IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDtJCATION, VOL. E-28, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1985

Comparisons of Women and Men in the Engineerng

Work Force

CAROLYN M. JAGACINSKI AND WILLIAM K. LEBOLD

Abstract-The results of the 1981 National Engineering Career De-velopment Survey were used to examine differences in the employmentcharacteristics, job values, job satisfaction, and professional activitiesof men and women engineers. Men and women engineers were gener-ally similar in terms of the types of positions they held; however, sig-nificantly more men than women reported management as their prin-cipal function. Men and women reported comparable levels of technicalresponsibility increasing with experience. Supervisory responsibilityalso increased with experience, and was comparable for men and womenwith less than 10 years of experience. However, among men and womenwith more than 10 years of experience, larger percentages of men thanwomen reported high levels of supervisory responsibility. Reports ofmedian salaries demonstrated a similar pattern, with men reportinghigher salaries than women after 8-10 years of experience. Men weresomewhat more satisfied with their work, their career progress, andthe intrinsic aspects of their jobs than were women. Men and womenreported similar involvement in professional activities, although menwere more likely to apply for patents and to purchase and read newbooks on engineering and science. Many of the observed differencesbetween men and women were smaller or nonsignificant when the re-sponses of engineers with five years of experience or less were exam-ined, suggesting that opportunities for women in engineering may beimproving.

INTRODUCTIONTEN years ago, much attention was focused on thel problem of attracting women into undergraduate en-

gineering programs. Various programs were developedacross the country to deal with recruitment and retentionof women in engineering [1], [2]. The results of these ef-forts have been quite impressive. While women repre-sented only 4.6 percent of the engineering freshmen in1973, in 1983, 17 percent of the freshman engineering stu-dents were women [3]. In 1973, 1.4 percent of the B.S.engineering graduates were women, but in 1983, 13.2 per-cent of the graduates were women [4].Ten years ago, women engineering graduates frequently

encountered difficulties in being hired or obtaining sala-ries equitable to those of their male colleagues [5]. To-day's woman engineering graduate is in much demand andcommands salaries equal to if not higher than those of hermale colleagues [6], [7]. Despite this dramatic change inthe status of women in engineering, women still representless than five percent of the engineering work force [8].

Manuscript received July 1, 1985. This work was supported by a grantfrom the EXXON Education Foundation and by the National Science Foun-dation under Grants SED79-119613 (Research in Science Education) andSRS-8307777 (Science Resources Studies Division). Points of view or opin-ions are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views ofthe sponsoring organizations.

The authors are with the Educational Research and Information SystemsGroup in Freshman Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907.

Although women can more easily attain entry into the en-gineering work force, they may still experience problemsin their career development as a consequence of their mi-nority status. In this paper, we will compare the charac-teristics of jobs held by women and men in engineering,and the job satisfaction and professional activities of menand women engineers. To what extent are the character-istics of jobs held by men and women engineers similar?Are men and women engineers equally satisfied with theircareer choice, their jobs, and their career progress? Domen and women engineers differ in the characteristics theyvalue in a job? In order to explore these issues, we willutilize the results of the National Engineering Career De-velopment Survey [9].

THE NATIONAL ENGINEERING CAREERDEVELOPMENT SURVEY

In 1981, Purdue University conducted a national surveyof the career development of engineers under a grant fromthe National Science Foundation. The sample of engineerswas obtained from the membership lists of nine major en-gineering and scientific societies and the engineering al-umni lists of eight major colleges and universities. Womenwere oversampled to facilitate comparisons of the careerdevelopment of men and women engineers. Surveys weresent to over 5000 engineers. Approximately 50 percent ofthe engineers returned the surveys. Thirty-seven percentof the respondents were women (n = 1036) and 63 percentwere men (n = 1732). The women respondents weresomewhat younger than the men; the median age forwomen in the sample was 26 years while the median agefor the men was 30 years. Respondents completed a 12page survey concerning the characteristics of their firstand current jobs, their involvement in professional activ-ities, job satisfaction, job values, educational back-ground, factors influencing their career decisions, andself-assessments of various abilities. In this paper, we willcompare women and men in the engineering work force,with special attention to employment, job satisfaction, andprofessional activities. Other results of the survey havebeen reported in previous papers [9]-[12].

