Complex Sentences

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

1. Definition2. Coordination and subordination 3. Indicators of subordination4. Classification of subordinate clauses5. Structural classification of subordinate

clauses6. Functional classification of subordinate

clauses7. Direct and indirect speech

1. Definition

Complex sentences have one or more subordinate clauses and a main clause.

2. Coordination and subordination

Coordination most typically involves “and”, “but” and “or”

Subordination are typically introduced by a class of words known as subordinators. Subordinators indicate the semantic relationship between the subordinate clause and the clause it is dependent on.

3. Indicators of subordination

1. The formal indicators of subordination are subordinators.

Simple subordinators: if, as, that, because, though...

Compound subordinators: as if, so that, as though...

Complex subordinators: so... that, more... than, hardly... when, no sooner... than.


2. The use of wh-elements. Wh-elements function as pronouns: what,

who, which.e.g. What he says is not true.

Wh-elements function as adverbs: when, where, why, how.e.g. Why he didn’t go to the meeting was still unknown. When I’ve finished the book, I’ll give you.


3. The optional use of subordinators– Finite clause, e.g. I think (that) you’re

right.– Non-finite clause, e.g. (After) having

finished the work, they went home.


4. The absence of subordinators With finite clause: in case of inversion.e.g. Had I known this, I wouldn’t have

come.= If I had known this, I wouldn’t have

come. With non-finite clause: in nominal function. e.g. I know him to be a VIP.


5. The absence of finite clause.e.g. If (it is) necessary I’ll come.

4. Classification of subordinate clauses

1. Structural classificationa. Finite clausesb. Non-finite clausesc. Verbless clauses

2. Functional classificationa. Nominal clausesb. Adverbial clausesc. Comment clausesd. Relative clauses and sentential relative clausese. Comparative clauses

Structural classification

The subordinate clauses are groups of words which contain a finite verb but are not “complete and independent human utterances” and can not stand alone. These subordinate clauses usually do the work of adjectives, adverbs or nouns. The subordinate clauses may be:

A finite clause, e.g. I know that you’re honest. A non-finite clause, e.g. They wanted me to keep

calm. A verbless clause, e.g. When in Rome, do as the

Romans do.

Functional classification

1. Nominal clauses2. Adverbial clauses3. Relative clauses 4. Comparative clauses

Nominal clauses

1. Definition: A nominal clause is the one which does the work of a noun.

2. Uses: A nominal clause may be used as:

Uses of nominal clauses

The subject of a verb.e.g. What you are doing seems very interesting.

The object of a verb: A noun clause acting as the object of a verb may be a statement, direct or indirect, a question, direct or indirect.e.g. He said: “The car will be ready tomorrow”.He said that the car would be ready the following day.He said: “Where do you live?”He asked me where I lived.

Uses of nominal clauses

The object of a preposition.e.g. He only laughed at what she said.

The complement of a verb.e.g. That is not what I meant.

In apposition to a noun.e.g. The fact that he is rich is obvious.

With a number of predicative adjectives like certain, glad, sorry...e.g. I’m certain that I have typed all the letters.

Adverbial clauses

1. Definition: Adverbial clauses are those that do the work of adverbs.

2. Types: The main types of adverbial clauses are:

Adverbial clauses

1. Adverb clauses of manner: are those which indicate how an action is done. Adverb clauses of manner are usually introduced by the conjunctions: as, as if, as though followed by a past subjunctive.e.g. I’ll do this exercise as I had been taught. He looks as if he had seen a ghost.

2. Adverb clauses of place: are those which indicate where an action is done. Adverb clauses of place are introduced by where, wherever.e.g. Stay where you are.

I will go wherever you go.

Adverbial clauses

3. Adverb clauses of time: are those which indicate when an action is done. Adverb clauses of time can be introduced by a number of conjunctions such as when, while, after, before, since, as, as soon as, until...e.g. When it rains I usually go to work by bus.

He had learnt Russian before he went to Moscow.

Adverbial clauses

4. Adverb clauses of reason (or cause): are those which indicate why an action was done. These clauses are generally introduced by because, since, as, seeing that...e.g. He sold his car because it was too old. Since you won’t help me, I must do the work myself

Clauses beginning with as, since, seeing that usually precede the main clause. Those beginning with because usually come after the main clause.

