Conceptualising Spirituality in the Context of Tourism.

Greg Willson

University of Waikato, New Zealand

Abstract

Arguably, growing numbers of travellers are looking for more spiritually stimulating and fulfilling travel, and to address elements of their spirituality through tourism. Despite this, there remains a paucity of research that explores the relationship between tourism and spirituality. There is a particular lack of understanding as to what leads people to seek spiritual enrichment through tourism, and whether tourism indeed fulfils any spiritual needs of tourists. If tourism is to be an avenue in which one can address their spiritual side, this paper purports that there needs to be an ontological shift in how tourism is viewed by many scholars. Specifically, this paper argues that tourism needs to be seen as more than a temporary hedonistic escape from everyday life, and as an integral part of many peoples lives. This conceptual paper explores the conceptual essences of spirituality by reviewing the meaning of spirituality across diverse disciplines. Given this review, it is a premise of this current paper that many previous studies have explored the relationship between tourism and spirituality in a reductionist manner. In particular, a number of studies have seemingly used the terms spiritual and religious interchangeably, and have explored the relationship between tourism and spirituality in touristic situations that are commonly regarded as being spiritual in nature, such as yoga tours and meditation retreats, or that occur in areas that are deemed to be sacred. This current paper proffers that spirituality is the essence of being, and concerns every humans search for meaning, purpose, and connectedness in life. Thus, this paper argues that spiritual is a different concept to religious, and that as tourism is another way we do life, people may gain experiences that have spiritual dimensions across a wider range of touristic situations than those previously cited.

Introduction.

The concept of spirituality is presently experiencing burgeoning interest from

academics and consumers alike, particularly so in the Western World (for example,

Bridger 2001; Lynch and Veal 1996; Miner-Williams 2006; Zinnbauer et al. 1997).

Indeed, it is argued that to speak about spirituality in the twenty-first century is to

ride the latest cultural wave (Bridger 2001, p. 7). There are said to be an enormous

number of contributing reasons for the increased attention in spirituality (Elgin and

Mitchell 2003), although a number of tourism scholars have suggested that the

resurgence of interest in the spiritual is fuelled by feelings of emptiness with a modern

life that is characterised by high stress, a lack of personal time, isolation and feelings

of depression caused by rapidly advancing technology and civilisation growth (for

example, Lengfelder and Timothy 2000; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005; Timothy and

Conover 2006). It is also widely purported that many people in the Western World are

increasingly seeking to address their spiritual sides in a backlash to a society that they

view as overly materialistic (Belk 1985; Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton

1978; Holt 1995; Singh 2006), and secularised (Barnwell and Iggulden 2007;

Bradshaw 1994; Elias 1991; Zinnbauer et al. 1997). As a result, increasing numbers

of people are arguably seeking to engage their spiritual sides (Brown and Morrison

2003; Cushman 1990; Guo 2006; Harrison 2003; Hartmann 1999). People choose to

engage their spiritual side through many means, including religious practise, leisure,

work, and sport (for example, Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Beck 2003; Schmidt 2005;

Tilson 2005; Van Ness 1996b; Vukoni 1996; Zinnbauer et al. 1997). Many people

also view tourism as an ideal outlet in which to address their spirituality (for example,

Brown and Morrison 2003; McIntosh and Mansfeld 2006; Timothy and Conover

2006; Vukoni 1996). Indeed, tourism is argued to share close parallels with religion,

and to be functionally and symbolically equivalent to religion with regards to

engaging the spiritual side of people (for example, Cohen 1979; Dann and Cohen

1996; Graburn 1989a; MacCannell 1973; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005; Vukoni

1996). Like religion, it is argued that tourism provides people with non-ordinary or

sacred free time which allows them to reflect, think, and contemplate their lives.

