Concealed in the Shadows; Breaking Principles: Washington’s Hidden Army that Won America’s Freedom

Presented by:

Gia Gupta, Karina Gupta and Jiwoo Lee

Junior Division Group Performance

Process Paper Word Count: 500

On our English teacher’s wall is a poster of George Washington with a quote that reads, “The harder the

conflict, the greater the triumph.” From the first day we looked at the quote, we wondered how difficult was the

conflict George Washington endured to liberate the United States? We asked our teacher if she thought George

Washington used unconventional methods, to help him triumph over tyranny. Our teacher's response became

the spark that ignited our passion, “Oh you mean the Culper Spies. That is just a myth.” Perplexed by the

dismissive answer, we began seeking out the truth about the conflict George Washington encountered and what

he utilized to break the barrier of a despotic ruler and secure the “blessing of liberty to ourselves and posterity.”

In order to understand the conflict George Washington faced to break through the tyrannical hold of

Great Britain, we started our research at George Washington’s Mount Vernon Digital Library. The articles and

primary sources available became the founding blocks of our thesis and helped us understand the well-

organized hidden army that used their secret weapon of intelligence to take the upper hand and win the war of

independence. We interviewed historians like Mr. Taylor Stoermer, professor at Johns Hopkins University and

former Chief Historian of Colonial Williamsburg, to why the spies broke barriers. C-SPAN’s Mr. Damien

Cregeau about the employment of methods used by the espionage ring; and an interview with C.I. A. Operations

Officer, Ken Daigler helped us understand the legacy of Culper Spy Ring.

We poured over George Washington’s “Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior,” his Gentlemanly Rules

of War, as well as scrutinized correspondence provided by the National Archives between George Washington

and the Culper Spy members giving us a conclusive comprehension of how spies removed their impediments.

Wanting to capture the drama and intrigue associated with the Culper Spy Ring, we felt a performance

allowed us to demonstrate how General Washington’s leadership facilitated a concealed group of men that

obtained victory by gathering intelligence. We were able to gather traditional Revolutionary costumes from a

local museum, the Indian King Tavern, and use them to further represent the “under-trained, under-staffed,

under-equipped, and under-funded” army that prevailed. (“George Washington, Spymaster”)

Ultimately, the Culper Spy Ring relates to the theme in a myriad of ways. In the most practical sense,

spies broke across enemy lines that allowed General Washington to lead his army to victory. In a more delicate

way, the sentiments in the “Declaration of Independence” embodies how the Culper Spy Ring conveys the

theme of “Breaking Barriers.” The spies were willing to sacrifice their “lives, their fortunes, and their sacred

honor” to procure liberty. They surmounted obstructions with the idea of patriotism and their various methods

utilized including misinformation, invisible ink, dead drops, and coded letters to break from Britain and set

forth the practices of modern-day intelligence operations. The truth is self-evident when British Major George

Beckwith declared, “Washington did not really outfight the British; he simply out-spied us.”

Annotated Primary Sources

Alexander Hamilton. Letter to Marquis de Lafayette, "From Alexander Hamilton to Marquis de Lafayette, [21 July 1780]," July 21, 1780. Accessed April 12, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-02-02-0775.

In Alexander Hamilton's correspondence with Marquis de Lafayette, it provides attestation that the Culper Spy Ring and other espionage operations had given intelligence that the British were planning an attack on the French fleets at Newport, Rhode Island. Hamilton writes, "We have just received advice from New York through different channels that the enemy are making an embarkation with which they menace the French fleet and army. Fifty transports are said to have gone up the Sound to take in troops and proceed directly to Rhode Island." This conveys how the Culper Spy Ring surmounted the barrier of British rule by assisting in discovering intelligence. The letter is a clear symbol of one of the Culper Spy Ring's most significant discoveries with the help of other intelligence operations. In conclusion, this letter gave us primary source evidence of the actions that saved the French from probable defeat, which could have subsequently been the breaking point for the Patriots.

Arnold, Benedict. Letter, "To George Washington from Benedict Arnold, 25 September 1780," September 25, 1780. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-03372.

Benedict Arnold admits his betrayal to Washington through his heartfelt letter that soon asks the General for a substantial favor. After Benjamin Tallmadge saw Benedict Arnold and John André as traitors, Arnold had fled from his home and belongings and asks that his baggage gets sent to him in exchange with money. He asks for nothing for himself as he has already realized his wrongdoings, but instead asks for protection of his wife. He pleads for his wife, Ms. Arnold, to be sent back to Philadelphia, where she is happy and accompanied by her friends. Benedict Arnold explains how his heart was morally conscious and loyal to the American cause, although his actions did not follow upon it. He adds that he never acted to his "principle of love to my country" due to the imbalance in power he viewed between the battling sides. As he believed that the British would be triumphant in the war, he joined the British wanting to be on the victorious side of history, which soon did not follow the way he had planned.

———. Letter to John André, "Benedict Arnold Letter to John André, July 15, 1780," July 15, 1780. Accessed February 13, 2020. https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/spy-letters-of-the-american-revolution/gallery-of-letters/arnold-andre-letter-1780-07-15/.

This letter from Benedict Arnold to John André is mostly a financial correspondence. It is the start of Arnold's betrayal. He is asking for 20,000 pounds sterling to compromise West Point. Arnold is about to leave to travel to West Point and is just confirming that the payments are agreed and therefore set in stone. This is another piece of research showing the treason of Benedict Arnold and the espionage of John André. In the Culper Spy Ring, this related because Arnold's treason was one of the most influential discoveries of the Culper Spy Ring and had a tremendous impact on the emotional state of the Culper Spy Ring. After Arnold defected to the British, his presence in New York City worried Robert Townsend, one of the spies, so much that he altogether quit his job as a spy. He quit his correspondence. He was so frightful due to the fact that Arnold was on the hunt for American spies because if he

succeeded in finding them, he would have them hanged. In addition to enhancing our group's knowledge on his treason, this primary source letter also provided explicit details of the financial transactions occurring between Benedict Arnold and the British crown. This helped us understand the reason why Arnold would risk his life and reputation for the British cause. By reading this source, we also realized Arnold committed treason for money and recognition. The Culper Spy Ring was able to break the barrier of the British's oppressive rule, and one way they could do that was by discovering Arnold's great plan of betrayal against the British.

Clinton, Henry. Letter to John Burgoyne, "August 10, 1777: Henry Clinton Letter to John Burgoyne," August 10, 1777. Henry Clinton Papers.

This letter used a very innovative idea to keep the secret message of espionage hidden. This process took use of a mask. The mask was put over the letter, and the message would reveal through it. This was just one of the many techniques the spies used. These techniques were able to help soothe the fear that the spies experienced. Our group was able to use this letter to learn some of the techniques the spies used and how they were able to stay secret but still go behind enemy lines.

Culper, Samuel. Letter to John Bolton, "II. Samuel Culper to John Bolton, 15 August," August 15, 1779. Accessed March 21, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-22-02-0039-0002.

"Every [letter]2 is opened at the entrance of New-York—and every man is searched that for the future every letter must be written with the Ink received.3 They have some knowledge of the rout our letters take. I judge it was mentioned in the letter taken,4 or they would not be so vigilant," Abraham Woodhull otherwise known as Samuel Culper writes to John Bolton which is Benjamin Tallmadge's alias. This letter written in August of 1779 provides us with beneficial information concerning the barriers that the Culper Spy Ring had to break through and Abraham Woodhull's position in Long Island after staying away from the city. In the quote stated above it briefs on the knowledge that the British have on the intelligence operations conveying almost positively the ramifications of Benjamin Tallmadge's letters being stolen. This depicts that the Culper Spy Ring had to surmount the barrier of the British's knowledge of their works to sufficiently operate. Moreover, after Abraham Woodhull left New York his position was soon altered within the espionage ring. He now resided in Long Island and based on the letter would travel to New York occasionally. The Editorial Note provided by National Archives states that, "Woodhull largely confined himself to reports on Long Island and issues involved in conveyance of Townsend's reports." Anna Strong or possibly Agent 355 was also referred to in the letter. Woodhull wrote, "I intend to visit New-York before long and think by the assistance of a lady of my acquaintance,5 shall be able to outwit them all." In brief, this letter provided us with a new perspective on the barriers the members of the spy ring had to overcome, the primary introduction of Anna Strong, and Abraham Woodhull's position after Robert Townsend was recruited.

