min. Following completion of the injections, the scalp wasclosed with 4–0 silk suture.
Post-operative care
Following the surgeries, the mice were immediately placed on awater-circulating jacketed heating pad at 37 °C. After recovering fromthe anesthetic, mice were housed 4–5 per cage on Alpha-Dri bedding.For 5–7 days post-injury, mice received lactate Ringer solution (1 ml/20 g, sub-cutaneously) for hydration, Buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg) foranalgesia, and Baytril (2.5 mg/kg, sub-cutaneously) for prophylactictreatment against urinary tract infections. Animals were monitoredtwice daily for general health, coat quality (indicative of normal groomingactivity) and mobility within the cage. Injured mice typically resumethese activities within a few days following injury. Bladders weremanually expressed twice/day for the first week and body weight wasmeasured once per week for the remainder of the experiment. Dietsupplements (fruit loop cereal) and regular food pellets were placed onthe floor of the cage to provide easy access. Nutri-cal (1ml, Henry Schein,Melville, NY) was administered orally for the first week post-injury.
Behavioral testing
A 3week handling and pre-training procedure was used prior to SCI,in order to calm the mice and enhance reliability when testing, duringwhich the animals were trained and baselines were collected for alltasks. Behavioral testing was conducted for 14 weeks post-injury asdescribed below for the individual tasks. Testing was done blind withrespect to treatment groups except that scalp scarring made it possibleto identify mice that received intra-cortical injections but not whichvector was injected.
Grip strength meter (GSM) task
Reliable assessment of gripping ability requires that animals areaccustomed to being held. Therefore, the first week was limited tohandling each animal for 5 min each day. In week 2, mice weretrained on the grip strength meter (GSM) task using a devicedesigned by TSE-Systems and distributed by SciPro, Inc. For testing,mice are held by the tail next to the bar so that they reach out togrip the bar. To test the grip strength of one paw, the oppositeforepaw was gently taped with non-stick surgery tape (Micropore™surgical tape from 3M, catalog nr. 1530-0) so that it could not be usedfor gripping. The dimension of the working piece of tape wasapproximately 0.5 × 0.75 in. to prevent the tape from hindering
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the pull by the opposite forepaw. In the two-paw version, mice areallowed to grip with both paws simultaneously. Once grip wasestablished, mice are gently pulled away until they released theirgrip.
The grip strength of each paw was tested three times per week(10 trials per session). The mice were held facing the bar so that theydid not reach at an angle during the trials. Bar height was set as3.5 mm so that as mice were gently pulled away, they remainsuspended just above the surface, but did not drop extensively whenthey released the bar.
Each testing session assessed each forepaw separately or both pawstogether until 4 successful grips were recorded for a maximum of15 trials per session. A positive grip was scored when the digitsextended and then flexed upon contacting the bar followed by the digitsbeing extended as themouse released the bar and landedon the platform.A score of zero was given when a clenched/closed forepaw engaged thebar or if the forepaw landed on the platform in a clenched/closed position.When gripping by both forepaws was assessed, a score of zero was givenif grip was only established by only one forepaw.
In each session, if the mouse did not grip within the first 10 trialsthen themousewas given 0 for the four data points/session/forepaw(s).If themouse gripped successfully during the first 10 trials, then the test-ing continued until 4 successful trialswere executed or themaximumof15 trials was reached. Mice were tested 3 times prior to injury and 2times per week for 14 weeks post-injury.
Hanging task
To assess the ability of the forepaws to grasp and maintain grip, weassessed the ability of mice to hang from a suspendedmetal rod as previ-ously described (Diener and Bregman, 1998)with fewmodifications. Fol-lowing handling as described above mice were trained for 2 days beforecollecting the baselines. For testing, the GSM base was placed verticallyagainst a wall. The grip strength bar was raised to its maximal height sothe mice could not lean against the base. For testing, hindpaws weretaped to prevent them from being used for climbing atop of the metalbar. We recorded how long the mice were able to hang before fallingonto a pad about 10 in. below. Three trials were collected per sessionper mouse. If the mouse tried to use any parts of the body to hold ontothe bar, the mouse's tail was gently pulled so that the mouse only usedits forepaws to grasp the bar. Testing was performed two times prior toinjury and every two weeks for 14 weeks post-injury.
Mini-ruby BDA tracing of CST projections
In order to trace the corticospinal tract, tracer injections were madeinto the right sensorimotor cortex at 15 weeks post-injury using thesame coordinates as for AAV-CRE and AAV-GFP injections. For this pur-pose, mice were anesthetized using 2.5% isoflurane and positioned in astereotaxic device, the fur was removed by shaving, the scalp was incisedand the skull overlying the sensorimotor cortex was carefully removedwith a dental drill. Mini-ruby BDA (dextran, tetramethylrhodamine, andbiotin:molecularweight 10,000; 10% in dH2O (Molecular Probes, Eugene,OR))was injected into a total of 4 sites (0.4 μl/site over a 3–5min time pe-riod) using a 10 μl Hamilton microsyringe tipped with a pulled glass mi-cropipette. After the injections were completed, the skin overlying theskull was sutured with 4–0 silk, and mice were placed on soft beddingon awater-jacketedwarmingpad at 37 °C for 4 h after surgery. Behavioraltests were not performed during the time between BDA injections andperfusion.
Tissue preparation
At the end of the study, mice were killed humanly with an overdoseof Euthasol (0.1 ml/30 g) and perfused transcardially with 4% parafor-maldehyde (PFA) in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer (Na2HPO4),
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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pH = 7.4. Spinal cords and brains were dissected and post-fixed in 4%PFA overnight, then immersed in 27% sucrose for cryoprotectionovernight, frozen in TissueTek OCT (VWR International) and stored at−80 °C until they were sectioned with a cryostat.
Three tissue blocks were prepared from the spinal cords: 1) a tissueblock extending from ~4 mm above to 4 mm below the lesion andcontaining the injury site; 2) the portion of the spinal cord rostral tothe tissue block containing the lesion; and 3) the portion of the spinalcord caudal to the tissue block containing the lesion, extending to thecaudal most segment. The main block containing the lesion wassectioned at 20 μm in the horizontal plane, and the rostral end of thespinal cord above the injury block and the caudal end below the injurywere sectioned transversely. The brains were sectioned at 20 μm in thecoronal plane and sections were collected in TBS.