Tourism is also argued to be a symbolic and social ritual that people take to mark

periods in their lives, or to achieve a regular spiritual tune-up (Cohen 1979; Graburn

1989a; MacCannell 1973; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005; Vukoni 1996). In part for

these reasons, modern tourism is conceptually argued by some scholars as being the

contemporary expression of the traditional religious pilgrimage, (Graburn 1989b;

MacCannell 1973; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005). Despite this, there remains debate

as to the nature of the relationship between tourism and spirituality, and arguably,

research on the spiritual dimension of tourism is at best in its infancy (Chesworth

2006, p.1). Certainly, a number of authors have purported that tourism and spirituality

are inextricably linked (for example, Cohen 1996; Harrison 2003; Smith and Kelly

2006b; Timothy and Conover 2006). However, a number of questions concerning the

possible relationship between tourism and spirituality remain. For example, there is a

paucity of research concerning the factors that lead people to seek spiritual

enrichment through tourism. Further, Sharpley and Sundaram (2005) proffered that

there remains little evidence to suggest that tourism fulfils any sort of spiritual need

within tourists. Bruner (1991) also purported that tourism may not be as central and

important to ones life as certain authors contend. Bruner (1991) purported this based

on the arguments made in the literature that tourists generally only spend a small

amount of time in a destination, experience minimal interaction with locals, do not

speak the language of their locals, stay in the protection of the tourism industry, and

spend most of their time in the company of other tourists. Traditionally, tourism has

also been viewed as devoid of deeper meaning, of peripheral significance to ones life

plan, a quest for the superficial and unchallenging, and an idle pleasure (Boorstin

1964; Cohen 1979; Horne 1992). Cohen (1979) in particular wrote extensively on the

significance of tourism to ones life, and concluded that the significance of tourism in

a modern persons life is derived from their total world view, and depends on whether

they adhere to a centre, and the location of this centre. To illustrate, Cohen (1979,

p.183) developed five modes of tourism experience representing the spectrum

between the experience of the tourist as the traveller in pursuit of mere pleasure in

the strange and the novel, to that of the modern pilgrim in quest of meaning at

somebody elses centre. He labelled these the recreational mode, diversionary mode,

experiential mode, experimental mode, and existential mode. Cohen purported that

even recreational travel is sacred in that the tourist can restore their mental and

physical powers, and enhance their well-being; however, this form of travel loses its

deeper spiritual content. At the other end of the spectrum, however, Cohen proffered

that existential tourists are deeply committed to finding a new spiritual centre, and

the visit to his centre of the tourist travelling in the existential mode is

phenomenologically analogous to a pilgrimage (p.190). Thus, it could be concluded

from Cohens work that people generally find tourism significant to their lives; the

nature of this significance however depends on the type of touristic experience they

seek.

It is purported that spirituality has not received sufficient academic attention because

spirituality itself is a conceptually confusing concept (Emmons 2000; Miner-Williams

2006), that defies easy explanation or measure (Emmons 2000; Martsolf and Mickley

1998; Meraviglia 1999). Thus, Mitroff and Denton (1999) suggested that scholars in

general have tended to avoid studying spirituality because it is believed to be a

phenomenon that is too soft, nebulous and ill informed for critical study. Chesworth

(2006) also suggested that tourism scholars have largely neglected studying

spirituality because ones spiritual beliefs are highly personal, and spiritual tourism

in general is not regarded as being particularly glamorous. As a consequence of the

confusion over the term spiritual, a number of tourism scholars have taken a wholly

religious approach to the study of spirituality, synonymously using the terms

religious and spiritual, and exploring the spiritual solely in situations that are

heralded as being spiritual in nature, such as during yoga tours, wilderness retreats,

and visits to shrines (Chesworth 2006; Jackowiski 1987; McIntosh and Mansfeld

2006; Zahra 2006). It is a premise of this paper that this represents a reductionist

approach to the study of spirituality in tourism, because as will be discussed later, this

paper proffers that one could potentially engage their spiritual side through nearly

every touristic situation. Importantly, and what has arguably contributed to the

reductionist approach to spirituality in tourism, is that there is a paucity of research

exploring the conceptual constructs of spirituality (Zinnbauer et al. 1997). It is

important to explore the conceptual constructs of spirituality, because as nursing

scholar Meraviglia (1999) explained, the study of spirituality is like looking at a

diamond; one can see the beauty of a diamond by looking at its entire stone but to

truly appreciate it one needs to look at each component more closely. Certainly, while

a number of researchers have revealed pieces of the spirituality puzzle, most have

failed to put all these pieces together (Miner-Williams, 2006). While different

disciplines and worldviews view spirituality in a different light, each description

