After a survey identified regional needs, the Asian Institute ofTechnology established graduate programs emphasizing

application development and management ofcomputing resources.

COMPUTINGEDUCATIONFOR THEDEVELOPINGASIANCOUNTRIESJ. A. Jordan, Jr.Asian Institute of Technology

Computing in Asia is growing more rapidly, on a

percentage basis, than in any other part of the world.Even so, the demand for computing is suppressed,not so much by a lack of capital as by a lack of con-fidence by Asian institutions in their ability to use

computers effectively.The lack of confidence in computing is directly

related to the lack of computing skills-that is, to thelack of people trained to use computers. There are fartoo few qualified programmers and even fewer qual-ified systems analysts. There are far too few trainedDP managers and too few higher-level managers withan appreciation for the benefits and costs of com-puting.Because Asia is just at its dawn of computing,

there is a dearth of the self-trained DP people whoform the backbone of the user community in thedeveloped countries. Where analogous situationshavn existed in other technical disciplines, the AsianInstitute of Technology has been successful in pro-viding high-quality graduate-level engineering andtechnological education. Now, in response to theneeds of Asian computer users, AIT is initiating pro-grams in computing education. To ensure their rel-evance, AIT first surveyed the needs of the region.*The resulting programs, especially a novel master'sdegree program in computer application technology,are specific to the Asian situation. But many of theconclusions reached-and programs developed-may be useful elsewhere, since there appears to besome commonality between Asian needs and those ofother less-developed regions.

*AIT's "region" spans all of Asia from Iran to Papua New Guineaand from Indonesia to Korea, excepting only Japan and the Asiaticpart of the USSR.

Computing in Asian developing countries

The developing countries of Asia are remarkable intheir diversity, and this diversity is reflected in theirstates of computerization. In the nearly developedcountries-Hong Kong, the Republic of China, andSouth Korea-the practice of computing is wide-spread. The largest installations serve airlines,banks, utilities, and governmental users with manysophisticated applications; processors the size of anS/370-158 are not uncommon, and a few 168-sized andmultiple CPU installations are evident. In addition,minicomputers and small business computers are

being installed rapidly and in relatively largenumbers.'

In the ASEAN countries-Indonesia, Malaysia,the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand-com-puters were first introduced in the early 1960's,primarily for government statistical applications.The number of installations grew slowly during thenext decade, but there is now evidence of an almostexplosive increase in computing. By 1978, reports2identified 42 computers in Indonesia, about 200 inthe Philippines, 123 in Singapore, and 99 in Thailand.A survey by the Malaysian Computer Society3 iden-tified 149 Malaysian installations. Most of the in-stallations listed in the Asian Computer Yearbook4began operations within the past five years.Large mainframes have become integral to the op-

erations and management of many ASEAN govern-ments and large private-sector organizations,5 andmodern interactive computing practices are thenormin many installations. When installed in 1976, theIBM S/370-145 at AIT was one of the largestmachines in the region. Today it is dwarfed by several3031-sized installations, some with multiple CPUs.

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There has also been a proliferation of smallermachines; the number of mini and small businesscomputers in these countries now averages 100 ormore.There is significantly less computerization in the

more closed Southeast Asian countries. Burma hasone or two apparently well-run installations, but thenew governments of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnamhave not yet reestablished previous levels of com-puter use.The countries of South Asia-Afghanistan, Bang-

ladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka-haverelatively few computers, at least in proportion totheir populations. Many of these are older ma-chines-e.g., 1401's-in primitive working environ-ments, but in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, interest inmodern small- and intermediate-sized machinery ap-pears to be quickening.As the "four modernizations" of the People's

Republic of China proceed, it seems inevitable thatcomputers will be more widely used and the need fortrained people will be substantial and immediate.Throughout the Asian developing countries, many

machines are underutilized. Some, especially theolder ones, are difficult to program. Others areunderutilized because development of the applica-tion systems they were meant to support has beendelayed. The most common reason for delay or ineffi-cient operation is thelack of skilled personnel.

Asian needs for computing education

Since expansion is inhibited by the scarcity of peo-ple trained to develop application systems andmanage the use of computing, an educational pro-gram for Asia's developing countries must focus onthe needs of computer users.

