Comparative Politics and Governmentebooks.lpude.in/arts/ba/year_2/DPOL202_COMPARATIVE...Constitutional Structure - Judiciary: US Supreme Court and Judicial Review, Judicial system

Comparative�Politics�and�GovernmentDPOL202

rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj ljdkjCOMPARATIVE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

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forLovely Professional University

Phagwara

ikB~;Øe (SYLLABUS)

rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj ljdkj

(Comparative Politics and Government)

mís';% 1- fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks rqyukRed iz'kklu rFkk jktuhfr osQ vo/kj.kkRed vk/kjksa dks le>us ;ksX; cukukA

2- fo|kfFkZ;ksaa dks fo'o esa fofHkUu izdkj dh jktuhfrd iz.kkfy;ksa osQ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k djus ;ksX; cukukA

3- fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks Hkkjrh; jktuhfrd iz.kkyh dk fo'o dh fofHkUu jktuhfrd iz.kkfy;ksa ls rqyuk djus esa lgk;rk djukA

Objectives:

1. To make the students understand the conceptual bases of the comparative government and politics.

2. To enable the students to do a comparative analysis of the different kinds of political system in the world.

3. To help the students to make a comparison of Indian Political System with the different political systems of theworld.

Sr. No. Topics

1. Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics: Definitions, development of comparative

politics, comparative politics and comparative government, comparative method and

comparative politics, traditional approach to the study of comparative politics

2. Constitutions and Constitutionalism: Constitution- Meaning, Process of growth, kinds of

constitution, necessity of a good constitution; Constitutionalism- Meaning, development of

Constitutionalism, Liberal and Marxist notions.

3. Political Culture and Political Socialisation: Political Culture- meaning, mapping the three

levels of political culture; Political socialisation- meaning, agents of political socialisation,

trends in contemporary political cultures.

4. Socio - Economic bases and Salient Features of the Constitutions: Constitutions of UK,

USA, Russia, France, China and Switzerland; Amendment Process in the Constitution of USA

and Switzerland, Federal System of the USA and Switzerland.

5. Constitutional Structure - Executive: British King and Prime Minister, the President of the

USA, France, Russia, China and Plural Executive of Switzerland.

6. Constitutional Structure - Legislature: Composition and Powers of the British Parliament,

US Congress, Swiss Federal Assembly, Russian and French Parliament and National People’s

Congress of China.

7. Constitutional Structure - Judiciary: US Supreme Court and Judicial Review, Judicial system

of UK Russia, France and Federal Judiciary of Switzerland.

8. Political Parties and Party systems: Party system-Meaning of a political party, functions of

political parties, kinds of party system; Pressure groups- Meaning of a pressure group,

difference between political parties and pressure groups, role of pressure group

9. Politics of Representation and Participation: Political Parties in the USA, U.K. Russia and

France, Role of Communist Party in China, Interests Groups in the USA, UK, Russia and

France.

10. Globalization: Globalisation and Comparative Politics, Trans-national state, Responses from

developed and developing societies.

fo"k;&lwph

bdkbZ (Units) (CONTENTS) i`"B la[;k (Page No.)

1. rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr vkSj fo"k; {ks=k (Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics) 1

2. rqyukRed i¼fr vkSj jktuhfr (Comparative Method and Politics) 37

3. lafo/ku vkSj lafo/kuokn (Constitution and Constitutionalism) 51

4. jktuhfrd laLd`fr (Political Culture) 75

5. jktuhfrd lkekthdj.k (Political Socialisation) 95

6. lkekftd&vkfFkZd vkèkkj vkSj lafoèkku osQ eq[; y{k.k (Socio-Economic Bases and Salient Featuresof the Constituion) 108

7. laoS/kfud lajpukμdk;Zikfydk (Constitutional Structure — Executive) 144

8. laoS/kfud lajpuk&O;oLFkkfidk (Constitutional Structure — Legislature) 178

9. laoS/kfud lajpukμU;k;ikfydk (Constitutional Structure — Judiciary) 214

10. nyh; O;oLFkk (Party System) 243

11. ncko lewg (Pressure Groups) 266

12. çfrfuf/Ro dh jktuhfr vkSj lgHkkfxrk (Politics of Representation and Participation) 277

13. jktuhfrd ny (Political Parties) 291

14. Hkw&e.Myhdj.k (Globalization) 326

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bdkbZμ1% rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr vkSj fo"k; {ks=k

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1


(Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics)

vuqØef.kdk (Contents)

mís'; (Objectives)

izLrkouk (Introduction)

1-1 rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj ljdkj% vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk] çd`fr vkSj foLrkj {ks=k (Comparative Politics

and Government : Meaning, Definition, Nature and Scope)

1-2 rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fodkl (Development of Comparative Politics)

1-3 jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk (The Meaning and Definition of Political

Development)