Esnauts And Rapilly. Map of the part of Virginia where the combined army of France & the United States of America captured the English Army commanded by Lord Cornwallis on October 19. , with the plan of the attack on York-town & Glocester. [Paris, Esnauts and Rapilly?, 1781] Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/gm71002364/.

Using this map, Washington was able to plan the attack on Cornwallis in Yorktown. This map states how the French and the Americans were planning to ambush Cornwallis and surround him, leaving him no place to escape. In our backdrop of our play, we were able to incorporate this map by hanging it up for Washington's tent. In our research, we learned how in Washington's camp, he had a sleeping quarters, a desk, and maps hung all around. Using this information, we decided to also hang maps for the background of Washington's camp.

Estaing, Charles-Hector Théodat Comte d'. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Vice Admiral d'Estaing, 5 September 1778," September 5, 1778. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-16-02-0556.

Vice Admiral D'Estaing's letter to General Washington taught us that in September of 1778, Vice Admiral d'Estaing was expecting a British attack, as his squadron was getting more supplies and resupplying. D'Estaing believed that espionage should play a primary part in getting reports about British intentions, and he was willing to pay the costs of the spies as well. He wanted George Washington to get information on the plans of the British through spies. This letter gave us more information on the genesis of the Culper Spy Ring. As we do our project, we want to do research on the before, during, and after, of the development of the Spy Ring. This letter depicts one of the primary events or requests that lead to the introduction/idea of the ring. This letter was the guiding point to help us find other letter from members of the espionage that occurred, and people who impacted it so we could further understand how it was created.

Faden, William. Plan of the Operations of General Washington, against the Kings Troops in New Jersey, from the 26th. of December, 1776, to the 3d. January 1777. Map. London, 1777. Accessed February 28, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3811s.ar126900/?r=0.02,0.303,1.206,0.697,0.

William Faden's map was utilized for our backdrop in George Washington's camp to enhance the authenticity of it. According to an article we previously read, George Washington would have had maps in his tent. This map we utilized "shows area from Newtown, Pennsylvania to Kingston, New Jersey with routes of British and American forces." Moreover, according to a Mount Vernon article the map portrayed the plans for General Washington at the Battle of Trenton. In brief, this map was essential to the development of our backdrop because it was from the Revolutionary War and specifically during the time period of the Culper Spy Ring's works.

Hinncks, John. Sketch of West Point. 1783. Illustration. Accessed February 24, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/item/gm71005426/.

The map of West Point provided in the sketch by John Hinncks provided us with crucial knowledge regarding the importance of West Point. This primary source gave us a visual depiction of West Point and the Hudson River including the fortifications. Due to the Patriots’ control over West Point, it prevented the British from controlling the Hudson River. If the British had control over the Hudson River, they could split the colonies into two. In addition, it was also essential to the transportation of supplies to other Patriots. West Point which is seen within the sketch was essentially paramount to the success of the Patriots’ mission - procuring liberty.

Howe, William. Letter to John Burgoyne, "July 17, 1777: William Howe Letter to John Burgoyne," July 1777. Henry Clinton Papers.

Although this was a British letter, this letter shows the different secret methods and techniques the spies used to keep their messages covert. Letters were inserted into the hollow quills of large feathers, sewn into buttons, and stuck into small silver balls. For this letter, it was cut into two long strips of paper containing messages on both pieces. Then, these two pieces of paper were put into the quill of a pen. The idea seems to have been that, if in danger, a courier could get rid of the papers more easily. This was just one of the man techniques used and without these methods the spies would not be able to win the war. They had to stay safe, and this was the only way.

Hull, William. Letter, "From the memoirs of Captain William Hull (of the Continental Army), quoting British Captain John Montresor, who was present at the hanging and who spoke to Hull under a flag of truce the next day: September 23, 1776," September 1776.

Captain William Hull retells and quotes British Captain John Montresor who was in attendance at the hanging of Nathan Hale. Hull writes about Montresor's description of Hale's calm and gentle morale before his death. Before being summoned for his public hanging, he requested for writing materials to write for his loved ones. Receiving the provided supplies, he wrote to his mother and his brother officer. As his time came, the memorable words that struck the crowd was "I only regret that, I have but one life to lose for my country." His legacy was made through words that truly described his spirit of patriotism.

The Independent Chronicle (Boston, MA), May 17, 1781. Accessed March 20, 2020. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015011606566&view=1up&seq=366.

This article from the newspaper the Independent Chronicle which was for the Boston Chronicle gave us a new perspective on both Nathan Hale and Major John André's death. With regard to John André, the article briefs that despite his actions the Americans treated him as a man and a soldier. John André was given "respect and compassion towards him in every countenance." Hale was "without the aid of a single countenance around him that spoke either respect or compassion," and was in turn viewed as a traitor. The article reflects on the differences on these two individuals’ deaths and their decisions made prior to their demise. It states, "André earnestly wished the mode of his death might have been more like

a soldier; but consoled himself by observing, that in either way it would be "but a moment's pang." Hale, calm and collected, took no notice of either of those circumstances." While this statement not only conveys the differences of both men, it also portrays how Nathan Hale surmounted the barrier of morality by both his intelligence operations and moments before his death. He had additionally broken through the barrier of trepidation along with the ordinary individuals that made up the Culper Spy Ring by gathering intelligence and before his death expressed by the previous quote. We received conflicting information upon synthesizing both this article and Captain William Hull's memoir with reference to Nathan Hale's final words which are stated in our play. The article states that "Hale had received no such respects, and had none to return; but just before he expired, said, aloud, 'I am so satisfied with the cause in which I have engaged, that my only regret is that I have not more lives than one to offer in its service.'" In brief, this newspaper article provides a greater insight on the differences of two key figures in the development of the Culper Spy Ring—Nathan Hale and Major John André's death for espionage against both Britain and America.

Jay, John. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from John Jay, 19 November 1778," November 19, 1778.

John Jay's letter addressed to George Washington instituted the use of the invisible ink for the Culper Spy Ring. In the letter it states, "This will be delivered by my Brother, who will communicate & explain to your Excellency a mode of Correspondence, which may be of use, provided proper agents can be obtained." This statement portrays that John Jay's brother James Jay developed the invisible ink and used it "in correspondence with his brother." James Jay was both a scientist and physician who never revealed the recipe of the invisible ink and it was in short supply. When writing letters, the invisible ink was used on white paper, and the recipient would apply a substance to read it. George Washington referred to it as sympathetic stain, but when in correspondence with James Jay, he referred to it as "medicine." John Jay experienced the efficiency of the ink "by a three Years Trial." In correspondence with George Washington, John Jay decides to remain silent on the topic.

Jefferson, Thomas. "The Declaration of Independence." National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript.

The Declaration of Independence showed to our group the barrier the spies broke. It represented what these spies were doing it all for. When reading this document, we were able to learn how strong the Patriots were willing to fight and what they were willing to do. In our case, it was spying. They were willing to break the code of gentleman and risk their lives to liberate America. The Declaration of Independence states, "When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation." According to this, the people of America knew it was necessary to split from the British and one of the ways they were able to do that was with espionage. The Patriots wanted to be the United States of America and it shows the why of spying. The people wanted freedom and Washington and army spies were willing to do anything for freedom.

Lafayette, Marquis de. Testimonial to James Armistead Lafayette, testimonial, "Lafayette's Testimonial to James Armistead Lafayette," November 21, 1784. Accessed November 22, 2019. http://ington/the-revolutionary-war/spying-and-espionage/american-spies-of-the-revolution/lafayettes-testimonial-to-james-armistead-lafayett.

Marquis de Lafayette's testimonial proved James Armistead Lafayette's significant works that contributed to the Culper spy ring at the Battle of Yorktown. His successes of collecting and delivering intelligence from the British impacted the victory of the Americans is portrayed within the testimonial. His service aided the Patriots in the revolution, and Lafayette is "entitled to every reward his situation can admit of." As James Armistead worked as a double agent and a slave he portrayed different characters for each side, which the testimonial addresses briefly when talking about "his intelligences from the enemy's camp." He provides an excellent example of breaking barriers by having obstacles of slavery and dangerous works of spies, he overcame them for the greater will to fight for America's freedom and liberty.

Letter, "Enclosure: Samuel Culper to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 22 January 1779," n.d. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-19-02-0092-0002#GEWN-03-19-02-0092-0002-fn-0003.

