Complex Patterns of Inheritance Complex inheritance of traits does not follow inheritance patterns described by

Mendel.

Real-World Reading Link Imagine that you have red-green color blindness. In bright light, red lights

do not stand out against surroundings. At night, green lights look like white streetlights. To help those with

red-green color blindness, traffic lights always follow the same pattern. Red-green color blindness,

however, does not follow the same pattern of inheritance described by Mendel.

Incomplete DominanceRecall that when an organism is heterozygous for a trait, its phenotype will be that of the dominant trait.

For example, if the genotype of a pea plant is Tt and T is the genotype for the dominant trait tall, then its

phenotype will be tall. When red-flowered snapdragons (CRCR) are crossed with white-flowered

snapdragons (CWCW), the heterozygous offspring have pink flowers (CRCW), as shown in Figure 1. This is

an example of incomplete dominance, in which the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate

phenotype between the two homozygous phenotypes. When the heterozygous F1 generation snapdragon

plants are allowed to self-fertilize, as in Figure 1, the flowers are red, pink, and white in a 1:2:1 ratio,

respectively.

CodominanceRecall that when an organism is heterozygous for a particular trait, the dominant phenotype is expressed.

In a complex inheritance pattern called codominance, both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous

condition. Sickle-cell disease provides a case study of codominant inheritance.

Sickle-cell diseaseThe allele responsible for sickle-cell disease is particularly common in people of African descent, with

about nine percent of African Americans having one form of the trait. Sickle-cell disease affects red blood

cells and their ability to transport oxygen. The photograph in Figure 2 shows the blood cells of an

individual who is heterozygous for the sickle-cell trait. Changes in hemoglobin—the protein in red blood

cells—cause those blood cells to change to a sickle, or C-shape. Sickle-shaped cells do not effectively

transport oxygen because they block circulation in small blood vessels. Those who are heterozygous for

the trait have both normal and sickle-shaped cells. These individuals can lead relatively normal lives, as

the normal blood cells compensate for the sickle-shaped cells.

Reading PreviewEssential Questions

What are the differences between

various complex inheritance

patterns?

How can sex-linked inheritance

patterns be analyzed?

How can the environment

influence the phenotype of an

organism?

Review Vocabulary

gamete: a mature sex cell (sperm

or egg) with a haploid number of

chromosomes

New Vocabulary

incomplete dominance

codominance

multiple alleles

epistasis

sex chromosome

autosome

sex-linked trait

polygenic trait

Figure 1  The color of snapdragon flowers is a result of incomplete dominance. When a plant with white flowers iscrossed with a plant with red flowers, the offspring have pink flowers. Red, pink, and white offspring will result fromself-fertilization of a plant with pink flowers.

Predict what would happen if you crossed a pink flower with a white flower.

2.2.b 1.e.(...)

Sickle-cell disease and malariaNote in Figure 2 the distribution of both sickle-cell disease and malaria in Africa. Some areas with

sickle-cell disease overlap areas of widespread malaria. Why might such high levels of the sickle-cell allele

exist in central Africa? Scientists have discovered that those who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell trait

also have a higher resistance to malaria. The death rate due to malaria is lower where the sickle-cell trait is

higher. Because less malaria exists in those areas, more people live to pass on the sickle-cell trait to

offspring. Consequently, sickle-cell disease continues to increase in Africa.

Data Analysis LabBased on Real Data*Interpret the Graph

What is the relationship between sickle-cell disease and other complications? Patients who have been diagnosed with

sickle-cell disease face many symptoms, including respiratory failure and neurological problems. The graph shows the

relationship between age and two different symptoms—pain and fever—during the two weeks preceding an episode of acute

chest syndrome and hospitalization.

Data and Observations

Think Critically1. State which age group has the highest level of pain before being hospitalized.

2. Describe the relationship between age and fever before hospitalization.

*Data obtained from: Walters, et al. 2002. Novel therapeutic approaches in sickle cell disease. Hemotology 17: 10-34.

Dr. Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited

Figure 2  Left: Normal red blood cells are flat and disk-shaped. Sickle-shaped cells are elongated and C-shaped. Theycan clump, blocking circulation in small vessels.Right: The sickle-cell allele increases resistance to malaria.

Multiple AllelesNot all traits are determined by two alleles. Some forms of inheritance are determined by more than two

alleles referred to as multiple alleles. An example of such a trait is human blood group.

Blood groups in humans

The ABO blood group, shown in Figure 3, has three forms of alleles, sometimes called AB markers: IA is

blood type A; IB is blood type B; and i is blood type O. Type O is the absence of AB markers. Note that

allele i is recessive to IA and IB. However, IA and IB are codominant; blood type AB results from both IA

and IB alleles. Therefore, the ABO blood group is an example of both multiple alleles and codominance.