1-4 lkjka'k (Summary)

1-5 'kCndks'k (Keywords)

1-6 vH;kl&ç'u (Review Questions)

1-7 lanHkZ iqLrosQa (Further Readings)

mís'; (Objectives)

bl bdkbZ osQ vè;;u osQ i'pkr~ fo|kFkhZ ;ksX; gksaxsμ

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ifjHkk"kk] vFkZ] foLrkj {ks=k vkSj fodkl dk foospu djus esaA


vkèkqfud jktuhfrd oSKkfudksa (political scientists) dk ;g nkok gS fd mUgksaus jktuhfrd çfØ;k osQ fl¼kUr oçfr:i (model) fuekZ.k dh vksj çFke pj.k osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k (Political analysis) dh uohuvoèkkj.kkvksa (concepts) osQ lq>ko çLrqr fd;s gSaA budh ekU;rk gS fd jkT; dh voèkkj.kk* fo'ys"k.k osQ midj.k(tool of analysis) osQ :i esa] mu jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh rqyuk o mi;ksxh vè;;u djus esa fo'ks"k lgk;dugha] ftuesa vkdkj] laxBu] laLFkkvksa o laLd`fr dh vkèkkjHkwr fHkÂrk,a gksaA blfy;s jktuhfr&foKku esa 'krkfCn;ksals çpfyr jkT;] ljdkj] laLFkk] 'kfÙkQ;ksa o tuer dh voèkkj.kkvksa osQ LFkku ij u;h voèkkj.kkvksa dk çpyuo ç;ksx vfuok;Z ekuk tkus yxk ftlls jktuhfrd fØ;k dh xgjkb;ksa o okLrfodrkvksa esa >kadk tk losQ vkSjmlosQ lEcUèk esa rqyukRed vkèkkj ij dksbZ lkekU;hdj.k (generalization) lEHko gksA blfy, vkèkqfudjktuhfr&'kkfLË;ksa }kjk jktuhfrd vè;;u esa] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk (political system)] Hkwfedk (roles)]jktuhfrd laLd`fr (political culture) bR;kfn ubZ voèkkj.kkvksa dk ç;ksx fd;k tkus yxkA bu u;h voèkkj.kkvksaesa Hkh vkèkkjHkwr voèkkj.kk (basic concept) ^jktuhfrd O;oLFkk* dks ekuk tkus yxk D;ksafd] vU; lHkhvoèkkj.kk,a blh ls lEc¼ fn[kkbZZ nhaA bl jktuhfrd O;oLFkk* ls lEcfUèkr jktuhfrd çfØ;k osQ fofHkUu Lrjksaij rqyukRed vè;;u osQ vkèkkj ij] jktuhfrd O;ogkj lEcUèkh fl¼kUr fuekZ.k osQ y{; ls ;qDr 'kkLË ghrqyukRed jktuhfr dgk tkrk gSA

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2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1-1 rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj ljdkj% vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk] çd`fr vkSj foLrkj {ks=k(Comparative Politics and Government : Meaning, Definition, Natureand Scope)

rqyukRed jkuthfr osQ vFkZ dk foLr`r foospu djus ls igys bldk ^rqyukRed ljdkj* (comparative

government) ls vUrj le> ysuk vko';d gSA lkekU;r;k] rqyukRed jktuhfr dks ^rqyukRed 'kklu* ;k^rqyukRed ljdkj* dk i;kZ; le> fy;k tkrk gSA nksuksa dk gh lEcUèk jktuhfr* ls gksus osQ dkj.k budk ,dnwljs osQ fy, vny&cny dj ç;ksx djuk dqN LokHkkfod gh gSA ijUrq jktuhfr&foKku esa budk lqfuf'pr vFkZfd;k tkrk gSA thñ osQñ jkWcV~lZ us rqyukRed ljdkj o rqyukRed jktuhfr dks vyx&vyx ekuk gSA mUgksausrqyukRed ljdkj dh ifjHkk"kk bl çdkj nh gSA

¶rqyukRed ljdkj] jkT;ksa] mudh laLFkkvksa o ljdkjksa osQ dk;ks± dk vè;;u gS ftlesa 'kk;n jkT; fØ;k lsvR;fèkd fudV dk lEcUèk j[kus okys iwjd lewgksaμjktuhfrd ny o ncko lewgksa] dk Hkh vè;;u lfEefyr gSA¸

thu Cyks.Msy us Hkh rqyukRed ljdkj dh ifjHkk"kk djrs gq, fy[kk gSμ

¶rqyukRed ljdkj ledkyhu fo'o esa jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa osQ çfrekuksa dk vè;;u gSA¸