The letter is exchanged from Samuel Culper, Abraham Woodhull to Sir, Benjamin Tallmadge. Through the writing of Woodhull, it is shown of his high respect for Tallmadge. He adds by saying how he is flattered by the praises of Tallmadge to his intelligence previously. Culper continues his works by informing the plans and movements of the British troops. In addition, he includes by how the Cork fleet were supplied with 28 ships, and soon separated by harsh weather of winds. The letter is concluded by how they waited for the King's speech and how it should be said formal and favorable.

Letter, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 13 June 1779," n.d. Accessed November 22, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-21-02-0140.

This letter from Benjamin Tallmadge to George Washington portrays that Abraham Woodhull is getting paid, and now has a successor. His successor Robert Townsend had expectations from George Washington; this included conveying information briskly. The letter also introduced another man named George Higday, who stands well with the enemy, but also tells intelligence to George Washington on the west side of the North river, and will connect him with people in Bergen county. He also includes information about Abraham Woodhull's report of 8000 men up the river, and how he wishes that Robert Townsend will not guess on these numbers. This shows George Washington's apparent first knowledge of Abraham Woodhull's successor - Robert Townsend. It also shows his expectations from him such as a faster conveyance of information, and accurate accounts of the count of British men.

Letter, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 27 June 1779," June 1779. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-21-02-0231.

George Washington begins his letter to Benjamin Tallmadge by sending his ten guineas to reward Samuel Culper, Abraham Woodhull. He adds by reminding him the cautiousness it takes and is needed for the letters to be exchanged, and how the recent letter is becoming delayed. He includes that the transportation of communication through letters should be speed the process than the way it is. They are introduced a new agent with abbreviation of H-- due to hiding the identity of the spy. It was later found that he was George Higday. George Washington mentions that he does not know the identity and name of this agent, and how it should stay this way for the sake of his safety and so that works can be carried through in secrecy. Washington tells Tallmadge in his letter to use him wisely and well beneficially emphasizing how he must be hidden in identity so that he will be utilized for a longer time. This letter informs us about how Washington himself did not know the identity of the spies that contributed to the spy ring, but just their alias and works to only achieve the goal of winning the American Revolution. To gain secrecy and safety for the agents, he chose not to be revealed the identity of spies, so that the British will never find out and that they will never get caught.

Letter, "To George Washington from Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 8 January 1779," January 8, 1779. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-18-02-0665.

Through this letter, Benjamin updates Washington on the reports of the British troops led by General Erkstine. He informs by saying that this fleet is considerable in size, and is moving eastward. Trough intelligence, it was seen that within a day, 30 transports were made off Oysterbay, through 2 ships and 2 brigs. The troops settled in Huntington Harbor for the night for rest. Tallmadge believes that the British troops are backed up by forage fleet from Newport, but is not positive on his assumption. He concluded by reporting how No.5 agent has not yet returned from his task, which concerns him to thinking that he might have been caught or issued by the British. He adds by wishing him no accidents and safety.

Mount Vernon. Map. In Culper Spy Ring Code. https://www.mountvernon.org/education/primary-sources-2/article/culper-spy-ring-code/.

This code identifies what the numbers the spies used actually meant. The code was completely based on the sequence of numbers and it is how the spies were able to keep what they figured out a secret. The code shows how the number one actually meant "a" and the number two meant the word "an." Only members of the Culper Spy Ring had this code, and it was created by Benjamin Tallmadge. This helps us understand more letters and documents written by the spies. The spy's code shows how the spies were very advanced for their time, and one of the primary developments of the spy ring.

Paine, Thomas. The American Crisis. Library of Congress, n.d. Accessed February 1, 2020. http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/north/paine.html.

Thomas Paine's "The American Crisis," genuinely encompasses the reasoning to why the spies of the Culper Spy Ring were willing to risk their lives. "The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman, " in the words of Paine. "The American Crisis" conveys what empowered the spies and the patriotism that they had. Our group also included the pamphlet in our play as Benjamin Tallmadge was trying to convince Abraham Woodhull to join the espionage ring. The quote that was given before is what we utilized for the reasoning above. "The Crisis" shows the motivation of the spies to break obstructions of risking their lives, trepidation, and morality which is seen also by the quote, "yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph."

Ritchie, Alexander Hay. Last Words of Captain Nathan Hale…. 1858. Illustration. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/44653.

Alexander Hay Ritchie's painting engraving conveying moments before Nathan Hale was hung gives us cardinal information to depict his hanging in a play. Due to Nathan Hale's connection with Benjamin Tallmadge along with the significant barrier he broke, our group is including a brief scene of Nathan Hale's hanging. The stipple engraving of Nathan Hale along with his final words completed in 1858 provides our group with a within close range of idea of the clothes he wore, where he was hung, and who was surrounding him. In our interpretation of the engraving, Nathan Hale is wearing a white long sleeve shirt, a blue neck ribbon along with blue pants, white long songs, black shoes, and a blue ribbon for his hair. Furthermore, he is surrounded by several British officers in which case one is on a ladder with a rope and presumably citizens in dismay. His hands are tied behind his back with rope and it can be determined that he is going to be hung from a tree. In brief, this engraving provides our group with preeminent information with regard to the portrayal of Nathan Hale's hanging that availed us in how to show how Nathan Hale broke barriers by overcoming trepidation and morality along with the members of the Culper Spy Ring.

Sackett, Nathaniel. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Nathaniel Sackett, 7 April 1777," April 7, 1777. Accessed December 12, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-09-02-0081.

Nathaniel Sackett's letter to George Washington's addresses Washington's request to manage intelligence operations in the New York area. Nathaniel Sackett briefs that he went to New York, and met gentleman although they were only to open his espionage to William Duer along with an oath of secrecy. He mentions a man who he is well educated and a good surveyor to gather intelligence. According to Sackett, "on his way to the City his Bussiness was to Get what Inteligance he could[,] hire a Room in the City and Get a Licence to carry on a Secret trade for Poltry to ena⟨ble⟩ him to convey me Inteligance once or Twice a week he has not yet Return'd neither have I heard from him Since, I w⟨ould⟩ Inclose your Excellancy the Copy of the Oath he Took before he we⟨nt⟩ off but think it Imprudent therefore

must Beg to be Execu⟨sed⟩ untill a Personal Interview—emediately on my Return I for⟨tunate⟩ly Procured Two other Gentlemen of well known attachment to our Cause who are honest Sencible and Intrieuging, and have undertaken to go in to the Enemy and Seat them selves Down in their Camps." In this statement, he depicts the concise directions he gave the man and the reasoning for the other two men he recruited. These two men were mentioned as "Brunswick" and the "Amboy One." Sackett also relays on a woman "the wife of a man" who is to also gather intelligence. Nathaniel Sackett's letter is salient to the development of our project as it introduces Sackett as a paramount member in the espionage during the Revolutionary War. Questions such as if the members that Sackett describes in his letter were in the Culper ring guided us in the growth of our project.

Scott, Charles. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Brigadier General Charles Scott, 10 September 1778," September 10, 1778. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-16-02-0608.

General Charles Scott's letter addressed to General Washington taught us that General Washington had asked General Charles Scott to prepare spies to go gather intelligence on British intentions, and their ship movements, in response to Vice Admiral d'Estaing's request. This letter was the second primary source we analyzed, and it corresponds to the letter written from the Vice Admiral to George Washington. The information that General Scott relayed, assisted our group with the development of our project as it gave us more information on the establishment of the Culper Spy Ring, and the espionage that took place before its existence. Names of previous leaders, spymasters, or people with influence were mentioned within the letter. This included Captain Leavenworth, Butler Parker and Grayham who gathered intelligence or were leaders within the previous espionage. In addition, this primary source introduces a salient person to the introduction of the Culper Spy Ring, General Charles Scott, the author of this letter.

———. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Brigadier General Charles Scott, 29 October 1778," October 29, 1778. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-17-02-0654.

General Charles Scott's letter informs us that the first report of the then newly formed Culper Spy Ring was successful in providing circumstantial information on British naval movements. We learned about where some of the spy ring members were from, and how one of the spies could not relay information to General Scott. The spies lived in areas such as Long Island and both sides of the North river. We learned that the first information gathered from the Culper Spy Ring was beneficial to the success of the Patriots, such as the loyalists' movement. General Scott's letter helps us with the development of our project as we learned on of the spy network's different impacts upon the American Revolution, and the improvement of their espionage as time progressed.

———. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Brigadier General Charles Scott, 9 November 1778," November 9, 1778.

General Charles Scott's correspondence to George Washington depicts that the leaders of the Culper Spy Ring were not aware of the members identities. General Scott remarks, "the letter which I sent You by Cornet Wills was from Sir John Bolton the person whom Majr Talmadge Recommended To Your Excellency Some time ago. there will be no Dainger of his being discoverd. I do not know his Propper name my self, for Nither of those are." General Scott believes that John Bolton and Benjamin Tallmadge were different people, but while analyzing sundry sources, it renders that Major Tallmadge's code name was John Bolton. This is corroboration of another one of the Culper Spy Ring's attempts to keep their ring secret by not revealing names to leaders of the espionage ring. The ring members were anxious about the British discovering their true identities, and they would be appointed with treason. George Washington was aware of the dangers of spying and also did not know the members of the spy ring as well.

Tallmadge, Benjamin. Letter to George Washington, "From Major Benjamin Tallmadge to George Washington, 28–30 July 1779," July 28, 1779. Accessed January 20, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-21-02-0576-0001.

Through July 28th to July 30th, 1779, Benjamin Tallmadge wrote a letter to George Washington which explains the current happenings in the Culper Spy Ring. In this letter, Tallmadge explains how he has received the "invisible ink." This letter was also one of the first letters to use the new Culper code. Washington had just received the Culper Code Book and it was a very important aspect of the spy ring. Without this book, the spies would not have been able to stop British suspicions. For example, before the book was created, the British had intercepted one of the letters from Washington. in this letter, Washington had used George Higday's name explicitly. Then, eleven days after, Higday was arrested at his own home. Washington knew this was too close of a call and saw the dangers of using real names in correspondence. This led to the creation of the Culper Code Book. By using this code, the spies were untraceable and safe from all danger. Moving on, this letter also mentions instructions on how to read a certain letter that includes information about how to use invisible ink. The invisible ink, also known as, sympathetic stain was created by James Jay. This stain added an added level of security for the spies. Robert Townsend was especially relieved when he received his invisible ink as he would be less likely to ever be caught by the British. This letter was one of the first letters to be written in the code and from here till the end, all the letters would have more secrecy.

Tallmadge, Benjamin. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Benjamin Tallmadge, 11 October 1780," October 11, 1780. Accessed April 3, 2020. https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/default.xqy?keys=FOEA-print-01-01-02-3540.

In Benjamin Tallmadge's correspondence to George Washington it conveys a paramount event within the Culper Spy Ring only a few months after one of the espionage ring's biggest feats by discovering the planned British attack on the French fleet at Newport, Rhode Island. This event was that the infamous Benedict Arnold had suspected a spy ring was operating in Long Island and New York; he subsequently

was apprehending any individuals that were supposedly patriot spies. Benjamin Tallmadge writes however to Washington that, "The Conduct of Arnold, since his arrival at N.Y. has been such, that although he knows not a single Link in the Chain of my Correspondence..." Despite Major Tallmadge conveying that Benedict Arnold was not aware of the Culper Spy Ring's intelligence gathering, the individuals in the spy ring were "too apprehensive of Danger, to give their immediate usual intelligence." This correspondence brought to light an overlooked event in the Culper Spy Ring's history which assisted in the development of trepidation among the spies. The fear of danger, and being caught by the British became a larger concern after Benedict Arnold's ventures to find the source of intelligence within the city. Concisely, Benjamin Tallmadge's letter addressed to George Washington in mid-October of 1780 portrays Benedict Arnold's knowledge of American intelligence and how the barrier of fear was built among the spies in certain situations such as this one.

———. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Benjamin Tallmadge, 22 July 1780," July 22, 1780. Accessed March 31, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-02628.

Benjamin Tallmadge's brief correspondence to George Washington in late July of 1780 is paramount for the development of our understanding of one of the biggest feats of the Culper Spy Ring. An assisting French fleet that was holding over 6000 troops and the supplies for Washington's unarmed men was approaching Newport, Rhode Island, but the British were knowledgeable of this plan. The Culper Spy Ring received intelligence concerning the British attack and reported it to General Washington allowing him to spread misinformation about an attack from him in New York. This consequently led the British to call of the attack saving the French from a probable defeat which could have decimated the Franco-American alliance. Benjamin Tallmadge writes to Washington about the intelligence of the British attack. "I have this moment recd the enclosed from the Cu's which I have the Honour to enclose to your Excellency & forward by Express to Genl Howe." The individuals of the Culper Spy Ring were able to heavily assist in breaking through the barrier of British rule through feats such as these which allowed them to gain liberation. In brief, this letter was preeminent for us to further understand the accomplishment briefed above by the Culper Spy Ring and discover the primary source evidence that allowed us to research it.

———. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 19 November 1778," November 19, 1778. Accessed April 2, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-18-02-0227.

In mid-November of 1778, Benjamin Tallmadge's correspondence to George Washington genuinely conveys the development of the barrier of trepidation that Abraham Woodhull had to break through. Tallmadge writes with regard to Abraham Woodhull, "His extreme cautiousness & even timidity, in his present undertaking, would not admit of having his business made known to any Persons." Tallmadge later delineated that General Charles Scott had observed that if Woodhull's role in patriotic espionage was known to anybody it is probable that he would "leave his present employmt immediately." Abraham Woodhull's impediment of fear of getting caught by the British particularly in his 50 mile journey to New York City was the most intractable one too surmount. The Culper Spy Ring subsequently utilized

many method such as dead drops, the compartmentalizing of intelligence, and the well-crafted back stories which were largely responsible of alleviating the fear of the spies. In brief, this letter was critical for our understanding of Abraham Woodhull's fear and the ramifications he proposed that would come if his identity was revealed.

———. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 25 July 1779," July 25, 1779. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-21-02-0540. [Original source: The Papers of George Washington, Revolutionary War Series, vol. 21, 1 June–31 July 1779, ed.

In the letter addressed to George Washington from Benjamin Tallmadge depicts the introduction of the numerical code book that Benjamin Tallmadge created. Benjamin Tallmadge agrees that agrees to its imperfections, but doesn't doubt its sufficiency in in rendering the correspondence safe. It assists us in our ability to understand more letters and reports that were created by the spy ring, and it will help us in the development of our project. This is due to its ability to guide us in one of the advancements of the Culper spy ring that increased the efficiency of the Culper spy ring. In the letter it briefly addresses an invisible ink they were using.

———. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 23 December 1778," December 23, 1778. Accessed March 23, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/?q=culper&s=1111311111&sa=&r=10&sr=.

Major Benjamin Tallmadge's correspondence to George Washington in late December of 1778 gives us attestation that George Washington did not know the identity of any of the members of the spy ring. Benjamin Tallmadge wrote, "Since your Excellency judges it improper to have an interview with C——, any private instructions which you may wish to transmit him, not so proper for me to transcribe, may be very safely convey'd to him;" In the letter, Tallmadge also encloses intelligence from Abraham Woodhull to George Washington addressed under the alias' Samuel Culper to John Bolton. The quote stated above is corroboration that George Washington had to remove the impediment of the pressure of the lives of agents on his hands while simultaneously not knowing their identities, only basing off their correspondence with the exception of Benjamin Tallmadge. George Washington surmounted this barrier with the alias' provided to the members except for Caleb Brewster. In brief, this letter between the two individuals was paramount to develop on our understanding of George Washington's knowledge of the identities of the spies and to further research what the Culper Spy Ring was doing in late 1778.

———. Letter to James Sparks, 1833.

When Benjamin Tallmadge addressed President Sparks in 1833 on his account of Benedict Arnold's treason, Major Tallmadge states his relationship with Nathan Hale. In the memoir, Tallmadge remarks, "When I could no longer evade this Importunity, I said to him that I had a much loved Classmate in Yale College by the name of Nathan Hale, who entered the Army with me in the year 1776. After the British troops had entered N. York, Genl Washington wanted Information respecting the strength, position & probable movements of the Enemy. Capt. Hale tendered his services, went into N. York, ..." Tallmadge's

letter the General Washington gave our group evidence of Benjamin Tallmadge's relationship to Nathan Hale. Benjamin Tallmadge also briefs on his stating to John André that he believes his fate is similar to Nathan Hale's. This correspondence gave proof of their relationship which lead us to conduct more research on Nathan Hale's life and his execution. Our research on Nathan Hale's life lead us to understand more proficiently about the espionage prior to the Culper Spy Ring.