Immunostaining to assess PTEN deletion
To address the PTEN deletion following AAV-CRE injection,free-floating coronal sections through the brain were incubated in 1%hydrogen peroxide for 15min. After blocking in Tyramide Signal Ampli-fication (TSA) blocking buffer (0.5 g blocking reagent/40 ml TBS,PerkinElmer, FP1012) sections were incubated in primary antibody atRT overnight (rabbit anti-PTEN, Cell Signaling 9188S, 1:250). Sectionswere washed in TBS and incubated with secondary antibody (donkeyanti-rabbit HRP, Jackson Immunolabs 711-065-152, 1:250) in TSAblocking buffer for 2 h at RT. Following a wash in TBS, sections werestained with 3-3′ diaminobenzidine (DAB, Vector Labs SK-4100) for5 min, rinsed in TBS, mounted on gelatin subbed slides in weakmounting solution (0.5% gelatin and 0.05% chromiumpotassium sulfate,Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), air-dried and cover-slipped with DPXmounting medium.
BDA and GFAP immunostaining
The block of the spinal cord containing the lesion was frozen in OCTand sectioned in the horizontal plane at 20 μm thickness, collectingevery section, and maintaining serial order during histologicalprocessing. All the sections from the block containing the lesion sitewere co-stained for BDA and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). BDAstaining was used to confirm interruption of CST axons due to thecontusion injury and to analyze spared and regenerating axons. GFAPimmunostaining was used for lesion identification.
Free-floating sections were collected in PBS. After blocking in 5% nor-mal goat serum in PBS, sections were incubated in primary antibody at4 °C overnight (rabbit anti-GFAP Dako ZO334, 1:1000) in PBS with 5%normal goat serum. The following day, sections were washed in PBSand incubated with the fluorescent secondary antibody (goat anti-rabbitAlexa Fluor 488,Molecular Probes A-11034, 1:250) in PBSwith 5%normalgoat serum for 2 h at room temperature. Following GFAP immunohisto-chemistry, the sections were processed for BDA amplification signalusing the TSA (PerkinElmer, NEL704A001KT) kit. After 15 min wash inPBS and 0.1% TritonX-100 (PBST), sectionswere incubated in horseradishperoxidase (HRP) conjugated streptavidin (PerkinElmer, NEL750001EA,1:200) in PBST for 2 h at room temperature. The sections were washedthree times in PBS and incubated in Cyanine 3 Tyramide reagent(PerkinElmer, FP 1046, 1:100) in amplification diluent (PerkinElmer,FP1052) for 15 min at room temperature. After being rinsed twice inPBS, sections were mounted on gelatin-subbed slides, air-dried andcover-slipped with Vectashield® mounting medium.
Cross sections from the blocks rostral and caudal to the injury werewashed twice in 1× PBS and 0.1% Triton X-100 and incubated overnightat 4 °C with avidin and biotinylated horseradish peroxidase (VectastainABC Kit, Vector Labs, Burlingame, CA). The next day, sections werewashed twice in PBS, and then reacted with diaminobenzidine tetrahy-drochloride with nickel (DAB-N, Vector Labs, SK-4100) for 25 min atroom temperature, rinsed in PBS andmounted onto gelatin coated slides,
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air-dried, dehydrated and coverslipped with DPX mounting media(Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO).
Assessment of regenerative growth of corticospinal tract (CST) axons
Total BDA-labeled axon countsCross-sections from the rostral-most block were used to deter-
mine the extent of CST labeling above the lesion and the number ofBDA-labeled axon arbors that enter the gray matter of the cervicalspinal cord above the lesion. Images were captured on an OlympusAX-80 microscope (Olympus Provis) using MagnaFire SP 21Bsoftware (Optronics Software, Goleta, CA). The density of BDAlabeled axons in the dorsal CST was very high, making it difficult tocount all axons. Therefore, to estimate axon numbers in dCST, imageswere taken at 120× initial magnification (a 60× objective magnified2× under oil immersion). The axons were counted using the cellcounter analyzer in ImageJ software. For the quantitative assess-ments the sample group was disclosed at the end of measurements.
Quantification of regenerative growth
To determine the number of BDA-labeled axons that extendedinto and caudal to the lesion, 20 μm horizontal sections through theblock containing the injury were examined. Images were capturedat 10×, andmontages were created and exported to ImageJ software.Perpendicular lines to the dorsal surface were set in themiddle of thelesion (0 mm) and at 0.2 mm intervals through the entire spinal cordcaudal to the lesion (as illustrated in Fig. 1A). BDA-labeled axonscrossing these lines were quantified in three regions through the spi-nal cord: dorsal column, lateral column and graymatter caudal to thelesion. The axon counts were summed for each mouse and averagedfor each group. Data are represented as an index for each categoryfollowing the formulas: dorsal column (Dc) index = number ofBDA labeled axons in the dorsal column / total number of BDA la-beled axons; lateral column (Lc) index = number of BDA labeledaxons in the lateral column / total number of BDA labeled axons;arbor index (AI) = total number of axon arbors in graymatter caudalto the lesion / total number of BDA labeled axons.
Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed using Prism software by one-way ANOVA ortwo-way repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni correction formultiple comparisons. Results were plotted as means plus or minusSEM.
Results
Preoperative performance in the GSM and hanging test
Prior to injury, the average force applied before the mice releasedthe bar of the grip strength meter (GSM) was approximately 45 g forboth right and left paws (Table 2). Average values for the GSM
UFig. 1. Experimental design. The timeline indicates periods
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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remained fairly consistent over testing days once the mice becameaccustomed to the testing procedure. These values are lower thanthe average values in a previous study using similar procedures inwhich the force applied before the mice released the bar wasapproximately 60–70 g (Aguilar et al., 2011). This may be due tothe different genetic background of the mice because the PTENffmice are of mixed genetic background but mainly FVB whereas themice used by Aguilar et al. were C57Bl/6. To test this possibility, thesame testing procedures were used to test a group of mice from ourbreeding colony that are of C57Bl/6 genetic background. The valuesobtained were about 60 g (58.6 ± 1.47 SEM left paw and 56.5 ±1.78 SEM right paw) suggesting that variation in values betweenour experiment and the previous publication reflects differencesbetween strains.