contains similarities (Meraviglia 1999). The primary aim of this paper then is to

present a thorough review of the conceptual elements of spirituality that are

consistently cited across a variety of worldviews and disciplines. To achieve this, the

author adopted a phenomenological approach to exploring the conceptual constructs

of spirituality. Phenomenology arose out of a growing disenchantment with scientific

philosophy, and is based on the assumption that all knowledge is subjective and

related to the person viewing the world (Bahdra 1990; Hammond et al. 1991; Moran

2000; Moustakas 1994; Willis 2001). Thus, this current paper concurs that a

universally understood and accepted definition of spirituality is largely impossible to

achieve (Maher and Hunt 1993; Yinger 1967). However, from an extensive, multi-

disciplinary literature review, this paper argues that there are core conceptual

components of spirituality that are consistently discussed. Thus, for the purpose of

this paper, spirituality can be conceptualised as the essence of being human that

involves a personal and often-transcendent quest for meaning, purpose, and

connectedness (with self/others and/or God). Ones spirituality is manifested through

ones values, morals, ethics and actions, and is at the core of ones well-being. This

conceptualisation contributes to wider scholarly knowledge because the core

conceptual constructs of spirituality have not been reviewed before within a tourism

context. As a result, this paper potentially lays a platform on which future studies into

tourism and spirituality may be based.

Spirituality as the Essence of Being.

Many philosophers from a variety of backgrounds and worldviews, including

renowned philosophers Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, St. Augustine, and St. Thomas

Aquinas, have argued that spirituality is the essence of life, and is at the very core of

what makes one human (Braine 1992; Gaarder 1999; Kretzmann 1993; Meraviglia

1999). That spirituality is the essence of being human has also been argued by a

number of theorists from the disciplines of health (for example, Meraviglia 1999;

Miner-Williams 2006; Taylor 2001), management (for example, Ashmos and Duchon

2000; McCormick 1994; Tischler 1999), theology (for example, Bridger 2001;

Zinnbauer et al. 1997), and psychology (for example, Piedmont 2001; Vaughan 1991)

amongst others. Historically, it is argued that the word spirit is derived from the

Latin word spiritus, relating to human breath, courage, vigour and life (Kretzmann

1993; Marra 2000; Zinnbauer et al. 1999). Further, the Hebrew word for spirit (ruach)

means wind and breath (Delbane and Montgomery 1981; Goldberg 1998), and the

Greek word for spirit (pneuma), also means breath (Roth 1990). Kretzmann (1993)

suggested that breathing is the essence of life, and thus, according to Marra (2000),

the modern day translation of spiritus concerns the life-giving force or animating

principle; it is what makes one human. Thus, it is widely argued that every person,

regardless of age, culture, gender, religion etc. is a spiritual being (for example,

Gaarder 1999; Hardy 1979; Kretzmann 1993; Meraviglia 1999; Zinnbauer et al.

1997).

Spirit is also argued to be the differentiating factor between humans and animals.

Certainly, all animals are living, breathing entities, but most philosophers, including

Aristotle, Aquinas, Kant, Descartes and Plato, did not see animals as being spiritual.

Plato, for instance viewed every living thing as having a soul, but only humans as

having a spirit (Field 1969). Further, St. Thomas Aquinas, a metaphysicist, and

arguably one of the greatest medieval philosophers (Gaarder 1999; Kretzmann 1993),

saw some things such as trees, cats and stars as being exclusively corporeal

(consisting of matter), and some as being exclusively incorporeal (consisting of

spirit), such as angels. Aquinas believed that both humans and animals have souls,

which he considered to be the life-giving principle. However, he did not see animals

as being spiritual. He thus saw the human soul as unique because it contained both

corporeal and incorporeal elements. Aquinas took his philosophical thoughts further

by purporting that the soul of a plant is nutritive (it sustains the life of the plant), the

soul of the animal has nutritive and sensory principles (e.g. sight, hearing, cognition),

while the soul of the human has nutritive, sensory, and rational principles (intellect).