Additional emphasis is given to the adverb clause of reason when it is preceded by “it is, it was + that clause”. In this construction because must always be used.e.g. It was only because the car was too old that he sold it.

Adverbial clauses

5. Adverb clauses of purpose: are usually introduced by “so that, in order that...”e.g. Some people eat so that they may live. Others seem to live in order that they may eat.

When the subject of the subordinate clause of purpose is the same person or thing as the subject of the main clause, purpose is often expressed not by a clause but by the infinitive with to, in order to, so as to.e.g. They work hard to / in order to / so as to earn much money.

Adverbial clauses

6. Adverb clauses of concession: are usually introduced by though, although, even though, even if, wherever, whenever, however (with an adjective), whether… or not...e.g. Though he tried hard he wasn’t successful.

Whether he works or not I don’t think he will pass this exam.

Adverbial clauses

7. Adverb clauses of comparison: are usually introduced by as, than.e.g. That question is easier than I thought.

This exercise is as different as that one. Another type of comparative clause is the

construction “the + comparative… the + comparative”e.g. The more we work the more we earn.

Adverbial clauses

8. Adverb clauses of condition (or supposition): are those which indicate on what condition a thing happens, happened or will happen. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, whether, as long as, that.

Adverbial clauses

9. Adverb clauses of result. A clause of simple result is usually introduced by “so that”.e.g. I received my salary yesterday so that I can pay what I owe you now.

A clause of result associated with degree is introduced by so... that, such... so... as to.e.g. He ran so fast that I couldn’t catch

him. Would you be so kind as to carry

this box for me?

Adjective clauses

1. Definition: Adjective clauses (sometimes called relative clauses or attributive clauses) qualify nouns. The noun qualified is called the antecedent and the relative clause normally follows the antecedent.

e.g. That’s the house that I’d like to buy.An adjective clause is generally introduced by

a relative pronoun such as that, which, who…

Defining and non-defining clauses

Defining clauses are those which are necessary parts of the idea. If they’re left out, the sentences can’t make complete sense. All these clauses define the antecedent and give it its definite meaning.e.g. The book that you gave me was interesting.

Non-defining clauses are those which give additional information about an antecedent. These adjective clauses can be omitted and the rest of the sentence would still make perfect sense.e.g. Hamlet, which was written by Shakespeare, is very interesting.


The difference between these two types of clauses can be seen in the following examples:All the books, which had pictures in them, were sent to the little girl (she got all the books) → non-defining clause.All the books which had pictures in them were sent to the little girl (she got only those books which had pictures in them) → defining clause.


There is a type of non-defining clause whose antecedent is a whole sentence. In this case the introductory relative pronoun is always “which”.e.g. They have invited me to dinner, which is very kind of them.

Non-defining clauses have also a “connective’ use, i.e. they are almost equivalent to a compound sentence.e.g. I threw a ball to John, who threw it to Mary.(= I threw a ball to John and he threw it to Mary).

Omission of the relative pronoun in defining clauses

When the relative pronoun in a defining clause is in the object case, it is often omitted especially in spoken English.e.g. The man (that) you met this morning is my brother.

Clauses in which the relative pronouns are omitted are sometimes called “contact clauses”. In non-defining clauses, who(m), which are never omitted.e.g. My brother, who is 30, has bought a new house.

Summary of the usage of relative pronouns in adjective clauses

Defining clauses

For people For things

Subject ObjectO + preposition

Possessive

who, that whom, thatto whom, (that) ... to whose

which, thatwhich, thatto which, (that) … toof which, whose

Summary of the usage of relative pronouns in adjective clauses

Non-defining clauses

For people For things

Subject ObjectO + prepositionPossessive

whowhomto whom, whose

whichwhichto which, of which, whose

Relative clauses introduced by other words

1. When, where, whye.g. This is a house where I’m living. That’s the reason why he didn’t come.Can you tell me the time when we can meet each other?

2. Bute.g. There’s not a man here but would like to be in your place. = There’s not a man here who’d not like to be in your place.There wasn’t a single person there but thought you were right.= There wasn’t a single person there who didn’t think you were right.This construction is not common.

