computer assingnment

8/7/2019 computer assingnment

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Assignment of Computer:

PREPARED BY:

M. FAHAD BUTT (ROLL #43)

MBA (MORNIG)

2010-2013

SUMITTIED TO: SIR SOHAIL.

DATE ON:


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GERNARATIONS OF COMPUTER:Generations of computer can also be describing as Past, Present and future of Computer.

Followings are Generations of computer according to the time period.

The First generation

The Second Generation

The Third Generation

The Fourth Generation

The Fifth Generation

The computer age changed very fast. First four Generations over 50 years.

Trends across generations Decrease size Increase speed

The First Generation:

Time period of first generation:

19421955

Technology used:

Vacuum Tube

Language used:

Machine language

Memory:

Magnetic core memory

Storage:

Punched cards

Tape (1957)

Examples:

1951, UNIVAC,

1951, SAGE

1952, EDVAC

1953, IBM 701

1953, The Whirlwind


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Characteristics of 1st

Generation Computers

Computers big and clumsy

Electricity consumption is high

Electric failure occurred regularly - computers not very reliable

Large air conditioners was necessary because the computers generated heat

Batch processing

1951, UNIVAC

y Eckert and Mauchly completed the first commercial computer in the USA the

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

y First computer built for business

y Short Code - A set of instructions called Short Code is developed for the UNIVAC.Programmers

y The most famous UNIVAC product was the UNIVAC I mainframe computer of 1951,

which became known for predicting the outcome of the U.S. presidential election the

following year. This incident is particularly infamous because the computer predicted an

Eisenhower landslide when traditional pollsters all called it for Adlai Stevenson. The

numbers were so skewed that CBS's news boss in New York, Mickelson, decided the

computer was in error and refused to allow the prediction to be read. Instead they showed

some staged theatrics that suggested the computer was not responsive, and announced it was

predicting 8-7 odds for an Eisenhower win (the actual prediction was 100-1). When the

predictions proved true and Eisenhower won a landslide within 1% of the initial prediction,Charles Collingwood, the on-air announcer, embarrassingly announced that they had

covered up the earlier prediction.

1951, SAGE (Semi Automatic Ground Environment was developed).

IBM built the SAGE computers and became leaders in real-time applications and used the

technology of Whirlwind.

y SAGE computers were used in an early U.S. air defense system. They were fully deployed

in 1963, which consisted of 27 centers throughout North America, each with a duplexes

AN/FSQ-7 computer system containing over 50,000 vacuum tubes, weighing 250 tons and

occupying an acre of floor space.

y SAGE was the first large computer network to provide man-machine interaction in real time.


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1952, EDVAC- Electronic Discreet Variable Computer

John Von Neumann designed with a central control unit which would calculate and output all

mathematical and logical problems and a memory which could be written to and read. (RAM in

modern terms) which would store programs and data.

1953, IBM 701

The 701 was formally announced on May 21, 1952. It was the unit of the overall 701 Data

Processing Systems in which actual calculations were performed. That activity involved 274

assemblies executing all the system's computing and control functions by means of electronic pulses

emitted at speeds ranging up to one million a second. Nineteen IBM 701 systems were installed. The

University of California at Livermore developed a language compilation and runtime system called the

KOMPILER for their 701. A FORTRAN compiler was not released by IBM until the IBM 704.

The 701 can claim to be the first computer displaying the potential of artificial intelligence in the

Samuel Checkers-playing Program.

1953, the Whirlwind

Whirlwind was a large scale, general purpose digital computer begun at the Servomechanisms

Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1946.


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Advantages:

y Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.

y Vacuum tube technology made possible to make digital computers.

y These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages:

y These computers were very large in size.

y They consumed a large amount of energy.

y They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.

y They were not very reliable.

y Air conditioning was required.

y Non-portable

y Costly commercial production

y Limited commercial use

y

Continuous checking of hardwarey Difficult in use


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Second Generation Computers:

Time period of second generation:1955-1964

Technology used:

Transistor

Smaller

No warm-up time

Less energy

Less heat

Faster

More reliable

Storage:Removable disk pack (1954)

Magnetic tapeProgramming languages:

Assembly language

FORTRAN (1954)

COBOL(1959)

Examples: 1963, Mini-computer: PDP-8

1964, IBMs System 360 1964 Real-time reservation system

CDC 164 etc

Characteristics of 2nd

Generation Computers: Computers became smaller

Generate less heat

Electricity consumption lower

More reliable and faster

Core memory developed

Magnetic tapes and disks used

First operating systems developed

A new processing method was needed.