Thus, Aquinas saw the human soul as being the rational soul, and human beings

souls as being different from other animals because of the intellect associated with it

(Kretzmann 1993). Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, the Aristotelians, and Eastern

philosophers such as Aurobindo also viewed intellect as being the distinguishing

characteristic of human beings (Bourgeois 1995; Miovic 2004). Famously, Ren

Descartes was believed to have doubted and been sceptical about nearly everything

except that human beings were rational, intellectual, thinking creatures (for example,

Gaarder, 1999). Descartes knew that because he doubted things, he was thinking, and

because he was thinking, he knew he had to be a thinking, rational being; hence the

famous phrase, Cogito ergo sum, or I think therefore I am (Gaarder, 1999).

Conversely, certain Christian theorists, such as Beck (2003, p.27), expressed deep

reservations about the philosophies of the spirit made by Greek philosophers such as

Aristotle because they arose from a pagan, non-Christian, system that knew

nothing of the God who would reveal Himself by sending his only son to the world.

Further, other cultures, or certain people with New Age or pantheistic beliefs believe

that animals too have a spiritual side, and humans are thus no greater or different than

them (Furbish and Reid 2003; Gaarder 1999; Hartmann 1999; Raschke 1996). For

example, many New Zealand Maori believe that everyone and everything has a

wairua: a physical body and a spirit (Furbish and Reid 2003). There are also people

who wholly discount the existence of a spirit, or are sceptical as to the existence of the

human spirit. Indeed, at times, both large numbers of Western and Eastern thinkers

have remained silent on the subject of the spirit, or higher realities (Miovic 2004).

Revered spiritual leaders have also at times struggled with the nature or existence of

the human spirit; Buddha, for example, was arguably silent on the subject of the

ultimate reality (Miovic 2004), and in more recent times, it was revealed that Catholic

nun Mother Teresa felt spiritually bereft and unsure of the immortality of the spirit

(Bindra 2001). Thus, the existence of the spirit is, for some, a contentious issue.

Indeed, writing from a psychiatric worldview, Miovic (2004, p.105) argued that thus

far neither science nor philosophy has proved or disproved the existence of soul and

spirit. Other materialists wholly discount the existence of a spirit, and argue that

the only ultimate or fundamental laws of the universe are physical (Braine 1992,

p.1).

Most authors that view human beings as spiritual have also noted the personal and

subjective nature of ones spiritual side. They argue that each person has a unique

spiritual makeup, and a range of factors such as ones culture, religion, lifestyle, age,

and gender will influence how one views and seeks to engage their spiritual side (for

example, Clark 1996; Hardy 1979; Levitt 1996; Marra 2000; Van Ness 1996b;

Vaughan 1991). For example, Clark (1996, p.340) purported that many homosexual

people feel excluded by institutional religion, and thus, for Clark, gay spirituality is

concerned far less about religiosity and far more about connecting spirituality with

the real-life existence of gay men and lesbians in a homophobic society. Further,

people will differ in what they view as spiritual. For example, people are said to

have experienced the spiritual through, amongst other activities, sex (Van Ness

1996b), arts (Happel 1996), sports (Thomas 1996), video games, music, scientific

inquiry (Van Ness 1996a), and a large variety of other non-material things (Hardy

1979). Essentially though, because ones spirituality is argued to be subjective and

personal, potentially anything can be imbued with personal and spiritual meaning, and

what may be considered mundane to someone may be highly spiritual and meaningful

to another. For example, a number of Kenyan village elders talk of fishing as being a

particularly spiritual and personally meaningful experience (Peake 1989). Conversely,

there will be many people who will find no spiritual dimensions or personal meaning

in fishing.

The Personal and Often Transcendent Quest for Meaning and Purpose.

A number of philosophers have argued that as spirituality is the essence of being

human, and ones spiritual side is incorporeal, essentially spirituality concerns a

human beings individual search for meaning in life, which inevitably will be

undertaken by all humans (for example, Bahm 1974; Hardy 1979; Tanyi 2002;

Torrance 1994). Bahm (1974, p.3), a metaphysicist, purported that all humans will at

some stage consider the most fundamental questions of human life:

Every thinking person, sooner or later, asks himself the questions: What am I? Why am I here? How did I get here? What is my future? These questions inevitably give rise to other questions about the nature of existence, of both self and the world.