The Rh blood group includes Rh factors, inherited from each parent. Rh factors are either positive or

negative (Rh+ or Rh–); Rh+ is dominant. The Rh factor is a blood protein named after the rhesus monkey

because studies of the rhesus monkey led to discovery of that blood protein.

Coat color of rabbitsMultiple alleles can demonstrate a hierarchy of dominance. In rabbits, four alleles code for coat color: C,

cch, ch, and c. Allele C is dominant to the other alleles and results in a full color coat. Allele c is recessive

and results in an albino phenotype when the genotype is homozygous recessive. Allele cch is dominant to

ch, and allele ch is dominant to c and the hierarchy of dominance can be written as C > cch > ch > c.

Figure 4 shows the genotypes and phenotypes possible for rabbit-coat color. Full color is dominant over

chinchilla, which is dominant over Himalayan, which is dominant over albino.

Figure 3  There are three forms of alleles in the ABO blood group—IA, IB, and i.

(tl)Carolyn A. McKeone/Photo Researchers; (tr)Jane Burton/Photo Researchers; (bl)/ARCO/P. Wegner/age fotostock; (br)/Photolibrary/agefotostock

Figure 4  Rabbits have multiple alleles for coat color. The four alleles provide four basic variations in coat color.

The presence of multiple alleles increases the possible number of genotypes and phenotypes. Without

multiple-allele dominance, two alleles, such as T and t, produce only three possible genotypes—in this

example TT, Tt, and tt—and two possible phenotypes. However, the four alleles for rabbit-coat color

produce ten possible genotypes and four phenotypes, as shown in Figure 4. More variation in rabbit coat

color comes from the interaction of the color gene with other genes.

EpistasisCoat color in Labrador retrievers can vary from yellow to black. This variety is the result of one allele hiding

the effects of another allele, an interaction called epistasis (ih PIHS tuh sus). A Labrador’s coat color is

controlled by two sets of alleles. The dominant allele E determines whether the fur will have dark pigment.

The fur of a dog with genotype ee will not have any pigment. The dominant B allele determines how dark

the pigment will be. Study Figure 5. If the dog’s genotype is EEbb or Eebb, the dog’s fur will be chocolate

brown. Genotypes eebb, eeBb, and eeBB will produce a yellow coat, because the e allele masks the

effects of the dominant B allele.

Sex DeterminationEach cell in your body, except for gametes, contains 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs of chromosomes. One

pair of these chromosomes, the sex chromosomes, determines an individual’s gender. There are two

types of sex chromosomes—X and Y. Individuals with two X chromosomes are female, and individuals

with an X and a Y chromosome are male. The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes. The

offspring’s gender is determined by the combination of sex chromosomes in the egg and sperm cell, as

shown in Figure 6.

(l)/Stockbyte/PunchStock; (cl)Jaques Brun/Photo Researchers; (cr)?Dale Spartas/Corbis; (r)M. Claye/Photo Researchers

Figure 5  The results of epistasis in coat color in Labrador retrievers show an interaction of two genes, each with twoalleles. Note that an underscore in the genotype allows for either a dominant or recessive gene.

Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers

Figure 6  Left: The size and shape of the Y chromosome and the X chromosome are quite different from one another.Right: The segregation of the sex chromosomes into gametes and the random combination of sperm and egg cellsresult in an approximately 1:1 ratio of males to females.

Dosage CompensationHuman females have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of X chromosomes. Males have 22 pairs of

autosomes, along with one X and one Y chromosome. If you examine the X and Y chromosomes in

Figure 6, you will notice that the X chromosome is larger than the Y chromosome. The X chromosome

carries a variety of genes that are necessary for the development of both females and males. The Y

chromosome mainly has genes that relate to the development of male characteristics.

Because females have two X chromosomes, it seems as though females get two doses of the X

chromosome and males get only one dose. To balance the difference in the dose of X-related genes, one

of the X chromosomes stops working in each of the female’s body cells. This often is called dosage

compensation or X-inactivation. Which X chromosome stops working in each body cell is a completely

random event. Dosage compensation occurs in all mammals.

As a result of the Human Genome Project, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) has released new

information on the sequence of the human X chromosome. Researchers now think that some genes on the

inactivated X chromosome are more active than was previously thought.

Chromosome inactivationThe coat colors of the calico cat shown in Figure 7 are caused by the random inactivation of a particular X

chromosome. The resulting colors depend on the X chromosome that is activated. The orange patches are

formed by the inactivation of the X chromosome carrying the allele for black coat color. Similarly, the black

patches are a result of the inactivation of the X chromosome carrying the allele for orange coat color.

