Pergamon Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 369-376, 1994

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Computer Anxiety Correlates and What They Tell Us: A Literature Review

Matthew M. Maurer

Butler University

Abstract - Much is being written about computer anxiety and what to do about it. Little of what is written is supported by research. Research suggests that there is a relationship between computer anxiety and past computer experience. Research also suggests that there is some relationship between gender and computer anxiety but this area has not been sufficiently examined to clearly define the relationship. The same holds true for the relationship between computer anxiety and age. Other relationships have been explored, with little in the way of clear helpful results. Beyond experience with computers, little is known about what to do to mediate computer anxiety. A model of the development of computer anxiety would be helpful in guiding future research.

INTRODUCTION

Much has been speculated about computer anxiety, both what it is and what to do about it. Unfortunately, very little of this speculation is supported by the research literature. Much of the research in this area is significantly flawed, making it difficult to support any particular claim. However, some generalizations can be drawn from the existing body of research.

A significant body of research exists in the area of computer anxiety. Much of this research examines the relationship between some measure of computer anxiety and other variables. Several studies have examined its relationship to computer- related experience. Its relationship to several demographic variables, such as gen- der, age, and academic major, have been examined. A few studies have examined

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its relationship to various personality variables. Its relationship to various measures of academic achievement and computer anxiety have also been examined. Lastly, its relationships to other anxieties - most notably, math anxiety - have been examined in a small number of studies. The information that can be derived from these studies, although somewhat limited, gives some direction to future research.

EXPERIENCE

A hotly contested question in this area is “Does computer experience reduce com- puter anxiety?” A number of studies have found a relationship between previous computer experience and some measure of computer anxiety (Hayek & Stephens, 1989; Jones & Wall, 1985; Koohang, 1987; Loyd & Gressard, 1984a; Marcoulides, 1988). This approach to answering the question is insufficient, since it may be (and seems highly possible) that lower computer anxiety would be more a cause of greater computer experience than the other way around. Some researchers are care- ful to point out that a correlation between previous computer experience and com- puter anxiety does not demonstrate a cause and effect relationship, but others are not. In addition, correlational evidence in prior research has been reported in subse- quent research as demonstrating cause and effect, even when the authors of the pre- vious research made no such claim.

Other studies have manipulated the experience variable by looking at computer anxiety before and after some sort of computer course (Bartelle, 1988; Honeyman & White, 1987; Koohang, 1987; Lambert, Lewis, & Lenthall, 1989; Mackowiak, 1988). These studies have found mixed results. Some courses have served to reduce computer anxiety, while others have not. In most of these studies the course was not sufficiently defined, so it is difficult to make generalizations about the effect of computer-related instruction on computer anxiety. Although all the research does not support this claim, a preponderance of the research that looked at computer anxiety before and after instruction seems to suggest that longer courses of instruction are more effective in reducing computer anxiety, while shorter cours- es are not. Two studies (Honeyman & White, 1987; Maurer & Simonson, in press) found that during a semester-long computer literacy course computer anxiety did not significantly change for the entire group for the first half of the course, but it was significantly reduced for the second half of the course.

GENDER

A second highly studied area related to computer anxiety is gender. Many studies that deal with computer anxiety include gender as a variable, most likely because this information is easily collected. Several studies have found that females are more computer anxious than males (Cambre & Cook, 1987; Collins, 1985; Gressard & Loyd, 1985; Koohang, 1987; Loyd & Gressard, 1987; Raub, 1981), and several have found no gender differences (Honeyman & White, 1987; Loyd & Gressard, 1984a; Mackowiak, 1988; Sieve& Albritton, Roper, & Clayton, 1988; Wallace, 1988). The findings supporting correlation between gender and computer anxiety are problematic because other research has found that prior experience of males with computers is greater (Levin & Gordon, 1989; Vredenburg, Flett,

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Krames, & Pliner, 1984) and that access to computers for males is greater (i.e., parents tend to provide computers for male children more than for female chil- dren) (Campbell, 1989; Eaton, Schubert, DuBois, & Wolman, 1985). Research that reports a relationship with gender should probably have taken prior experi- ence into account.

Rosen, Sears, and Weil (1987) took an interesting approach to shed more light on this rather nebulous relationship. They examined the relationship between com- puter anxiety and gender role (as measured by the Bern Sex Role Inventory; Bern, 1974). This instrument identifies individuals as belonging to one of four identity groups: masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. They found that “feminine-identity students had more computer anxiety and more negative comput- er attitudes than did masculine-identity students, regardless of gender” (p. 178).

AGE

As with gender, the question of the relationship between age and computer anxiety is not straightforward. Many studies that examined age used typical student popu- lations that had a relatively narrow age range. Other studies used other populations with wider age ranges. In general, those studies that had a wider age range tended to report an age effect, with younger subjects being less anxious (Cambre & Cook, 1987; Francis, 1988; Rosen et al., 1987). Conversely, one study with a narrow age range sample reported no effect for age (Loyd & Gressard, 1984a). These findings were not consistent, however. Two studies with relatively wide age ranges reported no effect due to age (Kuhn, 1989; Sievert et al., 1988). None of these studies took experience with computers into account. With the integration of microcomputers into our society being a relatively new phenomenon, this would seem to be a very important consideration.

ACADEMIC MAJOR

Three studies were found that examined the relationship between academic major and computer anxiety in college students (Griswold, 1985; Lamb, 1984; Rosen et al., 1987). Griswold (1985) found that education majors had significantly higher anxiety than business majors. Rosen et al. (1987) found, in comparing “general stu- dents” with “computer and business students,” that the general students had signifi- cantly higher computer anxiety than computer and business students. In a study of preservice teachers, Lamb (1984) found differences in computer anxiety scores based on students’ academic areas of specialization. Lamb did not report any infor- mation on the statistical significance of these differences, however. Although these three studies suggest a trend, this is an area for further study.

PERSONALITY TRAITS

Various personality traits have been compared to computer anxiety. This is a small group of studies, but they are potentially important because they could give impor- tant information to those who are attempting to reduce computer anxiety. In the

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area of computer anxiety reduction, one important question that needs to be answered is “What computer anxiety reduction techniques will work best for what kind of personality ?’ Knowing more about the correlation of computer anxiety to various personality variables is the first step in answering this question.

Rohner and Simonson (198 1) examined two variables that are related to person- ality, brain hemisphere dominance and field dependence. He found a weak relation- ship between computer anxiety and hemisphericity, with left-brain-dominant sub- jects tending to be slightly more computer anxious than right-brain-dominant sub- jects. He found no significant computer anxiety difference between field-dependent and field-independent individuals.

Hawk (1989) investigated the relationship between locus of control and comput- er attitudes. This study took place in a business setting and found that there was no difference between “internals” and “externals” with respect to computer attitudes. However, if a third variable, level of involvement, was taken into account, then dif- ferences were seen. Of those heavily involved with computers, locus of control had no relationship to computer attitudes. However, of those with a more casual involvement with computers, internal-control subjects had significantly more nega- tive attitudes than external-control subjects. One limitation of this study was that computer attitudes were measured using “information satisfaction,” which was a departure from the rest of the research in this area.

Griswold (1985) also looked at the personality variable of locus of control. He compared this measure to an ad hoc measure of computer attitudes and found a sig- nificant relationship between the two variables (r = .24). In contrast to the previous study, “externals tended to have less favorable attitudes about computers” (p. 135). This contradiction can be at least partially explained by the significant difference in the measures used to define computer attitude.

One final study examined the relationship of Holland type (a categorization of vocational personality types) to computer anxiety. Bellando and Winer (1985) found that the artistic and social types had significantly higher computer anxiety scores than the realistic, investigative, enterprising, and conventional types. This would seem to contradict the relationship reported by Rohner and Simonson (1981). The Holland types that had higher computer anxiety were more descriptive of right brain traits, which Rohner found be slightly lower in computer anxiety.

The information relating personality variables to computer anxiety is limited. It is also not useful in giving guidance for those interested in reducing computer anxiety at this time, but may serve as important background information for later studies.

ACHIEVEMENT

Several studies have examined the relationship between academic achievement and computer anxiety. These studies typically involved enrollment in a computer class, but in a few cases other classes have also been examined. Again, the findings were somewhat mixed. Two studies found no relationship between computer anxiety and course grade (Keman & Howard, 1990; Munger & Loyd, 1989). Another pair of studies reported that computer anxiety was significantly related to achievement, with lower anxiety being associated with higher achievement (Hayek & Stephens, 1989; Marcoulides, 1988). One confounding aspect of this relationship is that dif- ferent measures of achievement were used in the two studies. Hayek and Stephens

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(1989) used course grade, while Marcoulides (1988) used grades on completed homework assignments.

The fact that the results of this group of studies are not in agreement is not sur- prising. Each study differs from the rest in a number of ways (e.g., different mea- sures of computer anxiety, different course content, different methods of measur- ing achievement, different instructors, and different types of subjects). Although that the results differ is not surprising, it is difficult to draw conclusions from them. It is likely that computer anxiety affects academic achievement in a comput- er-related course, but it is also possible that the effect can be overcome by other factors (e.g., motivation of students, good instruction, good instructional methods or materials).