Human beings have thus been described as the questing animal, as the search for

meaning in ones life, or the spiritual quest, is arguably rooted in humans

biological, psychological, linguistic and social nature (Torrance, 1994). Once more,

because of the subjective and personal nature of spirituality, people will find meaning

through different sources, and will be asking themselves different questions

concerning their quest to understand their self. For example, a number of people with

serious health concerns will grapple with specific spiritual questions such as why

me?, why am I ill?, and what is the purpose of my illness? (Meraviglia 1999; Spaniol

2001).

The quest for meaning is further argued to differentiate human beings from animals.

It is argued that although human beings realise their limitations and imperfections,

they still strive for self-improvement, and in essence, try to self-transcend; it is the

spirit in man which takes him, in contrast to the plant and animal, beyond the

threshold of independence properly so called, and of inferiority to oneself (Maritain

1947, p.41). Thus, to achieve meaning or purpose in one life, human beings may

have to experience spiritual transcendence. Transcendence is therefore seen by many

scholars from a wide range of disciplines, as being an integral part of any conceptual

discussion of spirituality (for example, Butts 1999; Emmons 2000; Freeman 1998;

McCormick 1994; Miner-Williams 2006; Piedmont 2001; Tanyi 2002). From a

psychological viewpoint, transcendence involves going past the ordinary confines of

the body (Emmons 2000; Piedmont 2001). Thus, the transcendent dimension of

people can be seen through a focus on growth, such as Abraham Maslows (1964)

self-actualising person, who seeks to improve themselves and increase their

knowledge of themselves and people around them (Piedmont, 1999). Indeed,

Maslows work has been cited by a number of authors, particularly from the

management and psychology disciplines, as sharing close parallels with the study of

spirituality. For example, management scholars Ashmos and Duchon (2000), Burack

(1999), Butts (1999), and Mitroff and Denton (1999) argued that spirituality concerns

the higher levels of Maslows Hierachy of needs; thus, self-actualisation and being

are regarded as being the levels at which one seeks for meaning and purpose in life.

Other psychologists and counsellors have purported that spirituality is the personal

expression of ultimate concern, which is described as the highest meaning in life, and

is closely paralleled to Maslows work (for example, Emmons 2000; Marra 2000).

Marra (2000), writing from a counsellors perspective explained that people move

through the ultimate concerns of food, sex, water, shelter, and will find them

temporarily satisfying; however they are not able to quench the desire of human

beings to determine who they are, and their purpose and ultimate meaning in life.

Marra (2000) therefore suggested that as one moves higher up the scale of ultimate

concerns, they are moving from matter, to body, to mind, to soul, to spirit. As with

Maslows Hierachy of needs, one will still concern themselves with needs such as

eating and sleeping, but when people are concentrating on spiritual concerns, these

basic needs are no longer their ultimate concern (Marra, 2000). Spiritual experiences

have also been similarly compared with the work of psychologist Mihaly

Csikszentmihalyi, who described optimal human experiences as flow, whereby

people are challenged, experience a loss of self-consciousness and time (Van Ness

1996b).

Connectedness

A significant proportion of literature across a wide range of disciplines acknowledges

connectedness as being an integral part of any conceptualisation of spirituality.

Connectedness has been widely cited in, amongst others, the nursing (for example,

Meraviglia 1999; Miner-Williams 2006) theology (for example, Bridger 2001;

Zinnbauer et al. 1997), psychology (for example, Piedmont 1999; Vaughan 1991) and

management literature (Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Burack 1999; McCormick 1994).

Indeed, some scholars contend that connectedness represents the very core of

spirituality. For example, management scholars Mitroff and Denton (1999) argued

that if one word represented the meaning of spirituality, and its importance to ones

life, it is interconnectedness. Connectedness can be conceptualised as a harmonious

relationship or oneness with self and/or others and/or God/Higher Power (Dyson et

al. 1997; Meraviglia 1999; Piedmont 1999; Zinnbauer et al. 1997). Different

disciplines and worldviews concentrate on specific types of connectedness. For

instance, the theological literature concentrates on connectedness with God,

encompassing both the relationship of the divine to the world and the human

response to God (Meraviglia, 1999, p.19). Conversely, the psychology literature

focuses on internal motivations and desires associated with the self rather than God

(Pargament et al. 1999), and the sociology literature generally discusses spirituality,

and connectedness in the context of groups of people (Meraviglia 1999). However,

connectedness is subjective and highly personal, and the type of connection one feels

or seeks will be influenced by a number of factors. Thus, some people may view

spirituality as involving connections with self, others, and God/Higher Power and

some will see it as involving exclusive connection with God/Higher Power, or self, or

other (Schultz 2005). Certainly, a devout Christian for example, is highly likely to

view their relationship with God as being an integral part of their spirituality.

