Computer Architecture

Computer ArchitectureComputer ArchitectureConceptual design and fundamental operational structure of the computer systemScience and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet performances, functions, and costThe architecture of a computers system softwareDesign GoalRevolve around the trade off between cost and performance Two Parts of ImplementationOrganization consist of structure such as data paths, control unit, memories and the buses that interconnected.Hardware represents the electronic circuits and electromechanical; refers the logic, the electronic technologies employed and the various physical design aspects of the computerAdata path(also written asdatapath) is a set of functional units that function to process data. The central processing unit (CPU) in a computer contains data paths that route data between these functional unitsAcontrol unitis circuitry that directs operations within the computer's processorby directing the input and output of a computer systemThe control unit is basically circuitry inside the CPU, controlling the operations inside the CPU and "directing traffic" in a sense4LanguagesSoftware Languages - used for creating executable programsWeb Languages - Used for creating and editing pages on the webProgramming LanguageA language is defined as a system for communicating. Written language use symbols to build words. The entire set of words is the language vocabulary. The language syntax and grammar define the way in which the words can be meaningfully combined. The actual meaning of words and combinations of words is defined by the languages semanticsMachine LanguageThe lowest level programming language. The only language understood by computers and consist of pure numbers. Other languages must be translated to machine language before the computer can execute the instructions. Because data in digital computers is stored as either on or off electrical states, machine language takes the form of either 0 or 1.

Low-Level LanguageAlso called as assembly languages and are similar to machine languages. Instead of using 1snad 0s, to specify the instructions, programmers use mnemonics or machine op codes. The mnemonics are English-like abbreviations for the machine language instructions.High-Level LanguageEnable programmers to write programs that are more or less independent of a particular type of computer. Closer to human language than the medicine language that the computer understands. Easier to understand. They allow the programmer to focus on solving the problem rather than knowing how to program the computer.examplesCFORTRANPascalAdaAlgolBASICCOBOLCC++Pre-computers and Early ComputersThe abacus is considered by many to be the earliest recorded calculating deviceInvented by BabyloniansOther early computing devices include the slide rule, the mechanical calculator,This device was the first electromechanical machine that could read punch cards special cards with holes punched in them to represent data.First-Generation ComputersThey were powered by vacuum tubes glass tubes that look similar to large, cylindrical light bulbsCould only solve one problem at a time and needed to be physically rewired to be reprogrammed Input was via paper punch cards and paper tape, and output was printed on paper.Second-Generation ComputersThe second generation of computers began when the transistor a small device made of semiconductor material that can act like a switch to open or close electronic circuits started to replace the vacuum tubesPhysically smaller, more powerful, cheaper, more-energy efficient and more reliableInput punch cards and magnetic tapeOutput punch cards and paper print outStorage magnetic tapes and disksProgramming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL were also developed and implemented during this generationFORmula TRANslation IBM Programmers lead by John BackusCOBOL Common Business Oriented Language Conference on Data Systems Language ( CODASYL )Third-Generation ComputersThe replacement of the transistor with integrated circuits marked the beginning of the third generation of computersIntegrated circuits incorporate many transistors and electronic circuits on a single tiny silicon chipSmaller and more reliableKeyboards and monitors for input and outputMagnetic disk for storageThe introduction of computer operating system the program that controls and directs the computer , enable the computer hardware communicate the computer softwareFourth-Generation ComputersThe ability to place an increasing number of transistors on a single chip led to the invention of the microprocessor in 1971A microprocessor contains the core processing capabilities of an entire computer on one single chipIBM PC, Apple Macintosh, todays modern computer fall into this categoryKeyboard and mouse for inputMonitor and printer for outputMagnetic disks and optical disks for storageWitnessed the development of computer networks and the internet

Fifth-Generation ComputersBased on artificial intelligence, allowing them to think, reason and learnVoice recognition for inputComputer will be constructed in the form of optical computers that process data using light instead of electronsVirtual machineAvirtual machine(VM) is asoftwareimplementedabstractionof the underlyinghardware, which is presented to theapplication layer of the systemA self-containedoperating environment that behaves as if it is a separate computerA virtual machine (VM) is a software implementation of a machine that executes programs like a physical machine.