RELATION TO OTHER ANXIETIES

Several researchers have looked at the relationship of math anxiety to computer anxiety. This is a popular comparison, since math anxiety is a phenomenon that has been studied much longer than computer anxiety (Dreger & Aiken, 1957) and the two anxieties have some apparent similarities. In fact, one computer anxiety instru- ment was designed using a widely accepted math anxiety scale as a model (Rosen et al., 1987).

Dambrot, Watkins-Malek, Silling, Marshall, and Garver (1985) compared the Fennema-Sherman Math Anxiety Scale (Fennema & Sherman, 1976) to an ad hoc measure of computer attitude in a study using college students. They found a sig- nificant relationship between math anxiety and computer anxiety (r = .24).

Kernan and Howard (1990) compared the same measure of math anxiety to a computer anxiety measure that was an amalgam of several existing measures. They found a significant relationship between these two measures of anxiety (r = .23) that was consistent with the findings of Dambrot et al. (1985).

Rosen et al. (1987) compared the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS; Richardson & Suinn, 1972) to a measure of computer anxiety developed by the authors called the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS). The relationship between the CARS and the MARS was stronger than what had been reported in previous studies (r = .33). This was not surprising, since the CARS was developed using the MARS as a model.

Gressard and Loyd compared the Computer Attitude Scale (Loyd & Gressard, 1984b), which contained a Computer Anxiety subscale, to a modified version of the Fennema-Sherman scale. They found an even stronger relationship between computer anxiety and math anxiety (r = .39).

Marcoulides (1988) compared the MARS to his own Computer Anxiety Scale. He found a relationship that was consistent with the findings of previous research (r = .28).

These studies tend to verify the assumption that many researchers have made, that math anxiety and computer anxiety are related constructs. They also tend to support the claim that computer anxiety and math anxiety are not identical con- structs. Although this information tends to add validity to the construct of comput- er anxiety, its utility in developing a solution to the problem is not straightforward. This information may be most useful in discovering how individuals develop high levels of computer anxiety.

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CONCLUSIONS

The only valid conclusion that can be drawn from the existing body of literature is “We do not know what to do about computer anxiety!” Experience with computers seems to be a positive force in reducing computer anxiety, but questions about that experience remain. How should the experience be designed to be most effective? Which aspects of the experience are important in reducing anxiety, and which aspects are not? Can atypical elements be added to a typical experience that would make it more effective in reducing computer anxiety?

One standard recommendation is “Do more research.” This is indeed necessary, but it is important that this research have focus and direction. Three significant problems pervade this body of research: (a) Often the research questions are not clearly defined, building on previous research; (b) the treatments used are often ill defined; and (c) the studies in this area do not seem to form a thrust toward answer- ing larger questions.

Many studies examine correlates to computer anxiety without clearly defining why the correlates are important to understanding computer anxiety, or doing something about it. Many studies involve development of new measures of com- puter anxiety when several measures already exist, and those measures have been used and studied and therefore have significant reliability and validity information. Studies continue to address questions that have been previously examined, without relating the new information to the old.

Several studies have examined computer anxiety before and after a computer course without determining the critical elements of the course and describing those critical elements. It is difficult to generalize from this research because the treat- ment (the course) is different in each case and that treatment is largely unknown.

This body of research does not seem to have any focused goals (e.g., understand- ing how high levels of computer anxiety develop, or developing methods to reduce computer anxiety). The development of a model of the development of computer anxiety may help in providing this focus.

A MODEL OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER ANXIETY

Amount of computer experience has the clearest relationship to computer anxiety of any variable studied. Thus, in this model (see Figure 1) computer experience is the element that interacts most directly with computer anxiety. It is also known that other personality characteristics have a relationship with computer anxiety (e.g., math anxiety, locus of control). In this model these two factors are the only ones that directly influence the development of computer anxiety. It seems reason- able to assume that other factors also influence the development of computer anxi- ety, but they may only influence its development in an indirect fashion. Other vari- ables, such as demographic characteristics (e.g., socioeconomic status or gender) and life choices (e.g., academic major or career choices) interact indirectly with computer anxiety by affecting the amount of computer experience. Personality characteristics also affect computer anxiety indirectly by affecting life choices and computer experience. In addition, some cycles may exist between these variables (e.g., computer experience affects life choices, which in turn affects computer experience, which ultimately affects computer anxiety). The most important cycle

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Figure 1. A model of the development of computer anxiety.

is between computer anxiety and computer experience. It is likely that they each affect the other.

This model can be used in two ways. It can be tested directly to better under- stand the development of the phenomenon. If it is sufficiently tested, it can also be used to organize attempts to mediate the phenomenon. If it is known how computer anxiety develops, its development can be interrupted.

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