Connection may be physical or mental (Goldberg 1998), and thus, people can feel

connected through many diverse means. For instance, people may hold a strong

connection to themselves, and largely concentrate on optimising the self by

participating in activities that improve performance or sense of well-being (perhaps

through, for example, meditation, or engaging in physical challenges). Others may

feel a strong connection to, for example, the land, their ancestors, their planet,

community, church, social group, family, friends, work, sport, or pets.

Spirituality, Well-being, Morals, Values, and Ethics.

It is widely acknowledged that achieving and maintaining a high level of well-being

involves high levels of spirituality (Brown 1994; Freeman 1998; Steiner and

Reisinger 2006; Tanyi 2002; Vaughan 1991). Notably, spirituality is sometimes seen

today as being the sole or primary determinant of ones health (Meraviglia 1999). The

centrality of spirituality to ones well-being was illustrated by psychological scholars

Sweeney and Witmer (1991), who developed a wheel of wellness, which revealed

that while ones wellness is influenced by a myriad of factors, such as nutrition,

physical fitness, and sense of self-worth, it is spirituality that is central to every

human beings wellness. This is perhaps not surprising, as one could not imagine

someone with any meaning, purpose, and connection in their life as being well. Thus,

the relationship between spirituality and ones well-being/health has been heavily

explored in, amongst others, the nursing (for example, Goldberg 1998; Meraviglia

1999; Miner-Williams 2006), psychology (for example, Emmons 2000; Pargament et

al. 1999), counselling (for example, Chandler et al. 1992; Marra 2000), drug and

alcohol rehabilitation (for example, Brown 1994), and management literature (for

example, Butts 1999; McCormick 1994). The nursing literature in particular has

recognised the central role of spirituality to ones well-being for many years. Indeed,

Florence Nightingale saw spirituality as being an integral part of nursing practise

(Meraviglia 1999), and now spirituality is viewed as an essential part of holistic

patient care (Martsolf and Mickley 1998), because when one provides care spiritually,

they are argued to be providing care for the person as well as the patient (Meraviglia

1999). People who are engaging with their spiritual side are also said to be actively

interested and committed to life (Goldberg 1998), and to experience a number of

positive affective states, including feeling contented, less stressed, a sense of inner

peace, love, hope, joy, compassion, forgiveness, and a zest for life (Chapman 1987;

Delgado 2005; Dyson et al. 1997; Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004; Malinski 2002;

Merton 1967; Mitroff and Denton 1999; Spaniol 2001; Zohar and Marshall 2004).

A person who is in touch with their spiritual side is also said to hold and act upon

very strong values, morals, ethics, and have a strong desire to do the right thing and

care for other people, animals, and nature (Butts 1999; Daly 1996; Dorn 2001; Field

1969; Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004; Marra 2000; Mitroff and Denton 1999). They are

also said to exercise truth, love, peace, harmony, optimism, compassion, forgiveness,

and to strive for purity in their lives (Freeman 1998; Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004;

Mitroff and Denton 1999; Sweeney and Witmer 1991; Zohar and Marshall 2004).

Further, it is argued that people who strongly engage with their spiritual sides are

concerned with accruing spiritual capital, which is earned from serving a deep

sense of purpose and from serving fundamental human values (Zohar and Marshall,

2004, p.24). The spirit is regarded as inherently good because it is purported that

ones spirit calls upon them to act with their morals and in some cases, in the opposite

fashion to what the body wishes (Field 1969). For this reason, it is argued that the

spirit can only be infected with evil by its association with the body (Field, 1969, p.