Time-sharing (processing technique)


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Example:

y 1963, Mini-computer: PDP-8:

y 1964 Real-time reservation system:

y 1964, IBMs System 360:

y 1964, BASIC (programming language):

1963, Mini-computer: PDP-8:

Digital introduces the first successful minicomputer the PDP-8. It

was about as large as a fridge and used transistors and magnetic core

memory.

1964 Real-time reservation system:

IBM developed a real-time computerised ticket reservation system

for American Airways.

y It was smaller than SAGE and was called SABRE(Semi-Automatic Business-Related Environment).

1964, IBMs System 360:

The IBM System/360 (S/360) was a mainframe computer system family first announced by IBM

on April 7, 1964, and sold between 1964 and 1978. It was the first family of computers designed to

cover the complete range of applications, from small to large, both commercial and scientific. The

design made a clear distinction between architecture and

implementation, allowing IBM to release a suite of compatibledesigns at different prices. All but the most expensive systems

used microcode to implement the instruction set, which featured

8-bit byte addressing and binary, decimal and floating-point

calculations.It consisted of6 processors and 40 peripheral units.

More than 100 computers per month were ordered. The 360s were

extremely successful in the market, allowing customers to

purchase a smaller system with the knowledge they would always

be able to migrate upward if their needs grew, without

reprogramming of application software. The design is considered

by many to be one of the most successful computers in history,

influencing computer design for years to come.


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1964, BASIC (programming language):

A programming language was necessary that could be used in a time-sharing environment and that

could serve as a training language.

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yy CCoommmmeerrcciiaall pprroodduuccttiioonn wwaass ddiiffffiiccuulltt

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yy PPuunncchh ccaarrdd wweerree uusseedd ooffiinnppuutt


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Third Generations of computer.

Time period of Third generation:

1964-1971

Technology used:Integrated Circuit

y Electronic circuit on small

silicon chip

y Reliability

y Compactness

y Low cost

y Inexpensive mass-produced

Programming languages:High-level languages appeared

Brief introduction:

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically

increased the speed and efficiency of computers.Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through

keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run

many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller andcheaper than their predecessors.

Fairchild Camera and Instrument Corp. built the first standard metal oxide semiconductor productfor data processing applications, an eight-bit arithmetic unit and accumulator. The fundamental

components of this semiconductor laid the groundwork for the future discovery of themicroprocessor in 1971. Another company that took advantage of the third generation

advancements was IBM with the unveiling of the IBM System/360. The company was making atransition from discrete transistors to integrated circuits, and its major source of revenue moved

from punched-card equipment to electronic computer systems.

In 1969 AT&T Bell Laboratories programmers Kenneth Thompson and Dennis Ritchie

developed the UNIX operating system on a spare DEC minicomputer. UNIX was the firstmodern operating system that provided a sound intermediary between software and

hardware. UNIX provided the user with the means to allocate resources on the fly, rather thanrequiring the resources is allocated in the design stages. The UNIX operating system quickly

secured a wide following, particularly among engineers and scientists at universities and othercomputer science organizations.


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Examples:

y IBM370

y UNIVAC 1108

y U

NIV

AC9000 etc1965, Gordon Moore

The semi-conductor pioneer, Gordon Moore (founder

of Intel), predicted that the number of transistors thatoccurred on a microchip would double every year. It became

known as Moores Law and is still valid today.

Burroughs used integrated circuits in parts of twocomputers - the B2500 and the B3500.

Control Data and NCR made two computers using only integrated circuits - the CDC 7600and the Century series respectively.

1968, Intel was founded (IntegratedElectronics).

They developed more sophisticated memory chips.

1968, Magnetic core memory was replaced by a microchip.

The first 256 bit RAM microchips, and later the first 1Kb RAM (1024 byte) chips,

caused the disappearance of Magnetic Core Memory that was used since the mid

1950's.

1969, IBM System/370 replaced their System/360 with the System/370 that only used

integrated circuits.

UNIVAC 1108:

The UNIVAC 1108 was the second member of

Sperry Rand's UNIVAC 1100 series of computers,

introduced in 1964. Integrated circuits replaced thethin film memory that the UNIVAC 1107 used for

register storage. Smaller and faster cores, compared tothe 1107, were used for main memory.