Survey of needs. In reaching the decision toestablish educational programs in computing, AITsurveyed many Asian users or potential users of com-puters. Unlike the United States, Europe, and Japan,where computers are so prevalent, many large Asianorganizations have little experience with computers,although they may be very sophisticated in the otheraspects of their work. The survey identified a need forpeople who can

* analyze an organization's information and dataprocessing requirements including those fordata management,

* evaluate alternative hardware and softwarestrategies to meet the organization's re-quirements,

* develop computer applications from the data ac-quisition process, through computing, to ausable output,

* analyze applications and develop problem-solving algorithms,

* do efficient, trouble-free programming, and* provide management for computing at policy-making, information analysis, data base, ap-

plication development, and computer centeroperations levels of an organization.

AIT's survey also showed that, for the moment,Asian needs for hardware design, architecture, in-novative systems development, and theoretical lan-guage experimentation are well met by graduatesfrom programs in the developed countries or from theregion's nascent computer science programs.

Available training. In all the countries surveyed,some computer training is provided by universities inundergraduate programs, vendors, computer train-ing schools, consulting organizations (such as theHong Kong Productivity Centre), and governmentalagencies (such as the Philippines' National ComputerCenter6). The adequacy of these programs, which aimto fill the needs for entry-level programming andoperations staff, varies from country to country.The survey also found a few educational programs

which were directed toward meeting Asian users'more advanced needs, or which produced graduateswho could contribute readily toward meeting them.Most noteworthy are programs in Hong Kong andSingapore which lead to UK NCC certification insystems analysis. In general, however, the survey ofAsian institutions with computers demonstrated aneed for more advanced training. Furthermore, dis-cussions with potential computer users indicatedthat advanced, rather than entry-level, skills areneeded before they can begin computerization.7 8Asians trained in the more-developed countries

were often found lacking in the skills to integratecomputing into an organization's operations andmanagement. A computer science education, in saythe United States, was frequently considered inade-quate preparation for a career in application develop-ment, especially in an environment in which the grad-uate might assume management responsibilitiesvery early.This assessment of Asian computing education

needs is similar to that of Ellis Horowitz.9 In hisanalysis of a U.S. computing education's applicabili-ty for foreign students returning to developing coun-tries, Horowitz recommends a professional school ofcomputer science offering integrated training whichcorresponds to tasks graduates will perform on thejob. His comments contributed strongly to AIT'ssense that Asian needs could not be met by tradi-tional programs and that there is a place for newlydesigned curricula.

Advanced training needs. Beyond entry-leveltraining, the wide range of advanced training re-quirements includes topical seminars and work-shops, short courses, formal diploma and pro-fessional master's degree programs, and perhapseven doctoral training. Each of these should bethought of as a form of continuing professionaleducation. Initially, it must meet the needs of peoplewho, several years after obtaining their first degrees,have outrun their formal education or who, with littlepreparation, have moved abruptly into computing.

COMPUTER12

Formal training needs are entwined with the needfor professional information exchange on applica-tions, systems, and computing management. A prac-titioner with one application set and system may be along way, in terms of distance, national borders, andculture, from others having similar application setsand systems. A trainingprogram which reinforces in-formal exchanges throughout Asia is desirable.

The Asian Institute of Technology and itseducational programs

AIT has developed a set of offerings to meet theseadvanced training requirements. The programs arenot as complete as they might be-for the usualreason: limited resources. Nevertheless, AIT hasbeen able to mount effective contributions in bothformal education and professional information ex-change, and its graduates are valued for theirpragmatic approach to problem solving.Chartered by the Royal Thai Government as an au-

tonomous, international institute for graduate stud-ies in engineering and related fields, AIT serves

about 500 students in any one term. The students andmore than half of the 65 faculty members come fromabout 20 different Asian countries. AIT is financedby contributions from the governments of about 20developed nations, as well as from foundations, cor-porations, and private individuals.The institute has nine academic divisions or

departments: Agricultural and Food Engineering,Computer Applications, Energy Technology, En-vironmental Engineering, Geotechnical and Trans-portation Engineering, Human Settlements De-velopment, Industrial Engineering and Manage-ment, Structural Engineering and Construction, andWater Resources Engineering. These interdisciplin-ary divisions seek to meet practical needs. For ex-ample, each student must justify his or her thesis ordissertation project on the basis of its applicability inAsia.AIT has nearly 2000 graduates. Most of them have

pursued a 21-month master's program including 36semester credit hours of course work and a thesis ef-fort of eight months or more; about 50 gained docto-ral degrees; others enrolled in 8- to 12-month diplomaor certificate programs.

The Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok,Thailand, has had a strong computing capabilitysince its inception in 1959 as an autonomous, inter-national institute for graduate studies in engineer-ing and related fields. The IBM S/370-145 in the AITRegional Computer Center (above) was, at the timeof its installation in 1976, one of the region'slargest machines. Currently, nearly 90 percent ofAIT students-numbering about 500 from some 20countries in any one term-use the computer intheir thesis or dissertation work. Shown at right:the student terminal room with VM/370 interactivefacilities and diskette data entry facilities; Dr. Kan-chit Malaivongs with the first master's degree classin computer application technology, one of severalAIT programs developed to meet Asia's computingeducation needs.

June 1980 13

One motivation for AIT's founding was to reducethe "brain drain" ofAsians who, instead of returning,remain in the developed countries in which they areeducated. More than 90 percent of AIT's graduatesare still in Asia-nearly 80 percent in their homecountries, many in management. Of the less than 10percent not in Asia, many are pursuing doctoral pro-grams, and experience has shown that a vast majori-ty will return10.

One motivation for AIT's foundingwas to reduce the "brain drain."

Since its inception in 1959, AIT has had a strongcomputing capability relative to other Asianacademic institutions. Facilities at the AIT RegionalComputer Center are used by about 90 percent of theinstitute's students in their thesis or dissertationwork, and the computer plays a vital role in nearly allof AIT's external research. In some cases the AMT-RCC is used for simple data analysis; in other casessophisticated models (of structures, hydrologicalsystems, or economic processes) are developed. "For-tran for Survival," a three semester-credit-hourcourse offered each term (trimester), is the mostpopular course on campus.

Table 1.Sample instructional schedules of

programs in computer application development.

Topic/Subject

Computer ConceptsIntroduction to computing and computers

RCC Facilities OrientationData Collection and Preparation

Data recording devices and mediaProgramming Language

Chosen from APL, Cobol, Fortran, and PL/ISoftware Engineering for ApplicationsTop-down analysis and design of applicationsprograms, structured programming, testing,maintenance, and documentation

Systems Hardware/SoftwareRCC hardware and software

System DesignData Organization

Files and file organizationData Bases

Data models and data base managementBatch and Interactive ProgrammingSystems Languages

Batch and interactiveProject Management

Techniques for managing applicationdevelopment

Computer Center Management

Days of InstructionSchedule A* Schedule B**

3

322

10

15

3

2

3

5

i0

15

Seminars and workshops. AIT offers two generaltypes of one- or two-week seminars and workshops:those aimed toward the DP professional and thoseaimed toward groups ofusers interested in similar ap-plications.Recent offerings for DP professionals have in-

cluded "Information Systems Analysis and Manage-ment," "Data Base Management Systems," "Man-aging Computer Centers," and other similar topics.An effective format is one of team leadership, withone leader from Europe or North America to discusspractice and experience in developed countries, oneleader from an Asian country to present an Asianview of the topic, and supplementary leadership fromAIT's permanent staff. Generally limited to 40 par-ticipants, the seminars draw participants from 6 to12 countries and are often oversubscribed. The semi-nars for DP professionals are supported by registra-tion fees.The application-oriented seminars and workshops

are frequently sponsored jointly by theAIT-RCC andone of the institute's divisions (e.g., "Applications inGeosciences," "Water Resource Modeling") orby theAIT-RCC and an outside agency (e.g., "MultivariateData Analysis" with the Ford Foundation). Again,these seminars include a practical, Asian view of thesubject matter; they are often partially supported byexternal agencies.

Short-term training. In 1976, in response to AIT-RCC's charter for an active regional role, the instituteestablished Programs in Computer Application De-velopment.1' Participants from public sector agen-cies attend PCAD for-one to six months with one ofthree objectives:

* to learn to adapt and use an existing applicationpackage to meet their agencies' particular needs,

* to learn advanced application development tech-nologies and then to develop a program for usewhen they return to their agencies, or

* to gain a general knowledge of advancedmethods in anticipation of their agencies' re-quirements.