Introduction of ComputerIs a programmable electronic device that accepts data, performs operation on the data, presents result and store data if needed.Consist of a set of electronics

Fundamental SequenceAccept instruction and dataProcess the data according to a set of instructionsProduce results of information or actionsComputer SystemSoftware used of instructions that define the tasks that the hardware is to performInstructions it can execute a sequence of instructions; it can execute instruction iteration; it can execute instruction by selectionCategory of Computer ArchitectureISA is the abstract image of computing systems which is observed by machine language programmer Micro architecture(computer organization) depiction of any system that show how principal parts of a system are unified in order to fulfil the instruction set architecture.System Design which consists of all other hardware components in a computing system.Improvement of Computer Architecture25% per year delivering performances improvementThe ability of microprocessor to ride the improvementIt was created for design goals to optimize personal computers and of course it improves performance.It was made to reach goals that would give us better performance

The Effect of Dramatic Growth Rate in the 20th Century of ComputerIt has significantly enhanced the capability available to computer usersDramatic rate of improvement has led to dominance of microprocessorClasses of ComputersDesktop Computing characterized in terms of applications and benchmarking, though the increasing use of web-centric, interactive applicationsServers to provides larger scale and more reliable file and computing servicesEmbedded Computers are the fastest growing portion of the computer marketTrends in TechnologyIntegrated Circuit Logic Technology - transistor density increases by about 35% per year Semi conductor DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory capacity increases by about 40% per year doubling every two yearsMagnetic Disk Technology density increased by about 30% per year doubling every three yearsNetworking Technology network performance depends both on the performance of switches and on the performance of transmission systemFunction and StructureFunction the operation of each individual component as a part of the structureFunction of ComputersData ProcessingData StorageData MovementData ProcessingAny processing that uses a computer program to enter data and summarize, analyze, and otherwise convert data into usable informationCentral Processing UnitIs the hardware within acomputerthat carries out theinstructionsof acomputer programby performing the basic arithmetical, logical, andinput/outputoperations of the system. The brains of thecomputer where most calculations take placeThe most important element of acomputer system.Control UnitIs the circuitry that controls the flow of information through the processor and coordinates the activities of the other units within the processor. The brain within the brain.Also called as control system, a device that manage, command, direct, or regulate the behavior of the other devices or systems.

Data PathOften used in a wider context to mean any logical or physical connection between a source and destination of digital or analog information

Computer BusAn electrical pathway through which the processor communicates with the internal and external devices attached to the computer

Data Storage Computer components and reaching media that retain digital data used or computing for some interval of timeEx. Memory of a computer (RAM) retrieval of data and updatePrimary StorageInternal memory and main memory storage locations that holds memory for short periods of time while the computer is onExample: RAM main memory of the system(Random Access Memory)

Cache high speed access area that can be either a reserved section of main memory or storage deviceIs a component that transparently stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster.Example of RAMDIMM Dual In Line Memory Module 64 bits paths because of the Pentium processor requirementRIMM Memory Module that consists of RDRAM chips184 pins used for Intel Pentium 4 Motherboards160 pins used for laptop computer Same as DIMM but different in settings

SIPP Single In Line Pin Package consisted of a small printed circuit board upon which were mounted of number of memoryIt had 30 pins along one edge which mated with matching holes in themotherboardof the computer.SIMM Single In Line Memory Module circuit boards that holds 6 to 9 memory chips per boards. The 9th chip usually can error checking chip 72 pins.Secondary StorageSometimes called auxiliary storage, is all datastoragethat is not currently in a computer's primary storage ormemory An additional synonym is external storage.Differs from the primary storage that it is not directly accessible by the CPU

Examples : HDD (Hard Disk Drive) computer device which stores digitally encoded dataThe main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer. Theoperating system software titles and most other files are stored in the hard disk drive.SSD (Solid State Drive) data storage device that uses solid-state memory to store persistent data

Tertiary StorageProvides a third level of storage. Primarily useful for extraordinary large data stores, accessed without human operators