In the hanging task, mice retained their grip on the bar for anaverage of about 60 s before falling; the average hanging time wassimilar between the groups on the last pre-operative testing dayduring which baseline data were collected (Table 3). Preoperativehanging time values were recorded once following two sessions oftraining, so only one preoperative value is available.
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Fig. 2 illustrates the method of tissue preparation and examples oflesion sites in horizontal sections of the spinal cord imaged for GFAP.Most lesions were filled in with a fibrous tissue matrix (23 out of 31)but small cystic cavities were found along with the fibrous matrix in 8mice (Figs. 2B–C). In 5 mice, the lesions were obviously asymmetric,and in one mouse, the lesion was incomplete; data from these micewere excluded from the behavioral analyses and analysis of CST axondistribution. Table 4 summarizes lesion characteristics for each mousein this study.
General health following moderate contusion injuries
For the first few days following the moderate bilateral cervicalcontusion and AAV-CRE or -GFP injections, mice were significantlyimpaired and required attention and care. One day after the injury,mice exhibited limited spontaneous locomotion but they were ableto right themselves and raised their heads to eat and drink. Within2 days mice began moving their body with weight bearing by thehindlimbs but movement was slow and there was a minimal use ofthe forelimbs. Recovery progressed so within 5 days, mice wereable to move around their cage although forepaw use was limited.
To provide a quantitative measure of general health, mice wereweighed just prior to injury and throughout the post-injury survivalperiod. During the first two weeks post-injury mice lost about 2–3%of their pre-injury body weight except in two cases. Mouse #2 fromthe PTEN-deleted group lost 16% body weight but recovered by3 weeks post-injury; mouse #25 from the injury only group lost17% by week 2 and 29% by week 3 and was euthanized.
during which different procedures were carried out.
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t2:1 Table 2t2:2 Pre-injury gripping force (g) values for both left and right forepaws expressed as a mean ± SEM, n = 8–9 per group.
t2:3 Groups Gripping force (left paw) Gripping force (right paw)
t2:4 Days pre-injury Days pre-injury
t2:5 −10 −6 −5 −10 −6 −5
t2:6 Injury only 49.06 ± 1.8 47.91 ± 2.38 48.22 ± 1.4 44.34 ± 2 47.13 ± 2.7 44.6 ± 1.9t2:7 AAV-CRE 48.4 ± 1.86 40.97 ± 1.8 42.78 ± 2.8 39.06 ± 2.3 40.44 ± 2.8 42.58 ± 2.6t2:8 AAV-GFP 43.75 ± 2.5 44 ± 3.82 49.06 ± 4 38.38 ± 2.8 38.91 ± 3.3 42.22 ± 3.6t2:9 Repeated measures ANOVA F = 1.22
p = 0.3136F = 1.7p = 0.2057
5C.A. Danilov, O. Steward / Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
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Assessment of forelimb motor function
Grip strength meterIn considering the results from themice in which PTENwas deleted,
it is important to note that AAV-CRE was injected unilaterally into theright motor cortex. This was done in order to be able to compare recov-ery of the paw normally controlled by the PTEN-deleted cortex (the leftpaw) vs. the contralateral side. Accordingly, data are presented sepa-rately for each paw in Figs. 3A & B.
Griping ability in left and right paws as measured by the GSM wasseverely impaired at 7 and 14 days post-injury in all 3 groups (Figs. 3A& B). In both control groups, grip strength remained low in both pawsuntil about 56 days, when the left paw began to show some recoveryof strength (Fig. 3A). At 35 days post-injury the average grip strengthof the left paw was 6.97 ± 4.65 SEM in the injury only group while inthe vector control group the mice did not grip (0 ± 0 SEM). By56 days post-injury, average grip strength was 10.14 ± 10.14 SEM inthe injury only group and 4.38 ± 4.38 SEM in the AAV-GFP group.There was some additional increase in the average grip strength of theleft paw for the 2 control groups from 77 to 98 days post injury(Fig. 3A). In contrast, the grip strength of the right paw remained lowfor both control groups throughout the post-operative testing period(average of 10 or less, see Fig. 3B). Differences in gripping ability be-tween left and right paws in the control groups indicate asymmetry infunctional loss, which may reflect asymmetry in lesions.
The pattern of the recovery of gripping ability wasmuch different inmice that received AAV-CRE. In particular, the left paw of AAV-CREtreated mice recovered grip strength earlier and reached a higher levelat late post-lesion intervals than either the right paw or either paw ofthe control groups (Fig. 3A). By 21 days post-injury, the average gripstrength of the PTEN-deleted group was 17.41 ± 7.58 SEM whereasthe mice in both control groups did not grip (0 ± 0 SEM in both). At35 days, average grip strength in PTEN-deleted mice was almost halfof the preoperative value (25.68 ± 7.38 SEM) and at 56 days the grip-ping force was 35.68 ± 11.41 SEM. By 84 days, values for the PTEN de-leted group were actually higher than the preoperative baseline(53.85 ± 11.42 SEM) and became significantly different than thosefrom the right paw (p b 0.05) and this persisted until the end of testing(52.06 ± 13.36 SEM). While the increase in gripping recovery with theleft paw in the PTEN-deleted group was substantially higher throughour testing time when compared with control groups, differences
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t3:1 Table 3t3:2 Pre-injury hanging time values (s) in all three groups expressed as at3:3 mean ± SEM, n = 8–9 per group.
t3:4 Groups Hanging time (s)
t3:5 Injury only 62.78 ± 9.48t3:6 AAV-CRE 56.58 ± 6.98t3:7 AAV-GFP 55.04 ± 7.94t3:8 One way ANOVA p = 0.787
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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were not significantly different from the control vector until 98 dayspost-injury (repeated measures ANOVA: F = 2.87; p b 0.05, Fig. 3A).