Townsend, Robert. "Robert Townsend Account Books." Chart. 1772-1785. Accessed January 30, 2020. http://easthamptonlibrary.org/long-island-history/robert-townsend-account-books/.

The firsthand information revealed in Robert Townsend's account books was extremely helpful in understanding how Townsend operated in Oyster Bay and then in Manhattan. All of Townsend's entries reveal more about Townsend's mood swings and emotional struggles. The periods of inactivity in Townsend's ledgers show his emotional struggles and business habits. For example, when Townsend's dear friend Agent 355 was mysteriously captured, Townsend's entries became very spaced out and almost non-existent. They went from almost every day to not even once a month. These ledgers showed to our group the toll espionage sometimes had on the spies' daily lives.

Trumbull, Jonathan Sr. Letter to George Washington, "To George Washington from Jonathan Trumbull, Sr., 5 May 1780," May 5, 1780. Accessed December 10, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-25-02-0395.

John Trumbull, the governor of Connecticut, wrote the recommendatory letter to George Washington in the spring of 1780. The petitioners formed an enterprise to announce to the governor, and he sent them to George Washington who applauded them. Eventually, he made several visits to New York City, and was happy to obtain the important information. Unfortunately, on September 7th, 1780, he was arrested in New York City as a spy, still residing at Horse Neck in Connecticut, and on the information of a villain. He was confided in the lower dungeons and remained in that situation for two hundred and thirty five days. "He further begs leave to represent that tho' his Excellency General Washington did not agree with your Petitioner for any stipulated sum, still he was promised the most generous reward for his services;". This letter gathers more information to the development of our project as it explains his efforts as a spy. Also, it portrays events like this happening in the Culper Spy Ring.

Washington, George. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Benjamin Tallmadge, 11 September 1783," September 11, 1783.

George Washington's correspondence addressed to Benjamin Tallmadge addresses both the faults and successes of the Culper Spy Ring and as the members individually. George Washington remarks in regard to Abraham Woodhull, that "the Services which were rendered by him (however well meant) was by no means adequate to these Expenditures." He also briefs on his regrets of not ending his intelligence "long before a cessation of hostilities took place, because his communications were never frequent, and always tedious getting into hand." Nevertheless, at the closing of the letter George Washington addresses Benjamin Tallmadge with kind remarks offering him his "sincere & Affectionate thanks for your good wishes,..." Washington also states, "the favourable sentiments you have been pleased to

express of me; the ready obedience, & polite attention which I have ever experienced from the officers of the Army, over whom I have had the honor to preside, fills me with the most pleasing sensations; the reflection of which will contribute not a little to my future happiness; to none, am I more indebted for these than to yourself and with great truth I can assure you that at all times and in whatever place I may be, I shall have pleasure in seeing you, and making thes acknowledgements, being with much truth Dr Sir Yr Most Obedt Servt." Washington's ability to express happiness and kindness to Benjamin Tallmadge is apparent for his works in espionage, and this correspondence depicts both the proficiency and delay of the Culper Spy Ring.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 5 July 1779," July 5, 1779.

George Washington's response to Benjamin Tallamdge's letter which has not been found addresses Tallmadge's loss of papers which "was certainly a most unlucky accident." George Washington reminds and pleads Tallmadge in this situation that it is paramount to not keep circumstantial evidence of any consequence "at an advanced post" "to guard against the like in the future." George Higday's life was most targetted by the papers stolen during the attack on Tallamdge's camp. George Washington writes, "...Higday who lives not far from the Bowery on the Island of New York3—I wish you could endeavour to give him the speediest notice of what has happened—My anxiety on his account is great, if he is really the man he has been represented to be, he will in all probability fall a sacrifice." After these events, George Higday was arrested based on the British obtaining these papers which candidly expresses the dangers of espionage and the risks the members of the Culper Spy Ring were taking. The members of the spy ring were sacrificing their lives to break the ultimate barrier of rule from Britain to procure liberty and justice from freedom.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 9 October 1779," October 9, 1779. Accessed February 27, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-22-02-0558.

In early October, George Washington's correspondence to Benjamin Tallmadge informs him to meet with him personally to converse "to establish a very regular communication with Long Island." George Washington writes, "these plans are better settled personally than by letter, I shall be glad to see you at Head Quarters. After leaving some person who can be intrusted with the Rect of C—— letters and forwarding them and any observations upon the sound, be pleased to ride over.4 I am Dear Sir Yr most ot Servt." Based on this information, it can be determined how paramount Washington found the Culper Spy Ring and its intelligence. According to the Editorial Note by National Archives, "Clearly putting a premium on the Culper intelligence, GW in October held a conference with Tallmadge to discuss their operations; the conference resulted in a set of specific instructions to govern the spies' activities during the anticipated offensive."

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 6 October 1779," October 6, 1779. Accessed March 22, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-22-02-0526.

George Washington's correspondence to Benjamin Tallmadge in early October of 1779 conveyed how paramount the intelligence the Culper Spy Ring gathered was to his operations. George Washington was expecting the arrival of Vice Admiral D'Estaing's French fleet to prepare for an allied attack as joint operations. Subsequently, he needed intelligence regarding the British in specific points briskly. George Washington wrote, "I wish also to know where their shipping lyes, and if they appear to be taking measures, and what measures, for their security in case of a French ⟨fleet⟩'s entering the harbour." Based on this letter, it can be portrayed the reliance Washington had on the Culper Spy Ring and espionage. In times like these, planning his defensive dispositions, and more, intelligence from the Culper Spy Ring aided George Washington to remove the impediment of the disadvantages of his army to lead to liberation. The Culper Spy Ring was able to be essential in surmounting the barrier of the restrictive rule of the British with intelligence operations such as this one. In essence, this letter was essential in the development of our research to both understand the Culper Spy Ring's actions during this time and George Washington's dependence on the members of the spy ring.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 29 November 1778," November 29, 1778. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-18-02-0363.

In late November, George Washington remarked to Benjamin Tallmadge that one of Abraham Woodhull's first reports was beneficial and he is "desirous of continuance of his correspondence." Due to this early success, George Washington directs Benjamin Tallmadge with the continuance of the spy network. In contrary to the success, George Washington also wished for an advancement in regard to the route of the messages. He wishes this could be brought upon through an officer in Danbury which would be known to him. This conveyance of information to Tallmadge guided us in the development of our project as it shows George Washington's reaction to the first of the Culper Spy Ring's works. This letter gathers how the Culper Spy Ring was breaking barriers in the intelligence community in the first stages of its development comparison to the expectations not met from the previous espionage network.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 21 March 1779," March 21, 1779. Accessed November 22, 2019. "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 21 March 1779," Founders Online, National Archives, accessed September 29, 2019, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-19-02-0550. [Original source: The Papers of George Washington, Revolutionary War Series, vol. 19, 15 January–7 April 1779, ed. Philander D. Chase and William M. Ferraro. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009, pp. 561–563.].

We learned from this letter that on March 21, 1779, George Washington wanted to change several aspects of the Culper Spy Ring's methods. He wished that Abraham Woodhull could use a more direct channel for the conveyance of his letters through General Maxwell in Elizabeth town or Colo. Shrieve in Newark. He also wanted Woodhull to move to New York (the headquarters of Britain) to reduce suspicion. George Washington also wanted them to focus on detail about troops, reinforcements, and refugees in detail. George Washington soon adapted the spy ring to his own needs, issuing new instructions in March 1779. This letter helps to the development of our project as it reiterates his effect on the Culper Spy Ring. It also portrays the improvements the Culper Spy Ring could undergo.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 25 July 1779," July 25, 1779.

In George Washington's correspondence to Benjamin Tallmadge, he explains how the invisible works to Major Tallmadge. George Washington asks Benjamin Tallmadge to send both the invisible ink and counterpart to Robert Townsend, otherwise known as Samuel Junior. George Washington also mentions that Governor Tyron, a British officer, "has a preparation of the same kind," which could possibly lead to detection and which is why "prudence & circumspection," is necessary. In the letter, General Washington also would like to know where the regiment lies, and if certain that regiments lay on Staten Island and the city of York. General Washington also briefs on fleets passing Eastward by Norwalk and General Clinton and Sir George Collier were with this fleet. General Washington also requests to hear about a response on the subjects that are addressed in the letter.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 25 August 1778," August 25, 1778.