In addition to faster components, two significantdesign improvements were incorporated: base

registers and additional hardware instructions. Thetwo 18-bit base registers (one for instruction storage

and one for data storage) permitted dynamicrelocation: as a program got swapped in and out of


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main memory, its instructions and data could be placed anywhere each time it got reloaded. Theadditional hardware instructions included double precision arithmetic, double word load, store, and

comparison instructions. The processor could have up to 16 input/output channels for peripherals.Just as the first UNIVAC 1108 systems were being delivered in 1965, Sperry Rand announced the

UNIVAC 1108 II (also known as the UNIVAC 1108A) which had support for multiprocessing: upto three CPUs, four memory banks totaling 262,144 words, and two independent programmable

input/output controllers (IOCs). With everything busy, five activities could be going on at the samemoment: three programs running in the CPUs and two input/output processes in the IOCs. One

more instruction was incorporated: test-and-set, to provide for synchronization between the CPUs.Although a 1964 internal study indicated only about 43 might sell, in all, 296 processors were

produced.When Sperry Rand replaced the core memory with semiconductor memory, the same machine was

released as the UNIVAC 1100/20. In this new naming convention, the final digit represented thenumber of CPUs (e.g., 1100/22 was a system with two CPUs) in the system

IBMSystem/370

The IBM System/370 (S/370) was a model range of IBMmainframes announced on June 30,

1970 as the successors to the System/360 family. The series maintained backward compatibility

with the S/360, allowing an easy migration path for customers; this, plus improved performance,

were the dominant themes of the product announcement. Improvements over the S/360 first

released in the S/370 model range included:

y standard dual-processor capability;

y "monolithic main memory" based on integrated circuits instead of magnetic cores;[1]

y full support for virtual memory through a new microcode floppy disk on the 370/145[2] and a

hardware upgrade to include a DAT

box on the 370/155 and 370/165;

these were not announced until 1972;

y 128-bit floating point arithmetic.

y Address relocation hardware on all

S/370s except the original models155 and 165

y The new S/370-158 and -168y Four new operating systems:

DOS/VS (DOS with virtual storage),OS/VS1 (OS/360 MFT with virtual

storage), OS/VS2 (OS/360 MVTwith virtual storage) Release 1,

termed SVS (Single Virtual Storage),and Release 2, termed MVS

(Multiple Virtual Storage) andplanned to be available 20 months

later (at the end of March 1974), andVM/370 the re-implemented CP/CMS.


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Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond:

Artificial Intelligence

Intelligent computers

Artificial intelligence

Expert systemsNatural language

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,

though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.

Applications for 5th

Gen computers

y Intelligent robots that could see their environment (visual input - e.g. a video camera) and

could be programmed to carry out certain tasks and should be able to decide for itself how thetask should be accomplished, based on the observations it made of its environment.

y Intelligent systems that could control the route of a missile and defence-systems that could fend

off attacks.

y Word processors that could be controlled by means of speech recognition.

y Programs that could translate documents from one language to another.

Some technological developments that could make the development of fifth-

generation computers possible include:

Parallel-processing - many processors are grouped to function as one large group

processor.

Superconductors - a superconductor is a conductor through which electricity can travelwithout any resistance resulting in faster transfer of information between the components of a

computer.

Expert Systems - helps doctors to reach a diagnosis by following the logical steps of

problem solving just as if the doctor would have done it himself.

Speech recognition systems - capable of recognising dictation and entering the text into a

word processor, are already available.


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The Fifth Generation AI Artificial Intelligence

How computers can be used for tasks that required human characteristics.

1.Problem Solving by Search:An important aspect of intelligence is goal-based problem solving. The solution of many

problems (e.g. naught and crosses, timetabling, chess) can be described by finding a sequence of

actions that lead to a desirable goal. Each action changes the state and the aim is to find the

sequence of actions and states that lead from the initial (start) state to a final (goal) state.

A well-defined problem can be described by:1. Initial state

2. Operator or successor function - for any state x returns s(x), the set of states

reachable from x with one action

3. State space - all states reachable from initial by any sequence of actions

4. Path - sequence through state space

5. Path cost - function that assigns a cost to a path. Cost of a path is the sum of costs of

individual actions along the path Goal test - test to determine if at goal state

2.Expert SystemsProgramming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example, some expert systems

help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms) Software used with an extensive set of

organized data that presents the computer as an expert on a particular topic.


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3. Natural Language:

Humans communicate with computers in the language they use on a daily basis

Programming computers to understand natural human languages Natural-language processing offers

the greatest potential rewards because it would allow people to interact with computers withoutneeding any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a computer and talk to it.

Unfortunately, programming computers to understand natural languages has proved to be moredifficult than originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one

human language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human translators.

4. Robotics:

Computer - controlled device that can physically manipulate its surroundings.

Robot development firm Speecys Corp. of Tokyo developed a small humanoid robot, poweredentirely by easy-to-replace, environmentally friendly fuel-cell batteries.

Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in

an umber of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing. There are

several programming languages that are known as AI languages because they are used almost

exclusively for AI applications. The two most common are

y LISP

y Prolog.

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to

natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.


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TThhee EENNDD


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computer assingnment