EMPLOYMENT CHARACTERISTICSForty-one percent of the men and forty-five percent of

the women in our sample were employed by manufacturingfirms. An additional 40 percent of both men and womenwere employed by other types of businesses with muchsmaller percentages employed by government, health ser-vices or educational institutions. Fig. 1 presents the prin-

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JAGACINSKI AND LEBOLD: COMPARISONS OF WOMEN AND MEN IN ENGINEERING

RESEARCH/DEV.

DESIGN

OPERATIONS/PRODUCTION

MANAGEMENT

CONSULTING

TESTING/CONSTRUCTION

SALES

TEACHING

OTHER

MALEY/Z////////////////X//////////X19

I~~~~. 21I FMALE______////___////////////_____ 21

20

15

~~~~~~~~~1 222

1~~~~~~~1

M////X/////X_ 66

_2

_~~~~~~~~~~ 2

12PERCENTAGPERCENTAGE

Fig. 1. Principal engineering function of men and women engineers in theirpresent jobs.

PRIMARILY TECHNICAL FUNCTION PRIMARILY ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTION

1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 1-5 6-lI 11-15 16-20 21-25YEARS SINCE BS DEGREE YEARS SINCE BS DEGREE

Fig. 2. Percentage of men and women engineers by years since B.S. degreedescribing their present jobs as primarily technical or primarily admin-istrative.

cipal function of engineers in their current jobs at the timeof the survey. Although large percentages of both men andwomen were involved in research and development and de-sign, the smallest percentage was involved in teaching.Significantly more men (22 percent) than women (14 per-cent) reported management as their principal function.Fig. 2 presents the percentages of men and women by thenumber of years since receiving the B.S. degree who de-scribed their positions as primarily technical or primarilyadministrative in function. The vast majority of those withprimarily administrative functions indicated that a tech-nical background was necessary for their administrativework. There is a general trend among the men in whichthe percentage involved in technical functions decreaseswith experience while the percentage involved in admin-istrative functions increases. No such trend emerges forthe women. For men and women with 10 years or less of

experience, the percentages engaged in primarily techni-cal or administrative functions are quite similar. However,substantially more men than women were engaged in pri-marily administrative work among those with 10-20 years

of experience, while larger percentages of these women

than men described their positions as primarily technical.It is surprising that so few women with 16-20 years ex-

perience describe their positions as primarily administra-tive. A larger percentage of these women (58 percent) de-scribed their positions as primarily technical as comparedto women with 11-15 or 21-25 years of experience (48 and44 percent, respectively). In addition, women with 16-20years of experience were somewhat more likely to be en-

gaged in the functions of research, development, and de-sign than were other women with more than 10 years ofexperience.

Trends in technical and supervisory responsibility level

100

w(54z(-)Ua.

U

zU0

a-

205

25 30

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-28, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1985

100

90

4 800

70

0 MALE

z

-50

FEMALE

Q.40

< 30

z

a.20

I0

0

4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25

YEARS SINCE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE

Fig. 3. Percentage of men and women engineers supervising professionalor managerial personnel by years since B.S. degree.

48 r

46

44

4?_ _

'a~~~~~~~~~~~~d~~MALE

D383

369

34-

32 - -d

30-

z 28FEMALE

226

24

22

20

8

4 7 10 3 6 19 22 25

YEARS SINCE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE

Fig. 4. Median salaries in thousands of dollars for men and women engi-neers by years since B.S. degree.

and salary in terms of the number of years since receivingthe B.S. degree were next examined. Comparable per-centages of men and women reported high levels of tech-nical responsibility with the percentages increasing withexperience. Fig. 3 illustrates that the percentage of menand women engineers reporting supervision of profes-sional and managerial personnel also increases with ex-

perience. However, the curves for men and women are onlysimilar for the first 8-10 years after the B.S. degree. Be-yond that point, smaller percentages of women than men