In late August, George Washington's correspondence with Benjamin Tallmadge was briefed in Tallmadge's memoir that included extra information by Henry Phelps Johnston. Johnston remarks, "The Major's first connection with it seems to date from August 25th, 1778, soon after the battle of Monmouth, when Washington sent him an invitation to dine with him and talk the business over. Washington briefs that if Colonel Sheldon is with Abraham Woodhull then they could join as well. This letter is the first connection to the Culper Spy Ring in which Major Tallmadge rendered extensive and paramount service to Washington. It helps us understand when Tallmadge first was introduced to the Spy Ring.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 28 August 1779," August 28, 1779.

In late August of 1779, George Washington addressed Major Benjamin Tallmadge. In the correspondence, George Washington referred to the Culper Spy Ring for means of obtaining intelligence that" is essential—To know as nearly as may be the amount of the enemy's reinforcement with Arbuthnot—how many, & the names of the compleat Corps wch compose it—whether there is any bustle in preparing for a movement of Troops by Land or Water, or both—and the destination of it, as far as can be discovered from appearances, information, or surmise..." The information that the Culper Spy Ring was to procure help in his plans for "defense dispositions." George Washington greatly relied on the intelligence of the Culper Spy Ring during August 1779 which is rendered in this letter to Major Tallmadge. This correspondence depicts the sundry ways that the Culper Spy Ring was of aid to General Washington and the dependence that the general had among the spy ring members for his plans.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From George Washington to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 27 June 1779," June 27, 1779.

In late June of 1779, George Washington's correspondence to Benjamin Tallmadge addresses Robert Townsend and the counterfeit money flooding attempt that James Rivington had figured out about. His expectations for Robert Townsend were for him to "endeavour to hit upon some certain mode of conveying his information quickly; for it is of little avail to be told of things after they have become matters of public notariety; & known to every body." One of the most proficient feats of the Culper Spy Ring was the attempt of the flooding of the counterfeit money that is addressed in this letter. Washington wants Robert Townsend to communicate his signature and private marks by which the counterfeits are supposed to be distinguished from his genuine papers. Washington also briefs on George Higday who has good relations with the British as mentioned by Washington who could convey intelligence with him when he was on the West side of the North river. George Washington also briefs on his knowledge of the fate of Higday and the members of the spy ring. He remarks, "I do not know who H——employs but from H——I obtain intelligence, and his name and business should be kept profoundly secret, otherwise we not only lose the benefits derived from it, but may subject him to some unhappy fate."

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "George Washington to Benjamin Tallmadge, September 22, 1779," September 22, 1779. Accessed April 4, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/resource/mgw3b.010/?sp=37&st=text.

In George Washington's correspondence to Benjamin Tallmadge it develops on the perspective of Washington's opinions and reliance on the Culper Spy Ring. General Washington wrote, "Very interesting events have taken place which must and have produced circumstances in New York, deserving of his notice: That he has gone so far beyond his promise makes me rather uneasy on his account and desirous to learn what you may think on the subject." This quote provides two paramount sections that relate to George Washington's outlook on the spy ring's espionage operations. The first part of the quote conveying the recent events in New York and his need of intelligence further reiterates another point in time where he relied on intelligence as his hidden weapon and the individuals as his

clandestine army. Moreover, in the second section of the quote, it portrays that Washington often got anxious when not receiving intelligence from Woodhull due to the value of the reports. This depicts that along with the spies of the Culper Spy Ring, George Washington had to overcome not only the barrier of anxiety of having the pressure of the spy’s lives on his hands, but also the anxiety of not receiving intelligence at a timely rate or breaks in procuring it. In brief, the letter in late September precisely shows an additional barrier that George Washington had to surmount, Abraham Woodhull's delay in reports, the reliance he had on the Culper Spy Ring, and events that were happening during this period of time.

———. Letter to Charles-Hector Théodat Comte d' Estaing, "From George Washington to Vice Admiral d'Estaing, 11–12 September 1778," September 11, 1778. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-16-02-0616.

George Washington's letter addressed to Vice Admiral d'Estaing taught us information about several different aspects about the Culper Spy Ring. George Washington addresses naval plans for the colonists, and how to counteract the British. This source, however, was primarily used for the response to d'Estaing about espionage. George Washington assures the Vice Admiral that in regard to the position of the British, the need for intelligence has been taken to answer as could be expected, and he agrees with him. This assurance is based on the letter to George Washington from Brigadier General Charles Scott on September 10, 1778 that we previously read. General Washington's information relayed helped us with the development of our project due to the information that as we got more information on the certainty George Washington had with his previous espionage group. As we learn about the Culper Spy Ring's development, this is beneficial as we can determine the difference in their abilities, and how it came to an end or continued to develop.

———. Letter to Charles Scott, "From George Washington to Brigadier General Charles Scott, 25 September 1778," September 25, 1778. Accessed September 25, 1778. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-17-02-0122.

George Washington's letter to General Charles Scott depicts the difference in opinion George Washington has based on the letter from George Washington to Vice Admiral d'Estaing on September 11–12th, 1778. In that letter, George Washington believes that he has taken every measure for gathering intelligence on British intentions in regard to the resupplying of D'Estaing's troops. In contrary, two weeks later George Washington addresses in this letter that he wants Charles Scott to create a new spy network. The reports are suit to fit the French general; this primarily includes the movements of the British Ships at War in New York. It also mentions Abraham Woodhull, who George Washington recommends. We learned that the Culper Spy Ring was the effect of an unsuccessful previous espionage network in regard to George Washington and the French General's needs. The letter includes the first expectations of the spy ring, the first stage in development, and the members that were in consideration.

———. Letter to Comte de Rochambeau, "George Washington to Comte de Rochambeau, 27 July 1780," July 27, 1780. Accessed April 13, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-02-02-0789.

In George Washington's correspondence to Comte de Rochambeau it is the first primary source evidence corroboration of Washington's plans for a diversionary attack in New York with the assistance of the Culper Spy Ring. It is probable that the letter written could have possibly been the letter that the espionage ring let fall into the enemy's hands being a factor in why the British called off the attack on Newport, Rhode Island that could have destroyed the Franco-American alliance. This letter was paramount to the development of our primary source evidence concerning one of the Culper Spy Ring's most profound feats according to multiple secondary sources. In brief, this letter conveyed how the Culper Spy Ring broke through the barrier of the British knowledge of the 7,600 troops at Rhode Island by spreading diversionary intelligence consequently aiding our research greatly.

———. Letter to Elias Dayton, "From George Washington to Colonel Elias Dayton, 26 July 1777," July 26, 1777. Accessed February 8, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-10-02-0415.

In this letter, George Washington recognized the dire need for spying. He knew that spying was the way to win the war. Washington wrote, “The necessity of procuring good Intelligence is apparent & need not be further urged—All that remains for me to add, is, that you keep the whole matter as secret as possible." To win the war, spying was crucial. They needed to keep everything a secret matter, Washington had finally understood that the only way to end with a victory against the unbeatable army was with espionage. There was no other way. This letter showed to our group why Washington needed intelligence and the dire necessity for it. Also, this letter showed how the Dayton Ring was another ring that operated alongside the Culper Spy Ring. The letter read, "Because I wish you to take every possible pains in your power, by sending trusty persons to Staten Island in whom you can confide to obtain intelligence of the Enemy's situation & numbers—What kind of Troops they are, and What Guards they have—their Strength & where posted." Washington, in this letter, was recruiting Elias Dayton to create a ring to gather intelligence. Washington told Dayton to take everything in his power and send trustworthy people to gather intelligence. Overall, this letter represented the need for spying, but also more information on the Dayton Spy Ring.

———. Letter to John Laurens, "From George Washington to John Laurens, 13 October 1780," October 13, 1780. Accessed February 21, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/?q=george%20washington%20%2213%20october%201780%22&s=1111311111&sa=&r=11&sr=.