rqyukRed ljdkj dh mijksDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls Li"V gS fd blesa jkT; ls lEcfUèkr vkSipkfjd laLFkkvksa dk gheq[;r% rqyukRed vè;;u gksrk gSA blesa jktuhfrd O;ogkj ls lEcfUèkr lHkh çfØ;kvksa o vU; xSj&ljdkjhlaLFkkvksa dk vè;;u lfEefyr ugha fd;k tkrkA ;|fi orZeku esa jktuhfrd ny o ncko lewgksa dh gj jkT; esaegÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk osQ dkj.k budk vè;;u Hkh rqyukRed ljdkj esa lfEefyr fd;k tkus yxkA ijUrq eq[; tksj'kklu dh laLFkkvksa osQ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k ij jgrk gSA blls fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fd rqyukRed 'kklu esa lEiw.kZjktuhfrd O;ogkj dk vè;;u ugha fd;k tkrkA jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ vusd igyw o vusdksa xSj&'kkldh;laLFkk,a] ftuls ljdkjksa dk O;ogkj <yrk o cnyrk gS] rqyukRed ljdkj esa lfEefyr ugha dh tkrh gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh lEiw.kZrk (totality of political behaviour) osQvè;;u ls gSA blesa ljdkjksa o jktdh; laLFkkvksa dk rqyukRed vè;;u rks Lor% gh lfEefyr jgrk gSAD;ksafd] jktuhfrd O;ogkj] jktuhfr laLFkkvksa o eq[;r% ljdkjh laLFkkvksa osQ bnZ &fxnZ ?kwerk gSA ijUrq]blosQ vykok rqyukRed jktuhfr esa mu çHkkoksa o çfØ;kvksa dk vè;;u Hkh lfEefyr fd;k tkrk gS ftllsljdkjksa dk O;ogkj bl çdkj curk gSA th- osQ- jkWcV~lZ us rqyukRed jktuhfr dk vFkZ Li"V djrs gq,fy[kk gSμ

¶rqyukRed jktuhfr c`gr {ksË dk laosQrd gS ftlesa rqyukRed ljdkjksa o xSj&'kkldh; jktuhfrμdchyksa]lEçnk;ksa (communities) o xSj&jktdh; laxBuksa dh jktuhfrμdk Hkh vè;;u fd;k tkrk gSA¸

,MoMZ ,- ÚheSu (Edward A. Freeman) Hkh rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ foLr`r {ks=k dh ckr djrs gSaA budh ekU;rkgS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr esa osQoy ljdkjksa osQ fofHkUu :iksa dk gh rqyukRed vè;;u lfEefyr ugha gksrk oju~fofoèk jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa o muls lEc¼ jktuhfrd o xSj&jktdh; laLFkkvksa dk Hkh rqyukRed vè;;ulfEefyr gksrk gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh mijksDr O;k[;k ls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr o rqyukRed 'kklu lekukFkhZ ughagSaA rqyukRed 'kklu] jktuhfr osQ osQoy 'kklu lEcUèkh laLFkkxr igyqvksa osQ vè;;u rd lhfer gS tcfdrqyukRed jktuhfr mlls ,d dne vkxs c<+dj mu lHkh 'kfDr;ksa (forces) o çHkkoksa dk Hkh vè;;u djrh gStks jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa] jktuhfrd çfØ;k o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks çR;{k o vçR;{k :i ls fo'ks"k çdkj dkcukus osQ fy, mÙkjnk;h gSA

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rqyukRed jktuhfr] rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k o rqyukRed fofèk ls Hkh fHkUu gSA rqyukRed jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k(comparative political analysis) eq[;r% jktuhfr&foKku ls lEc¼ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k dks dgrs gSa vkSj bldkj.k ;g lqO;Dr (explicit) ;k vO;Dr (implicit) :i ls jktuhfr&foKku esa jktuhfrd Li"Vhdj.k (political

explanations) djus esa osQUæhHkwr jgrk gSA rqyukRed fofèk] lkekU; vkuqHkfod çLFkkiukvksa (propositions) dhLFkkiuk dh ekSfyd fofèk;ksa esa ls çeq[k fofèk gSA ;g osQl fofèk (case method) dh foykse gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh O;k[;k djrs gq, ÚheSu us fy[kk gS] ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr

ljdkjksa osQ fofoèk çdkjksa o fofHkUu jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k gSA¸

bl çdkj rqyukRed jktuhfr] fofHkUu 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa] jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dkrqyukRed <ax ls vè;;u o fo'ys"k.k gSA jkYiQ czscUrh us rqyukRed jktuhfr dh O;kid ifjHkk"kk dh gSA bUgksausfy[kk gSμ

¶rqyukRed jktuhfr lEiw.kZ lkekftd O;oLFkk esa mu rÙoksa dh igpku o O;k[;k gS tks jktuhfrd dk;ks± o muosQlaLFkkxr çdk'ku dks çHkkfor djrs gSaA¸