To better illustrate the differences in recovery patterns betweenpaws, Fig. 4 directly compares data for left vs. right paws in the 3 groups.In the AAV-CRE group, the gripping force of the left pawwas consistent-ly higher than the right paw from 21 days post-injury. Post hoc compar-isons with Bonferroni correction revealed that differences werestatistically significant at 77 and 84 days (repeated measures ANOVA:F = 5.61, p b 0.05, see Fig. 3D). Although the gripping force for the leftpaw in the two control groupswas also slightly higher across the testingperiod suggesting some asymmetry in lesions, these differences werenot statistically significant in either the injury only or vector controlgroup (repeated measures ANOVA: F = 1.91; p = 0.18) or AAV-GFPgroup (F = 1.32; p = 0.27, Figs. 3E & F).
Since gripping forcewith both paws simultaneously is a reflection ofboth left and right paws' gripping ability we next assessed the gripstrength with both paws for all three groups. As observed with individ-ual forepaws, the gripping force with both paws was impaired until77 days, in both vector control (0 ± 0 SEM) and injury only (4.45 ± 0SEM) groups (Fig. 3C). There was slight recovery at about 84 dayspost-injury as observed in left and right paws in both controls. In thePTEN deleted group, there was some recovery of gripping with bothpaws simultaneously at 35 days (10.51 ± 10.51 SEM); gripping forceremained fairly constant up to 77 days (13.19± 13.19 SEM), increasingslightly thereafter until the final testing day when griping force was28±15.72 SEM(repeatedmeasures ANOVA: F=1.15 and p=0.3354).
Hanging abilityMice were not tested for their ability to hang from the bar until
14 days post injury, at which time, hanging ability was impaired tothe same extent in all groups (Fig. 4). Mice failed to grasp with bothpaws leading to falls. Average hanging time increased slightly at28 days post-injury in the injury only group, but then remained stableat longer post-injury intervals. In the AAV-GFP group, average hangingtime remained low until about 56 days post-injury when it increasedslightly and then remained stable for the remainder of post-injury test-ing. In contrast, hanging time increased progressively over time in thePTEN-deleted group and was statistically different from control vectorat 42 and 84 days (p b 0.05). On the final testing day, hanging timesfor control groups were 26.28 ± 7.7 SEM (AAV-GFP) and 28.33 ± 9.37SEM (injury only), vs. 66.5±13.79 SEM for the PTEN-deleted group. Re-peatedmeasures ANOVA revealed an overall difference between groups(F = 3.79; p = 0.0386); post-hoc assessments with Bonferroni correc-tion revealed that on thefinal day of testing, the PTENdeleted groupdif-fered significantly from both control groups (p b 0.01 and p b 0.05respectively).
Documentation of PTEN deletion by immunostaining
In sections through the sensorimotor cortex that were immuno-stained for PTEN, the area of PTEN deletion was evident as a blankarea in which there was no immunostaining (Figs. 5A–C). The area of
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Fig. 2. Representative examples of lesions at the lesion epicenter after an 80 kdyn cervical contusion. A) Tissue block preparation for brains and spinal cords. B–D) Images of GFAP immu-nostained spinal cords with a fibrous filled lesion (B) and mixed fibrous/cystic cavities (C–D). ftm: fibrous tissue matrix; cc: cystic cavity; asterisk represents the lesion site; scale bar:200 μm.
t4:1 Table 4t4:2 Comprehensive description of spinal cord injury conditions and lesion types.
t4:3 Animal # Experimental group Force (kdyn) Type of lesion
t4:4 Exp 1 #2 AAV-CRE 82 Fibrous/asymmetrict4:5 Exp 1 #3 Injury only 85 Fibrous/cystic cavityt4:6 Exp 1 #4 AAV-CRE 84 Fibroust4:7 Exp 1 #6 Injury only 84 Fibroust4:8 Exp 1 #7 AAV-CRE 86 Fibroust4:9 Exp 1 #9 AAV-GFP 80 Fibroust4:10 Exp 1 #12 AAV-GFP 80 Fibroust4:11 Exp 1 #14 AAV-CRE 89 Fibroust4:12 Exp 1 #29 Injury only 81 Fibrous/cystic cavity/incompletet4:13 Exp 1 #5 AAV-GFP 84 Fibrous/asymmetrict4:14 Exp 2 #17 (2B33) AAV-CRE 80 Fibroust4:15 Exp 2 #10 (377B) Injury only 84 Fibroust4:16 Exp 2 #11 (5448) AAV-GFP 85 Fibroust4:17 Exp 2 #22 (4909) AAV-CRE 82 Fibroust4:18 Exp 2 #16 (2A6E) AAV-GFP 80 Fibroust4:19 Exp 2 #15 (6240) Injury only 84 Fibrous/cystic cavity/asymmetrict4:20 Exp 2 #28 (0E08) AAV-CRE 85 Fibroust4:21 Exp 2 #23 (613B) AAV-GFP 81 Fibrous/cystic cavityt4:22 Exp 2 #19 (6041) Injury only 86 Fibrous/cystic cavityt4:23 Exp 2 #32 (5750) AAV-CRE 81 Fibrous/asymmetrict4:24 Exp 2 #30 (360F) AAV-GFP 81 Fibrous/asymmetrict4:25 Exp 2 #21 (1243) Injury only 81 Fibroust4:26 Exp 2 #34 (734A) AAV-CRE 85 Fibrous/cystic cavityt4:27 Exp 2 #33 (7A2B) AAV-GFP 83 Fibroust4:28 Exp 2 #31 (2054) Injury only 87 Fibroust4:29 Exp 2 #37 (7147) AAV-CRE 82 Fibrous/cystic cavityt4:30 Exp 2 #35 (4509) AAV-GFP 83 Fibroust4:31 Exp 2 #36 (2D7F) Injury only 80 Fibroust4:32 Exp 2 #38 (440E) AAV-CRE 84 Fibrous/cystic cavityt4:33 Exp 2 #24 (2A48) Injury only 88 Fibroust4:34 Exp 2 #27 (6962) AAV-GFP 84 Fibrous
6 C.A. Danilov, O. Steward / Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deletion of PTEN after a spinal cord injury enhances regenerative growthof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.02.012
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Fig. 3. Forepaw gripping function as measured by the GSM after C5 contusion injury. A) Comparison of average gripping force by the right forepaw in each group before injury (negativenumbers) and at different times post-injury. B) Comparison of average gripping force by the right forepaw in each group. C) Comparison of average gripping forcewhen both forepaws aretested together. Note enhanced gripping force of the right forepaw in the PTEN deleted group, and similarity of gripping force in the different groupswhenmeasuring the left forepaw. Thegripping force values represent the average of 2 trials per week. Panels D, E and F illustrate a direct comparison between left and right forepaws in the different groups. D) PTEN-deletedgroup: grip strength of the left paw recovered earlier and to a greater extent than the grip strength of the right paw. E) Injury only group: grip strengthwas comparable in both paws untilabout 60 days post-injury. There were no statistically significant differences between the values for the two paws by repeated measures ANOVA (F and p values are shown on the graph).F) AAV-GFP group: grip strength was comparable in both paws until about 70 days post-injury. There were no statistically significant differences between the values for the two paws byrepeated measures ANOVA (F and p values are shown on the graph). Results are presented as a mean ± SEM, n = 8–9 per group. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAfollowed by Bonferroni posttests: *p b 0.05, statistically significantly different from AAV-GFP group (A) and when compared with right paw (D).