3. As: an adjective clause is usually introduced by “as” after “same” and “such”.e.g. I’ll be surprised if he does this the same way as I do. I’ve never heard such stories as he tells.

Adjective clauses with formal subject “it”

Sometimes a part of a sentence is given front position and is introduced by “it is” (or some other forms of the verb “to be” singular number) and followed by an adjective clause.e.g. It’s the work that we want.

It will be you who can fulfill this duty.

Conditional clauses

There are two kinds of conditional clauses distinguished by the form and the meaning of the main clause. The difference between them is important.

Type 1: Open conditions.

Type 1 is represented by sentences like:If you work hard, you’ll pass your examination.If you are right, then I am wrong.

The positions of the clauses can be reserved. When the “if” clause is placed first, it is more emphatic.

All the sentences which contain a condition that may or may not be fulfilled are “open” conditions.

There are a great many combinations of tenses which may be used in open conditions:


Present tense in “if” clause Tense in main clause

If you are right then I am wrong.If you help me I’ll help youIf I get this right, I’ll have answered all questions correctly. If what you say is right, then what I said was wrong. If you meet Henry, tell him I want to see him.If the ground is very dry, don’t forget to water the plants.

Present simpleFuture simpleFuture perfect

Past simpleImperativeImperative


Past tense in “if” clause Tense in main clauseIf I said that I apologise. Present simpleIf I said that I was mistaken. Past simpleIf I made a mistake, I’ll try to remedy it. Future simple

Present perfect in “if” clause Tense in main clauseIf I have made a mistake I’ll try to remedy it. Future simpleIf you have done your homework you may go to the cinema. Present simple

Type 2: Hypothetical conditions or suppositions

Type 2 is represented by sentences like:If Henry were here, he would know the answer’.If I were a king I would have offered you a prize.

The position of the clauses can be reserved. Such sentences make a hypothesis which may be

contrary to fact or just something not thought of as a fact or they may imply a doubt.

In sentences type 2, the past subjunctive is used in the “if” clause and “would/should + infinitive” are used in the main clause. Sentences of this kind may refer to present time, past time or future time.


Present time.e.g. If I had the money I would buy a new car.Despite the forms of the verbs are past tenses, the sentences of this type express present condition.

Past time.e.g. If John had worked hard he would have passed the exam. (implied negative: but he didn’t work hard).In the sentences of this type there is usually an implied negative.


Future time.The idea of futurity in hypothetical conditions is often expressed by the same construction as is used for the present time, sometimes with a time adverb or phrase.e.g. If Richard worked hard next term, he would pass the examination.But futurity in the “if” clause is frequently expressed by “were to + infinitive” e.g. What would you say if I were to tell you that Mary is

going to get married?


We can summarize the verb forms used in sentences of hypothetical condition like this:

Verb in “if” clause Verb in main clause

Present time Simple past tense (or subjunctive)

would/ should + bare infinitive

Past time Past perfect tense would/ should + have + PII

Future time - As for present tense (with a time adverb or phrase)- were to + infinitive

would/ should + bare infinitive

3.4.3. Conditions expressed by inversion

When the “if” clause contains one of the auxiliary verbs “were, had, should”, it can be replaced by a clause without “if” by inversion of verb and subject.e.g. Were John here now (= if John were hero now) he would explain the whole matter.Had you asked me (= if you had asked me) I would have told you the answer.I will go should it be necessary (= if it should be necessary).

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

1. Definition.2. The changes in the indirect speech3. Indirect questions4. Indirect commands5. Notes

Definition

In the direct speech we have the exact words of the speaker, e.g. He said: “I am learning English.” In the indirect speech or reported speech, we give the same meaning but with a different form, e.g. He said that he was learning English.The difference between two forms is shown by the tense of the verb, together with changes in the person of the pronouns and possessive adjectives and of certain words that denote “nearness” in the direct form. These words may be replaced by words suggesting ‘‘remoteness’’ (in time and place). There are also some changes in word order.

The changes in the indirect speech

1. Changes in verbs2. Changes in pronouns 3. Other changes

Changes in verbs

Present simple tense → past simple tense. Present continuous tense → past continuous tense. Present perfect tense → past perfect tense. Present perfect continuous tense → past perfect

continuous tense. Past simple tense → past perfect tense. Past continuous tense → past perfect continuous

tense. Future simple tense → future simple in the past. Conditional simple → conditional perfect.