Razi Searles/Photoshot

Barr bodiesThe inactivated X chromosomes can be observed in cells. In 1949, Canadian scientist Murray Barr

observed inactivated X chromosomes in female calico cats. He noticed a condensed, darkly stained

structure in the nucleus. The darkly stained, inactivated X chromosomes, such as the one shown in

Figure 8, are called Barr bodies. It was discovered later that only females, including human females, have

Barr bodies in their cell nuclei.

Sex-Linked TraitsTraits controlled by genes located on the X chromosome are called sex-linked traits, or X-linked traits. Because males have only one X chromosome,

they are affected by recessive X-linked traits more often than are females. Females are less likely to express a recessive X-linked trait because the other

Figure 7  The calico coat of this cat results from the random inactivation of the X chromosomes in body cells. One Xchromosome codes for orange fur, and one X chromosome codes for black fur, as illustrated in the bottom image.

Dr. George Wilder/Visuals Unlimited/Getty Images

Figure 8  An inactivated X chromosome in a female body cell is called a Barr body, a dark body usually found near thenucleus.

X chromosome may mask the effect of the trait.

Some traits that are located on autosomes may appear to be sex-linked, even though they are not. This occurs when an allele appears to be dominant in

one gender but recessive in the other. For example, the allele for baldness is recessive in females but dominant in males, causing hair loss that follows a

typical pattern called male-pattern baldness. A male would be bald if he were heterozygous for the trait, while a female would be bald only if she were

homozygous recessive.

Red-green color blindnessThe trait for red-green color blindness is a recessive X-linked trait. About 8 percent of males in the United States have red-green color blindness. The

photos in Figure 9 show how a person with red-green color blindness might view colors compared to a person who does not have red-green color blindness.

Study the Punnett square shown in Figure 9. The mother is a carrier for color blindness because she has the recessive allele for color blindness on one of

her X chromosomes. The father is not color blind because he does not have the recessive allele. The sex-linked trait is represented by writing the allele on

the X chromosome. Notice that the only offspring that can possibly have red-green color blindness is a male child. As a result of it being an X-linked trait,

red-green color blindness is very rare in females.

HemophiliaHemophilia, another recessive sex-linked disorder, is characterized by delayed clotting of the blood. Like

red-green color blindness, this disorder is more common in males than in females.

A famous pedigree of hemophilia is one that arose in the family of Queen Victoria of England (1819-1901).

Her son Leopold died of hemophilia, and her daughters Alice and Beatrice, as illustrated in the pedigree in

Figure 10, were carriers for the disease. Alice and Beatrice passed on the hemophilia trait to the Russian,

German, and Spanish royal families. Follow the generations in this pedigree to see how this trait was

passed through Queen Victoria’s family. Queen Victoria’s granddaughter Alexandra, who was a carrier for

this trait, married Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. Irene, another granddaughter, passed the trait on to the

German royal family. Hemophilia was passed to the Spanish royal family through a third granddaughter,

whose name also was Victoria.

?Charles Krebs/Corbis

Figure 9  People with red-green color blindness view red and green as shades of gray.

Explain why there are fewer females who have red-green color blindness than males.

Men with hemophilia usually died at an early age until the twentieth century when clotting factors were

discovered and given to hemophiliacs. However, blood-borne viruses such as Hepatitis C and HIV were

often contracted by hemophiliacs until the 1990s, when safer methods of blood transfusion were

discovered.

Polygenic TraitsYou have examined traits determined by a pair of genes. Many phenotypic traits, however, arise from the

interaction of multiple pairs of genes. Such traits are called polygenic traits. Traits such as skin color,

height, eye color, and fingerprint pattern are polygenic traits. One characteristic of polygenic traits is that,

when the frequency of the number of dominant alleles is graphed, as shown in Figure 11, the result is a

bell-shaped curve. This shows that more of the intermediate phenotypes exist than do the extreme

phenotypes.

 Reading Check Infer Why would a graph showing the frequency of the number of

dominant alleles for polygenic traits be a bell-shaped curve?

Figure 10  The pedigree above shows the inheritance of hemophilia in the royal families of England, Germany, Spain,and Russia, starting with the children of Queen Victoria.

Determine which of Alexandra’s children inherited hemophilia.

Figure 11  This graph shows possible shades of skin color from three sets of alleles, although the trait is thought toinvolve more than three sets of alleles.

Predict Would more gene pairs increase or decrease the number of possible phenotypes?

