Computer Architecture for a Programmer

8/4/2019 Computer Architecture for a Programmer

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Instruction sets,

Operation codes Operand types

peran a ress ng mo es

Registers

Main memory space utilization (Memory map)

I/O space allocation (I/O map)

Interrupt assignment and priority

I/O techniques used for various devices

I/O controller command formats

con ro er s a us orma


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Computer architecture for a

programmer

CPU

Screen Buffer

Interruptcontroller

reg s ers

ROMFDC

HDCemory map map

Interrupt levels Command

& definitionDMA channels

formats

Status

Device controller


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The operational units and their interconnectionsthat realize the architectural s ecifications. Those

hardware attributes that are transparent to theprogrammer.

Control signals

Interfaces between the computer and peripherals

Memor technolo


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Difference

For example, It is an architectural issue whether a computer will have a

.

It is organizational issue whether to implement

multiplication and division by special unit or by amec an sm a ma es repea e use o e a an su racunit to perform multiplication and division, respectively.

The organizational issue may be based on which approach

to be used depending on the speed of operation, cost & sizeof the hardware & the memory required to perform theoperation.


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Structure and Function

contain millions of electronic components. How, then, can oneclearly describe a computer? The key is to recognize thehierarchical nature of most complex systems. A hierarchicalsystem is a set of interrelated subsystems where each subsystemis a hierarchical structure.

,their interrelationships. At each level, a designer is concerned withstructure and function:


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Structure

computer are:

operation of the computer and performs its dataprocessing functions.

Main memory stores data.

Input/Output (I/O) moves data between the computerand its external environment.

S stem interconnections some mechanism thatprovides for communication among CPU, main memory,

and I/O.


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Function

The four basic functions of a computer are:

Processin data

Storing data

outside world

ontro t e operat ons a ove


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Why Study Computer Organization and Architecture?

Students need to understand:Computer architecture in order to structure a programso that it runs more efficiently on a real machine.

In selecting a system to use, they should be able tounderstand the tradeoff among various components,such as CPU clock speed vs. memory size.


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Com uter Evolution andPerformance

The evolution of computers has been characterized by

1>increasing processor speed, decreasing componentsize,

2>increasing memory size, and increasing I/O capacity and

s eed.


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Evolution of Computer

Mode of CPU architecture

Control unit design-instruction decoding

Main memory concepts Instruction cycle handling

System software


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Parallel processing

Multiprocessing

n C, 1 p n C, n pUniprogramming

1 C, 1 pMultitasking Computer network

1 C, n p

computer

e ca e processing

1 C, 1 u, n

en

, ,

Time sharing


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Accumulator

based

Stack based

Re isters based

CISC

RISC


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-decoding

Micro programmed CU

Random

logicFirmware

Hardwired CU RISC

Both

Hybrid CU


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Evolution of main memory concepts

InterleavingSpeed

Simple

Capacity

switching


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Evolution of instruction cycle handling

Instruction Instruction lookahead

prefetch + pre etc

Instruction

pipelineBranch

prediction

Superscalar

cacheac e

memory

present

Out of order

executionSpeculative

execution

Register renaming


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Evolution of I/O techni ues

Polling Interrupt mode

Data channels

Mini & micro

DMA

Front end

processor


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Machine language

Assembly

language

Operating

system

DBMSExpertEmbedded

System


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A Brief History of Computers

ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator AndCom uter

Designed by John Mauchly and John PresperEckert

University of Pennsylvania 1943 to 1946

Generally regarded as the first electronic computer

normouso 30 tons

o 1500 square feet of floor space

o 18,000 tubes


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Enormous!!!

o 30 tons

o 1500 square feet of floor space

o 18,000 tubes

5000 additions per second

ec ma num er sys em

20 accumulators 10 digits

Programmed manually with switchesand cables

Disassemble in 1955


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The von Neumann Machine

The task of entering and altering programs forthe ENIAC was extremely tedious. Theprogramm ng process cou e ac tate t e

program could be represented in a form suitablefor storin in memor alon side the data. Then,a computer could get its instructions by readingthem from memory, and a program could be set

memory.


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eve ope y o n vonNeumann

Advanced Studies 1945 to1952

Prototype of all subsequent

general-purpose computers. IAS computer


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o Stored-Program concept

o

data and instructions

(ALU) capable of operating onbinary data

o Control unit, which interprets

and executes the instructions in

o Input and output (I/O)

control unit

Shown below is the eneralstructure of the IAS computer:


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Transistors replaced vacuum tubes

o Smaller

o Cheaper

o Less heat

o Same functionality

o Solid-state device made from silicon(sand)


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Fully transistorized computers commercially availablelate 1950s

NCR and RCA first to produce small transistormachines

IBM 7000

-

High-level programming languages

rov s on o sys em so ware w compu ers


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Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

Single, self-contained transistor discretecomponent

Manufacturing process was very expensive andcumbersome using discrete

components

Early second generation computers contained, rans s ors expan ng o

hundreds of thousands with newer machines

1958 Integrated circuit invented

IBM System/360

DEC PDP-8


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Microelectronics

Computer consists of logic gates,

Manufactured on a semiconductor such

Many transistors can be produced on asin le wafer of silicon


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Pentium and PowerPC Evolution

Pentium Evolution

8080

o

First general purpose microprocessoro 8 bit data ath

o Used in first personal computer Altair

o Much more powerful

o 16 to Instruction cache prefetch few instructions

o 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC


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80286

o 16 Mbyte memory up form1 yte

80386

o 32 bit

o Support for multitasking

80486

and instruction pipelining

o Built in math co- rocessor


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Pentium

o ntro uce supersca ar tec n ques

o Multiple instructions executed in parallel

Pentium Pro

o Increased superscalar organization

o Aggressive register renaming

o Data flow analysis

o


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Pentium II

o MMX technology video,audio, graphics processing

Pentium III

o Additional floating pointinstructions for graphics

Pentium 4o Arabic not Roman numerals

o Additional floating point and

multimedia enhancements

Itanium

o 64 bit


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(Von Newman)

1> The computer has five different types of units:- memory,ALU, control unit, I/O unit

3> Once a program is in memory, the computer can execute it

automatically without manual intervention.4> The CU fetches & executes the instructions in sequence

one by one. This sequential execution can be modified bycertain type of instructions.

5>An instruction can modify the contents of any location inmemory. Hence a program can modify itself; instruction-execution se uence also can be modified.

A i t 1


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Assignment 1

> scuss e a van ages sa van ages ostoring programs and data in the same

memory s ore program concep . n er

what circumstances is it desirable to store

programs an a a n separa e memor es

2> Define the terms software compatibility &hardware compatibility. What role they

have played in the evolution of computers?

Date of Submission:- 24/07/2006 Date of Return:- 25/07/2006Reference Books:- 1> CAO- B Govindarajalu

2> CAO- John P Hayes

3> COA- W. Stallings

Documents

Computer Architecture for a Programmer