88). Thus, it could be argued that a person who is engaging wholly with the

material is likely to seek to fulfil their bodily needs and desires with little or no

consequence for others around them. The management literature in particular has

explored the close relationship between spirituality and ones ethics, morals and

values. Spiritual workers are argued to be trustworthy, honest, not greedy, ethical, to

have a strong conscience, and to care deeply about future generations (Butts 1999;

Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004; McCormick 1994; Mitroff and Denton 1999). They

thus wish to produce products and services that will benefit mankind, and partaking in

voluntary activities are often regarded as important to them (Mitroff and Denton

1999).

Towards a Platform for Understanding the Relationship between Spirituality

and Tourism.

This paper has sought to address the lack of attention, and confusion over the concept

of spirituality within the tourism literature. This paper therefore sought to present a

thorough review of the conceptual elements of spirituality that are consistently cited

across a variety of worldviews and disciplines. Exploring the conceptual elements of

spirituality is important to minimise confusion over the term spirituality, to improve

communication across disciplines, and to build a platform on which future studies

exploring the relationship between tourism and spirituality may be based. Based on

the literature review, this paper has conceptualised spirituality as the essence of being

human that involves a personal and often-transcendent quest for meaning, purpose,

and connectedness (with self/others and/or God). This paper has also purported that

ones spirituality is manifested through their values, morals, ethics and actions, and is

at the core of ones well-being.

If one concurs with the key concepts of spirituality discussed above, this current

paper argues that the current approach taken by certain authors to studying the

relationship between tourism and spirituality is reductionist, for three main reasons.

Firstly, this paper agrees with other authors who have purported that a number of

previous tourism scholars have seemingly used the terms religion, and spirituality

synonymously (Chesworth 2006; Jackowiski 1987; Zahra 2006). Indeed, McIntosh

and Mansfeld (2005) proffered that current discourses on tourism and spirituality

have focused exclusively on the religious motivations of pilgrims. As previously

discussed, while ones religion can form an important part of their spiritual makeup,

this paper further agrees with a number of other authors that spirituality is a different,

and ultimately much broader concept than religion (Benjamin and Looby 1998;

Hardy 1979; Marra 2000; Oldnall 1996; Timothy and Conover 2006; Zinnbauer et al.

1997; Zinnbauer et al. 1999). If spirituality represents the essence of being human,

then every human, regardless of cast, creed or religion is a spiritual being (Benjamin

and Looby 1998; Hardy 1979; Marra 2000). Certainly not all human beings are

religious, but even non-believers or atheists can experience something outside

themselves that whispers acknowledgment of something beyond (Timothy and

Conover 2006, p.270). Thus, Oldnall (1996) proffered that every person has spiritual

needs regardless of whether they are religious or not, and Van Ness (1996b) observed

that people will often describe themselves as spiritual even if they have no religious

beliefs. Moreover, as previously noted, when people search for the spiritual, they may

not be looking for God or a higher power. Durkheim (1915, p.52), for instance,

suggested: by sacred things one must not understand simply those personal beings

which are called Gods or spirits; a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a

house, in a word, anything can be sacred. Certainly, there are close parallels between

religion and spirituality; Zinnbauer et al. (1997) for instance, argued that the essential

conceptual constructs of spirituality are also essential to religion. Further, all major

religious institutions are inherently concerned with spiritual matters (Zinnbauer et al.

1999), and it could be argued that because spirituality is concerned with the search for

the sacred (Vaughan 1991), it is the heart and soul of religion, and religions most

central function (Zinnbauer et al. 1999, p.909). Similarly, Elias (1991), a religious

scholar, suggested that by focusing on the spiritual, people are turning to what is most

essential in religion, namely, the experiential dimension. Elias (1991, p.457) also

noted that both spiritual and religious journeys help people in their needs for

community, identity, order, meaning, direction, hope, as well as a sense for

wholeness and a desire for clear moral standards. However, the notion that

spirituality is a broader concept than religion is perhaps best summed up by

counselling scholars Benjamin and Looby (1998, p.93), who suggested that Religion

takes a slant, a different shade of color for each culture and for each tradition.

Spirituality surpasses them all. This understanding allows for the experience of a

relationship with a higher power, independent of religion.