General Washington's letter addressed to John Laurens is primary source evidence from George Washington's reaction to Benedict Arnold's treason and how it affected George Washington personally. He writes with regard to Benedict Arnold, "From some traits of his character which have lately come to my knowledge he seems to have been so hackneyed in villainy—& so lost to all sense of honor and shame that while his faculties will enable him to continue his sordid pursuits there will be no time for remorse." Washington also includes how three militia men captured John André, but "should as certainly have got Arnold." George Washington's letter portrays the trust he had in Benedict Arnold and how

deeply his actions affected him. The Culper Spy Ring was the primary reason Benedict Arnold was recognized as a traitor and as we include a scene in our performance about George Washington's reaction to Benedict Arnold's "villainous perfidy" it was crucial for us to truly understand how it affected him so we could embody it within our performance.

———. Letter to Nathaniel Sackett, "From George Washington to Nathaniel Sackett, 8 April 1777," April 8, 1777. Accessed March 14, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-09-02-0096.

This letter conveys Nathaniel Sackett's intelligence operations during the Revolutionary War and the reasoning to why George Washington believed he was not suitable for the position of leading a covert intelligence service. Washington writes, "As your Letter of yesterdays date is rather a narative of what you have done, than any thing else, scarce any answer is necessary..." When we synthesized other primary source we found that General Washington valued delineations that were both short and concise. Moreover, George Washington briefs on the importance of timely intelligence so it is not found as false and to prevent "erroneous Acts." These criticisms with Sackett's leadership were paramount to the development of the spy ring and to come to a conclusive decision on why Sackett was fired. Despite these censures, Nathaniel Sackett broke barriers with the gathering of intelligence that would guide the members of the Culper Spy Ring to further revolutionize those methods.

———. Letter to Nathaniel Sackett, "Orders to Nathaniel Sackett, 4 February 1777," February 4, 1777. Accessed September 29, 2019. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-08-02-0259.

George Washington's letter addressed to Nathaniel Sackett gives him instructions for "obtaining the earliest and best Intelligence of the designs of the enemy." He tells him that he will pay him 50 dollars each month for the work that he is doing. The date of this letter on February 4th, 1777 which is a year apart from the letters addressed to General Scott. This guided us in our research as it allows us to understand if the Culper Spy Ring was developed earlier or previous spy rings during the American Revolution.

———. Letter to Robert Hunter Morris, "From George Washington to Robert Hunter Morris, 1 January 1756," January 1, 1756. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-02-02-0255.

George Washington's letter to Robert Hunter Morris portrays Washington's knowledge of the profound benefits of intelligence prior to the Revolutionary War in the French and Indian War due to the letter being written in early 1756. Washington writes, "There is nothing more necessary than good intelligence to frustrate a designing Enemy: and nothing that requires greater pains to obtain. I shall therefore cheerfully come into any measures you can propose to settle a correspondence for this salutary end: and you may depend upon receiving (when the provinces are threatened) the earliest and best intelligence I can procure." We utilized this quote in our play as a line from George Washington because it genuinely conveys the importance of the Culper Spy Ring among with the barriers that needed to be broken for it to be effective. In the Culper Spy Ring, the intelligence the members gathered proved to have a profound impact on the successful outcome of the revolutionary war, but the members were often hard

to procure due to the risk of dying an ignominious death and anxiety. The quote directly corresponds to Nathan Hale, which is corroboration that securing spies would prove to be difficult. George Washington's letter gives our group evidence of the necessity of intelligence and how he recognized it prior to the revolutionary war.

———. Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior. Washington, W.H. Morrison, 1888. Accessed February 13, 2020. https://archive.org/details/washingtonsrule00washgoog/page/n14/mode/2up.

General Washington's "Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior" candidly depicts the social barriers that he broke with the utilization of the Culper Spy Ring. Washington's book conveys how much honor meant to him and the constrictive rules that he followed to be known as a gentleman and to climb socially of being "a leading Virginian." After synthesizing several sources, we found that spying was dishonorable and was both disgraceful and shameful during the time of the Revolutionary War. Moreover, spying was treated as treason and as seen with prior to John André's death he wanted to die a soldier's death instead of a spy's death. However, General Washington still managed the espionage ring despite these social understandings of the public knowing that he had everything to lose. His "Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior" were described as "..rules were instructions on proper etiquette. Making a good impression on people was important in colonial society." This not only renders the importance of honor and the barrier that George Washington was breaking.

Woodhull, Abraham. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "Enclosure: Samuel Culper to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, 22 January 1779," January 22, 1779. Accessed January 21, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-19-02-0092-0002.

Abraham Woodhull (Samuel Culper) wrote in this letter about classified information such as British troop movements and battalion size to Benjamin Tallmadge. This letter contains information about the abundance of supplies that Great Britain had. For example, the letter included a statement that claimed that a British fleet contained 25 ships. The spies also used the word, "sir" rather than using Tallmadge's name. This traces back to the importance of secrecy in the letters for the spies. This letter contains useful information to the Continental army as it contained multiple facts that compromised British information. Overall, this letter shows us how Culper Spy Ring wrote information and organized their letters. This represents just how trusted the Culper Ring was with information. Washington had no identity for the spies, so he just had to trust that they were giving valid information. Washington trusted them with such valuable information and it shows how important the spies actually were.

———. Letter to Benjamin Tallmadge, "From Samuel Culper to Benjamin Tallmadge, 5 June 1779," June 5, 1779.

In Abraham Woodhull's correspondence with Benjamin Tallmadge, it addresses the - Misfortune on the 24 of April - the beating of his father in the only primary source evidence we have found. Abraham Woodhull elucidates on the process, first beginning with John Wosely who returned from Connecticut after being paroled. Wosely lodged information against Abraham Woodhull of most likely his intelligence operations within the Culper Spy Ring. He writes "And Lodgid information againts me before Coll Simcoe of the Queens Rangers who thinking of finding me at Setauket Came down but happily I Set out for N. york the day before his arrival. And to make Some Compensation for his Voige he fell upon my father and Plundered him in a most Schocking Manner I hearing of it and his intentions used every endevour to defeat his designs which I hapily did in a measure by a freind of mine makeing intrest with the Genl Aid and only that Saved me." At the conclusion of the letter Abraham Woodhull explains that he believes he is in continual danger based off of the events mentioned above. Abraham Woodhull eventually resides in Setauket after these events occur and Robert Townsend takes his place in New York. In the development of our research, Woodhull explicates on these proceedings in this letter to Benjamin Tallmadge. In brief, it serves as attestation of the reasoning of why Abraham Woodhull had stopped providing intelligence in New York and the prime barrier of trepidation he had to overcome based on this event.

Annotated Secondary Sources

"Agent 355." History of American Women. Accessed March 16, 2020. http://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2011/12/agent-355.html.

In the History of American Women's article regarding Agent 355 it gives a full specification of Agent 355's both role and effect on the members of the Culper Spy Ring. In the inception of Robert Townsend's reports he "indicated that he could get good information on the British Navy, but little on the British Army." Consequently, Abraham Woodhull briefs in his correspondence with Benjamin Tallmadge that he intended to visit New York to get assistance from a 355 (lady). George Washington was able to receive beneficial concise intelligence about the British Army within two months of the letter. Agent 355 additionally is conjectured to be the member passing information concerning Benedict Arnold's treason that ultimately lead to the apprehension of John André. After rounding up suspects following John André's capture, " A pregnant Agent 355 was arrested and questioned, but refused to reveal any information on her activities or the father of her child. Had Townsend formed a powerful emotional attachment to her, and was gathering money to ransom her freedom? Agent 355 was held aboard the notorious prison ship HMS Jersey in New York harbor, where conditions on those prison ships were so horrific that life expectancy was only a few months. She later gave birth to a boy, but allegedly died aboard the ship." Subsequently, reports from the members of the Culper Spy Ring declined and Robert Townsend according to family letters, "lived out his days depressed, unmarried and drinking heavily." Agent 355 was a leading figure in breaking the barrier of oppressive rule from the British with the assistance of the Culper Spy Ring. Although her identity has still not been discovered, her clandestine operations lead to the discovery of Benedict Arnold and providing further beneficial intelligence to fundamentally lead to the liberation of America.

Allen, Peter Van. "Museum to Showcase George Washington's War Tent." Philadelphia Business Journal. Last modified December 3, 2013. Accessed February 19, 2020. https://www.bizjournals.com/philadelphia/news/2013/12/03/planned-museum-showcases-tent-fit-for.html.