ExamplesTape Library storage device which contains one or more tape drives, a number of slots to hold tape cartridges Optical Jukebox a computer data storage that can automatically load and unload optical discsOff-Line Storage a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unitExamples of Offline StorageFloppy Disk data storage on a medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shellCompact Disc an optical disc used to store digital data. It was originally developed to store sound recordings exclusively , but later it also allowed the preservation of other types of data

DVD (Digital Disc or Digital Versatile Disc) is an optical disc storage media formatUSB Flash Drive consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USBComputer Memory.Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequence of instructions) or data on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic deviceSomething that stores, preserves and recalls data when neededTypes of Memory CacheMemory Cache portion on memory of high speed static RAM and effective because most programs access the same data or instructions over and over.Disk Cache used to access commonly accessed data, A portion ofRAMused to speed upaccesstodataon adisk.Internet Browser Cache temporary internet files that is use to improve how fast data is opened while browsing the internet Data MovementInstructions move data from one locations to anotherAn operation that physically moves a row from one location to another location in a tableThe source and destination locations are determined by the addressing modes, and can be registers or memoryEarlier processors had different instructions and different names for different kinds of data movement, while most modern processors group data movement into a single symbolic name, with different kinds of data movement being indicated by address mode and size designation.Kinds of Data MovementLoad instructions - loads a register from a memoryStore instructions - store the contents of the register into memoryTransfer instructions - loads a register from another. In processors that have separate names for different kinds of data moves, a memory to memory data move might be specially designated as a move instruction.

Exchange instructions exchanges the content of two registers, two memory locations, or a register and a memory location

ProcessorsA processor, or "microprocessor," is a small chip that resides incomputersand other electronic devices. Its basic job is to receiveinputand provide the appropriateoutput. While this may seem like a simple task, modern processors can handle trillions of calculations per second.The central processor of a computer is also known as theCPU, or "central processing unit." This processor handles all the basic system instructionsPentium IIIbrand refers toIntel's32-bitx86desktop and mobilemicroprocessors based on the sixth-generationP6 micro architectureintroduced on February 26, 1999.the Pentium III processor comes with aSynchronized Dynamic Random Access Memory(SDRAM), allowing for an extremely fast transfer of data between the microprocessor and the memory.Pentium 4Pentium 4was a line of single-coredesktopandlaptopcentral processing units(CPUs), introduced byIntelon November 20, 2000and shipped through August 8, 2008.Pentium 4 clock speeds were over 2.0 GHz.Pentium 4 variants included code named Willamette, Northwood, Prescott and Cedar Mill with clock speeds that varied from 1.3-3.8 GHz.Dual Corerefers to aCPUthat includes two complete execution cores per physicalprocessorIt has combined two processors and theircachesand cachecontrollersonto a singleintegrated circuit(siliconchip).well-suited formultitaskingenvironments because there are two complete executioncoresinstead of one,Core 2 DouIntels first dual core for Centrino Laptops. First x86 chips used in Macintosh as Apple transitioned from the Power PC to the x86 CPU Families.Core 2 QuadProcessor for desktop PCs is designed to handle massive compute and visualization workloads enabled by powerful multi-core technology