reported high levels of supervisory responsibility. A sim-ilar pattern is observed in the median salaries plotted inFig. 4. Again the curves for men and women diverge after8-10 years of experience. The salary curve may be a func-tion of the difference in supervisory responsibility of menand women engineers. Management is an important ca-reer path in engineering and increases in supervisory re-

sponsibility levels tend to be associated with increases insalary [13]. Our results should be interpreted with cautionbecause the number of women in our sample with 15 or

more years of experience is small. However, other studies

have noted a similar pattern of divergence in the salarycurves of men and women engineers after 8-10 years ofexperience [14], [15]. The postcensal surveys of scientistsand engineers conducted by the National Science Foun-dation [16] also indicate increasingly larger gaps in thesalaries of men and women with increasing experience,although the salary differences are smaller for engineersthan scientists. In addition, the gap observed between menand women engineers was smaller than that reported inthis study.A number of hypotheses is tenable to explain the gender

difference in supervisory responsibility and salary. Sincewomen had more difficulty finding jobs in engineeringprior to and during the early 1970's, their starting posi-tions may have put them at a disadvantage in terms ofmovement into management positions. It is also clear thatin the past women engineers have been somewhat re-stricted in their professional activities due to their sex. Forexample, many organizations did not want women engi-neers to travel with male colleagues [5]. This type ofproblem may have hampered the career development ofwomen who began their careers in engineering during the1960's or early 1970's. In addition, some engineering or-ganizations may be reluctant to place women engineers inline-management positions and instead keep women intechnical or staff positions as is reflected in Figs. 1 and 2.Given the paucity of women in upper level managementpositions, there are few models for organizations to pointto as evidence of the success of women in upper level man-agement. As a result, organizations may be afraid to "takea chance" on promoting women to such positions [17]. Itis also possible that these women did not want manage-ment positions and instead aspired to increasing technicalresponsibility. Whatever the reason for the difference, it isencouraging that men and women with 5 or 6 years ofexperience or less report comparable salaries and levels ofsupervisory responsibility. Only time will tell if the ob-served equity trend for more recent graduates will con-tinue as the men and women engineers acquire more ex-perience.

JOB SATISFACTIONSeveral items on the survey dealt with the engineers'

job satisfaction. Chi-square tests were used to comparethe responses of men and women. Slightly larger percent-ages'of men (74 percent) than women (68 percent) indi-cated that they were fully satisfied with their choice ofengineering as a career or had made the best choice (p <0.01). Significant differences between men and womenwere also noted in terms of satisfaction with career prog-ress and work. In each case, larger percentages of menthan women indicated high levels of satisfaction. Al-though there is a general trend here for men to be moresatisfied than women, it is important to note that 75 per-cent of the women and 84 percent of the men were satis-fied or very satisfied with their work, demonstrating thatengineers in general tend to be quite satisfied with theirwork.

Fig. 5 presents trends by years of experience for theitems assessing satisfaction with work and with career

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JAGACINSKI AND LEBOLD: COMPARISONS OF WOMEN AND MEN IN ENGINEERING

too

75

aw

u)

50

z

w

25-

IPRESENT JOB MALE

/FEMALE

1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20YEARS SINCE BS DEGREE

21-25

Fig. 5. Percentage of men and women engineers satisfied with their presentjob and with their career progress by years since B.S. degree.

progress. Satisfaction with work tends to increase with ex-

perience. For those with less than 10 years of experience,women were somewhat less likely to be satisfied than men,but men and women with more than 10 years of experiencewere quite similar. In terms of career progress, the per-centage of men and women answering "fully satisfied" or