Peter Van Allen described what George Washington had in his marquee for the development of the backdrop of our play. Due to us having George Washington's marquee for the backdrop of our play, we needed to understand what George Washington had in it as well for props. According to the article, "Washington's marquee served as both his sleeping quarters and war office, and would have been filled with maps, books, journals and so on. He lived in it for eight years, returning to his home at Mount Vernon just once, said Michael Quinn, president and CEO of the Museum of the American Revolution." Based on this information, we were able to understand what George Washington utilized and what to add to our play including his maps, books, and journals.

Andrews, Evan. "9 Things You May Not Know about Benedict Arnold." History.com. Last modified January 13, 2016. Accessed February 21, 2020. http://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-benedict-arnold.

Evan Andrews' article provides a detailed description on what fueled Arnold's treason which was fundamental in our research to learn about the before aspect. Based on the information provided in the website, he began secretly contacting British General Henry Clinton to ask if he could switch his loyalty with the crown. The methods he utilized to keep this correspondence discreet were some of the same methods used by the Culper Spy Ring these including coded letters and invisible ink. According to the article, "Greed and personal debts were certainly a motivating factor in Arnold's treachery—he demanded 20,000 British pounds for turning his coat—but he had also become disillusioned with the revolutionary cause. He'd been stung by a Continental Congress decision to promote five junior officers ahead of him, and he believed fellow soldiers such as Ethan Allen and Horatio Gates had tried to smear his reputation and take credit for his successes on the battlefield." Historians agree that his wife who came from a well-known leading factor was also a cause in which he turned traitor.

"Anna Smith Strong." History of American Women. Accessed April 5, 2020. https://my.noodletools.com/web/bibliography.html.

The article "Anna Smith Strong" not only reinforced our knowledge on the Culper Spy Ring, but gave us additional information on Anna Strong. Anna Strong's husband Selah Strong, a prominent patriot judge, made their family a target for the British. The text states that, "In 1778 her husband Judge Selah Strong was arrested and confined on the British prison ship Jersey in New York harbor for "surreptitious correspondence with the enemy." The conditions on those ships were terrible, and she finally got permission to bring him food, which evidently saved his life." Her husband and children went to Connecticut, and she subsequently stayed in Strong's Neck to take care of the family home. The article describes Anna Strong's operations in the Culper Spy Ring by explaining how she conveyed where Caleb Brewster resided in with her laundry. A piece of information that we had previously not come across before was that when George Washington toured Long Island in 1790, Selah Strong led Washington's carriage to Austin Roe's tavern where it is probable that he thanked the individuals of the spy ring for their sacrifices towards patriotic espionage. This genuinely portrays Washington's character towards the Culper Spy Ring, and how he was grateful. Moreover, the article gave us two barriers that Anna Strong and the Culper Spy Ring broke through. As briefed before, Anna Strong was able to surmount the barrier of being a target from the British through her simplicity in giving information by hanging laundry. Another barrier that the Culper Spy Ring broke through can be depicted in the following quote. "Despite some strained relations within the group and constant pressure from Washington to send more information, the Culper Spy Ring achieved more than any other American or British intelligence network during the war." Generally speaking, this article provided us new insight on the barriers the Culper Spy Ring broke, Anna Strong's life within and beyond the spy ring, and Washington's gratitude to the individuals succeeding the war.

Archives, National. "Editorial Note" [Editorial Note]. National Archives. Accessed January 10, 2020. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-22-02-0039-0000.

This source talks about George Washington and his couriers and spies within the ring. d'Estaing had expected an attack on his men either from land, sea or both. He pressed Washington on reports on British intentions. In the months that are covered by this note, Washington relied heavily on the Culper reports to plan his own attacks and battle plans. He also used the intelligence to plan combined attacks with the French forces. "George Washington called on the Culper spies for "essential" reports to help him plan his defensive dispositions in anticipation of a British offensive up the Hudson River". General Washington also wrote letters to Benjamin Tallmadge regarding receiving information, battle plans, and other things regarding the network. He also talks about the art behind the mastery of spy craft. "He gave specific and detailed recommendations to Tallmadge on how Culper, Jr., should disguise his written reports to avoid detection." This aided our perspective the concern and stress Washington carried about the identity of his spies and keeping them safe. Abraham Woodhull sent his last "Culper" report in February 1783.

Auburn, Emma. "West Point." mountvernon.org. Accessed February 21, 2020. https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/west-point/#note8.

Emma Auburn's article was critical in understanding the role West Point had during the Revolutionary War and its importance. The text states, "West Point is located on a plateau on the west bank of the Hudson River approximately sixty miles north of New York City." The Culper Spy Ring aided in the breaking through the barrier of oppressive rule from the British with them being the primary cause Benedict Arnold was found as a traitor. Without intelligence, America could have lost the war without West Point; "George Washington called the fortified site "the most important Post in America," and he worked to keep Patriot control of West Point throughout the Revolutionary War." West Point under patriot control was paramount because it prevented the British from splitting the colonies into two halves with control of the Hudson River. The Hudson River also sent food, supplies, and communication throughout different recipients with access to the river. "West Point" briefs on Benedict Arnold being one of the two reasons why West Point could have been temporarily taken away from the Patriots the other reason being the British capturing Verplank's Point and Stony Point in the summer of 1779.

"Benjamin Tallmadge (1754-1835)." The American Revolution. Accessed April 6, 2020. http://www.ouramericanrevolution.org/index.cfm/people/view/pp0057.

The article provided us gave us information concerning Benjamin Tallmadge's life outside of the Culper Spy Ring. After graduating Yale and becoming friends with Nathan Hale, Benjamin Tallmadge accepted a school master position, but soon after left to join the Revolutionary War. He joined Colonel John Chester's regiment with lots of persuasion, and joined the Continental Army's encampment in New York City in June of 1776. He served in the Battle of White Plains and the Battle of Brooklyn, where he first caught the attention from George Washington. The test states, "Trusted by Washington and quickly advancing in rank and responsibility, Tallmadge was commissioned as a captain of the Second Continental Light Dragoons in December of 1776, and was promoted to the rank of major in April of

1777. As an officer in the field he served in several notable actions, including the Battle of Germantown in Pennsylvania and the Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey. At Valley Forge, he commanded an observation corps." A critical piece of information that we procured regarding the Culper Spy Ring was that Major John Clark was the initial case officer for the spy ring, but due to his ill health he subsequently stepped down to Charles Scott. Other research that we obtained was that by the intelligence provided by the individuals in the spy network, he was able to "capture enemy supplies at the ill-defended Fort St. George on the east end of Long Island in November of 1780. Not only was the British outpost destroyed, but Tallmadge's troops were able to capture British supplies and march them out on the backs of British prisoners." In addition, after American victory became apparent Benjamin Tallmadge visited New York to ensure the safety of the spies because as they were perceived as loyal Tories, they could have suffered persecution once the British left. Succeeding the war, Tallmadge resided in Long Island, he married Mary Floyd, and then he went to Litchfield, Connecticut where he became a successful business man and bank president. He married again, and in 1800 he was elected to Congress and was for a period of time the chairman of the House Military Affairs Committee. He also played a paramount role "n the Connecticut branch of the Society of the Cincinnati (a Revolutionary War veterans' organization), in which he served as treasurer and eventually as president. He also leaves us a moving record of the American soldiers' love for Washington, reporting on the emotional scene of the General's parting from his troops at the end of the war." This article was essential to our research so we could understand the life of both Benjamin Tallmadge and "John Bolton."

"Breaking Barriers: George Washington and the development of America's intelligence community." mountvernon.org. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://www.mountvernon.org/education/for-students/national-history-day-2020/george-washington-breaking-barriers-2/.

The theme of "Breaking Barriers" candidly is portrayed within the article as it is also explicitly stated in the title as well in regard to the Culper Spy Ring. "Breaking Barriers: George Washington and the development of America's intelligence community," depicts the barriers the espionage ring broke and how they were able to shatter the obstructions that impeded them to develop. The text briefs, "Washington broke social and political barriers by using these tactics which proved beneficial to the cause and instrumental in the development of America's intelligence community." The tactics that the statement is referring to that the Culper Spy Ring utilized were misinformation, invisible ink, and a code book. Moreover, the article denominated George Washington as a general "who served under the British during the Seven Years War, sought to outsmart the enemy through different means." In other words, General Washington was able to break the hindrance of outsmarting the British with the implementation of the Culper Spy Ring and gathering intelligence. Consequently, with the development of this article, our group was able to discover a collection articles written by mountvernon.org that addressed Nationa