I SeriesThe family of Intel Core is a brand name used for various mid-range to high-end consumer and business microprocessors made by IntelCore i3Core i3 is Intels latest budget processor. Even though the Core i3 is the lowest of the bunch, its still a very good processor that has received good to outstanding reviews by the majority of experts and customers alike.Core i3s have even been known to perform closely to lower end Core 2 Quad processors.Core i5Core i5 is the latest mid-range processor by Intel. A step up from the Core i3, i5 processors will give you a noticeable difference in speed, depending on what type of applications that you run. If you are playing solitaire, you arent going to be able to tell a difference between Core i3 and Core i5 processors. If you are editing multiple files in Adobe Flash, with virtualization software, you may notice the Core i5 to be snappier.There are two main types of Core i5 Processors, dual core, and quad coreCore i5s offer enough performance to do stuff like video editing and gamingA Core i5 processor is a great, mid-range priced processor for people who use their computers frequently and often multi task.Core i7Core i7 is the name of a group of computer processors created by IntelCorporation released in the fall of 2008The family of Core i7 processors also expands a computers abilities what are known as multiple cores. Cores are independent processors that can be integrated to work together in a single computer.Computer HardwareRefers to the various electronic components that are required for you to use a computer along with the hardware components inside the computer caseSix Common ComponentThe main computer boxMonitorKeyboardMouseSpeakersAn Optional PrinterFunction of the Main Computer BoxTemporary storage of information (known as data in more technical terms) this function is done by memoryPermanent Storage of Information this function is done by a hard disk, floopy disk, or CD ROMManipulation or processing of data used to determine where data is stored and perform calculations which support operations that the user is doingInterfacing to the outside components or to the outside world this supports the ability for the user to communicate with the computer and know how the computer is responding to commands which are done primarily through the monitor, keyboard, and mouse along with their interface components in the main computer box.Power Supply which provides the electrical power to the components in the computer box.Several Computer Hardware Components and SubcomponentsThe caseThe motherboardMemoryMicroprocessorVideo interface card which is also called the video cardSound cardOne or more permanent storage devices some of which may be optionalHard diskCD ROM drive or DVD driveFloopy Drive

The CaseThe outside component which provides protection for the parts inside and provides a fan and power supply which are used to both cool the working parts inside and provide power to themA Typical Computer with Tower Case

Inside the Case

MotherboardThe main circuit board inside a computer which contains the central processing unit, the bus, memory sockets, expansion slots and other componentsAlternatively known as the main board, system board, or on Apple Computers the logic board. It is also sometimes usually shortened to moboPrimary Circuit BoardResponsible for connecting all computer devices to the microprocessor. It supplies devices with power and allows the computer to react with them. Devices that can be used by connecting the motherboard are:Storage devicesSound cardsGraphic cardsHard disks

ChipsetAchipsetis a set of electronic components in an integrated circuit that manage the data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals. It is usually found in the motherboard of a computer.

Two PartsNorthbridge a part of a motherboard chipset, a pair of chips that provide controlling functions in support of the boards CPU. Usually located near the CPU, the Northbridge provides memory control and interface for the graphics controller and south bridge I/O controllersSouthbridge I/O controller hub in Intel Systems usually be distinguished from the Northbridge by not being directly connected to the CPU.

Basic Input/output SystemChips controls the most basic functions of the computer and performs a self-test every timePeripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCI-Express) connection for video, sound and video capture cards, as well as multiple of the other cards. PCI Express is a newer protocol that acts more like a network than a busAGP Accelerated Graphics Ports (AGP) dedicated port for videoIntegrated Drive Electronics or Intelligent Drive Connector (IDE Socket) interfaces for the hard driveUniversal Serial Bus (USB) or Fire wire for external peripherals, to establish communication between devices and a host controllerMemory Slots commonly refers to the slot computer memory is placed into the computer (memory) motherboard or I/O board, a space for place memory modulesRedundant Array of Independent Discs (RAID) controllers allow the computer to recognize multiple hard drives as one driveCPU Sockets in order to connect to a motherboard, CPUs feature a set of pins that have perfectly fit the socketMonitor Visual Display UnitCRT e cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a source of electrons) and a fluorescent screen, with external and internal means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to create images in the forms of light emitted from the fluorescent screen.LCD a liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display electronic visual display, video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals do not emit light directlyLED Light Emitting Diodes LED monitors are basically just a new kind of LCDs as they still use liquid crystals to produce desired image on screen. Their main difference is type of back light that they use for image reproductionAdvantages of Digital TechniquesLimitations of Digital TechniquesThe Future is DigitalDigital Number SystemsDecimal SystemsDecimal CountingBinary SystemBinary CountingRepresenting Binary QuantitiesDigital Signals and Timing DiagramsDigital Circuits/Logic CircuitsDigital Integrated CircuitsParallel and Serial TransmissionMemoryDigital ComputersMajor Parts of ComputersCentral Processing UnitTypes of Computers