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh laf{kIr o 'kk;n lcls Li"V ifjHkk"kk ,eñ dfVZl us nh gSA muosQ vuqlkjμ

¶rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh dk;Zfofèk o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh egÙoiw.kZ fujUrjrkvksa]lekurkvksa vkSj vlekurkvksa ls gSA¸

rqyukRed jktuhfr bl çdkj jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh lekurkvksa&vlekurkvksa osQ vè;;uls lEc¼ gSA blesa vFkZiw.kZ fo'ys"k.k osQ fy, vko';d O;k[;kRed ifjdYiuk,a (explantory hypothesis) gksrhgSaA dFkuksa dk ijh{k.k o vkuqHkfod rF;ksa (empirical data) osQ laoxZ o oxhZdj.k fd;s tkrs gSaA voyksdu o tgkalEHko gks ijh{k.k dj] 'kksèk çfofèk;ksa dk ç;ksx djosQ rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u] jktuhfr osQ ckjs esaKku&oèkZu djrk gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh mijksDr ifjHkk"kkvksa o O;k[;k ls Li"V gS fd ;g ,d LorU=k vuq'kklu gSA rqyukRedjktuhfr esa] ,d LorU=k vuq'kklu osQ fy, vko';d lqLi"V ,oa fuf'pr fo"k;&{ks=k gSA bldh Hkh vè;;u lEcUèkhLofodflr i¼fr;k¡ o çfofèk;k¡ gSaA bldh çd`fr o fo"k;&{ks=k osQ foospu ls ;g vkSj Hkh Li"V gks tk;sxk fdrqyukRed jktuhfr ,d LorU=k vuq'kklu (Independent discipline) gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr (The Nature of Comparative Politics)

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr dks ysdj fo}kuksa esa fopkj&foHksn gSaA eksVs rkSj ij bldh çd`fr lEcUèkh fopkjksa dksnks çeq[k èkkj.kkvksa esa foHkDr fd;k tkrk gS jktuhfr&'kkL=k osQ fo}ku o rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vxz.kh de ;kvfèkd ek=kk esa nksuksa esa ls fdlh ,d èkkj.kk osQ leFkZd fn[kkbZZZ nsrs gSaA ;g nks èkkj.kk,¡ gSaμ

(d) rqyukRed jktuhfr yEckRed rqyuk gSA (It is vertical comparative study)

([k) rqyukRed jktuhfr {kSrhth; rqyuk gSA (It is horizontal comparative study)

rqyukRed jktuhfr yEckRed rqyukRed vè;;u gS (Comparative Politics is Vertical Comparative

Study)

rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d gh ns'k esa fLFkr fofHkUu Lrjksa ij LFkkfir ljdkjksa o mudks çHkkfor djus okys jktuhfrdO;ogkjksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k o vè;;u gSA blosQ fopkjd ;g ekurs gSa fd çR;sd jkT; esa dbZ Lrjksa ij ljdkjsagksrh gSaA eksVs :i ls mUgksaus bu ljdkjksa dks nks çdkj dh crk;k gSA çFke loZO;kid ;k lkoZtfud ;k jk"Vªh; ljdkjrFkk nwljh vkaf'kd] LFkkuh; ;k O;fDrxr (private) ljdkjA

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bu fopkjdksa osQ vuqlkj rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk bl çdkj dh ,d gh ns'k esa fLFkr fofHkUu ljdkjksaμloZO;kido vkaf'kdμdh vkil esa rqyuk ls gSA bl èkkj.kk osQ fopkjd ekurs gSa fd ;|fi ,d gh ns'k esa loZO;kid ;kjk"Vªh; ljdkj rks ,d gh gksrh gS ijUrq vkaf'kd ljdkjsa vusdksa gksrh gS vkSj blfy;s buls lEcfUèkr jktuhfrdçfØ;kvksa o laLFkkvksa dh rqyuk djosQ fuf'pr fu"d"kZ fudkyuk lEHko gSA tSls vxj ,dkRed jkT; gS rks mlesa,d jk"Vªh; ljdkj gksxh vkSj dbZ LFkkuh; ljdkjsa ;k fuxe (corporation) gksaxsA vxj jkT; O;oLFkk la?kkRed gS]rks jk"Vªh;] çkUrh; o LFkkuh; ljdkjsa gksaxhA bl èkkj.kk osQ leFkZd ;g ekurs gSa fd ,d gh jkT; esa fofHkUu Lrjksadh fofoèk ljdkjksa dh rqyuk djuk yEckRed rqyuk* dgykrk gS vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr bUgha dh ikjLifjdrqyuk djus ls lEc¼ 'kkL=k gSA bl çdkj dh ekU;rk j[kus okyksa us blfy, rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ifjHkk"kk blvkèkkj ij dh gS vkSj dgk gS fd ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu ljdkjksa dh yEckRed rqyuk gSA¸(comparative politics deals the vertical comparison of various government within the same cournty.)