Secondly, this paper purports that a number of tourism scholars have been hesitant to

concur with the view that tourism has moved to the centre of many peoples lives

(Crouch 2007; Larsen et al. 2007; Munt 1994). Indeed, Larsen, Urry and Axhausen

(2007, p.245) purported that Mainstream research still treats tourism as a

predominantly exotic set of specialized consumer products that occur at specific

places and times. If one views tourism as being an integral part of many peoples

lives, and views spirituality as being the essence of being, then one could conclude

that spirituality and tourism are inter-connected. However, as previously mentioned

there is still debate as to the nature of the relationship between tourism and

spirituality. This paper purports that given the conceptualisation of spirituality

presented above, a number of touristic situations could be considered to have spiritual

dimensions. Indeed, there are numerous accounts evidenced in the tourism literature

of people using tourism to find meaning (for example, Beeho and Prentice 1997;

Cohen 1979; Graburn 1989a; Noy 2004), experience transcendence (for example, De

Botton 2002; Fredrickson and Anderson 1999; McIntosh and Bonnemann 2006;

Smith and Kelly 2006b), and find connectedness (Harrison 2003; McIntosh and

Mansfeld 2006; Schanzel and McIntosh 2000; Trauer and Ryan 2005; Zahra 2006).

Tourism is also argued to be a perfect vehicle for promoting wellness (Finnicum

and Zeiger, 1996, p.85), and many authors have explored the relationship between

tourism and ones well-being (for example, Finnicum and Zeiger 1996; Lehto et al.

2006; Steiner and Reisinger 2006; White 1993). Certain touristic situations also allow

people to exercise, strengthen, or change their values. For example, niche forms of

tourism, such as appropriate tourism, responsible tourism, social tourism and

eco-tourism are seen to improve society, and appeal to tourists who hold strong

social values (Yamashita 2004). Tourism has also been a vehicle for changing

peoples attitudes towards other cultures, religions, countries, heritage, and in some

cases, increased peoples awareness towards key world issues such as climate change,

poverty, and the need for sustainability (Brown and Morrison 2003; McIntosh and

Bonnemann 2006; Schanzel and McIntosh 2000; Wearing and Wearing 1996; Willson

2006).

Thirdly, tourism scholars have largely explored the relationship between tourism and

spirituality within commonly regarded spiritual settings, such as on yoga tours,

wilderness experiences, or visits to shrines (Fredrickson and Anderson 1999;

Jackowiski 1987; Lehto et al. 2006; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005; Stringer and

McAvoy 1992; Tilson 2005). While a number of people are likely to strongly engage

their spiritual side within these settings, if one views spirituality as the essence of

being, that involves an often transcendent quest for meaning, purpose, and

connectedness, then perhaps one could engage their spiritual side in nearly every

touristic situation. Indeed, as previously discussed, one can consider something that

others consider mundane, as highly spiritual. For example, Willson (2006), discussed

how for one tourist, sitting on the grass eating asparagus sandwiches while viewing

the Art Deco buildings of Napier, New Zealand was highly meaningful. This was

because it allowed him to take time for reflecting on his past, to yearn for a time that

he viewed as being superior to modern times, and to remember a meaningful period

of his childhood. As the tourist found personal meaning, and could reflect upon their

life, this touristic situation could potentially be deemed spiritual. Thus, Sharpley and

Sundaram (2005) suggested that momentary experiences within mundane journeys

may be as equally uplifting as spiritual journeys.

Thus, in conclusion, this paper has reviewed the core components of spirituality that

are evidenced across a wide variety of disciplines and worldviews. It is a premise of

this paper that to move forward in scholarly understanding of the relationship between

tourism and spirituality, future scholars could seek to expand the scope of their studies

to acknowledge the subjective and personal nature of ones spirituality. Doing this

places the tourist at the forefront of future research, and will help to ensure that future

descriptions of spirituality are grounded in the realities tourists themselves describe

(Prentice et al. 1998). This paper also calls for an increased research agenda into

exploring the relationship between spirituality and tourism. Certainly, spirituality is a

confusing, complex topic, but it is a topic of immense importance. Nursing scholar

Miner-Williams (2006, p.813) perhaps best summed up the importance of

understanding spirituality by arguing that spiritualitys depth and profoundness may

make it beyond the human capacity to adequately understand. Yet, since it rests at the

core of essence, we continue to strive to do so.

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Introduction.