Note that inverted commas are not used in indirect speech.

Changes in verbs

When the sentence expresses a Fact that is supposed to be universally true and not me applicable to the time when the statement was made, the present tense may be used in reported speech.e.g. He said that the sun is 92 million miles away.

The present tense may also be used with a statement expressing a repeated or habitual action.e.g. He said that his wife always drinks coffee for breakfast.

2.2. Changes in pronouns

The pronouns and possessive adjectives generally change as follow:Direct IndirectI, me, my, mine → he (she), him (her), his (her), herWe, us, our, ours → they, them, their, theirsYou, your, yours → they, them, their, theirsI (we), me (us), my (our), mine (ours)

Changes in pronouns

But these pronouns and possessive adjectives may vary according to circumstances. Common sense will determine which pronouns should be used.e.g. Teacher: “John, you must bring your book to class.”Peter (reporting this to someone else): “The teacher told John that he must bring his book to class.”Peter (to John): “The teacher said that you must bring your book to class.”John (to his classmates): ‘‘The teacher said that I must bring my book to class.”

Other changes

Words denoting “nearness” become the corresponding words denoting “remoteness”.e.g. this → that

these → those here → there now → then ago → before today → that daytomorrow → the next dayyesterday → the day before / the previous day.

Note that if the main clause governing the direct speech clause does not come at the beginning of a sentence, the verb generally comes before the subject.e.g. “This is the house where I was born”, said George.

Indirect questions

The changes in tense, pronouns etc. when direct speech becomes indirect speech apply to questions and commands. But with these there are additional points to note. When a direct question is turned into an indirect question:

The interrogative construction of the direct question is replaced by the statement construction in the indirect question.

The verb that introduces the indirect question is ask or some similar verbs as enquire, wonder, want to know etc. according to the shade of meaning to expressed.

The connective joining in the indirect question to the main clause is if/whether except when the direct question had been one beginning with an interrogative such as who / what / why etc., in which case this interrogative is the connective.

e.g. He asked me if / whether I liked English. He asked me where I was born.

Indirect commands

When a direct command is turned into an indirect one, the following will be noticed:

The verb used is not “say” but one like order, command, tell, ask, request… according to the shade of meaning intended.

A direct object, representing the person ordered is introduced.

The imperative form of the verb in the direct command becomes corresponding infinitive.

The indirect negative command is expressed by ask, order etc. and a negative infinitive.

e.g. “Go away!” → He asked me to go away. “Don’t shut the door”. → He asked me not to shut the door.

Notes

1. Whether and if In direct questions there is not much difference in meaning

between whether and if.e.g. He asked me if/ whether I had seen that film.

Whether usually expresses a doubt and an alternative possibility or a choice between two alternatives, and so is often followed by the correlative conjunction or.e.g. I don’t know whether I should go away or stay here. Whether (not if) is used:

When the indirect question precedes the main clause.e.g. Whether this is true or not, I can’t say.

Before an infinitive.e.g. She hasn’t decided whether to sail or to

fly to America. When the subordinate clause that it introduces is really a

concessive one. e.g. I’ll go whether he asks me or not.

Notes

2. Say has the meaning “to utter”, “to express in words”.e.g. He always says what he thinks.Say is used with direct speech and indirect statements.e.g. He said: “I like English” He said that he liked English.With say it is not necessary to supply an indirect object, that is a word that represents the person addressed but if an indirect object is given, to must be used.e.g. He said to me that he liked English.In reported speech, say is never followed by an infinitive.e.g. He said to the boy that he must leave.

Notes

3. TellThe original meaning of tell is to count.e.g. The clock tells the time.But the more usual meaning now is to narrate, to recount, to reveal, to explain, to order…e.g. Tell me what you know.Tell is used with indirect speech for statements and commands. With commands tell is followed by an infinitive. Tell is never used to introduce direct speech.e.g. The teacher told the boy to leave the room at once.

Say and tell

The difference between the meanings of say and tell can be seen in the following examples:Please tell me your name (= I don’t know your name).Please say your name (= I want to hear how it is pronounced)

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Complex Sentences