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh mijksDr ifjHkk"kk ugha dh tk ldrh gSA bl ifjHkk"kk dk vkèkkj gh rdZlaxr ugha yxrkAD;ksafd jk"Vªh; ljdkj ,oa vkaf'kd ljdkjksa osQ chp n`f"Vxkspj gksus okyh lekurk lrgh gSA oSls Hkh bu lekurkvksadh xgjkbZ esa tk,a rks buesa vlekurk,¡ gh vfèkd fn[kkbZZZ nsaxh vkSj Åij ls osQoy ek=kk dk vUrj fn[kkbZZZ nsus okykokLro esa ,d çdkj dk vUrj Hkh çrhr gksxkA bu lrgh lekurkvksa dk] tks ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu ljdkjksaesa fn[kkbZZZ nsrh gSa] foLr`r foospu djosQ gh buesa O;kIr vlekurkvksa dks le>k tk ldrk gS vkSj bl osQ lUnHkZesa gh ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyuk lEHko gksxk fd rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu ljdkjksa dh yEckRedrqyuk ugha gSA la{ksi esa jk"Vªh; o vkaf'kd ;k LFkkuh; ljdkjksa esa fuEufyf[kr lekurk,¡ Li"V fn[kkbZZ nsrh gSaA

(d) vkfFkZd lkèkuksa dh lekurkμ ;|fi Åij ls ns[kus ij jk"Vªh; o vkaf'kd ljdkjksa esa vkfFkZd lkèkuksa dhlekurk yxrh gS] D;ksafd vkfFkZd lkèku nksuksa gh çdkj dh ljdkjksa osQ ikl gksrs gSa] fiQj Hkh ;g vkfFkZd lkèkuksadh lekurk vius esa dksbZ rqyukRed vè;;u osQ fy, mi;ksxh ugha gks ldrhA ;g lgh gS fd nksuksa osQ gh vkfFkZdlkèkuksa dk mRFkku&iru gksrk jgrk gS vkSj muesa rqyuk dh laHkkouk,¡ Hkh fufgr fn[kkbZZ nsrh gSa ij okLro esa ,slklEHko ugha gSA ;fn jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ vkfFkZd lkèkuksa dks] Ïksr (resources) vkdkj o lEHkkoukvksa dh n`f"V lsns[ksa rks ;g cgqr O;kid fn[kkbZZZ nsrs gSa ftudk lEcUèk çR;{k ;k vçR;{k :i esa jkT; osQ gj O;fDr o LFkku lsgS tcfd vkaf'kd ljdkjksa osQ lkèku brus O;kid ugha gksrsA blosQ vykok nksuksa osQ vkfFkZd lkèkuksa esa o`f¼ dkçfØ;kRed vUrj Hkh Li"V yxrk gSA blls rqyuk esa tks lekurk yxsxh og vkèkkjHkwr ugha gksxhA D;ksafd budhdksbZ ,d&lh fo"k;&ifjfèk (common frame of reference) ugha gks ldrhA blfy, tc ,slh fofHkUu ljdkjksa dhrqyuk dh tk; rks ;g rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k fdlh lkekU;hdj.k dh lEHkkouk rd ugha ys tkrk gS vkSj nksuksa dhlekurk çdkjkRed (qualitative) ugha] ek=kkRed (quantitative) gh jg tk;sxh ftldk rqyukRed jktuhfr esafo'ks"k mi;ksx lEHko ughaaA

([k) fu;eksa ;k fofèk;ksa dh lekurkμ gj çdkj dh ljdkj esa] pkgs og jk"Vªh; gks ;k vkaf'kd gks] laxBuo lapkyu osQ fy, fu;eksa o fofèk;ksa dk ik;k tkuk vfuok;Z gSA bu fu;eksa dh lekurk osQ vkèkkj ij mudh rqyukHkh dh tk ldrh gSA ijUrq] tc jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ dkuwuksa o fu;eksa rFkk vkaf'kd ljdkj osQ fu;eksa o fofèk;ksa dkvè;;u djrs gSa rks nkuksa esa Åij ls lekurk fn[kkbZZZ nsrs gq, Hkh xgjkbZ esa tkus ij vlekurk vfèkd vkSj lekurkde fn[kkbZZZ nsxhA

jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ fu;e o dkuwu vfèkd n`<+ gksrs gSa vkSj mudk ikyu Hkh vfèkd n`<+rk ls djk;k tkrk gSA mudkvkdkj u osQoy c`gÙkjrk&;qDr gksrk gS oju~ muesa tfVyrk Hkh vfèkd gksrh gSA muosQ ihNs jk"Vªh; 'kfDr gksrh gSftlls mudk lkekU;r;k mYya?ku ugha fd;k tk ldrkA nwljh rjiQ] vkaf'kd ljdkj osQ fu;eksa esa mruh n`<+rko O;kidrk ugha gksrhA muosQ ihNs lEçHkq (sovereign) 'kfDr dk ugha gksuk mudh lqj{kk O;oLFkk gh esa deh ughaykrk oju~~ vuqikyu (obedience) esa Hkh <hyrk dk rÙo lekfo"V dj nsrk gSA vr% nksuksa gh çdkj dh ljdkjksaesa fu;eksa dh bl lekurk ;k vlekurk osQ vkèkkj ij dksbZ vFkZiw.kZ rqyuk lEHko ughaa ,slh rqyuk ls nksuksa dh

uksV



çd`fr le>us esa Hkys gh dqN lgk;rk feys ijUrq bl rqyuk ls ljdkjksa osQ ckjs esa dksbZ ,sls fl¼kUr ugha cuk;stk ldrs] tks gj ns'k o LFkku dh ,slh gh ljdkjksa osQ lEcUèkksa o fof'k"Vrkvksa osQ Li"Vhdj.k esa lgk;d gksaA

(x) 'kfDr dh lekurkμ gj çdkj dh ljdkj osQ laxBu dks cuk;s j[kus osQ fy, dqN u dqN 'kfÙkQ vfuok;Zgksrh gS vkSj blfy, gj ljdkj dh 'kfÙkQ de ;k vfèkd ek=kk esa çrhr gksrh gSA ;g 'kfDr jk"Vªh; o O;fÙkQxr;k vkaf'kd ljdkjksa esa Hkh fo|eku gksrh gSA ijUrq budh rqyuk djrs gSa rks fofnr gksrk gS fd u osQoy jk"Vªh; ljdkjksadh 'kfDr esa voihM+u (coercion) dk rÙo çeq[k :i ls ik;k tkrk gS oju~~ vfèkd LFkkf;Ro o n`<+rk;qDr Hkhgksrh gSA ;g ckr O;fDrxr ljdkjksa osQ ckjs esa lgh ugha fn[kkbZZ nsrhA

mijksÙkQ foospu ls] Åijh lekurkvksa osQ ckotwn] jk"Vªh; o vkaf'kd ljdkjksa osQ lEcUèk esa] vlekurkvksa dk ghvfèkd vkHkkl gksrk gSA blfy;s rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu&Lrjh; ljdkjksa dk rqyukRedfo'ys"k.k lEHko fn[kkbZZ nsrs gq, Hkh lekU;hdj.k (generalization) dh lEHkkouk,¡ ugha j[krkA ,d tSlhfo"k;&ifjfèk osQ vHkko osQ dkj.k blosQ fu"d"kZ çekf.kd (valid) ugha gksaxs vkSj blls tks fl¼kUr cuk;s tk;saxs mudksHkh fdlh laoxZ (category) esa j[kdj muls vU; ns'kksa dh ljdkjksa dks le>uk lEHko ugha gksxkA lkFk gh bl çdkjdh ljdkjksa dh rqyuk Hkh laLFkkvksa dh vkSipkfjdrk rd lhfer fn[kkbZZ nsrh gSA jktuhfrd O;ogkj dhokLrfodrkvksa dks le>us esa blls dksbZ lgk;rk feyrh çrhr ugha gksrhA blfy, var esa ;gh fu"d"kZ fudyrkgS] fd rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ;g èkkj.kk vc ekU; ugha vkSj bl dkj.k bl vkèkkj ij rqyukRed jktuhfr dhifjHkk"kk djuk rqyukRed jktuhfr dh lgh çd`fr dk fp=k.k ugha djrkA

rqyukRed jktuhfr {ksrhth; rqyukRed vè;;u gS (Comparative Politics is horizontal Comparative

Study)

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çdfr lEcUèkh nwljh èkkj.kk osQ vuqlkj ;g jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dk {kSrhth; rqyukRed vè;;ugSA vkèkqfud jktuhfr&'kkfL=k;ksa esa ls vfèkdka'kr% bl èkkj.kk ls lger gSa D;ksafd rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ mís';ksadh iwfrZ blh çdkj dh rqyuk ls gksrh gSA ,slh rqyuk dk egÙo Hkh jgrk gSA blls gh ,sls lkekU;hdj.k lEHkogksrs gSa ftlls gj lkekU; o fofp=k jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks le>k o fo'ysf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA blfy,rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ;g èkkj.kk bldh lgh çd`fr dk fp=k.k djrh gqbZ ekuh tk ldrh gSA

vxj rqyukRed jktuhfr jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh {kSrhth; rqyuk gS rks blesa nks lEHkkouk,¡ lfEefyr fn[kkbZZZ nsrh gSaAigyh rks ;g fd ;g rqyuk] ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu dkyksa esa fo|eku jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh vkil esa gks ldrhgS] rFkk nwljh] mu jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa esa] tks vkt lEiw.kZ fo'o esa fo|eku gSa] gks ldrh gSA rqyukRed jktuhfr dhbl èkkj.kk dh bu nksuksa gh lEHkkoukvksa dk foLr`r foospu dj bldh çd`fr dk Li"Vhdj.k djuk ljy gksxkAla{ksi esa ;g fuEu çdkj gSμ