"feel I'm doing well" is plotted. Men were more likely tobe satisfied with their career progress than were women,except among those with 21-25 years of experience. How-ever, it will be recalled from Fig. 2 that the percentage ofwomen with 21-25 years of experience who described theirpositions as primarily administrative was comparable tothe percentage of men with primarily administrative in-volvement.

Survey respondents were also given a list of various fac-tors describing positive aspects of jobs. Each factor was

rated in terms of how important it was to the respondentand the extent to which the respondent's current job was

characterized by the factor. The importance ratings rep-resent job values whereas the characteristic ratings reflectjob satisfaction. The various factors were divided intothree major groups: intrinsic factors, career development,and extrinsic factors. Tables 1-111 illustrate the percent-ages of men and women engineers rating each factor as

very important or very characteristic of their current jobs.Statistically significant differences (chi square test) are

noted in the tables. The importance ratings represent an

ideal, and more engineers tend to rate most of the factorsas "very important" than rate them as "very character-istic" of their current jobs. The largest percentages forimportance ratings were obtained by two of the intrinsicfactors: the opportunity to engage in satisfying work andto utilize one's skills and abilities. Women felt the latterfactor was more important than did men. Among the otherintrinsic factors, men were more concerned than womenwith the opportunity to be innovative and creative and towork on problems with no ready-made solutions. For eachof the 13 factors classified as intrinsic, a larger percentage

TABLE IPERCENTAGE OF WOMEN AND MEN RATING EACH OF THE INTRINSIC FACTORS

AS VERY IMPORTANT OR VERY CHARACTERISTIC OF THEIR JOBS

IMPORTANCE CHARACTERISTIC

INTRINSIC FACTORS Women Men Women Men

Engage in satisfying work 85% 81% 33% 39%'Utilize skills and abilities 85 78**' 40 45Freedom to manage own.work 62 61 40 43

Opportunity to innovate 58 67"'* 32 42"'

Opportunity to work with ideas 50 54 27 341

Opportunity to keep abreast 50 54 23 31"'f

Be original and creative 48 56"* 25 320

Variety of technical work 48 47 30 36'

Problems with no ready made solutions 44 53" 140 46

Opportunity to help others 33 35 17 21*Colleagues interested in new developments 33 33 18 19

Opportunity to contribute to society 31 35 11 15'

Freedom to select own projects 23 21 8 10

Significance of chi square test: ' p<.01, * i<.O001, *f p<.0001

TABLE IIPERCENTAGE OF WOMEN AND MEN RATING EACH CAREER ADVANCEMENTFACTOR AS VERY IMPORTANT OR VERY CHARACTERISTIC OF THEIR JOBS

IMPORTANCE CHARACTERISTIC

CAREER ADVANCEMENT FACTORS Women Men Women Men

Supervisor delegates responsibility 69% 65% 44% 43%

Comfortable income 67 72 45 39

Company well-managed and progressive 67 66 16 23"

Participate in work-related decisions 60 61 18 28*"

Opportunity to work with people 51 41f" 51 50

Advance economically 49 55' 27 26

Opportunity to move into management 46 46 34 36

Opportunity to exercise leadership 43 47 18 29***

Preparation for top level careers 41 33*** 11 10

Assignment to different areas 31 21"* 22 18

Opportunity to travel 22 18 18 23'

Enhance social status 17 22 12 14

Significance of chi square test: * p<.01, *' p<.001, " p<.0001

TABLE IIIPERCENTAGE OF WOMEN AND MEN RATING EACH EXTRINSIC FACTOR AC

VERY IMPORTANT OR VERY CHARACTERISTIC OF THEIR JOBS

IMPORTANCE CHARACTERISTIC

EXTRINSIC FACTORS Women Men Women Men

Co-operative co-workers 79% 69%*"' 24% 28%Pleasant co-workers 65 60* 41 41

Availability of personal leave 57 42"'* 40 41No pressure to conform in personal life 54 4717 34 32

Desirable location 53 52 47 44

Know work responsibilities 50 52 27 32'

Co. respects family responsibilities 49 50 27 30

Job security from technical attainment 45 47 32 31

Flexible work hours 44 3411" 26 26

Opportunity to work with things 26 33' 22 26

Freedom from pressure to excel always 29 27 16 14

Significance of chi square test: ' p<.01, * k<.001, *' p< .0001

o .

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-28, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1985

of men than women rated the factor as very characteristicof their jobs, and for 8 of the 13 factors the differencewas statistically significant. It is likely that these factorshave an impact on women's global ratings of their work ingeneral.The percentages of men and women rating the career

advancement factors as "very important" or "very char-acteristic" are presented in Table II. Larger percentagesof women than men felt it was very important that theirjob involve an opportunity to work with people, to be as-signed to different areas of the company, as well as ade-quate preparation for top level careers. Fewer differencesbetween men and women were noted in the characteristicratings of the career advancement factors than were ob-served for the intrinsic factors. Larger percentages of menthan women rate their jobs high in terms of the opportu-nity to exercise leadership and to participate in work de-cisions. However, these differences may reflect the greatersupervisory responsibilities of men than women with morethan 10 years of experience. When these two items wereexamined for differences between men and women withdifferent amounts of experience, there was a pattern ofincreasing disparity with experience between the percent-age of men and women rating their jobs high in terms ofthe opportunity to participate in work related decisions.However, no such pattern was observed for the opportu-nity to exercise leadership. For this latter item, men andwomen with 10 or more years of experience were quitesimilar.

In terms of the extrinsic factors, women were more con-cerned with the interpersonal aspects of their work envi-ronment than were men. A larger percentage of womenthan men felt it was very important that they have pleasantcoworkers who worked together well (see Table III).Women also placed more emphasis on the availability ofpersonal leave and flexible working hours than did men.This might be expected since women are more likely thanmen to experience difficulties in juggling work responsi-bilities and family responsibilities. In general, men andwomen were quite similar in their characteristic ratings ofthe extrinsic factors.

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

Table IV presents the percentage of men and womenengineers who engaged in various professional activitiesduring the year preceding the survey. It is clear that themajority of engineers try to keep up with their fieldthrougli reading and discussion. Approximately one-halfattended local technical meetings but only about one-thirdhad attended a national technical meeting during the year.Men were more likely than women to have attended a na-tional meeting or presented a paper. Women were some-what more likely than men to have completed a graduatecourse in engineering, but men were more likely thanwomen to purchase and read new books on engineeringand science. In general, the men and women were quitecomparable in their self-reports of professional activities.

Fig. 6 provides additional insight into the professionalactivities of men and women engineers with differentamounts of experience. Both men and women are more

TABLE IVPERCENTAGE OF MEN AND WOMEN ENGINEERS ENGAGING IN VARIOUS

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES DURING THE PAST YEAR

ACTIVITY Women Men

Read about new engineering developments 87% 89%

Subscribed to engineering periodicals 90 87

Discussed new engineering developments 72 78'

Attended local technical meeting 52 52

Read new books on engineering or science 38 49§0

Purchased new books on engineering or science 38 47000

Attended national technical meeting 27 3300

Attended short course on management 33 30

Took non-graduate credit engineering course 18 17

Completed graduate course in engineering 19 15'

Presented one or more technical papers 8 15'§

Significance of chi square test: *P<.01, *"p<.001, *000<.0001

1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25YEARS SINCE BS DEGREE

Fig. 6. Percentage of men and women engineers reporting at least one pub-lication and at least one patent application by years since B.S. degree.

likely to have published an article with increasing experi-ence, with no consistent difference between men andwomen. The percentage of engineers who have applied forpatents also tends to increase with experience. However,there is a general tendency for a larger percentage of menthan women to have applied for patents except among thosewith 21-25 years of experience.

ATTITUDES TOWARD WOMEN IN ENGINEERING

Table V presents the percentage of men and women ex-pressing agreement with various statements concerningthe effectiveness of women in the engineering work force.Chi-square tests were used to compare the percentage ofmen and women agreeing with each statement. A signif-icantly larger percentage of women than men agreed witheach statement. The majority of both men and womenagreed that women were competitive enough and pos-

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JAGACINSKI AND LEBOLD: COMPARISONS OF WOMEN AND MEN IN ENGINEERING

TABLE VPERCENTAGE OF MEN AND WOMEN AGREEING WITH VARIOUS STATEMENTS

CONCERNING WOMEN IN THE WORK FORCE

Wcnen Men

Women are competitive enough to be successfulin engineering.

Women possess the self-confidence requiredof a good engineer.

It is acceptable for women to assume leadershiproles in industry as often as men.

To be a successful engineer, a women does not haveto sacrifice some of her femininity.

The possibility of pregnancy does not make womenless desirable as employees than men.

A full-time employed mother of pre-school childrencan be just as good a mother as the women whoisn't employed.

It is more important for a wife to have her careerthan to help her husband with his career.

Significance of chi square test: "**<.0001

sessed enough self-confidence to be successfand that it was acceptable for women to assurroles as often as men. However, opinions Mvided among men as to whether or not thepregnancy made women less desirable emplo:a women's career should be more importanther husband with his career, and whether aployed mother is as good as a mother who is r

Substantially more women than men supviewpoints.

CONCLUSIONThe results of this survey suggest that there

and bad news about women in the engineerinThe good news is that women are employe(similar to those of men, with comparablesponsibility, and the majority of them arewith their occupational choice and work. Ththat women do not appear to have the samecreasing supervisory responsibility and saThis may account for the fact that women arcwith their career progress than are men. Inof concern that women see their jobs as lessby many of the intrinsic job factors than do nthese differences should be interpreted withof all, many of the differences we observed aond, when we have analyzed the survey resgineers with 5 years of experience or less,differences between men and women [10]. Isible that the employment situation has

women in engineering, and that ten years from now graphsof the salary and supervisory responsibility of men andwomen engineers will be more similar.

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Ful engineers, tion. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, DC 80-51-~Ul engineers, 8, Mar. 1983, table 1, p. 7.ne leadership [9] W. K. LeBold, K. W. Linden, C. M. Jagacinski, and K. D. Shell,vere more di- "National engineering career development study: Engineers' profiles

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lot employed. [111 -, "Factors influencing the choice of an engineering career," IEEE

)ported these Trans. Educ., vol. E-28, pp. 36-42, Feb. 1985.[12] K. D. Shell, W. K. LeBold, K. W. Linden, and C. M. Jagacinski,

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[13] Engineering Manpower Commission, Engineers' Salaries: Special In-dustry Report. N.Y.: AAES, 1983.

is good news [14] A. S. Rossi, "Barriers to the career choice of engineering, medicine,Ig work force. or science among American women," in Readings on the Psychology

d in positions of Women, J. M. Bardwick, Ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1972.[15] N. J. McAfee, "You've come a long way baby: The myth and the

echnical re- reality," in V. B. Haas and C. C. Perrucci, Eds. Women in Scientific

quite satisfied and Engineering Professions. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michi-

Le bad news is gan Press, 1984, pp. 160-169.pattern of in- [16] National Science Foundation, The 1982 Postcensal Survey of Scien-

tists and Engineers, NSF 84-330. Washington, DC: National Sci-lary as men. ence Foundation, 1984.

v less satisfied [17] We are indebted to Dr. T. Estrin for this hypothesis.addition, it ischaracterizedlen. However,caution. First Carolyn M. Jagacinski, for a photograph and biography, see p. 42 of the

tre small. Sec- February 1985 issue of this TRANSACTIONS.

ponses of en-we find fewert is quite pos- William K. LeBold, for a photograph and biography, see p. 42 of the Feb-improved for ruary 1985 issue of this TRANSACTIONS.

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