The PCAD has a two-month instructional core (seeTable 1 for typical schedules) tailored to meet theneeds of those participating.The PCAD has drawn 56 participants from 14

3 agencies in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,Nepal, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand. Attendeeshave studied a wide range of computer applications,

3 application development methods, application pro-gram packages, and computing languages. Two cen-

2 tral banks have availed themselves of PCAD, one forthe development of a centralized credit system, the

5 other for an APL-based model of its country'seconomy. A city government group studied the use ofa project management package. Three groups were

5 working in anticipation of their agencies' procuringnew hardware: one simulated a message-switching

ith modern system for a meteorological network; the other twoobtained general knowledge of applications in univer-sity administration. An education ministry in-

14

*Schedule A is appropriate for computer users with relatively little experience vcomputing machinery and programming.

"Schedule B is appropriate for more experienced programmers and users.

COMPUTER

terested in developing a data base encompassing its800,000 teachers is using PCAD to train the core per-sonnel for the development, a long-term projectwhich will see several groups at AIT for progressive-ly more advanced and topical training. Dealing withindividuals and groups with varying levels of ex-perience and widely disparate applications places aburden on the PCAD instructional staff-a group ofeight computing professionals, all of whom haveother duties. However, personalization of instructionhas been the key to PCAD's success in enhancing theabilities of Asians with immediate applicationdevelopment responsibilities.

Formal academic programs. Only relatively lim-ited educational objectives can be accomplished in afew months' PCAD participation. Thus, AIT has es-tablished more formal, longer-term academic pro-grams in the Division of Computer Applications. In-itially, the division is offering a major in computer ap-plication technology that can lead to a diploma or amaster's degree.

In response to needs revealed by the survey, the in-itial curriculum in computer application technologywas designed around the following basic concepts:

(1) Graduates should have sufficient grounding insystem architecture to make rational judgmentsregarding hardware and software procurement.

(2) Because Asian programmers are a preciouscommodity, they should be trained to ensure pro-gram maintainability and transportability.

(3) Because computing is being introduced intolarge organizations having potentially enormousdata bases, graduates must have a firm grounding inpractical data management and data base technolo-gies.

(4) The lessons to be learned from the evolution ofcomputing in developed nations,'2'13 if assimilated,can reduce Asian costs.

(5) Since graduates are likely to assume manage-ment responsibilities, they should have training incomputer center operations and management.

(6) Practical experience with the computer is anecessary and significant part of computing educa-tion.With these concepts in mind, the core curriculum

emphasizes software engineering for application de-velopment; information analysis, storage, andretrieval; and management of computer centers.There is a lesser emphasis on hardware, numerical

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methods, and information theory. The curriculumalso stresses practical design studies, programmingexercises, and heavy use of the AIT-RCC facility as alaboratory resource.Eight 3-credit-hour courses comprise the core curri-

culum: Software Engineering I and II, InformationSystems Analysis and Design, Data Managementand Data Bases, Mathematical Foundations of Com-puting, Computer Organization and Architecture,Management Concepts and Methods, and ComputerCenter Operations. Students augment these corecourses with electives taken from more specializedtopics in computing, from industrial engineering andmanagement, and from relevant courses in the tradi-tional engineering divisions. Examples of electivecourses include Information Storage and Retrieval,Discrete and Continuous System Simulation, In-troduction to Operations Research, Computer Ap-plications in Industry, Quantitative Models for Plan-ning, System Design in Water Resource Develop-ment, and Applied Statistics.

Constructing examinations which testcourse content-not English language

competence-is a challenge.