(d) ,d ns'k dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh ,sfrgkfld rqyuk (Historical Comparison of National

Governments within a Country)μ ,d gh ns'k esa fo|eku jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh ,sfrgkfld rqyuk] rqyukRedjktuhfr esa gksuh pkfg,A bl çdkj dh rqyukvksa ls rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fopkj&f{kfrt foLr`r gksrk gSA gjjkT; dh orZeku jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh yEch ,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe gksrh gSA orZeku dh jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa]çfØ;kvksa vkSj jktuhfrd O;ogkjksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k vrhr osQ lUnHkZ esa gh O;ofLFkr <ax ls fd;k tk ldrkgSA ,d gh ns'k esa tks fofHkUu jk"Vªh; ljdkjsa gqbZ gSa] mudk rqyukRed vè;;u vko';d Hkh gSA blh vrhr osQKku osQ lUnHkZ esa orZeku jktuhfr O;ogkj dh çd`fr dks le>uk lEHko gSA blesa ;fn bfrgkl dks ,d {kSrhth;fujUrj js[k (horizontal continum) osQ :i esa j[ksa rks Hkkjr osQ lUnHkZ esa ;g rqyuk çkphu Hkkjr dh jk"Vªh;ljdkjksa] eè;dkyhu Hkkjr] fczfV'kdkyhu Hkkjr dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa rFkk vkèkqfud LorU=k Hkkjr dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksaesa dh tk ldrh gSA bls fp=k 1-1 esa Li"V fd;k x;k gSA

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,sfrgkfld fujUrj js[k

(Historical Continuum)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

vk/qfudizkphu

izkphu Hkkjr eè;dkyhu Hkkjr fczfV'k Hkkjr Lora=k Hkkjr

fp=k 1-1 ,dns'kh; jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh ,sfrgkfld rqyuk

mijksDr fp=k 1-1 ls Li"V gS fd LorU=k Hkkjr dh orZeku jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ O;ogkj dh fo'ks"krkvksa dks]vrhr dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa ls rqyuk djosQ vfèkd Li"V fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g rqyuk mijksDr fp=k esa vafdr,d o nks] ;k nks o rhu] ;k rhu o pkj dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa osQ chp dh tk ldrh gS] ;k ,d dh rhu ;k ,ddh pkj ;k nks dh pkj ij fn[kkbZZ xbZ jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa osQ chp dh tk ldrh gSA

bl çdkj dk rqyukRed vè;;u rqyukRed jktuhfr esa vfèkd mi;ksxh cu tkrk gS D;ksafd bfrgklesa tks ?kVuk,¡ gqbZ gSa] mudk Øfed fodkl o çHkko fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA bl çdkj osQ fodkl dh lkexzh bfrgkl lsmiyCèk gksrh gS vkSj fdlh dh jktuhfrd laLd`fr dk vkèkkj curh gSA bl lkexzh osQ vkèkkj ij fdlh ljdkjdk le;&fujUrj* (time-continuum) ij vadu djosQ muesa rqyuk dh tk ldrh gSA bl çdkj osQ rqyukRedvè;;u dks vxj vko';d gks rks vfèkd xgu Hkh cuk;k tk ldrk gSA uhps fp=k 1-2 o 1-3 esa bl çdkj dhrqyukvksa dks n'kkZ;k x;k gSμ

,sfrgkfld fujUrj js[kμLorU=k Hkkjr

(Historical ContinuumμIndependent India)

fp=k 1-2 LorU=k Hkkjr dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh ,sfrgkfld rqyuk

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,sfrgkfld fujUrj js[kμbfUnjk xkaèkh ;qx

(Historical ContinuumμIndira Gandhi Era)

bfUnjk xka/h ;qx19661966 1967 1969 1970 1971 1977

1977

lÙkklu (prqFkZ vke pquko) (dkaxszl foHkktu) (ikd la?k"kZ) (eè;kof/ pquko)