7C.A. Danilov, O. Steward / Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
UNPTEN deletion ranged from 100 μm (anterior/posterior) to 1200 μm
(dorsal/ventral). Table 5 documents the area of PTEN for each animalin this study.
Assessment of regenerative growth of CST axons
Our goal was to trace CST projections from cortical motoneurons inwhich PTEN had been deleted. Accordingly, we assessed whether BDAinjections targeted the area of PTEN deletion (Figs. 5E–G) or targetedparts of the cortex in which PTEN expression was maintained. For thispurpose, series of sections were immunostained for PTEN and nearbysections were imaged for mini-ruby BDA fluorescence. Figs. 5I–K illus-trates examples in which mini-ruby BDA fluorescence overlappedwith an area of PTEN deletion. BDA-labeled neurons were evident inmost cases, whereas in one case (Fig. 5E) the BDA labeling was diffuse.
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
Table 6 summarizes the degree of overlap between the mini-ruby BDAinjection sites and area of PTEN deletion in the different cases. In all an-imals therewas good overlap between the BDA injection site and area ofPTEN deletion at the two anterior injection sites 0.5 mm and−0.2 mmanterior/posterior (A/P) with respect to bregma. However in two casesthe cortex was damaged during the surgical procedures so the overlapcould not be assessed. Fig. 5D illustrates a case with a small lesion sur-rounding the needle track with no overlap between BDA and PTENdeletion (Fig. 5L). At the posterior 2 injection sites −0.5 mm and−1 mm A/P, the mini-ruby BDA injection clearly targeted part of thecortex in which PTEN expression was maintained. In two mice, the ex-tent of overlap could not be assessed because of damage to the section.In the cases in which the BDA injection did not overlap the area of PTENdeletion, some of the BDA labeled CST axons in the spinal cord wouldoriginate from cortical motoneurons with preserved PTEN expression.
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Fig. 4. PTEN deletion 20min post-injury enhances grasping ability of PTENloxP/loxPmice. The graph represents the hanging time (s) before and 98 days post injury in all three groups. Notethat the hanging time that reflects the grasping ability remains steady through the study in control groups while in the PTEN deleted group the hanging time increases progressively overtime. The results are presented asmean±SEM,n=8–9 per group. Datawere analyzedusing repeatedmeasures ANOVAwith Bonferroni as post-hoc test.Q1 Values of *p b 0.05 and **p b 0.01were considered statistically significantly different when compared with control groups.
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8 C.A. Danilov, O. Steward / Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
EC
Distribution of BDA-labeled CST axons in the spinal cordThe overall extent of BDA labeling of CST axons in the spinal cord
was first assessed in cross sections taken rostral to the lesion. In 18mice, there were large numbers of BDA-labeled axons in the ventralpart of the dorsal column (the main component of descending CSTaxons) on the side contralateral to the injection. Figs. 6A–C illustratesdifferent cases with heavy labeling. In these and other cases, the labeledaxons in theDCSTwere too numerous to count accurately. In 5mice, theoverall extent of labeling was sparse (an example of a case with sparselabeling is illustrated in Fig. 6D); these mice were not included in theanalyses of CST axon distribution.
BDA labeled CST axons were also found in the dorsal part of the lat-eral column (dorsolateral CST) (Table 7) and a small number of labeledaxons were also seen in the dorsal column ipsilateral to the injection. Inone mouse from the vector control group an unusually large number of
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Fig. 5. PTEN deletion andmini-ruby BDA labeling in brain coronal sections in PTEN-deletedmouinto the right sensorimotor. Note brownPTEN labeledneurons surrounding the area of PTENdelthe mini-ruby-BDA overlapped with an area of PTEN deletion. Note intense BDA labeling in PTEtrack with no overlap between BDA and PTEN deletion. The arrows indicate the PTEN deleted
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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axons were found in the ventral part of the dorsal column ipsilateral tothe injection (the “wrong” side, see Fig. 6A), while in 8 out of 23 micethe average number of BDA-labeled CST axons in the dCST ipsilateralto the cortex of origin ranged between 12 and 43 (Fig. 6C). In the restof mice (14 out of 23) the number of BDA-labeled axons in the dCST ip-silateral to the injection ranged between 0 and 8 (Fig. 6B). There wereno BDA labeled axons tracking along the ventral column ipsilateral tothe injection in the position of the ventral CST in the control groups, al-though some collaterals extended down into the ventral column fromthe gray matter on the side contralateral to the injection as previouslyreported (Steward et al., 2008). In two mice in the PTEN deletedgroup, however, a few BDA labeled axons were seen tracking alongthe ventral column (Table 7).