Students registered for either the diploma or themaster's degree must meet the same entrance criteriaand take the same courses. Diploma students,however, take 36 semester-credit-hours of coursework-possibly including a special study-and usual-ly complete this work in three terms (12 months).Master's degree students must complete a thesis or

take additional course work and special studies. Mostdo a thesis to which they devote roughly half theirtime at AIT. An important criterion for thesis re-search at AIT is that it be relevant to well-definedproblems faced in Asia. Thus, it is not enough tobecome thoroughly familiar with software develop-ment in a hot-house environment. The expectation isthat students will perform studies and analyses onsite. For example, a student who is an employee of adevelopment bank might come to AIT for a year'scourse work, return for a few weeks to gather infor-mation on the bank's data base requirements, andthen do a design study on a data base to meet those re-quirements. Other divisions at AIT have found thisan excellent model for relevant applied research.This curriculum bears some similarity to the curri-

culum for a master's in software engineering(MSE-79) recommended by the Software Engineer-ing Subcommitte of the IEEE Computer Society'sEducation Committee. 14 The differences are theresult of different emphases. AIT's program is apragmatic one designed to provide advanced trainingto students with relatively little formal computingeducation. The purpose of the training is to permitthem to function better in organizations which usecomputers. The MSE-79 curriculum is appropriate inthe developed countries with many bachelor's-level

computer science graduates. Apparently designed tomeet the needs of software developers, MSE-79 ismore detailed in its view of software engineering butless comprehensive in its view of the applicationdevelopment process.

Early experiences with the master'sdegree program

Thirty-five students, 24 men and 11 women, en-tered the master's degree program in the January1979 intake; most will graduate in August 1980. Theywere chosen from more than 100 qualified applicantswho applied in the six weeks after the program wasannounced; there were over 200 applicants for the 35places of the January 1980 intake.As befits computer applications, a term which en-

compasses very nearly all human endeavors, thesestudents form a heterogeneous body. They camefrom 12 countries: Bangladesh, Burma, Hong Kong,India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan,the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Thailand.They have first degrees in computer science,mathematics and statistics, engineering and science,the quantitative social sciences, and business ad-ministration. Most have had computer-related workexperience since gaining their first degrees. Many areon leave and may do their thesis work on applicationswhich would be used by their organizations.The heterogeneous background has led to fewer

problems than were anticipated. A few students havedone uniformly well in their course work, but mosthave exhibited compensating strengths and weak-nesses depending on their backgrounds. Instructorshave found some difficulties in teaching at a meanwhich is challenging to the better-prepared studentswithout overwhelming the less well-prepared ones.The language of instruction at AIT is English.

Sterling'5 has pointed out that it may be preferable toteach computing in the student's native language.Nevertheless, English is the most common secondlanguage throughout Asia and is the only practicallanguage for AIT. It is also the language in whichmost prevalent advanced ideas in computing arepublished. In recognition of the difficulties thatstudents may have with English, AIT has aLanguage and Media Center in which most studentsreceive daily English language training for at leastone term and often for three (one year). The perfor-mance of several of our students, especially from In-donesia, Taiwan, and Thailand, is still inhibited bytheir language competence. It is a challenge to the lec-turer to speak clearly and non-idiomatically. Con-structing examinations which test course con-tent-not English language competence-is an evenmore difficult challenge.Some of the students have been away from the

academic environment for 10 or more years and havefound it difficult to re-adapt to the discipline ofacademic work. They are, however, among the moremotivated students and appear to be compensatingthrough extra work. As more senior employees, theyare also more likely to play an immediate leadershiprole in the automation of their organizations.

COMPUTER16

Generally, this entering class is similar to a maturegroup of graduate students one might find in a publicuniversity in the United States. Perhaps the majordifference lies in their conceptual abilities. Nothaving had the same exposure to abstract tech-nological thought, they tend to be more literal-minded than their peers in the developed countries.This frequently implies repetitive instruction and in-ductive, rather than deductive, teaching methods.Of the 35 students who entered, six have left for

academic or personal reasons; one is expected toreturn in 1980. The performance of another halfdozen, while acceptable now, is sufficiently ques-tionable as to cast doubts on their ability to surviveacademically. At the other end of the scale, severalhave records good enough to mark them as possiblecandidates for studies beyond the master's degree.