Environmental InfluencesThe environment also has an effect on phenotype. For example, the tendency to develop heart disease

can be inherited. However, environmental factors such as diet and exercise also can contribute to the

occurrence and seriousness of the disease. Other ways in which environment influences phenotype are

very familiar to you. You may not have thought of them in terms of phenotype, however. Sunlight, water,

and temperature are environmental influences that commonly affect an organism’s phenotype.

Sunlight and waterWithout enough sunlight, most flowering plants do not bear flowers. Many plants lose their leaves in

response to water deficiency.

TemperatureMost organisms experience phenotypic changes from extreme temperature changes. In extreme heat, for

example, many plants suffer. Their leaves droop, flower buds shrivel, chlorophyll disappears, and roots

stop growing. These are examples that probably do not surprise you, although you may have never thought

of them as phenotypic changes. What other environmental factors affect the phenotypes of organisms?

Temperature also influences the expression of genes. Notice the fur of the Siamese cat shown in Figure

12. The cat’s tail, feet, ears, and nose are dark. These areas of the cat’s body are cooler than the rest.

The gene that codes for production of the color pigment in the Siamese cat’s body functions only under

cooler conditions. Therefore, the cooler regions are darker; and the warmer regions, where pigment

production is inhibited by temperature, are lighter.

Twin StudiesAnother way to study inheritance patterns is to focus on identical twins, which helps scientists separate

genetic contributions from environmental contributions. Identical twins are genetically the same. If a trait is

inherited, both identical twins will have the trait. Scientists conclude that traits that appear frequently in

identical twins are at least partially controlled by heredity. Also, scientists presume that traits expressed

differently in identical twins are strongly influenced by environment. The percentage of twins who both

express a given trait is called a concordance rate. Examine Figure 13 for some traits and their

concordance rates. A large difference between fraternal twins and identical twins shows a strong genetic

influence.

Carolyne A. McKeone/Photo Researchers

Figure 12  Temperature affects the expression of color pigment in the fur of Siamese cats.

ReviewLesson Summary

Some traits are inherited through complex inheritance patterns, such as incomplete dominance,

codominance, and multiple alleles.

Gender is determined by X and Y chromosomes. Some traits are linked to the X chromosome.

Polygenic traits involve more than one pair of alleles.

Both genes and environment influence an organism’s phenotype.

Studies of inheritance patterns of large families and twins give insight into complex human

inheritance.

Vocabulary ReviewReplace each underlined word with the correct vocabulary term.

1. Codominance is an inheritance pattern in which the heterozygous genotype results in an

intermediate phenotype between the dominant and recessive phenotype.

2. A characteristic that has more than one pair of possible traits is said to be a(n) epistasis.

3. Genes found on the sex chromosomes are associated with multiple alleles.

Understand Main Ideas4.  Describe two patterns of complex inheritance and explain how they are

different from Mendelian patterns.

5. Explain What is epistasis, and how is it different from dominance?

6. Determine the genotypes of the parents if the father is blood type A, the mother is blood

type B, the daughter is blood type O, one son is blood type AB, and the other son is blood

type B.

7. Analyze how twin studies help to differentiate the effects of genetic and environmental

influences.

8. What determines gender in humans?

A. the X and Y chromosomesB. chromosome 21C. codominanceD. epistasis

Figure 13  When a trait is found more often in both members of identical twins than in fraternal twins, the trait ispresumed to have a significant inherited component.

9.  Which two terms best describe the inheritance of human blood types?

A. incomplete dominance and codominanceB. codominance and multiple allelesC. incomplete dominance and multiple allelesD. codominance and epistasis

Use the photos below to answer question 10.

10. In radishes, color is controlled by incomplete dominance. The figure above shows the

phenotype for each color. What phenotypic ratios would you expect from crossing two

heterozygous plants?

A. 2: 2 red: whiteB. 1: 1: 1 red: purple: whiteC. 1: 2: 1 red: purple: whiteD. 3: 1 red: white

Constructed Response11. Short Answer How does epistasis explain the differences in coat color in Labrador

retrievers?

12. Short Answer Explain whether a male could be heterozygous for red-green color

blindness.

13. Short Answer What types of phenotypes would one look for if a phenotype were a result

of polygenic inheritance?

Think Critically14. Evaluate whether having sickle-cell disease would be advantageous or disadvantageous

to a person living in central Africa.

15. Evaluate why it might be difficult to perform genetic analysis in humans.

16. Summarize the meaning of the following information regarding trait inheritance: For a

certain trait, identical twins have a concordance rate of 54 percent and fraternal twins have a

rate of less than five percent.

Biology

17. What is the chance of producing a son with normal vision if the father is color-blind and

the mother is homozygous normal for the trait? Explain.

(l c)Michael P. Gadomski/Photo Researchers; (r) Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited