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7/24/2019 Comparative Study of War in Iraq Discourse
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/comparative-study-of-war-in-iraq-discourse 1/59
1. Introduction
This paper attempts to compare and contrast the standpoint of both Bush and
Obama regarding the Iraq war. The rationale for this paper and the main motivation is
to trace the discourse of opposition compared to that of authority, the way each
discourse leads propaganda campaigns for implicit or explicit ideology. Critical
iscourse !nalysis " C!# is the overarching framewor$ , focusing mainly on
identifying the underlying ideologies in the text and the mechanisms used to mobili%e
the nation in light of those ideologies. &ystemic 'unctional (rammar " &'(# is the
analytical tool chosen to enable the researcher to reali%e this ob)ective through
tracing the ideational metafunction along with the textual organi%ation. The paper
analy%es transitivity patterns, logico*semantic relations and text building devices in
Obama+s speech +anti*war rally+ and Bush+s speech +war ultimatum+ speech before the
military invasion of Iraq.
1.1 Systemic Functional Grammar
alliday+s &ystemic 'unctional (rammar "&'(# "-/012334# is an influential
model, widely used in critical discourse studies. In &ystemic 'unctional (rammar,
language is a means to construct meaning. !ccordingly, grammar is a set of linguistic
resources available to convey those meanings. Two dimensions are stressed when
adopting a functional approach. The first dimension is the available structures that
language offers spea$ers and writer, the different sets one can choose from to express
a certain message and achieve a certain goal. The second dimension is thesignificance of this choice in terms of its function contrasted with other available
choices. It does not adopt a prescriptive approach li$e traditional grammar.
1.2 Metafunctions
alliday uses the term +metafunction+ to refer to the broad functions language serves
according to the three $inds of meaning people want to convey.
1.2.1 Interpersonal Metafunction5anguage here is used to enable people to interact, to establish different
relationships, to influence the behavior of others and to express one+s attitude towards
the content of what one says. Interpersonal meaning is reali%ed through patterns of
modality that include modal verbs, adverbs ,any evaluative lexis.
1.2.2 Textual Metafunction
5anguage is used to organi%e the message to let the message fit with other
messages. Textual meaning is reali%ed through the thematic choices, information
structure and the way the text hangs together.
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1.2.3 The Ideational Metafunction
6eople use language to express their ideas, to represent the world, and to describe
events, states and the entities involved in them. They also use language to represent
what is going on inside them. Ideational metafunction is reali%ed through transitivity
patterns that are reflected in process types and the logico*semantic relations that tieclauses. Through this function people represent reality or their experiences or what
they perceive to be the reality through language.
2. Data
The data analysed in this research paper comprises two political speeches. The first speech
"appendix -# has been given by the then*&enator Barac$ Obama in Chicago on October 2,
2332 during the lead*up to the invasion of Iraq. In his speech, he has voiced out his fierce
opposition to the impending war. The position he adopted on the war, bac$ then, was not a
popular one, since most of the polls confirmed that the ma)ority supported the military
invasion. The second speech "appendix 2# has been delivered by (eorge 7. Bush on 8arch
-/, 2339: )ust a few days before the military invasion of Iraq. It is $nown as Bush;s war
ultimatum speech in which he warns the Iraqi regime of serious consequences if it does not
disarm immediately. In this speech, Bush also states his ideological stance through explaining
the actions that have been ta$en and that will be ta$en concerning the issue of Iraq.
3. Methodology
This paper is divided into 2 ma)or parts. The first part presents an analysis of Obama;s speech
while the second part presents an analysis of Bush;s speech. The analysis of both speeches
uses critical discourse analysis as its theoretical framewor$, focusing on the concept of self
and other representation. 8oreover, the analysis employs systemic functional grammar as an
analytical tool to help reveal the underlying ideologies of the spea$ers of the two speeches.
<ach part is followed by a commentary discussing the ideological implications inferred from
the speeches based on the analysis. Those two ma)or parts of the paper will finally be
followed by a conclusion highlighting points of similarities and differences between the two
speeches.
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. !nalysis
.1. Ideational Metafunction
This part tac$les the analysis of the Ideational 8etafunction in Obama &peech, namely,
transitivity patterns and logico*semantic relations.
Clause number 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance- you
omitted
5et begin
initiator causative
2 me &aying that although
this=.
&ayer verbal verbiage
9 I &tand before you
location*spatial
actor material as someone who
is not opposed to
all wars
role* guise
4 The Civil 7ar is One of the
bloodiest..
identified relational
identifying
identifier
0 it was only through thecrucible of the
sword
carrier relational
circumstantial
identifying
manner* means
> 7e begin to perfect
drive the
scourge=
this union from our soil
actor material goal location*spatial
? I don+t oppose all wars
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sensor mental*cognition phenomenon
5ogico*semantic relations
In this paragraph Obama introduces himself and, more importantly, his stance. e opts for
holding contrast to highlight his position, to refute the misconceptions the audience might
have.
In clause "2#, "ro#ection hypotactic, where Obama as$s for the audience permission in an
attempt to build rapport with them and to engage them in resisting the dominant ideology.
This is manifested in the use of although $expansion%enhancing%concession& in a hypotactic
way, and in clause "0# through using yet $ expansion ' extension %ad(ersati(e &
hypotactically.
Clause number 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
/ 8y grandfather signed up for a war
cause*purpose
after the day =
actor material location*
temporal
e fought in 6atton+s army
omittedactor
material location*spatial
-3 e saw the dead and
dying
across the fields of
<urope
senser mental*
perception
phenomenon location*spatial
-- e heard the stories of
fellow troops
=
senser mental*
perception
phenomenon
-2 e fought in the name of a
larger freedom=
actor material cause* purpose
-9 e did not fight in vain
actor material manner *quality
-4 I don+t oppose all wars
senser mental* phenomenon
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cognition
5ogico*semantic relations
In clause "-2# and "-9# Obama expounds on the glorious history of his family and their actsof heroism, represented by his grandfather, this is reflected in his choice of the paratactic
+and+ "expansion*extension*additive#.
Clause
number
Circumstance 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
-0 !fter &ept. --,
after
witnessing the
carnage and
destruction#
I supported this
administration+s
pledge
to hunt down
and root out
those =.
"cause*
purpose#
location
temporal
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
-> willingly I ta$e up arms myself
manner* means
manner*
quality
actor material goal to prevent
such=
cause*purpose
-? I don+t oppose all wars
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
-/ I $now that in this
crowd today,
there is no
shortage of
patriots=
"#
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
5ogico*semantic relations
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In clause "-0#, Obama tries to be ob)ective, he is playing the devil+s advocate ,)ustifying the
rationale of war, a position he will soon contradict, on the basis of what !merica has
witnessed on --1. In clause "-?# he adds that these events have influenced him to that extent
that he may go to the battlefield, he uses +and+ "expansion*extension*additive# in a paratactic
way.
Clause number 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- 7hat I am
opposed to
is a dumb war
carrier relational attribute
23 7hat I am
opposed to
is a rash war
carrier relational attribute2- 7hat I am
opposed to
is the cynical
attempt by
@ichard 6erle
to shove down ..
cause Apurpose
identified identifying
relational
identifiers irrespective of
the costs in
lives=#
contingency*
concession
clau
seCircumstan
ce
6articipa
nt
6rocess 6articipant process 6articipa
nt
Circumstance
22 7hat I
am
opposed
is the attempt
by political
hac$s
to distract us
from a rise in
the uninsured
Identified relational
identifying
identifier cause*
purpose
29 That is what I+m
opposed to
identifier relational
identifying
identified
24 This is a war based
not on
reason but
on passion,
not on principle but
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on politics
omittedcarrier omittedrelational
attributive
attribute
20 ow you let me be clear
location*
temporal
omitted
attributor
causative carrier relation attribute
2> I suffer no illusions
=
possessor relational
possessive
possessed
2? e
carrier
is
relational
attributive
a brutal man
attribute
who=
2/ a man butchers his own
people
to secure his
own power.
actor material goal cause* purpose
2 repeatedly he defied
thwarted
developed
resolutions
inspection
teams
chemical
and
biological
weapons
manner*quality
actor material (oal
93 he coveted nuclear
capacity
"&enser#
"omitted#
"mental A
desiderative#
phenomenon
9- e is a bad guy
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carrier relational
attributive
attribute
92 The
world,
and the
Iraqi people
would be
better off without him
carrier relational
attributive
attribute accompaniment
comitative
Clause
number
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant circumstance
99 I $now that &addam poses no
imminent and
direct==
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
99 the Iraqi
economy
is in shambles
carrier relational
attributive
attribute
94 he falls away into the dustbin
of history
location Aspatial
actor material in the way of all
petty dictators.
manner* quality
90 I $now that even a
successful war
against Iraq
will require a .&.
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
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9> a successful war
against Iraq
will require a & occupation of
undetermined length
, at undermined
cost , with
undetermined
consequences
actor material goal
9? I $now an invasion of
Iraq without a
clear rationale
and without
strong international
support will only fanthe flames
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
9/ an invasion of
Iraq without a
clear rationale
and withoutstrong
international
support
will only fan
encourage
strengthen
material
material
material
flames of the 8iddle
<ast
goal the worst
goal
the recruitment arm
of ..
goalactor
9 I am notopposed to all wars
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
43 I opposed to dumb wars
senser mental*
cognition
phenomenon
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no circumstance 6articipant 6rocess 6articip
ant
process 6articipa
nt
6articipant
4- for those of
us=
cause*behalf
4- today you let "us# send a clear
message
to the president
location*
temporal
initiator
omitted
causative actor material goal recipient
42 you want a fight
senser mental*
desiderative
phenomen
on
49 you let+s
"omitted#
initiator
causative
no 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant circumstance
49 us Awe 'inish the fight with bin 5aden
and al*Daida
accompaniment
comitative
actor material goal through
effective,
coordinated
intelligence
manner
means
44 you want
a fight
senser mental*
desiderative
phenomenon
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Clause
number
6rocess 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
40 let+s omitted fight to ma$e sure
that
causative "we # actor material cause purpose
4>
" Cause
clause #
the ..
inspectors
can do their wor$
actor material goal
4?
" Cause
clause #
7e enforce a non*
proliferation
treaty
actor material goal
4/
" Cause
clause #
former
enemies and
current allies#
safeguard and
eliminate
material
material
their stores of
nuclear
material
goal
ultimately
actor
manner*means
4
" Cause
clause #
nations li$e
6a$istan and
India
never use the terrible
weapons
already in their
actor material goal
03
" Cause
clause #
arms
merchants in
our own
country
stop feeding the countless
wars =.
actor material goal
0- you want
a fight
senser mental*
desiderative
phenomenon
5ogico*semantic relations
Obama here details the practical steps that should be ta$en to achieve the required results of
the good fights he urges the people and the president to )oin. e uses +and+ paratactically to
enumerate these steps. The use of +and+ "expansion* extension*additive# reflects that he views
them as equally important. It also enforces his point through the parallel structures.
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Clause number 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
02 we fight to ma$e sure our
so called==
actor material cause Apurpose
09 their youth grow up without
education
without prospects
without hope
actor material accompaniment A
comitative
04 you want
a fight
senser mental*desiderative
mental*desiderative
00 we fight to wean
ourselves off
8iddle <ast =
Cause*purpose
actor material through an
energy policy =.
"manner*means#5ogico*semantic relations
Obama here subtly refutes Bush+s argument for waging the war. Bush is of the opinion that
Iraq had developed mass destruction weapons: these developments might cause further
terrorist attac$s.
Obama considers this to be a symptom not a root cause arguing that encouraging reform in
the 8iddle <ast is the only to brea$ this vicious circle . Otherwise, those people will always
be potential terrorists. The paratactic use of so "expansion*enhancing* causal# serves this
function.
Clause
number
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant process 6articipant Circumstance
0> Those
identified
are
relational
identifying
the battles
that we ..
identifier
0? Those
identified
are
relational
identifying
the battles
that =
identifier
0/ The
consequencescarrier
are
relationalattributive
dire
attribute
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0 7e
"possessor#
have
relational
occasion in
our
lifetime
possessed
to rise up in
defense of our
cause *reason
Clause
number
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant process 6articipant Circumstance
>3 7e "actor# will not
travel
down
material
blindly
manner*
quality
that hellish
path
location*
spatial
>- we "initiator # allow
causative
those
who=
actor
ma$e
material
awful
sacrifice
goal
in vain
quality
manner
.2 )esults of the analysis of Transiti(ity "atterns
"rocesses
"rocess type Totalnum*er
Fre+uency "ercentage
8aterial
?-
2 43./ E
8ental -/ 20.9E
@elational -? 29.E
Causative > /.4 E
Ferbal - -.4 E
"rocess type Su*category Fre+uency "ercentage
8ental Cognition -3 00.0 Edesideration > 99.9 E
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6erception 2 --.-.E
@elationalattributive -3 0/./E
Identifying ? 4-.- E
,ircumstance
Type Total Fre+uency "ercentageCause
44
-/ 43.E
8anner -2 2?.2E
5ocation -3 22.? E
accompaniment 9 >./E
Contingency - 2.2E
@ole - 2.2 E
"articipants
Obama represents different entities, organi%ations, persons as actors or sensers or sayers orcarriers. Get, the conspicuous use of personal pronouns, in particular, +I+, +7e+, and +Gou+ is
significant.
"ronoun )eferent Fre+uency
'irst 6erson "I# Obama -4 times
7e "'irst 6erson# The !merican 6eople times
&econd 6erson "you # !udience 1!mericans ? times
one explicit> "omitted# through
the causative process
H5et me =H
Bush "vocative# 4 times
.3. )esults of the analysis of logico%semantic relations-
Obama does not lin$ clauses to one another using connectives extensively. 5ogico*
semantic relations are frequently used. They are employed in ->.9 E of the text. Obama
goes on to inform, expound on the causes and the consequences of the action in question,
even raises questions about the validity of such a move at this particular time without explicit
mar$ers. The relations are rather discourse Aoriented: he uses discourse mar$ers to organi%e
his argument as shall be discussed later.
Type Fre+uency Su*category
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6arataxis ? -*<xpansion*
extension*additive
"and #
2*<xpansion*
enhancing* causal
"so that#and > times
so that - time
ypotaxis 9 -*6ro)ection
"saying that #
2* <xpansion*
enhancing*concession
"!lthough#
9* <xpansion A
extension Aadversative
"yet#
xpansion Su*category Fre+uency
<xtension adversative -
additive >
<nhancing concession -
causal -
. Implications and ,ommentary
Obama uses all the instruments that language offers to hammer home his point. The
transitivity patterns, the textual organi%ation and the rhetorical devises employed reflect his
ideologically charged message. e spares no effort to sway the audience in a serious attemptgeared towards mobili%ing them to oppose the 7ar on Iraq, which he labels as +dumb war+
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and rash war+. The analysis has helped to crystalli%e the intentionality of his discourse in this
particular speech and most importantly, the strategies he pursues to persuade the audience.
..1 Ideational Metafunction- Transiti(ity
Material "rocess
!s the results show material processes are the most frequently used ones. 8aterial
processes are used 2 times accounting for 43./E of the text. Obama uses them to represent
past actions, the status quo and even the proposed alternative turn of events he propagates.
(enerally spea$ing, the audience find it easy to relate to material processes as they reflect
actions, happenings and events that they witness. Obama+s use of material process weaves a
three*fold pattern based on contrast. !t the outset, he recounts the glorious battles his
grandfather +signed up+, +fought+ and the favorable results this war has brought about + perfect
the union+ and +drive the scourge of slavery+. 8aterial processes are also used to represent the
repercussions of the war on Iraq, and the havoc it would wrea$ upon the country. This war
would squander money and let people lose their lives. 8oreover, this impending war will
only +fan the flames of the 8iddle <ast+, +encourage the worst+ and +strengthen the recruitment
arm of al*Daida+ . The last material process defeats the logic and rationale Bush propagates as
the reason behind the war + hunt down, root out terrorists+. Obama says that the war will
aggravate and escalate terrorism . The discourse ta$es a seminal shift: Obama underscores the
wars or the battles !mericans should fight at the country and the international level. They
should help the + inspectors do their wor$+, they should +enforce+ certain agreements. They
should ma$e sure that the oppression will not go unabated in the 8iddle <ast as this is the
only way to brea$ the vicious circle of terrorism. 'inally, Obama asserts his stance bydeclaring that !mericans will not +travel down this path blindly.+
The very same grammatical reali%ation can be ta$en as a point of similarity only to
highlight the contrast Obama provides for the nature of actions assigned to him and his
family and the nature of events the war , initiated by Bush, will cause. Obama represents
himself positively through the history of the well*tested veteran of war, his grandfather, and
subtly as a prominent figure of opposition through the reform measures he calls for as
opposed to this +dumb war.+
Mental "rocess
8ental processes come second to the material processes in frequency. In -/ clauses
the verb is mental ,which ma$es up 20.9E of the text. This asserts the fact that Obama cares
for the emotional involvement of his audience. 'urthermore, he perceives reality not only in
practical terms. e is mindful of the psychological war !mericans go through at that delicate
time. e also wants to draw their attention to the traumatic impacts of wars in general, not to
mention+ dumb war+. ifferent subcategories of mental processes are employed, perception,
cognition and desideration, yet the distribution of the sensors, phenomena and subcategory is
significant. Obama+s grandfather +saw the dying+ , and+ heard the stories+ , stressing the human
side of the Civil 7ar reminds the audience of the atrocities and beastly barbarity of the war todissuade them from falling under the false impression that this war is national or patriotic. e
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also wants to let them recall in sensuous details the price they paid ,the difference however is
that the Civil war was worth it , yet this war is +dumb+ and +rash+. 8oving now towards
Obama, he spells out his stance clearly, he has +supported+ the call to +root out terrorism+ and
then he +opposed+ this war, in particular as it turns out to be a political hac$ not a national call.
e tries to refute the misconceptions his audience might have, he does not +oppose+ all wars.e +opposes+ this war because he +$nows+ that &addam is a threat that can be contained, he
further +$nows+ the +dire consequences+ of this decision. "&ee clauses 99*9/#.is thorough
$nowledge stands in star$ contrast to the whim of (eorge Bush to wage a war. Obama
describes this war as
+! war based not on reason but on passion.+ This is reflected in assigning
cognitive mental processes to Obama +$now+, and assigning desiderative process to Bush
+want+. The effect is even enhanced through the successive occurrences of these processes.
This is even further underlined through drawing a symmetric contrast, as each process is
repeated four times.
Gou want a fight, 6resident Bush 4 times in 9 successive paragraphs.
I $now1I also $now 4 times
The absence of affection is telling. It might be feasible to say that Obama does not want to
appear emotional as someone who is driven by his sentiments or impressions. is opposition
hinges upon cogent reasons and comprehensive $nowledge.
!nother interesting point that the analysis of mental process raises is the fact that while Bush
senses a simple phenomenon + a war+, Obama senses a metaphenomena in successive parallel
structures that constitute the whole paragraph." see paragraph > in !ppendix -#.
)elational "rocesses
@elational 6rocesses are used -? times ma$ing up 29.E. Thus, mental and relational
processes are almost equally used. @elational 6rocesses are used to establish a relation
between entities in the discourse. They are always very telling when it comes to ideology.
One ma)or privilege this type of process offers is the ability to represent one+s stances as
facts. Thus, one can appear seemingly ob)ective while expressing his very sub)ective version
of reality. Obama uses the two modes, attributive and identifying, to express his standpoint
clearly.
attributive -3 times 0/./E
Identifying ? times 4-.- E
The relational processes are used in a three*fold pattern. 'irst, Obama says that the
+Civil 7ar is the bloodiest+, yet it is the path through which !mericans could abolish slavery.
This is the first premise Obama presents to argue for the inevitability of wars at certain point
in history. e also clearly states that &adam ussien is +brutal+ and the world will be + better
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off + without him. By portraying the Civil 7ar as noble and glorious and by demoni%ing
&adam , it might be plausible to assume that a war is still an option. Get, this technique helps
him avoid direct confrontation at the outset and establish a common ground. e quic$ly
ma$es the rebuttal point by explaining that this is a +dumb war+ +rash war+, what he exactly
opposes. e goes on to enumerate the socio*economic hindrances !merica faces along withthe grave international situation.e concludes by defining those urgent causes as +the battles
we need to fight+. ever has the contrast been clearer than in those two relational identifying
clauses.
Clause "29# That+s what I+m opposed to. ! dumb war. ! rash war.
Clause "0>#Those are the battles that we need to fight. The battles against ignorance and
intolerance. Corruption and greed. 6overty and despair.
@elational processes show that Obama assigns negative attributes to this war in both
attributive and identifying mode. 6eople are pushed to the bac$ground in this type of process,
except &adam,the focus is on the ideology they disseminate as reflected in representing it as
the carrier. This is an indirect attac$, if he labels the war as+ dumb+, then what about the
person who launches the war. @elation process highlights the positive self*representation and
the negative other representation.
,ausati(e "rocesses
In causative process, the actor is not the agent. There is an outsider who causes theaction to ta$e place or the actor to act. Causative processes are not excessively used in the
speech. !ccording to the analysis, they occur only > times "/.4E#, yet their occurrence is
very significant. The quantitative
analysis should not let us overloo$ the meaning they
convey. (enerally spea$ing, the pattern used in causative processes is +5et me+ or +5et+s+. The
analysis shows that in each case the initiator, you in this case referring to the audience, is
omitted. Obama uses this type once at the beginning of the speech and twice in the middle of
the speech and thrice at the end of the speech. The process, especially at the beginning, helps
Obama to build rapport with the audience. In addition, it gives the audience authority and let
the spea$er appear humble and modest as he as$s their permission to voice his opinion.
Two other functions are served with the use of causative process. 'irst, Obama uses the
phrase +let me+ twice, each time followed by an explanation that appears as a refutation to
some misconception or answers to questions that have not been raised yet by the audience.
"-#5et me begin by "2#saying JthatKJ althoughK this has been billed as an anti*war rally, "9#I
stand before you as someone who is not opposed to war in all circumstances.
ow let me be clear L "2>#I suffer no illusions about &addam ussein. "2?#e is a brutal
man. ! ruthless man .
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e ma$es it clear that he is a patriot: he is not against waging wars per se. is
grandfather is one of the veterans of the &econd 7orld 7ar. e ma$es a subtle reference to
Bush+s labeling any opposition as +unpatriotic+. e is not a pacifist. 5i$ewise, he is not for
&addam, he does not tolerate terrorism. is opposition is not unpatriotic but truly patriotic.
e shares the negative representation Bush assigns to Iraq and &addam. The main differencelies in his response to those threats.
&econd, he uses the causative process to engage the audience in his decision ma$ing
process, in his reform calls, in his resistance to the main ideology. e presupposes a sense of
unity or collectivity through the use of +us+. e further consolidates this feeling and assumes a
shared responsibility. It wor$s both ways, he feels empowered as the public lend him their
support. Their support does not stop at this, it goes far beyond this. It is the main reason
behind his call. The audience might be swayed to consider Obama a voice of the voiceless.
This is most evident inM
"4-# &o for those of us who see$ a more )ust and secure world for our children, let us send a
clear message to the president today.
Clearly, the message he wants to convey is his, he is the only sayer, the real actor and most
importantly the real initiator of this +anti*war rally+. Get, representing the audience as the
main motivation, inspiration idoli%es him in a way as if he responded to the people+s call .It
also gives the message a certain weight.
/er*al "rocesses
!lthough the whole speech is an explicit act of saying, only one verbal process is usedin the speech accounting for -.4 Eof the speech. Obama is the sayer and the verbiage he
utters +"-#5et me begin by "2#saying JthatKJ althoughK this has been billed as an anti*war rally,
"9#I stand before you as someone who is not opposed to war in all circumstances.+. The
verbiage shapes the whole argument, as he goes on to classify wars. &ome wars are
inevitable: others are avoidable . e will further expound on reasons for his own stance. The
conspicuous absence of verbs li$e +tell, announce, declare, condemn, etc. is telling. Obama
does not want to sound li$e a rabble*rouser, though he tries to move and mobili%e the
audience. e does not tell, he presents the alternative path couched in material processes,
steps that should be ta$en instead of this war, based on the $nowledge he has couched in themental processes he chooses for himself.
,ircumstance
!s the analysis shows, the speech is characteri%ed by an excessive use of different
types of circumstance. Cause comes at the top of the list in terms of its frequency, -/ times
ma$ing up
43.- E of the circumstance used. Obama gives a detailed account of the reasons and purposes
not only for his actions or perceptions but also for other participants, most importantly Bush
and &adam. The contrast is still carried over even in the distribution of the cause. The great
wars are fought + in the name of a larger freedom+. Obama wants to fight to ma$e sure that
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the root causes of terrorism is addressed "see clauses 4>*03# . Obama+s causes are all noble
and humane . On the other hand, the purpose of the war Bush wants to fight is + to distract us
from a rise in the uninsured, a rise in the poverty rate, a drop in the median income L to
distract us from corporate scandals and a stoc$ mar$et that has )ust gone through the worst
month since the (reat epression.+ This war is based on +politics+ not principles. Obama herestri$es a chord with the audience: he refers to the tough reality !mericans have to put up
with. The deteriorating socio*economic situation ma$es it incumbent upon the president to let
go of this war which would distract !mericans from the fights that matter and would add a
heavy burden on the shoulders of the already hard*pressed citi%ens. Cause here helps depict
Bush as a leader how does not care for his people .e ta$es critical decisions rec$lessly, ta$es
uncalculated ris$s lightly. &adam is also negatively represented as a callous power*hungry
leader who +butchers+ his own people +to secure+ his power. The use serves the persuasive
function, Obama gives a why and how for every point he raises. Thus, appealing to the
rational faculties of the audience.
&econd to cause, comes manner "2?.2 E#. Obama employs different subcategories of
manner, mostly, quality and means. !s the discourse develops, it becomes clear that Bush and
&adam are represented in a negative light, not only through their actions but most
prominently through the circumstance associated with the process. On the other hand,
Obama+s processes are always positively represented . &adam will fall +in the way all petty
dictators fall+, so there is no need to fight +in vain+ or to travel this path +blindly+. The picture is
vividly represented through the use of the concession + irrespective of the costs in lives lost
and in hardships borne.+ The war is a rec$less uncalculated ris$ whose ramifications outweigh
its benefits. Obama , however, calls for reform measure to be ta$en domestically and
internationally. These measures are clearly defined in terms of means, they would not happen
in a vacuum. e does not want to seem li$e an idealistic opposition figure who calls for a far*
fetched goals. Instead, he proposes the way they should be implemented + through
coordinated intelligence+ through an energy policy=+. The viable road map is full*fledged.
The use of location " spatio* temporal# comes third in place "22.?E#,Obama uses very
specific temporal and spatial details whether when he discusses past or current events. This
adds a sense of specificity and evidentiality
to his statements. It also enhances his credibility.
The use of + now+, +before you+, +today+ is there, the practice conforms to the tradition of giving
speeches. Obama also in an attempt to establish his identity as a man who comes from anoble family , he specifies where his grandfather fought + in 6atton+s army+ + across the fields
of <urope+ + after 6earl arbor was bombed+ which is the reason behind the &econd 7orld
7ar. (iving little chance for refutation or any smear campaigns to rob him off his
patriotism. e also expounds on his earlier stance of supporting the government+s decision +
after &eptember --+ which he later on opposes after discovering that the war is a mere+
political hac$+. !ccompaniment and role are not frequently used , both account for E of the
circumstance used . Get, through them he asserts that they have a fight with +bin 5aden+ whose
root causes are the tough reality the youth in the 8iddle <ast experience + without education+
+without hope+. On the other hand, the impending war can be avoided through cooperating
with the +international community+.
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"articipants
The reality represented here refers to different persons and entities as active actors.
'or the scope of this research and for tracing the representation of self and other, the use of
'irst person and &econd person pronouns is analy%ed. !ccording to the quantitative analysis,
+I+ is used -4 times occupying the role of an active actor who is willing to fight and +ta$e up
arms+ in clause "->#, if necessary yet, +I+ is also the senser of + $nowing+ certain phenomena
that suggest otherwise"see clause 92*9/#. +I+ is the also the carrier that does have any +illusions+
about &addam ussien. The recurrent repetition of +I+ helps establishing Obama+s identity as
a powerful opposition figure who dares to express his concern. It also helps emphasi%e the
points he specifically opposes through the use of the 6seudo cleft structure " see clause-*29#
as discussed in the commentary of the mar$ed themes.
The sense of an opposition leader who is full of himself and his ideology is mitigated
through the use of + 7e+ times. +7e+ establishes a sense of a group identity .7e, !mericans,
need such and such, we will fight certain fights, we +will not travel down the hellish path+.
Obama does not go for any polari%ed classification addressing a certain political party or
affiliation. e portrays himself as spea$ing on behalf of and for all !mericans.
The significant use of +you+ is noteworthy. Obama explicitly uses +you+ 4 times addressing
(eorge Bush as a vocative.
Gou want a fight, 6resident Bush
&uch a use of +you+ presupposes the existence of I and 7e, Obama who is the voice of
!mericans.
&uch a representation serves two functions simultaneously. Obama represents himself as an
audacious figure who dares to challenge the president of the most powerful country. It also
portrays Bush as a leader who turns his bac$ on his people, turns a deaf ear to their demands.
Bush wants to ta$e a path different from the path nation wishes to ta$e.
Obama uses you, though omitted, to refer to the audience as discussed in the causative
processes shows.
Obama tries to portray a version of reality that embraces all the ma)or players in this power
game.
..2 Ideational Metafunction- 0ogico%semantic )elations
!ccording to the analysis, logico*semantic relations are not frequently used by
Obama. They are used only in ->.9E of the text. Two things need to be highlighted in this
regard. 'irst, the noticeable lac$ of logic*semantic relations does not affect the cohesion orthe coherence of the message. &econd, the coherence of the message can be attributed to the
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s$illful use of discourse mar$ers that are excluded from this analysis as they fall under the
continuity ad)uncts. They do not lin$ two ad)acent clauses. Instead, they provide the
framewor$ of the interpretation of the textual meaning by relating it to what has been said
before. Obama voices out a certain stance to argue against waging war then he will use +but+
to highlight the fact that he is still against &adam.
Bac$ to logico*semantic relations, Obama employs parataxis more than hypotaxis in
the speech. ypotaxis is used 9 times only compared to ? instances of parataxis. &uch a use
supports the notion that he discusses causes and concepts that are of equal importance.
<xtension relations are the most frequently used, ma$ing up ?3E of logico*semantic
relations. In extension relation, addition tops the list, being used > times , compared to one
use of adversative relations . <xtension contributes to the continuity of the text. Obama adds
different equally important reasons for his opposition, the successive use of +and+ exercises a
certain forceful influence on the audience stressing the cogent evidence* based argument of
Obama.
The use of the adversative +yet in clause 0 in paragraph- +, at the outset of the speech, helps
to establish Obama+s identity as an eloquent orator, as a patriotic citi%en who is for glorious
wars. It also set the ground for the argument . <nhancing relations are used twice in the
speech. !gain, at the beginning of the speech, in clause "2# in paragraph -, Obama uses
+although+ to explain that contrary to the label given to his rally + anti*war+, he does not
+oppose+ all wars in all circumstances.
The use of adversative and concession is significant: Obama is after dispelling any
misconceptions the audience might have regarding his stance. e corrects and contradicts thefalse impressions to pave the road for his argument. Causal relation is used once at the end
of the speech, Obama in clause"09# in paragraph argues that corruption and oppression in
the 8iddle <ast are the main causes of the advent of terrorism . e calls for addressing these
root causes rather than attending to the symptoms only. 5ogico*semantic relations, though
relatively few, add emphasis to the argument. Obama uses them well. e beings with
adversative and concession, moves on to additive relations and finally concludes with causal
one.
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. Textual rganiation
..1 Mar4ed Themes
"seudo%,left Structures- $Identifying theme&$Thematic e+uati(e&
Clause
number
<xample egree on the scale of
mar$edness
15 7hat I am opposed to is a dumb war. ighly 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
26 7hat I am opposed to is a rash war. ighly 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
21 7hat I am opposed to is the cynical attempt by@ichard 6erle and 6aul
=
ighly 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
22 7hat I am opposed to is the attempt by political
hac$s li$e Narl @ove to
distract us
ighly 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
23 That+s what I+m opposed to. ighly 8ar$ed
@eversed 6seudo*Cleft
&tructureTheme @heme
,left structure $"redicated theme&
Clause
number
<xample egree on the scale of
mar$edness
0,> and yet it was only
through the crucible of
the sword, the sacrifice
of multitudes,
that we could begin to
perfect this union, and
drive the scourge of
slavery from our soil.
ighly 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
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Fronting
,lause num*er xample Type Degree on the scale
of mar4edness
-0 !fter
&ept. --,
after
witnessing
the
carnage ...
I supported this
administration+s
pledge
!d)unct of time 5ess 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
4- &o for
those of us
who see$
a more
)ust=,
let us send a
clear message
to the president
today.
'ronting of
Circumstance
5ess 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
94 in the way
of all petty
dictators,
he falls away
into the dustbin
of history.
'ronting of
Circumstance
5ess 8ar$ed
Theme @heme
..2 )esults of the analysis of the mar4ed themes
Mar4ed Themes Total num*er of
clauses
Fre+uency "ercentage
8ar$ed themes in the
text
>- -0 E
ighly 8ar$ed
themes
> >>.> E
.7 )epetition
,lause num*er item traced 8um*er ofoccurrences
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?,-4,-?,9 I don+t oppose all wars 4 times in 9 successive
paragraphs .
-,23,2-,22,29 7hat I am opposed to is 0 times
-,29,43 a dumb war 9 times
23,29 a rash war 2 times42,44,0-,04 Gou want a fight, 6resident Bush 4 times in 9 successive
paragraphs.
-/,92,90,9? I $now1I also $now 4 times
40,02,00 5et+s fight 9 times
40,02 5et+s fight to ma$e sure 2 times
0,0/,>- sacrifice 4 times
,-2 fought 2 times
-9,42,49,44,40,0-,02,04,00,0> fight -3 times
.9 "arallelism
,lause
num*er
"arallel Structures Grammatical
,onstruction
Function
-2,-0 in the name of a larger freedom x
in the name of intolerance
in the name of noun Contrast
-0,2- pledge to hunt down and root out those
who would slaughter innocents in the
name of intolerance
x attempt =.to shove their own
ideological agendas down our throats,
irrespective of the costs in lives lost and
in hardships borne.
nouninfinitive
prepositional phrases
Contrast
24 ! war based not on reason x but on
passion, not on principle x but on
politics.
notonnoun,
but onnoun
Contrast
22 a rise in the uninsured x a rise in the
poverty rate x a drop in the median
income
a "indefinite article#
noun preposition noun
build*on
emphasis
9> of undetermined length x atundetermined cost x with undetermined
consequences.
preposition ad)ectivenoun build*onemphasis
9/ without a clear rationale x and without
strong international support
without ad)ectivenoun build*on
emphasis
09 without education, without prospects,
without hope
withoutnoun build*on
emphasis
2 defied resolutions x thwarted
inspection teams x developed chemical
and biological weapons, and x coveted
nuclear capacity
verbnoun build*on
emphasis
02 oppressing their own people, x andsuppressing dissent, x and tolerating
verbal nounnoun build*onemphasis
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corruption and inequality, x and
mismanaging their economies
9/ will only fan the flames of the 8iddle
<ast, x and encourage the worst, rather
than best, impulses of the !rab world, x
and strengthen the recruitment arm ofal*Daida
verb noun "ob)ect# build*on
emphasis
.: ;se of nominal groups instead of clauses
clause
num*er
8ominal groups
0? The battles against ignorance and intolerance.
Corruption and greed.6overty and despair
2? e is a brutal man. ! ruthless man.29 ! dumb war. ! rash war
.5. Implications and ,ommentary
Textual Metafunction
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The way writers organi%e their message reveals the texture of the message and brings to light
the underlying concerns and ideology of the writers. Obama presents a well*$nitted, well *
thought and well*organi%ed text. The thematic organi%ation reflects the argument line.
.5.1 Mar4ed themes
8ost of the thematic choices are unmar$ed, reserving the sub)ect for the theme
position. Get, mar$ed themes are adeptly employed. They ma$e up "-0 E# of the text. 8ore
than half of those mar$ed themes are highly mar$ed ones ">>.>E#.Of particular prominence
is the use of 6seudo*cleft "0 times# and cleft structure "- time #. 'ronting is also s$illfully
used, circumstance of time, manner and behalf are thematised in a way that adds a certain
emphasis to the message. 5ess 8ar$ed themes ma$e up " 99.4E# of the mar$ed themes.
8ar$ed themes help develop the message. These choices indicate a change in the
framewor$ of the interpretation of the message. They serve as a new departure point for the
argument. They ta$e the message to a new level that is contradictory to the previous stretch.
The speech begins by recounting the battles Obama+s grandfather fought stressing his
heroism. e further goes to assert the fruitful outcome the Civil 7ar has brought.
and JyetK it was only through the crucible of the sword, the sacrifice of multitudes, "># that we
could begin to perfect this union, and drive the scourge of slavery from our soil.
Get, now he has his own reasons to oppose this war. The mar$ed theme signals the
shift. 8oreover, the message conveys a certain emphasis, exclusiveness and contrast. The
focus of the message is on the identifier part the second part "the rheme#. Obama stresses the
fact that this war is +dumb+ and +rash+ . It will squander the country+s resources that should bespent on improving the situation of the marginali%ed and the disenfranchised. e is against
this very war. &uch stance may vary if the war is worth fighting. That is where the sense of
contrast and exclusiveness comes in.
-#7hat I am opposed to is a dumb war. "23#7hat I am opposed to is a rash war. "2-#7hat I
am opposed to is the cynical attempt by @ichard 6erle and 6aul 7olfowit% and other
armchair, wee$end warriors in this administration to shove their own ideological agendas
down our throats, irrespective of the costs in lives lost and in hardships borne.
"22#7hat I am opposed to is the attempt by political hac$s li$e Narl @ove to distract us froma rise in the uninsured, a rise in the poverty rate, a drop in the median income L to distract us
from corporate scandals and a stoc$ mar$et that has )ust gone through the worst month since
the (reat epression." 29#That+s what I+m opposed to.
The mar$ed themes clearly reflect the negative representation of Bush and his
administration.
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Fronting
"-0# !fter &ept. --, after witnessing the carnage and destruction, the dust and the tears, I
supported this administration+s pledge to hunt down and root out those who would slaughter
innocents in the name of intolerance, "->#JandK I would willingly ta$e up arms myself to
prevent such tragedy from happening again.
Obama thematises the time ad)unct to let !mericans $now that he is mindful of the
tragic events that has wrea$ed havoc upon his country. e is not in any sense unpatriotic or
apologetic of any terrorist activity. e goes on later in the speech to say that &adam will
inevitably fall + in the way of all petty dictators+ , thematising the circumstance negates any
misconception the audience might have regarding Obama+s stance on &adam Organi%ing the
message this way helps focus on the fact that Obama has supported the decision to +root out+
terrorists, he now opposes the decision to wage a war as it would aggravate those terrorists as
he point out later in the speech.
In an attempt to mobili%e the audience to resist that dominant ideology, he fronts
circumstance of behalf, appealing to the noble universal values they believe in, ta$ing into
consideration the crushing socio*economic realities they have to accept.
"4-#&o for those of us who see$ a more )ust and secure world for our children, let us send a
clear message to the president today.
Text%*uilding and )hetorical de(ices
.5.2 "arallelism and )epetition
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)epetition
!s the analysis shows, repetition is used many times in the speech. Certain lexical
items, phrases and whole clause are reiterated. The fact that the speech is relatively short
ma$es repetition an outstanding feature. (enerally spea$ing, repetition has a cohesive role
that connects the text together. Get, it does not stop at this, it goes far beyond that. It serves a
rhetorical function.
@ecurrent lexemes, phrases and clauses constitute the crux of the message. They can
perfectly summari%e the speech. Obama says +I don+t oppose all wars+ four times in three
successive paragraphs. e goes on to elaborate on his stance by repeating the pseudo*cleft
structure +what I am opposed to+ five times. e $eeps repeating the label he attributed to this
war +dumb war+ and +rash war+ three times. e goes directly to challenge Bush with a powerful
rhetorical question that he $eeps as$ing for four times +Gou want a fight, 6resident Bush+ The
questions stir the thoughts and mindsets of the audience. It lets them ponder on a salient
issue. Obama expects no answer in return. To maximi%e the effect of the question Obama
provides the answer of this question, drawing a viable road map with no +sacrifice+ through
the repetition of +let+s fight+ three times. The contrast is underscored through the dichotomy
between +you want a fight+ and +I $now+ followed by reasons accounting for the possibility of
avoiding this war due to +dire consequences+. Both of these phrases are repeated four times.
The repetition has helped shape a cogent message that can resonate with people. It
enhances the construction of the meanings explicitly and implicitly conveyed in the mental
modes of the audience. 'urthermore, it adds emphasis to his argument: it also creates a
profound lasting impression on the audience. The emotional impact it generates is immediate.It directly exercises an irresistible influence over the minds of the audience.
"arallelism
6arallelism helps Obama create rhythm and balance in his speech. It also helps him
present the argument clearly, concisely, smoothly and effectively. 6arallelism is pleasing to
the ear .It ma$es the message musical and thus easy to recall. The efficient use of parallelism
reflects the oratory power Obama masters. e cares about the content as much as he cares
about the form. The effect his words have on the audience is of great importance to him. This
is why he tries to enhance the melodious and harmonious nature of the speech. <xamples of
parallel structures abound in the speech. They are noteworthy. Obama uses different $inds of
parallelism to serve different purposes to convey his point. The contrast persists and is even
further enhanced through the parallel structures.
There is a contrast between the !mericans and the terrorists. Obama+s grandfather fought +in
the name of a larger freedom+, while the terrorists slaughter +in the name of intolerance+. The
ideals behind the wars vastly vary. This contributes to the positive self*representation and
negative other representation.
The contrast now is held between what Bush calls for and what he is really after.
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pledge to hunt down and root out those who would slaughter innocents in the name of
intolerance+ +
x +attempt =.to shove their own ideological agendas down our throats, irrespective of the
costs in lives lost and in hardships borne+. "clause -2,-0#
Obama reveals what he believes is the quintessence of the war on Iraq through the adept use
of parallel structure as if he negating all the propaganda campaign.
+! war based not on reason x but on passion, not on principle x but on politics.+
"clause 24#
The second function parallelism serves is stressing equally important points as if
Obama is going for a build*on emphasis. Obama is of the opinion that the war is an attempt
to distract the !mericans from the deteriorating living conditions that need urgent
addressing. e enumerates these problems as equally important to one another. 8ost
importantly, theses pressing challenges are far more important than the impending war. By
appealing to everyday difficulties, Obama rubs the wound and identify himself with the low*
income and middle income brac$ets in an attempt to win their minds and hearts. The parallel
structures give the utterance a certain force.
a rise in the uninsured x a rise in the poverty rate x a drop in the median income."clause 22#
Obama enumerates why this war is not worth it.
without a clear rationale x and without strong international support "clause 9/#
of undetermined length x at undetermined cost x with undetermined consequences.
.5.3 The use of nominal groups
The use of nominal groups instead of full cluases is another feature that stands out in
the speech. One common factor between these groups is that fact that they are all of a
negative sense. Obama uses this device three times. 'irst, when he asserts that this war is
pointless he says +dumb war1 +rash war+ as if they constitute a whole sentence. &econd , he
uses + ruthless man+ to describe &adam.
Third, he uses nominal groups when he describes the causes that are worth fighting for.
+The battles against ignorance and intolerance. Corruption and greed. 6overty and despair.+
Obama stresses the negative attributes through these resonating coupling and grouping.
The speech that represents the second part of the analysis was delivered by (eorge
Bush from the Cross all in the 7hite ouse on Tuesday -/ 8arch 2339, )ust a few days
before the military invasion of Iraq. In addition to being an ultimatum speech, it contains the
implicit and explicit ideologies of its spea$er. The following analysis covers the ideational
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metafunction in the speech and it also touches upon the textual metafunction, specifically
highlighting the mar$ed themes.
. !nalysis.1 Ideational Metafunction
"aragraph 1
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- <vents in Iraq have...reached the final days of
decision
now
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
2 the nited &tatesand other nations have pursued patient and honorableeffort= 'or more than adecade
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
9 That regime 6ledged to reveal and destroy all
its weapons of mass
destruction
as a condition for
ending the 6ersian
(ulf 7ar in --
&ayer Ferbal Ferbiage ContingencyM
condition
4 the world has engaged in -2 years of diplomacy &ince then
!ctor 8aterial &cope 5ocationM temporal
0 7e have passed more than a do%en
resolutions
in the nited
ations &ecurity
Council
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM spatial
> 7e have sent hundreds of weapons
inspectors
to oversee the
disarmament of Iraq
!ctor 8aterial (oal CauseM purpose
? Our good faith has not been
returned
(oal 8aterial
"aragraph 2
Clause 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
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ere, PthatQ is used generating a pro#ection hypotactic relation with clause - and the
following subordinate clause presenting the idea confirmed by the intelligence that the Iraqi
regime owns weapons of mass destruction. This further highlights the perception that the &
and the other countries of the world are dealing with aggressive men.
"aragraph
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- The regime as a history of rec$less
aggression
in the 8iddle <ast
Carrier @elational !ttribute 5ocationM spatial
2 It as a deep hatred of
!merica and our
friends
Carrier @elational !ttribute9 It has aided,
trained, and
harbored
terrorists including
operatives of al Daeda
!ctor 8aterial (oal
"aragraph
Clause o. 6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- The danger is clear
Carrier @elational attribute
2 the terrorists could fulfill their stated ambitions
!ctor 8aterial (oal
9 $ill thousands or hundreds
of thousands of
innocent people
"-#in our country,
"2#or any other
!ctor 8aterial (oal "-#5ocationM spatial
"2# !ccompaniment
"aragraph 7
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- The nited &tates
and other nations
did nothing to deserve or invite
this threat
!ctor 8aterial (oal CauseM reason
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2 7e will do everything to defeat it
!ctor 8aterial (oal CauseM purpose
9 7e will set a course toward safety
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM spatial
4 this danger will be removed
goal 8aterial0ogico%semantic relations
In clause 2, there is a use of PbutQ "expansion%extension%ad(ersati(e# establishing a
paratactic relation with the previous clause. Bush, here, uses this adversative coordinator to
show the contrast between the image of the & and other nations as victims who did nothing
to deserve the threat of &addam ussein and the other image of the & as the powerful nation
that will do everything to prevent and defeat that threat. Bush continues to stress on this idea
by using Pinstead ofQ "expansion%extension% replaci(e# in a hypotactic way lin$ing clause 9
with the previous one. ere, he replaces being victims who surrender to tragedy with being
the powerful people who will ma$e their way toward safety.
"aragraph 9
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- The nited
&tates of
!merica
as the sovereign
authority
to use force in assuring
its own national
security
To$en @elational Falue CauseM purpose
2 That duty falls to me "-#as Commander*in*
chief, "2#by the oath I
have sworn, "9#by the
oath I will $eep
Falue @elational To$en "-#@oleM guise
"2#8annerM means
"9# 8annerM means
"aragraph :
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- the nited &tatesCongress
Foted "-#overwhelmingly"2#last year "9# to
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support the use of force
against Iraq.
!ctor 8aterial "-#8annerM quality
"2#5ocationM temporal
"9#CauseM purpose
2 !merica tried to wor$ "-#with the nited ations "2#to address
this threat
!ctor 8aterial "-#!ccompaniment
"2#CauseM purpose
9 7e believe in the mission of the
nited ations
&enser 8ental 6henomenon
4 One reason the
was founded
after the second
world war
was to confront
aggressive
dictators
actively and early
Falue @elational To$en 8annerM quality
0ogico%semantic relations
In this paragraph, there is a hypotactic relation between clause 2 and the following dependent
clause through the use of PbecauseQ "expansion%enhancing%causal #. The use of PbecauseQ
shows the representation of the & as a peaceful nation who resorts to the to resolve the
issue.
"aragraph 5
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- the &ecurity
Council
did act in the early -3s
!ctor 8aterial 5ocationM temporal
2 the nited &tates
and our allies
are authori%ed to use force in
ridding Iraq of
weapons of mass
destruction
(oal 8aterial CauseM purpose
9 This is not a question of authority
Carrier @elational !ttribute
4 it is a question of will
Carrier @elational !ttribute
"aragraph 16
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- I 7ent "-#5ast &eptember
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"2# to the (eneral
!ssembly
!ctor 8aterial "-#5ocationM temporal
"2#5ocationM spatial
2 urged the
nations of the world
to unite and
bring an endto this danger
&ayer Ferbal @eceiver Ferbiage
9 The &ecurity
Council
6assed @esolution -44- "-#On ovember /
"2#nanimously
!ctor 8aterial (oal "-#5ocationM temporal
"2#8annerM quality
4 finding Iraq in material breach of
its obligation
!ctor 8aterial (oal
0 vowing serious consequences
&ayer Ferbal Ferbiage
0ogico%semantic relations
! hypotactic relation is created between clause 0 and the dependent one the follows through
the use of PifQ "expansion%enhancing%conditional#. sing the conditional here shows the
power of the & and, at the same time, minimi%es the power of Iraq as Bush is using the
conditional as a means of threatening Iraq with serious consequences if it does not disarm
immediately.
"aragraph 11
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- o nation can claim that Iraq has
disarmed
Today
&ayer Ferbal Ferbiage 5ocationM temporal
2 it will not disarm
!ctor 8aterial
9 the nited &tates
and our allies
have wor$ed "-#'or the last four*
and*a*half months"2#within the &ecurity
Council to enforce the
Council;s=
!ctor 8aterial "-#5ocationM temporal
"2#CauseM purpose
4 &ome permanent
members of the
&ecurity Council
have=announced they will veto any
resolution that
compels the
disarmament of
Iraq
6ublicly
&ayer Ferbal Ferbiage 8annerM quality
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0 These
governments
share our assessment of
the danger
!ctor 8aterial (oal
> 8any nations do have the resolve and
fortitude
to act against this
threat to peace
Falue @elational To$en CauseM purpose? a broad coalition is=gathering "-#now "2#to enforce
the )ust demands of
the world
!ctor 8aterial "-#5ocationM temporal
"2#CauseM purpose
/ The nited
ations &ecurity
Council
has not lived up
to
its responsibilities
!ctor 8aterial (oal
7e will rise to ours!ctor 8aterial (oal
0ogico% semantic relations
There are several logico*semantic relations in this paragraph. In clause -, there is a pro)ection
hypotactic relation created by the use of PthatQ pro)ecting a locution of the claim which no
nation can ma$e. In clause 4, PyetQ "expansion% extension% ad(ersati(e# creates a paratactic
relation with the previous independent clause showing the contrast between the & who
wor$s with the to disarm Iraq and some other members of the &ecurity Council who will
veto compelling Iraq to disarm. There is a hypotactic relation established between clause 0
and the following one by the use of PbutQ "expansion%extension%ad(ersati(e#. This use of PbutQ here shows that although those governments will veto the resolutions that the &
supports, they are still in its group as they share its assessment of danger. It also shows the
contrast between those governments and that of the & which has more resolve and
determination to face the danger. This idea is emphasi%ed by using PhoweverQ " expansion%
extention%ad(ersati(e # in a paratactic way in clause >. There are other two paratactic
relationsM the first is in clause ? using PandQ "expansion%extension%additi(e# to confirm the
idea that many nations in the world are in the same group as the &: and the second
paratactic relation is in clause through the use of PsoQ "expansion%enhancing%causal #.
"aragraph 12
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- some governments
in the middle east
have been
doing
their part In recent days
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
2 They have delivered public and private
messages =
!ctor 8aterial (oal
9 e has=refused 'ar
&ayer Ferbal 8annerM quality4 !ll the decades of have=reached an end ow
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deceit and cruelty
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
0 &addam ussein
and his sons
must leave Iraq within 4/ hours
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
> Their refusal to doso
will result in military conflict,commenced at a
time of our choosing
!ctor 8aterial (oal
? all foreign
nationals=
should leave Iraq "-#'or their own
safety "2# immediately
!ctor 8aterial (oal "-#CauseM purpose
"2#8annerM quality
"aragraph 13
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- 8any Iraqis can hear me tonight
&enser 8ental 6henomenon 5ocationM temporal
2 I have a message for them
Carrier @elational !ttribute CauseM behalf
9 it will be directed "-#against the lawless
men who rule your
country "2#and not
against you(oal 8aterial "-#CauseM behalf
"2#!ccompaniment
4 we will deliver the food and
medicine you need
!ctor 8aterial (oal
0 7e will tear down the apparatus of
terror
!ctor 8aterial (oal
> we will help you to build a new Iraq=
!ctor 8aterial (oal CauseM purpose
? there will be no more wars ofaggression=
In a free Iraq
<xistential existent 5ocationM spatial
/ The tyrant will=be gone &oon
(oal 8aterial 5ocationM temporal
The day of your
liberation
is near
Carrier @elational !ttribute
0ogico%semantic relations
There is a paratactic relation between clause - and 2 through the use of PandQ " expansion%extension%additi(e#. ! hypotactic relation is created between clause 9 and the previous
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dependent one by using PifQ $expansion%enhancing%conditional& which shows the might of
the & to start a military campaign. !nother hypotactic relation is made between clause 4 and
the previous dependent one by using PasQ "expansion% enhancing% spatio%temporal#
showing that despite the might the & has to minimi%e the power of the Iraqi regime, the &
is a merciful and peaceful nation that is here to help the Iraqi people. The very same idea isenhanced through PandQ "expansion%extension%additi(e# which creates a paratactic relation
between clause 0 and clause > of this paragraph.
"aragraph 1
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- It is too late for &addam ussein
to remain in power
Carrier @elational !ttribute CauseM behalf
2 It is not too late "-#'or the Iraqimilitary="2#by
permitting= "9#to
eliminate weapons=
Carrier @elational !ttribute "-# CauseM behalf
"2# 8annerM means
"9# CauseM purpose
9 Our forces will give Iraqi
military
units
clear
instruction
=
to avoid being
attac$ed and
destroyed
!ctor 8aterial @ecipient goal CauseM purpose
4 I urge every
member
of the
Iraqi
military..
do not fight
for a dying
regime=
&ayer Ferbal @eceiver Ferbiage
0ogico%semantic relations
In clause 4, there is a use of PifQ "expansion%enhancing%conditional# in a hypotactic way.
The conditional here also shows the power of the & represented in its ability to start a war
and in the fact that it is giving orders and instructions to members of the Iraqi military and
intelligence even before the war actually starts.
"aragraph 1
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- all Iraqi
military and
should listen= to this warning carefully
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civilian
personnel
Behaver Behavioural @ange 8annerM quality
2 your fate will depend on your action in any conflict
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM spatial
9 o not destroy oil wells8aterial (oal
4 o not obey any command=
8aterial (oal
0 7ar crimes will be
prosecuted
(oal 8aterial
> 7ar criminals will be punished
(oal 8aterial
? it will be no defense to say=
Carrier @elational !ttribute
"aragraph 17
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- the !merican
people
can $now that every measure=
&enser 8ental 6henomenon
2 every measure will be ta$en to win it
(oal 8aterial CauseM purpose9 !mericans understand the costs of conflict
&ender 8ental 6henomenon
4 7ar has no certainty
Carrier @elational !ttribute
0ogico%semantic relations
There is a hypotactic relation between clause - and the dependent one that precedes through
the use of PshouldQ "expansion%enhancing%conditional#. The conditional here shows that
this war is the fault of &addam ussein: it highlights the idea that the & is a victim who is
threatened by &addam ussein but, at the same time, it has the power to defeat him. Thisnotion of being victims but powerful at the same time is highlighted through the use of PandQ
"expansion%extension%additi(e# in a paratactic way in clause 2. Fiewing the & as a victim
is even more obvious through the use of PbecauseQ "expansion%enhancing%causal # in clause
9 and PexceptQ "expansion%extension%(ariation%su*tracti(e# in clause 4, both establishing
hypotactic relations.
"aragraph 19
Clause o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
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- the only way to
reduce the harm
and duration=
is to apply the full force
and might of our
military
Falue @elational To$en
2 we are prepared to do so
Carrier @elational !ttribute9 he will remain a deadly foe until the end
Carrier @elational !ttribute 5ocationM temporal
4 he and terrorist
groups
might try to
conduct
terrorist operations against the
!merican people=
!ctor 8aterial (oal CauseM behalf
0 These attac$s are not inevitable
Carrier @elational !ttribute
> They are 6ossible
Carrier @elational !ttribute
? this fact underscores the reason that =6henomenon 8ental &enser
/ The terrorist
threat =
will be
diminished
the moment that
&addam=
(oal 8aterial 5ocationM temporal
0ogico%semantic relations
The idea of victimi%ing the self expressed in paragraph -> is contradicted in paragraph -?
through the use of PyetQ "expansion%extension%ad(ersati(e # in a paratactic way in clause -.
There is another paratactic relation between clause - and 2 by the use of PandQ "expansion%
extension%additi(e# expressing the power of the &. The same idea continues in the
hypotactic relation in clause 9,using PifQ "expansion%enhancing%conditional#. !nother
paratactic relation is established between clause 0 and clause > through the use of PhoweverQ
"expansion%extension%ad(ersati(e#.
"aragraph 1:
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- Our
government
is on heightened watch against these dangers
Carrier @elational !ttribute CauseM behalf 2 7e are ta$ing further actions to protect our homeland
!ctor 8aterial (oal CauseM purpose
9 !merican
authorities
have expelled certain individuals
with ties to=
"-# In recent days
"2# from the country
!ctor 8aterial (oal "-#5ocationM temporal
"2#5ocationM spatial
4 I have directed additional security
of=
&ayer Ferbal Ferbiage
0 Increased Coast (uard 6atrols
of=
!ctor 8aterial (oal
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> The
epartment of
omeland
&ecurity
is wor$ing "-#closely
"2#with the nation;s
governors "9#to increase
armed security=
!ctor 8aterial "-#8annerM quality
"2#!ccompaniment"9#CauseM purpose
"aragraph 15
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- they would be
attempting "-#to
shift "2#and
wea$en
"-#our attention
"2#our morale
!ctor 8aterial "-#R"2#(oal
2 they would fail
!ctor 8aterial
9 o act of theirs "-#can alter
"2#or sha$e
"-#The course
"2#the resolve of =
!ctor 8aterial (oal
4 7e are a peaceful people
Carrier @elational !ttribute
0 7e ;re not a fragile people
Carrier @elational !ttribute> we will not be
intimidated
by thugs and $illers
&enser 8ental 8annerM means
? they and all who
have aided them
will face fearful
consequences
!ctor 8aterial (oal
0ogico%semantic relations
In clause -, there is a hypotactic relation created by the use of PshouldQ "expansion%
enhancing%conditional#. ere, the use of the conditional indicates the power of the & and
minimi%es the power of its enemies. The very same concept is obvious in the use of PifQ
"expansion%enhancing%conditional# establishing a hypotactic relation between clause ? and
the preceding dependent one. The contrast between the two images of the & being a
peaceful but a powerful nation comes to the fore again by the use of PyetQ "expansion%
extension%ad(ersati(e# in clause 0 and the use of PandQ "expansion%extension%additi(e# in
clause >.
"aragraph 26
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- 7e are=acting now
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!ctor 8aterial 5ocationM temporal
2 the power of
Iraq=
would be
multiplied=
"-#In one year,"2# or
five years
(oal 8aterial "-#5ocationM temporal
9 &addam ussein
and his terroristallies
could choose the moment of
deadly conflict
!ctor 8aterial (oal
4 7e choose to meet that threat ow
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
0ogico%semantic relations
There is a hypotactic relation in clause - made by the use of PbecauseQ "expansion%
enhancing%causal#. !nother hypotactic relation is created between clause 9 and the
dependent clause that follows through the use of PwhenQ "expansion% enhancing% spatio%
temporal#. In clause 4, the use of PwhereQ "expansion% enhancing% spatio%temporal# alsocreates a hypotactic relation. Those three hypotactic relations are used to express the idea that
the & has to start the war to save the world from the threat of &addam ussein now and not
later, or else the danger will be multiplied.
"aragraph 21
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- The cause of peace requires all free nations
to recogni%e..
!ctor 8aterial &cope
2 some chose to appease dictators= In the 23th century
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
9 a policy of
appeasement
could bring destruction of
a $ind never=
In this century
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
0ogico%semantic relations
In this paragraph, there is a hypotactic relation created between clause 9 and the previous
dependent one through the use of PwhenQ "expansion% enhancing% spatio%temporal#.
"aragraph 22
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- Terrorists and
terror states
do not reveal these threats with a fair notice
!ctor 8aterial (oal 8annerM means
2 responding to such
enemies=
is not self*defense
Carrier @elational !ttribute9 it is suicide
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Carrier @elational !ttribute
4 The security of the
world
requires disarming
&addam ussein
now
!ctor 8aterial (oal 5ocationM temporal
0ogico%semantic relations
There is a paratactic relation between clause - and clause 2 of this paragraph. It is created
through the use of PandQ "expansion%extension%additi(e#, confirming the idea that the &
and other nations of the world have to start this war to disarm the Iraqi regime now: and it
also brings bac$ the idea stressed all through the speech that the Iraqi regime of &addam
ussein is the danger that threatens the whole world.
"aragraph 23
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- we will also honor the deepest commitments
!ctor 8aterial (oal
2 we believe Iraqi people are deserving
and capable of=
nli$e &addam
ussein
&enser 8ental 6henomenon 8annerM
comparison
9 they can set an example=
Carrier @elational !ttribute
0ogico%semantic relations
There is a hypotactic relation in clause - created by the use of PasQ " expansion 'enhancing '
spatio%temporal#, emphasi%ing the positive side of the & and showing that its actions
conform to the )ust demands of the world. !nother hypotactic relation can be seen in clause 2
in the use of Punli$eQ "expansion%extension%additi(e%negati(e addition#. This relation,
together with the hypotactic relation in clause -, indicates a contrast between the peaceful
civili%ed regime of the & and the aggressive violent regime of Iraq that does not even
respect its own people. The hypotactic relation in clause 9 with the use of PwhenQ
"expansion%enhancing% spatio%temporal# highlights the same concept.
"aragraph 2
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- The nited &tates will wor$ "-#with other countries
"2#to advance liberty and
peace
"9#in that region
!ctor 8aterial "-#!ccompaniment
"2#CauseM purpose
"9#5ocationM spatial
2 Our goal will not beachieved
overnight
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(oal 8aterial 8annerM quality
9 it can come Over time
!ctor 8aterial 8annerM quality
4 The power and
appeal of human
liberty
is felt in every life and every land
6henomenon 8ental 5ocationM spatial
0 the greatest power
of freedom
is to overcome
hatred and
violence, and
turn =
Falue @elational To$en
0ogico%semantic relations
There is a paratactic relation between clause 2 and clause 9 created by PbutQ " expansion%
extension% ad(ersati(e#. It shows that the goal of the & and other countries in Iraq will not
be achieved overnight. This may indicate that the & has been planning to spend a relatively
long time in Iraq.
"aragraph 2
Clause
o.
6articipant 6rocess 6articipant Circumstance
- That is the future we choose
To$en @elational Falue
2 'ree nations have a duty to defend our
people
by uniting against
the violentCarrier @elational !ttribute 8annerM means
9 !merica and our
allies
accept that responsibility
!ctor 8aterial (oal
.2 )esults of the !nalysis of Transiti(ity
"rocess
Total num*er of clauses -29
"rocess Fre+uency "ercentage8aterial ?2 0/.09 E
@elational 2 29.0? E
8ental -- /.4 E
Ferbal ?.92 E
<xistential - 3./- E
Behavioural - 3./- E
Table "-# process analysis results
!s table "-# shows, the most frequently used type of process in Bush;s speech is the
material process. It is used in ?2 clauses out of -29 with a percentage of 0/.09. The secondmost frequent type of process used is relational process. It is employed in 2 clauses, which
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means 29.0? E of the clauses in the speech. The third most highly used type of process is the
mental process "-- out of -29S /.4 E# and the fourth is the verbal process " out of -29S
?.92 E#. The processes used least are the existential process and the behavioural process:
each of them is used once "- out of -29sS 3./-E#. Other types of processes such as the
causative process and the ergative process are not used at all in the speech.
,ircumstance
Total num*er of circumstances -
Type of circumstance Fre+uency "ercentage
5ocation 90 9/.4> E
Cause 2> 2/.0? E
8anner 22 24.-? E
!ccompaniment 0 0.4 E
@ole 2 2.- E
Contingency - -.3 E
Table "2# circumstance analysis results
!s table "2# shows, the most frequently used type of circumstance in Bush;s speech is
location "90 out of -S 9/.4>E#. It is followed by cause "2> out of -S2/.0?E#. In the third
position comes manner as it is used 22 times out of - "24.-? E#. The least frequently used
types are accompaniment "0 out of - S0.4 E#, role "2 out of -S 2.-E# and contingency
"- out of -S -.3E#, respectively.
"articipants
6articipants are surely as varied as the types of processes used in the speech. They sometimes
refer to the &, the !merican people, the or its &ecurity Council, and sometimes they
refer to Iraq, the Iraqi regime or its people. owever, it may be of some importance to trace
the interesting use of pronouns in as participants in the speech.
"ronoun )eferent Fre+uency
'irst person "I# Bush 0 times
'irst person "7e# !mericans 20 times
&econd person "you# The Iraqi people 9 times
Table "9# personal pronouns as participants
.3 )esults of the !nalysis of 0ogico%semantic )elations
Total num*er of logico%semantic relations 9 out of -29 9-.?3 E
<ypotactic relations 24 out of 9 >-.09 E
"aratactic relations -0 out of 9 9/.4> E
6ro)ection 2 out of 9 0.-9 E <xpansion 9? out of 9 4./? E
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<nhancing - out of 9? 0-.90 E
<xtension -/ out of 9? 4/.>4 E
<laboration 3 out of 9? 3 E
Table "4# result of logico*semantic relations analysis
!s the table shows, there are logico*semantic relations in 9 clauses of the total
number of -29 clauses. ypotactic relations are used in 24 clauses while paratactic relations
are used in only -0 clauses out of 9. <xpansion is used in 9? clauses out of 9 while
pro)ection is used in only 2 clauses. 8oreover, the most frequent type of expansion relations
used in the speech is enhancing relations: it is employed in - clauses out of the 9? clauses
using expansion "- out of 9?S 0-.90 E#. <xtension is used in -/ clauses out of those 9?
clauses "-/ out of 9?S 4/.>4 E#, which ma$es it the second most frequent type of relation.The difference between the two types is, however, very little: they are almost equally used.
<laboration is not used at all in the speech.
. Implications and ,ommentary
The following part is a commentary presenting the implications inferred from (eorge
Bush;s war ultimatum speech based on the previous analysis that has covered the ideational
metafunction. This commentary is done within the framewor$ of critical discourse analysis
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"C!#, focusing on self and other representation. 'or the purposes of this commentary, Pthe
selfQ refers to the spea$er, the & and any member of their ideological group, while Pthe
otherQ refers to &addam ussein, the Iraqi regime and any member of their ideological group.
..1 Ideational Metafunction- Transiti(ity
Material "rocesses
The results of the previous analysis of transitivity in Bush;s speech show that the most
frequently used type of process is the material process. It is used in 0/.09 E of the speech.
The second most frequent process is the relational process: used in 29.0? E of the clauses.
This extensive use of material processes and the huge difference in the frequency of
occurrence between material processes and relational processes may have a significance. The
first thing that comes to mind is that this big number of material processes may indicate that
the spea$er;s view or experience of the external world and reality is very material and is
largely based on actions, rather than ideas or emotions, for instance. ! closer loo$ at the
clauses using material processes in the speech reveals more about the underlying ideologies
of the spea$er regarding the self and the other. 'or example, out of the ?2 clauses employing
material processes, >2 clauses have actors. Out of those >2 clauses, 4> have actor and goal,
-9 have actor only and 2 have actor and scope. 8oreover, in 90 clauses out of the >2 "0>. 40
E# the actor is represented by the & or any member belonging to its ideological group,
whereas only 29 clauses "9?.3 E# have their actor as the Iraqi regime or any member of its
group. This means that the role of the self is shown as more dynamic than that of the other. In
other words, the & does not only participate a lot in the action, but also participates more
actively.
!dditionally, in almost all those clauses, the self is positively represented. The &, its
government and its people are represented as peaceful and civili%ed. 'or instance, they have
resorted to the and have made patient efforts to resolve the issue of disarming Iraq
without war. This can be seen in clauses 2, 0 and > of paragraph -, clauses 2 and 9 of
paragraph /, clauses - and 2 of paragraph -3 and in many other clauses. 8oreover, Bush and
the & are pictured as the saviours. They will not only save Iraq from the tyranny of &addam
ussein and his terrorist groups but will also protect !merica and the whole world against
this grave danger. 'or instance, in clauses 0 and > of paragraph -9, Bush addresses the Iraqi
people saying, P7e will tear down the apparatus of terror and we will help you to build a newIraq that is prosperous and free.Q &imilarly, in paragraph >, !merica will do everything to
defeat the danger of &addam ussein and terrorists and Pwill set a course toward safety.Q This
idea extends until the last paragraph of the speech where the & and its allies are shown as
the ones who accept the responsibility of defending the nations of the world and Puniting
against the violent.Q
!nother idea through which the self is positively represented is the idea of unity. In
other words, the whole world is in the same team with the &. 'or example, first, the
!merican government is wor$ing with the and its &ecurity Council who have issued
resolutions supporting the !merican viewpoint that the Iraqi regime should be disarmed.
&econd, there are even some governments in the 8iddle <ast that agree with the & on the
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necessity that the dictator, referring to &addam ussein, should leave Iraq. 8oreover,
although there are some of the permanent members of the &ecurity Council who have
declared that they will veto using force against Iraq, those members still share the &
assessment of danger but they )ust lac$ the resolve and courage to ta$e an action. In addition,
the & generally co*occur with words li$e Pour alliesQ, Pother nationsQ and Pour friendsQ,which emphasi%es the unity among the members of the self group. The self is also portrayed
as ma$ing the right decisions for the benefit of the whole world: what the & is doing is the
right thing for Pthe security of the worldQ and that the & is forming a broad coalition Pto
enforce the )ust demands of the worldQ.
This image of the self as the saviour of the world who is supported by every one may
logically signify another image depicting the & as powerful. This is simply because the one
who will save the world cannot possibly be represented as wea$. The power of the & is
obvious in many clauses using material processes as in clause 2 of paragraph where the &
is Pauthori%ed to use force in ridding Iraq of weapons of mass destruction.Q !nother examplecomes in clauses 0 and > of paragraph -2 where Bush mentions that &addam ussein;s
refusal to leave Iraq will lead to a military conflict Pcommenced at a time of our choosing.Q
Besides, in paragraph -0, Bush uses the imperative form to address Iraqi military and civilian
personnel. The use of the imperative in the first place may indicate that the spea$er, or rather
the self, is represented as superior, more powerful and capable of ma$ing his addressees do
what they are as$ed.
!t the same time, the self is represented as merciful and peaceful. In paragraph -9, for
instance, Bush reassures Iraqi people that the !merican military campaign will not be
directed against them and that Pwe will deliver food and medicine you need.Q In some other
clauses of the speech, there is a tendency to victimi%ing the self, stating that the & Pdid
nothing to deserve or invite this threatQ and has tried to avoid war and use peaceful ways but
the approaching danger is forcing them to ta$e immediate actions.
The material processes used in the speech also reveal the ideological representation of
the other from the point of view of the spea$er. !s mentioned earlier, in only 29 clauses out
of the >2 that have actors, the other plays this role. This in itself may be seen as a negative
representation of the other. In fact, in 2- of these clauses, the other is negatively represented.
!ll through the speech, the Iraqi regime is pictured as dangerous, violent and aggressive. 'or
instance, as mentioned in clause - of paragraph 9, the Iraqi regime conceals Psome of the
most lethal weapons ever devisedQ and Pit has aided, trained, and harbored terroristsQ, as
stated in the following paragraph. &addam ussein, in many parts of the speech, is described
as Pthe dictatorQ and Pthe tyrantQ, his officials are Plawless menQ and both of them refuse to
enforce what the spea$er calls the )ust demands of the world, namely that they should leave
and allow Iraq to be disarmed. The Iraqi officials are also described as deceitful men who
have Pused diplomacy as a ploy.Q In addition, &addam ussein and the Iraqi regime almost
all through the speech co*occur with words li$e PterroristQ, Pterrorist groupsQ, PdangerQ,
PthreatQ, Pchemical, biological or nuclear weaponsQ and so on. !ll of such words clearly have
negative connotations. One final thing that also represents the other negatively is thespea$er;s use of the imperative form addressing Iraqi personnel. This pictures the other as
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inferior and minimi%es its power. In only 2 clauses, there is a positive representation of the
other. The actor in these two clauses is some governments of the 8iddle <ast. Technically,
they are supposed to be in the group of the other. They are here positively represented only
because they are, practically, ta$ing the stance of the & and urging &addam ussein to leave
Iraq.
The huge number of material processes in the speech may have further implications.
The audience, listening to the speech, will encounter an enormous amount of actions: a large
amount of dangerous and violent actions ta$en by the other and a larger amount ta$en by the
self to protect its people and prevent the actions of the other. These two types of actions may,
to a great extent, intimidate the audience. ence, it can be said that the spea$er is depending
on intimidation as a means of convincing his audience of his stance. It may also be said that
the spea$er, using this number of actions, intends to show that there is no need to convince
his audience and that they already share the same basic stance and it is now the time to ta$e
actions depending on this stance.
)elational "rocesses
The analysis of the relational process in the speech has shown that they are employed
in 2 clauses, which means 29.0? E of the speech. This ma$es it the second most frequently
used type of process here. Careful observation of the clauses using the relational process
ma$es clear that, on the one hand, in most of such clauses "approximately >/ E# the self,
someone or something belonging to its group, is the carrier. In this case, the attribute always
bears a positive connotation. 'or instance, in clauses 4 and 0 of paragraph -, Bush states,
Pwe are a peaceful people A yet we;re not a fragile people.Q ere, again, the self isrepresented as peaceful and powerful at the same time. The idea of power is also obvious in
clause - of paragraph ? where the & is represented as having Pthe sovereign authority to use
force in assuring its own national security.Q In the following clause in the same paragraph,
Bush declares, Pthat duty falls to meQ, and in clause of paragraph -9, Bush addresses the
Iraqi people saying, Pthe day of your liberation is near.Q ere, the image of the spea$er and
the & as the saviours comes to the fore again.
On the other hand, few clauses of the 2 using the relational process "approximately
2? E# have the other, someone or something belonging to its group as the carrier. In all,
except one, of these clauses the attribute has a negative connotation. 'or example, in the firstand second clauses of paragraph 4, the Iraqi regime is pictured as having Phistory of rec$less
aggressionQ and Pa deep hatred of !merica and our friends.Q 8oreover, in clause 9 of
paragraph -?, the spea$er confirms that if &addam ussein refuses to leave Iraq, Phe will
remain a deadly foe.Q !ll these clauses emphasi%e the negative representation of the other in
the speech.
In only one of those clauses, the other has been positively represented. In clause 9 of
paragraph 29, the spea$er suggests that Pwhen the dictator has departed, they can set an
example to all the 8iddle <ast of a vital and peaceful and self*governing nation.Q This
sentence may actually imply a lot. 'irst, significantly, it comes near the end of the speech,
while all through the speech the other is negatively represented. &econd, in the dependent
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clause at the beginning of this sentence, &addam, who belongs to the other group, is still
negatively represented, being described as a dictator. Third, PtheyQ, referring to the Iraqi
people, are not peaceful and self*governing people now: so, in the present time they are not
actually very positively represented. 'inally, the Iraqi people will be free, peaceful and self*
governing only in the future when &addam ussein is gone by the help of the &. ence,Iraq will be well represented when the & ma$es it well represented. ere, there is an
implied sense of hegemony.
Mental "rocesses
8ental processes come at the third position with a frequency of -- clauses, that is
/.4 E of the speech. In / out of those --, the senser is the self and the mental processes are
related to either cognition or emotions. In only - clause out of the --, the other is the senser
and the mental process here is related to perception. Consequently, it can be said that there is
a sense of superiority here, especially that emotions and cognition are relatively exclusive to
humans, unli$e perception, being based on senses.
In one of the clauses using mental processes: that is Pthe power and appeal of human
liberty is felt in every life and every landQ, the passive is used so the senser is completely
removed. The clause does not specify who exactly feels this Ppower and appeal of human
liberty.Q &upposedly, the ones who mostly feel it are the ones deprived of it. In this case, they
are the Iraqi people from the point of view of the spea$er. owever, they are still not used as
the senser in this clause. ence, this may imply that when the verb used in the mental process
expresses emotions, the spea$er either uses the self as the senser or prefers to completely
omit the senser, through using the passive, to giving the Iraqi people this role.
/er*al "rocesses
Ferbal processes are used only times with a percentage of ?.92, which ma$es them
the fourth most frequent type of processes in the speech. In 4 clauses out of those , the sayer
is the self, and in 9 clauses, the sayer is the other. This may show the self as more dynamic
and more actively participating in events. !dditionally, in all clauses where the self is the
sayer, it is positively represented. 'or instance, the spea$er has Purged the nations of the
world to unite and bring an end to this danger.Q e also Pdirected additional security of our
airports.Q ere, the self is depicted as the protector and the saviour of his country and thewhole world. On the contrary, the clauses in which the other is the sayer carry negative
implications. 'or example, the Iraqi regime has Ppledged to reveal and destroy all its weapons
of mass destruction.Q In the context of the speech, the Iraqi regime has not $ept this promise
and now &addam ussein has PrefusedQ to peacefully leave and disarm Iraq. 8oreover, the
Iraqi officials have, for years, PthreatenedQ weapon inspectors. Therefore, through verbal
processes, the other is pictured again as deceitful, aggressive and violent.
,ircumstance
!ccording to the previous analysis, the spea$er ma$es an extensive use of various
types of circumstances. &ome of those types can tell a lot about the ideological views of the
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spea$er. Circumstances are employed in - clauses out of a total number of -29 clauses,
which ma$e up ?9./ E of the speech. The most frequently used type of circumstance is
location. It is used 90 times with a percentage of 9/.4>. This high frequency of locations may
have a significance. It may emphasi%e the material representation of reality the spea$er
adopts. This material representation is obviously not based on any types of actions, but it is based on real actions that have a certain time and a certain place. !lthough both spatial and
temporal locations are used, temporal locations are much more frequent as they are used in 20
clauses out of the 90 clauses that use location as circumstance, which ma$e up ?-.42 E. This
may also point out the chronological order present in many parts of the speech. 8oreover,
temporal locations underscores the informative nature of the speech. The spea$er is informing
the audience of actions that have happened in the past on certain dates, such as Plast yearQ in
clause - of paragraph / Pthe nited &tates Congress voted overwhelmingly last year to
support the use of force against IraqQ: Pin the early -3sQ in clause - of paragraph Pthe
&ecurity Council did act, in the early -3sQ: and Pon ovember /Q in clause 9 of paragraph
-3 POn ovember /, the &ecurity Council unanimously passed @esolution -44-.Q Those past
events are presented as facts that form the bases of present actions, such as PnowQ in clause ?
of paragraph -- Pa broad coalition is now gathering to enforce the )ust demands of the
worldQ: in clause 4 of paragraph 23 P7e choose to meet that threat nowQ and in clause 4 of
paragraph 22 PThe security of the world requires disarming &addam ussein now.Q
The second most frequently used type of circumstance is cause. It is used in 2>
clauses, which constitute 2/.0? E of the speech. It may be noteworthy that purpose is the
highest frequent type of cause in the speech: out of the 2> clauses the employ cause as a
circumstance, purpose is used -? times, which means >0.9/ E. This may indicate that the
spea$er intends to state the purposes of his actions rather than the reasons behind them. This
may pinpoint the idea mentioned earlier that the spea$er means to show that he is merely
delivering his speech to an audience that already has the same opinions and that there is no
need to provide reasons to persuade.
"articipants
!s mentioned in the analysis, the spea$er uses different types of participants referring
to different entities. owever, a closer loo$ at the use of personal pronouns, specifically PIQ,
PweQ and PyouQ may assist in revealing some the spea$er;s hidden ideologies. Based on the
analysis of personal pronouns, the pronoun PweQ is the most frequent. It is used 20 times
while the second most frequent pronoun is PIQ, used only 0 times. The least frequent pronoun
is PyouQ, used only 9 times. The spea$er;s extensive use of the pronoun PweQ may indicate
that his statements are based on the authority he has, being the 6resident of the nited &tates
of !merica who is spea$ing on behalf of all its people. It may also emphasi%e the idea of
unity discussed earlier. !dditionally, it may be considered significant that the pronouns PweQ
and PIQ, referring to !mericans and Bush respectively, are employed much more frequently
than PyouQ which refers to the Iraqi people. This may stress the positive representation of the
self and the negative representation of the other. This is obvious not only in the frequency but
also in the connotations of the clauses where the pronouns are used. In all those clauses, PweQand PIQ are the dynamic party who ta$es and will ta$e actions, while PyouQ is the helpless
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party affected by those actions. Consequently, positive self representation is most clear here.
The self is represented as the powerful saviour as in clause 0 of paragraph -9 Pwe will tear
down the apparatus of terrorQ: as peaceful and civili%ed such as clause 9 of paragraph / Pwe
believe in the mission of the nited ationsQ and clause 4 of paragraph - Pwe are a peaceful
peopleQ: and as merciful such as clause 4 paragraph -9 Pwe will deliver the food andmedicine you need.Q
..2 Ideational Metafunction- 0ogico%semantic )elations
There are logico*semantic relations in 9-.?3 E of the clauses in Bush;s speech.
<nhancing relations are the most frequent, being used in - clauses. owever, extension
relations are also very frequent, being used in -/ clauses. ence, both types of relations are
almost equally used. In enhancing relations, conditional and spatio*temporal relations are
highly frequent. The use of the conditional form can be said to play a significant role in self
and other representation, as in Pif we must begin a military campaign, it will be directed
against the lawless men who rule your countryQ, Pif war comes, do not fight for a dying
regimeQ, and the &ecurity Council would vow Pserious consequences if Iraq did not fully and
immediately disarm.Q !ll these clauses represent the self positively by maximi%ing its power
and provides a negative image of the other through minimi%ing its power.
!s said above, extension relations are almost as equal in number as enhancing
relations. <xtension relations contribute to the continuity of the text. It may also imply that
the spea$er intends to show that he does not need to provide reasons or to elaborate and
)ustify his stance to convince his audience: but rather he is merely delivering his speech to an
audience with whom he shares similar opinions. This is even more emphasi%ed by the lac$ of elaboration relations in the speech. one of the clauses uses methods and words of
exposition, exemplification or clarification.
. Textual rganiation
..1 !nalysis of the Textual Metafunction- Mar4ed Themes
6aragraph
o.
Clause
o.
Theme Type of theme egree of
mar$edness
- 2 'or more than a decade !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
- 4 &ince then !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
2 9 Over the years !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
- In the case of Iraq !d)unct 5ess mar$ed
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2 nder resolutions >?/
and >/?
!d)unct 5ess mar$ed
-3 - 5ast &eptember !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
-3 9 On ovember / !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
-- - Today !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
-- 9 'or the last four*and*halfmonths
!d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
-2 - In recent days !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
-9 ? In a free Iraq !d)unct "place# 5ess mar$ed
-0 2 In any conflict !d)unct 5ess mar$ed
-? 4 In desperation !d)unct 5ess mar$ed
-/ 9 In recent days !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
-/ 4 !mong other measures !d)unct 5ess mar$ed
- 2 In this !d)unct 5ess mar$ed
23 2 In one year, or five years !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed
2- 2 In the 23th
century !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$ed2- 9 In this century !d)unct "time# 5ess mar$edTable "0# analysis of mar$ed themes
..2 )esults of the analysis of mar4ed themes
Total num*er of clauses -29
Total num*er of mar4ed
themes
- "ercentage -0.44 E
Table "># mar$ed themes analysis results
Type of mar4ed theme Fre+uency "ercentageTime ad)uncts -2 out of - >9.-0 E
6lace and other types of
ad)uncts
? out of - 9>./4 E
Table "?# detailed mar$ed themes analysis results
Based on the results presented in tables "># and "?#, the total number of mar$ed
themes used is - out of -29 clauses. !ll of the - mar$ed themes are less mar$ed: none of
them is highly mar$ed. The most frequently used type of least mar$ed theme is time ad)unct
"-2 out of -S >9.-0 E#. 6lace and other types of ad)uncts are used ? times out of - "9>./4
E#, which ma$es them the second most frequently used type of mar$ed themes.
.7 Implications and ,ommentary
.7.1 Textual Metafunction- Mar4ed Themes
!ccording to the previous analysis, mar$ed themes are very few in the speech: theyare used in - clauses out of -29, which means -0.44 E of the speech. !ll these - themes
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are less mar$ed: none of them is highly mar$ed. The most frequent type of mar$ed theme
used is time ad)unct. This may indicate that the spea$er gives importance to the time of
events and actions and, as mentioned earlier, this also underpins the material representation of
reality that the spea$er has which is mainly based on real actions. 8oreover, in many parts of
the speech, events seem to be chronologically ordered. This high frequency of time ad)unctscorresponds to the high frequency of spatio*temporal enhancing relations mentioned in the
previous discussion of logico*semantic relations. It also coincides with the analysis of
circumstances in transitivity. The result of this analysis, as shown earlier, indicates that
location is the most frequent type of circumstance in the speech as it is used in 90 clauses out
of the 3 clauses that include circumstances "9/.4> E#.
7. ,onclusion
The analysis of the speeches sheds the light on insightful similarities and differences in the way Bush
and Obama represent reality to others based on their ideology*based intentionality.
The quantitative analysis of the ideational metafunction reflects best those similarities and
differences. 'irst, material processes are the most frequently used type of process in both speeches.
owever, Bush uses material processes more extensively compared to Obama. 8aterial processes
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ma$e up "0/.09E# of Bush;s speech, while they ma$e up "43./ E# of Obama+s speech. The use of
material process, though similar in terms of frequency, highlights significant differences in
terms of their function. This is further reflected in the frequency of other processes. It might
be feasible to say that Obama represents a more balanced version of reality, a version that
incorporates actions along with mental perception ta$ing into account the identity and theemotional involvement of the audience. 8ental and relational processes are almost equally
used, mental processes ma$e up "20.9E# and relational processes ma$e up "29.E#of the
speech. There is no noticeable discrepancy. This further emphasi%es the equally varied
version of representation Obama is after. On the other hand, in Bush+s speech, there is a great
discrepancy between the frequency of the use of other types of processes that come after
material processes. The second most frequent type of process is the relational, ma$ing up
"29.0?E#, and the third is mental processes with "/.4E#. This shows that Bush+s
representation of reality is much more material than Obama+s. This raises another interesting
point, Bush tends to merely recount the actions ta$en or to be ta$en as if he is informing the
audience who are already convinced of his argument. On the contrary, Obama uses other
types of processes not only to represent actions but also to establish himself as a wise
opposition figure who $nows well how to influence the audience. It becomes clear that while
Bush merely informs, Obama attempts to persuade. owever in both speeches, the spea$ers
similarly represent the other negatively, and the self positively as reflected in all the
transitivity patterns.
&econd, the analysis of circumstance contributes in highlighting some similarities and
differences. 'or example, the most frequently used type of circumstance in Obama+s speech is
Cause "43.E#. 5ocation is the most frequently used type of circumstance "9/.4>E# in Bush+s
speech. This underlines the different intentions they both have. Obama is $een to give reasons
and purposes for his statements or proposed reform measures for the sa$e of persuading his
audience , while Bush is $een to give the particular details of actions concerning their time
and place, merely informing the audience of such actions and stressing his powerful position.
Third, logico*semantic relations constitute a ma)or difference in terms of both
frequency and function. Bush uses more logico*semantic relations that connect ad)acent
clauses. Obama rather uses discourse mar$ers to enhance the continuity of the text and to
signal shifts of the discourse. Bush uses enhancing and extension relations almost equally,
whereas extension is heavily used in Obama+s speech. <laboration relations are not used at allin both speeches. !s for Bush, he does not elaborate or give reasons for his actions in order
to emphasi%e his already powerful position as well as his representation of the self.
'ourth, the way Obama and Bush weaves the text is considerably different. Obama
reflects his ideological stance in the mar$ed thematic choices he employs. e uses varying
degrees of mar$ed themes spanning the whole scale of mar$edness. e ma$es use of
thematic equatives, predicated themes along with fronting of ad)uncts. These choices reflect
the sense of emphasis and contrast he wishes to convey all through the speech. In contrast,
Bush does not use mar$ed themes that frequently. 8oreover, none of those mar$ed themes is
highly mar$ed: most of them are time ad)uncts. This conforms to his use of circumstancediscussed above: it also highlights the sense of the material version of reality he represents
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http-==>>>.npr.org=templates=story=story.php?storyId@555175
accessed on ->1--123-4
2* (eorge Bush+s "2339# +7ar ltimatum &peech+
@etrieved from httpMwww.theguardian.comworld2339mar-/usa.iraq on ---223-4 at
>M34 pm
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