Next, we examined cross sections from the caudal block (Figs. 6E–H)for the presence of BDA-labeled axons in the dorsal column, which
se. Panels A–C illustrate patterns of PTENdeletion in differentmice after AAV-CRE injectionetion. Panels E–H illustratemini-rubyBDA labeling in the same section. Panels I–K illustrateN deleted neurons. Panels D–L indicate a case with a small lesion surrounding the needleneurons. Scale bar: 250 μm.
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t5:1 Table 5t5:2 Comprehensive description of PTEN-deleted area in sensorimotor cortex.
t5:3 Animal # PTEN-deleted area (μm)
t5:4 Anterior–posterior Dorsal–ventral
t5:5 #4 200–300 800t5:6 #7 100–200 600t5:7 #14 200 1200t5:8 #2B33 200 600t5:9 #734A 100–200 1000t5:10 #4909 100 600t5:11 #7147 200 800t5:12 #440E 100–200 800t5:13 #0E08 100–300 1100
t6:1
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would indicate incomplete destruction of the dorsal CST. In 15 of 23mice, therewere no labeled axons in the dCST indicating that the contu-sion injury destroyed the main component of CST axons in the dCST(Fig. 6G), while in 8 out of 23 mice, there were very few labeled axonsbetween 1 and 5 (Figs. 6E–F). Fig. 6H shows an example of poor BDA la-beling. No BDA labeled axonswere found tracking along the ventral col-umn in the expected position of the ventral CST (Figs. 6E–H).
Next we evaluated the collections of serial horizontal sectionsthrough the lesion block. Fig. 7 shows serial horizontal sections from in-jury only (Figs. 7A–C) and vector control (Figs. 7D–F) groups. In allcases, the main component of BDA-labeled axons in the dorsal CSTwas largely destroyed. BDA labeled axons in the dorsal column termi-nated in retraction balls rostral to the injury, typical for injured axonsin control groups. BDA labeled axons could be seen extending past thelesion in the dorsal part of the lateral column (the dlCST) and in somecases BDA-labeled axon arbors could be seen extending from thedlCST into the gray matter in caudal segments in control groups(Fig. 8). Thus, the BDA labeled axon arbors in caudal segments in thecontrol groups likely originate from the dlCST.
The AAV-driven expression of GFP can be used for orthograde trac-ing of axons. To determine whether GFP labeling could be used totrace CST axons in mice that received AAV-GFP, sections rostral to theinjury were immunostained for GFP. Only a few GFP-positive axonswere detected in the location of the dCST, and no GFP-labeled axon ar-bors were detectable. The lack of GFP-labeling is likely due to the factthat AAV-driven expression decreases over time and would likely beminimal at the long survival times here (data not shown).
In contrast, CST axon distribution was qualitatively different in thePTEN-deleted group (Figs. 7G–I). Abundant collaterals extended fromthe main tract rostral to the lesion, and some extended across the mid-line and into or around the scar tissue at the injury site. BDA-labeledaxons were also present in the ventral gray matter caudal to the lesionin PTEN-deletedmice. BDA labeled axonswere also observed extendingbilaterally caudal to the lesion while others had an abnormal trajectory
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Table 6PTEN/BDA co-localization at different injection sites: 0.5 mm,−1 mm,−0.5 mm and−1mm anterior/posterior (A/P) with respect to bregma.
Animal # Injection site #1 Injection site #2 Injection site #3 Injection site #4
#4 Yes Yes Yes Yes#7 Yes Yes Cortex
damagedNo
#14 Yes Yes Yes Yes#2B33 Yes Yes Yes No#734A Yes Yes Yes Yes#4909 Yes Yes No No#7147 Yes Yes Yes Yes#440E Cortex
damagedYes Cortex
damagedNo
#0E08 Yes Yes Yes Yes
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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with axons located outside their normal topography suggesting regen-erative growth (Fig. 9A). In one mouse with the mixed matrix/cavity,BDA labeled axons extended into the scar, forming a bridge betweentwo parts of the lesion (Fig. 9B).
Quantitative assessments of CST axons
For the quantitative analysis, we quantified the axons extending intoand caudal to the lesion site in the serial horizontal sections. CST axonswere assessed at 0.2 mm intervals through the entire spinal cord caudalto the lesion side in three different regions as follows: dorsal column,lateral column and gray matter (Fig. 10A). To control for differences inthe overall extent of BDA labeling, we counted the total number ofBDA-labeled axons in cross sections from the rostral part above thelesion.
As previously reported (Aguilar et al., 2011) the C5 contusion injurydestroyed almost all CST axons in the dorsal column in all three groupsas revealed by counts of BDA labeled axons in the dorsal column at dif-ferent distances from the injury site (Fig. 9). The counts are expressed asthe dorsal column (Dc) index in which the number of axons in the dor-sal column caudal to the injury is divided by the total number of BDA-labeled axons rostral to the injury. The Dc index was very smallamong groups: about 0.001 at 1 mm, and 0.004 at either 2 or 3 mm dis-tance from the injury side (F = 1.02, p = 0.3884).
As shown in previous studies (Aguilar et al., 2011) the C5 contusioninjury model usually spares the dlCST, and our results confirmed this.Counts of BDA-labeled axons in the dorso-lateral column are expressedas the Lc index (number of axons in the lateral column caudal to the in-jury divided by the total number of BDA-labeled axons rostral to the in-jury). The Lc index was on average 0.02 at the lesion site and 0.02 at1mm, 0.024 at 2mmand 0.017 at 3mmbeyond the lesion site (repeat-ed measures ANOVA: F = 0.24, p = 0.7889) (Fig. 10C).
To quantify axon arbors in the gray matter caudal to the injury,counts were expressed as the arbor index (AI), in which arbor countswere divided by the total number of BDA-labeled axons rostral to the in-jury. The AIwas 0.29 at themiddle site of the lesion (0mm) in the PTENdeleted group compared with 0.014 or 0.029 in the injury only or con-trol vector group, respectively (p b 0.001). In PTEN deleted mice, thenumber of BDA labeled axons was significantly different from controlsat every distance up to 1.4 mm caudal to the lesion (F = 8.46, p =0.0051) and still higher than controls at 2 mm as shown in Fig. 10D.Therewas no statistically significant difference in the AI between exper-imental groups at 3 mm and 4 mm distance from the lesion (repeatedmeasures ANOVA: p N 0.05).
Discussion
Our goals in this study were to determine whether conditional ge-netic deletion of PTEN in mature cortical motoneurons can enable re-generative growth of CST axons after SCI, and whether enhancedregeneration would improve forelimb gripping and grasping functionin a clinically-relevant model (C5 contusion). Our results reveal thatmice that received AAV-CRE injections to delete PTEN 20 min after amoderate contusion at C5 exhibited enhanced gripping and graspingperformance in tasks in which the CST is thought to be critical and en-hanced the regenerative growth of the CST in comparison to controlgroups. This supports the conclusion that it is possible to enhance re-generative growth by deleting PTEN in adult neurons and in a timeframe that is more therapeutically relevant than previous approachesin which PTEN was deleted at P1, long before the time of a spinal cordinjury. In what follows, we discuss these findings in the context of pre-vious studies and consider caveats.
The effect of PTEN gene deletion in enhancing axon regeneration hasbeen described before in different models. In an optic nerve crushmodel, Park et al. (2008) showed that conditional genetic deletion ofPTEN in adult retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is sufficient to initiate the
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Fig. 6. Examples of BDA labeling in cross sections of spinal cord rostral (A–D) and caudal (E–H) to the lesion. Panels A–D illustrate different cases of BDA-labeling in cross sections takenrostral to injury and the representative caudal parts are presented in panels E-H. Different patterns of the BDA labeling in the ventral part of the dCST ipsilateral to the injection site:(A) heavy labeling, (B) 7 axons and (C) 43 axons. Panel (D) shows an example of poor labeling of the dCST. Panels E–G illustrate BDA-labeled axons in the dlCST and gray matter inthe caudal cross sections. The lack of axons in the dorsal column indicates the complete destruction of the main tract of dCST. No BDA-labeled axons were found in the ventral column.Panel H shows the caudal cross sections from a case with a poor labeling (dc = dorsal column and vc = ventral column); scale bar: 100 μm.
10 C.A. Danilov, O. Steward / Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
regenerative program for axon growth. Next, Liu et al. (2010) demon-strated that conditional genetic deletion of PTEN in the sensorimotorcortex at P1 enhanced CST regeneration following two types of spinalcord injuries in adult mice: a dorsal hemisection and a complete crushat thoracic level 8 (T8). Recently Zukor et al. (2013) showed that dele-tion of PTEN in neonatal mice (P0/P1) using shRNA against PTEN(AAV-shPTEN-GFP) also enabled regenerative growth of CST axons
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
following spinal cord injury at T8 in adults. Also, Ohtake et al. (2014)demonstrated that PTEN inactivation using systemic PTEN antagonistpeptide (PAP) treatment after a dorsal hemi-transection injury at T7led to increased density of serotonergic fibers in the caudal spinal cordand enhanced sprouting of CST axons rostral to the lesion. These latterstudies represent another step toward establishing clinical relevanceby showing that the expression of native PTEN can be knocked down
letion of PTEN after a spinal cord injury enhances regenerative growthi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.02.012
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t7:1 Table 7t7:2 The number of BDA-labeled axons in rostral and caudal parts. The numbers represent thet7:3 average of counts per 2–3 sections.
t7:4 Animalt7:5 #
Rostral part Caudal part
t7:6 dCST dlCST Ventralcolumn
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with shRNA or inactivated by systemic PAP treatment to enhance axongrowth potential.
The present study differs in several ways from previous studies, andtakes additional steps toward potential clinical relevance. First, althoughwe used a conditional genetic model for PTEN deletion as did Liu et al.,
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Fig. 7. Regeneration of CST axons after PTEN deletion in PTENf/f mice. Images of 3 serial horizoventral (C, G, K) to the central canal (B, F, H) in injury only (A–C), AAV-GFP (D–F) and AAV-CRAbundant axon arbors were present in AAV-CRE group and few spared axons caudal to the lesioobserved only in PTEN-deleted group (C). Panels (a), (b) and (c) illustrate higher magnificatio
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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the AAV-CRE mediated deletion was accomplished in adult mice at thetime of a spinal cord injury. Second, the injury model used in thisstudy was a moderate cervical contusion at C5 centered on the midlineof the spinal cord that produced bilateral tissue damage and bilateralfunction deficits. We chose this injury model for its human relevance.More than 50% of spinal cord injuries are at the cervical level, impairingboth lower and upper extremities and the most common type of injuryin humans is the contusive type. Moderate C5 contusions resulted inprofound bilateral deficits in forelimb motor function. Consistent withour previous studies (Aguilar and Steward, 2010), there was minimalurine retention even during the early post-injury period. None of themice exhibited autophagia, and only one mouse exhibited excessiveweight loss. General health was acceptable with mice being able tofunction independently within 5 days post-injury.
Measures of forelimbs' gripping and grasping function
The grip strength meter (GSM) yields quantitative and reproduciblemeasures of the flexor strength of the digits, is simple and minimallystressful and allows independent assessment of each forepaw. Assess-ment of each forepaw independently was important because AAV-CREwas injected unilaterally into the right motor cortex, allowing compar-isons of the recovery of the paw controlled by the PTEN-deleted cortexvs. the contralateral side, which provides an internal control. There wasgreater recovery by thepaw controlled by the injected (right) side of thecortex (the left paw). Grip strength in the left paw of the PTEN-deletedgroup increased earlier and recovered to a higher level at late post-lesion intervals. An underlying assumption is that the laterality of con-trol still exists following PTEN deletion and injury. In this regard, onefeature of enhanced CST axon growth is bilateral extension near the in-jury site, which could disrupt the normal laterality of function.
There was also slightly greater spontaneous recovery of the left pawin injury only and vector control groups, although differences between
ntal sections from the spinal cords starting from the dorsal part (A, D, G) to about 80 μmE (G–I) groups. Note: the main component of the dCST was destroyed in all three groups.n were observed in vector control group. Note: BDA labeled axons passing the lesionweren view; scale bar: 500 μm for A to I panels and 200 μm for a–c.