Trained people are the key to unlocking the sup-pressed demand for computing in Asia-that is, peo-ple who can apply the concepts of modern systemsanalysis and software engineering and who canmanage the integration of computing into Asian in-stitutions. Through its Program in Computer Ap-plication Development, AIT is beginning to meetspecialized training needs for immediate use, and itsnew master's program will soon provide more generaltraining for Asian computing leadership.K

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges his colleaguesatAIT and elsewhere who have contributed key ideasto the development of AIT's offerings in computing,especially Dr. N. V. Balasubramanian, Dr. KhusChiev, Dr. J. A. Kearns, Dr. Kanchit Malaivongs, andProf. M. Nawaz Sharif, all of AIT's Division of Com-puter Applications.

6. 0. T. Cabanlig, "The Role of Computer Education andTraining in National Development-Philippine Set-ting," Proc. South East Asia Regional ComputerConf, Philippines Computer Society, Manila, 1978,pp. 493-498.

7. J. J. Day, "Developing Computer Educational Facili-ties in the Educational Institutions of DevelopingCountries," Proc. Int'l Conf. Computer Applicationsin Developing Countries, J. A. Jordan, Jr., and K.Malaivongs, eds., Asian Institute of Technology,Bangkok, 1977, pp. 1317-1330.

8. G. P. Mead, "DP Education in Developing Countries,"Proc. Int'l Conf ComputerApplications inDevelopingCountries, J. A. Jordan, Jr., and K. Malaivongs, eds.,Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, 1977, pp.1331-1344.

9. E. Horowitz, "Training Computer Scientists forDeveloping Nations," Comm. ACM, Vol. 20, No. 12,Dec. 1977, pp. 968-970.

10. W. J. P. Brandon, Alumni TracerStudy andEmployerSurvey, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok,1978.

11. J. A. Jordan, Jr., and J. A. Kearns, "Regional Instruc-tional Program for Computer Application Develop-ment," Proc. South East Asia Regional ComputerConf, Philippines Computer Society, Manila, 1978,pp. 473-478.

12. W. C. Sprowls, "Can Developing Countries Take aQuantum Jump in Utilizing Computers?" Proc. Int'lConf Computer Applications in Developing Coun-tries, J. A. Jordan, Jr., and K. Malaivongs, eds., AsianInstitute of Technology, Bangkok, 1977, pp. 16-36.

13. J. A. Jordan, Jr., "The Beginning: Understanding theOrganization's Information System," Proc. SouthEastAsia Regional Computer Conf., Philippines Com-puter Society, Manila, 1978, pp. 181-187.

14. "MSE-79: A Recommended Masters Curriculum inSoftware Engineering," Report of the SoftwareEngineering Subcommittee, IEEE Computer SocietyEducation Committee, Ft. Collins, Colo. 1979.

15. T. D. Sterling, "Computers in Developing Nations: ACautionary Tale," Comm. ACM, Vol. 20, No. 12, Dec.1977, pp. 971-972.

References

1. L. R. Chow, "An Analysis of Computer Utilization inTaiwan," Proc. Int'l Conf Computer Applications inDeveloping Countries, J. A. Jordan, Jr., and X.Malaivongs, eds., Asian Institute of Technology,Bangkok, 1977, pp. 177-186.

2. S. Moriguti, ed., Computer Applications in Manage-ment: The Asian Scene, Asian Productivity Organiza-tion, Tokyo, 1978.

3. Computer Installations in Malaysia-August 1978,Malaysian Computer Society, Kuala Lumpur, 1978.

4. Asian Computer Yearbook 1978, Computer Publica-tions Ltd., Hong Kong, 1978.

5. Z. Loy, T. Hongladaromp, and K. Malaivongs, "TheState of Computing in Southeast Asia-Survey 1976/1977," Proc. Int'l Conf Computer Applications inDeveloping Countries, J. A. Jordan, Jr., and K.Malaivongs, eds., Asian Institute of Technology,Bangkok, 1977, pp. 65-74.

J. A. Jordan, Jr., now manager for ad-vanced applications at the IBM PaloAlto Scientific Center, was an associate

- | - 1 - professor of computing and a consul-. tant to the Regional Computer Center,

Asian Institute of Technology, Bang-kok, Thailand, from 1977-79. Beforethat he managed exploratory projectsin engineering and technical applica-tions for power and process systems at

the IBM Palo Alto and Houston Scientific Centers. Jordanalso worked in the area of digital holography at theHouston center and has taught at Rice University. Hereceived his PhD in physics from the University ofMichigan in 1964.

June 1980