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Fig. 8. Examples of axon arbors extending from the dlCST into the gray matter caudal to lesion in injury only (A) and vector control (B) groups. The arrows indicate the extended axonsfrom the dlCST into the gray matter; scale bar: 100 μm.
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paws were not statistically significant. This could be due to a slightasymmetry in the lesion that might influence the degree of sparing inthedlCST. Previous studies showed that sparedCST axons could contrib-ute to behavioral recovery following injury (Kartje-Tilllotson et al.,1987; Thallmair et al., 1998).
Data from the hanging task also indicated enhanced forepaw grasp-ing ability in PTEN deleted mice, and the recovery was more pro-nounced after 10–12 weeks of testing. We employed the hanging taskbecause it was simple, was quantitative, and produced consistent re-sults over time. Contusion injury impaired hanging ability in all threegroups. In control groups, hanging ability was slightly improved at the28 day testing point, but did not improve further, whereas hanging abil-ity continued to increase in the PTEN deleted group indicating continu-ing recovery.
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Our studies focus on the CST because it is themajor pathway control-ling voluntarymotor function, especially forelimbmotor function. Stud-ies in humans indicate that the CST mediates fine motor control of thedistal arm and hand (Schieber and Rivlis, 2007) and evidence from ex-perimental animals supports this conclusion. Lesions of the pyramidaltract in hamsters lead to deficits in execution of precise manipulationof the digits (Kalil and Schneider, 1975). In rats, damage to the CST inthe brain or spinal cord impairs forelimb motor function during skilledmovements (Whishaw et al., 1998; Whishaw and Metz, 2002;
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Fig. 9. Examples of axon re-growth in 2 different PTEN-deletedmice. Panel A illustrates BDA labexample where BDA labeled axons extended into the scar between two parts of the fibrous/cy
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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OAnderson et al., 2005; Kanagal and Muir, 2008). However, lesions ofthe rubrospinal system also impair forelimb function during skilledmovements (Muir et al., 2007; Whishaw et al., 1992, 1998;Schrimsher and Reier, 1993) suggesting that other descending path-ways could also be important in forelimb recovery.
The GSM and hanging task assess flexor and general forelimbstrength, and there is evidence that at least the GSM depends on the in-tegrity of the sensorimotor cortex in mice (Blanco et al., 2007) and rats(Strong et al., 2009). Nevertheless, it is an open question whether thesefunctions can truly be called “voluntary” in the same sense as the skilledmanipulative tasks that are tested by pellet retrieval (Whishaw et al.,1992, 1998). In this regard, a companion paper reports the enhanced re-covery of forelimb motor function following PTEN deletion and salmonfibrin implantation at the injury site in a task that does involve pellet re-trieval (Lewandowski and Steward, 2014).
Analysis of regenerative growth of CST axons
Analyses of BDA-labeled CST axons revealed that contusion injuriesalmost completely destroyed the main component of the dorsal CST inall groups. However, we found a small number of BDA-labeled axonsin the lateral column in all three groups indicating sparing of thedlCST, which can be a source of sprouting. Histological analysis revealedthat in control groups, there were a few axon arbors in the gray mattercaudal to the lesion. Studies ofmice inwhich themain tract in the dorsalcolumn had been completely transected at the thoracic level revealed
eled axonswith awrong trajectory outside their normal topography. Panel B represents anstic cavity lesion. The arrows indicate the extended axons into the scar; scale bar: 100 μm.
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Fig. 10.Quantification of CST axons. Panel A shows the axon count diagram. Panels B and Cillustrate the axon quantification in dorsal column and lateral column respectively. Note:The number of axons in dorsal and lateral columns was not statistical different among allgroups at any given distance caudal to the lesion. Panel D represents the axon arborquantification in the gray matter below the lesion. The axon arbors were abundant inPTEN-deleted group when compared with controls. The results are presented asmean ± SEM, n = 4–6 per group. Data was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAwith Bonferroni as post-hoc test. Values of ***p b 0.001, **p b 0.01, and *p b 0.05 werestatistically significant different from control groups.
13C.A. Danilov, O. Steward / Experimental Neurology xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Danilov, C.A., Steward, O., Conditional genetic deof CST axons and motor function recov..., Exp. Neurol. (2015), http://dx.do
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that some axons coming from the dlCST arborized extensively throughthe dorsal and ventral horns at caudal levels often extending acrossthe midline to arborize on the contralateral side (Steward et al., 2004).These extensive arbors could reflect sprouting from spared dlCST axons.
The distribution of BDA labeled axons was different in the PTENdeleted group in two ways. First, there was a bloom of axons rostral tothe lesions, and axons extended into and around the lesion withexuberant axon arborization ventrally in the gray matter below thelesion. Second, quantitative assessment of BDA labeled axons showedlarger numbers of CST axons caudal to the injury in the PTEN deletedgroup.
The regenerative growth seen here resembles what has been previ-ously reported following spinal cord injury with either conditionalgenetic deletion of PTEN at P0/P1 (Liu et al., 2010) or with AAV-shPTENinjections at P1 to knockdown PTEN (Zukor et al., 2013). The extent ofthe regenerative growth appears less extensive, however, although directcomparisons are difficult because the site and nature of the injury aredifferent (C5 contusion vs. T8 dorsal hemisection or crush). Furtherstudies will be required to address this issue.
In conclusion, the present study demonstrates enhanced recovery offorepaw gripping and grasping function and enhanced regenerativegrowth of injured CST axons with conditional genetic deletion of PTENin adult mice shortly after a spinal cord injury. These results suggestthat manipulations of PTEN or the downstream mTOR pathway maybe a viable target for therapeutic interventions to promote axonregeneration after spinal cord injury.
Commercial interest
Oswald Steward is one of the co-founders of a company called“Axonis” which holds options on patents relating to PTEN deletion andaxon regeneration.
Uncited reference
Sun et al., 2011
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by R01 NS047718 to O.S., and generousdonations from Cure Medical, Research for Cure, and individual donors.Thanks to Kelli Sharp, Robert Aguilar, Ardi Gunawan, Jennifer Yonan,and Kelly Yee for assistance in surgical procedures, animal care andtesting, and neurohistology.
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