fp=k 1-3

jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh ;g leLrjh; rqyuk vo'; gh ,sfrgkfld lUnHkZ esa dh tk ldrh gS ijUrq blosQ fy, ;gt:jh gS fd gj dky dh jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ ckjs esa leku tkudkjh o rF; miyCèk gksaA vxj ,slk ugha gksxk rksrqyuk lEHko ugha gksxhA rqyuk osQ fy, osQoy rF; gh dkiQh ugha] oju~ bu rF;ksa osQ lqLi"V vkèkkj Hkh gksaA ;gk¡;g leL;k mRiUu gksrh gS fd D;k igys rF;ksa osQ vkèkkj fuf'pr fd;s tk;sa ;k rF; ,df=kr djosQ vkèkkj [kkststk,¡\ igys vkèkkj fuf'pr dj rF; ,df=kr djuk O;kogkfjd ugha yxrkA blls rks rF;ksa dk ladyu gh lEHkougha gksxkA tks vkadM+s vkèkkjksa dh dlkSVh ij Bhd ugha mrjsaxs mudks ,slh O;oLFkk esa ,d=k gh ugha fd;k tk ldrkgSA blfy, vkadM+s igys ladfyr djosQ ckn esa vkèkkj ns[ks tk;saA bl çdkj jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh ,sfrgkfld vkèkkjij rqyuk fofHkUu rF;ksa dks lqfLFkj vkèkkj çnku djosQ djuh pkfg, ftlls ,d&lh fo"k;&ifjfèk (common frame

of reference) esa dh x;h rqyuk] jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ ckjs esa dqN lkekU;hdj.k lEHko cuk;sA

bl çdkj] rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ,sfrgkfld lUnHkhZ jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh le&Lrjh; rqyuk dh tkrh gSA bl çdkjdh rqyuk dk viuk vyx egÙo Hkh gSA ijUrq rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ;gh dkiQh ughaA bldh bl 'kkL=k esa lhfermi;ksfxrk gh gS blls osQoy ,d jkT; dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dks fofHkÂ dkyksa esa le>us esa gh lgk;rk feyrh gSAml jk"Vª ls fHkÂ çdkj dh laLdfr] lH;rk o laxBu okys jkT; esa lapkfyr ljdkj dh çdfr o jktuhfrd O;ogkjdks le>us osQ fy, ;g i;kZIr ugha gSA blosQ vykok Hkh orZeku ljdkj vkSj vrhr dkyhu ljdkjksa esa rqyuk osQfy, vko';d leku fo"k;&ifjfèk lEHko ugha gksrhA ,slh rqyuk,¡ jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh xR;kRedrkvksa(dynamics) osQ LFkku ij osQoy laLFkkRed lrg rd gh lEHko gksrh gSA bl dkj.k rqyukRed jktuhfr esa fofHkÂjk"Vªksa esa çpfyr jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa ls lEcfUèkr jktuhfrd O;ogkjksa dh rqyuk djuk vfèkd mi;ksxh gksxkA

(2) ledkyhu fo'o esa O;kIr jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh {kSrhth; rqyuk gSA (Horizontal comparison of

national governments across national boundaries within contemporary world) μ rqyukRed jktuhfrdh çdfr lEcUèkh loZekU; èkkj.kk vkt ;gh gS fd ;g ledkyhu fo'o esa çpfyr jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dk rqyukRedvè;;u gSA thu Cyks.Msy us bldk leFkZu djrs gq, fy[kk gSμ

¶gekjs ikl rqyukRed ljdkjksa osQ vè;;u dk osQoy ,d gh n`f"Vdks.k 'ks"k cprk gS vkSj og gS ledkyhu fo'odh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa ls lEc¼ jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dk jk"Vªh; lhekvksa osQ vkj&ikj vè;;u djukA¸

okLro esa blh çdkj dh rqyuk ls u osQoy lkekU;hdj.k lEHko gS] oju~~ jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ lEcUèk esa ,slsfl¼kUrksa dk çfriknu Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gS ftuls gj ns'k dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks le>k tk losQA buls gjfofp=k jktuhfrd ?kVuk dk Li"Vhdj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA buls jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa vkSj O;oLFkkvksa dh çd`fro dk;Zfofèk dks Hkh le>k tk ldrk gSA

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rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr osQ mijksDr foospu ls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d LorU=k vuq'kklu gStks jktuhfr&foKku esa ,d egÙoiw.kZ 'kk[kk cu x;k gSA ;|fi bldk vè;;u Hkh jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa ls lEcfUèkrjktuhfr ls gS fiQj Hkh ;g jktuhfr&foKku ls bl vFkZ esa fHkUu gS fd blesa jkT; o xSj&'kkldh; jktuhfr] nksuksadk gh vè;;u lfEefyr gksrk gSA tcfd jktuhfr&foKku] xSj&'kkldh; jktuhfr ls çR;{k :i esa lEcfUèkr ughagksrkA bl çdkj] rqyukRed jktuhfr] ,d gh ns'k dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dk ,sfrgkfld lUnHkZ o jk"Vªh; lhekvksa osQvkj&ikj rqyukRed ç.k;u gh ugha gS_ ;g blosQ lkFk] jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa o jktuhfrd O;ogkj rFkk ljdkjhrU=kksa dks çHkkfor djus okyh xSj&ljdkjh O;oLFkkvksa dk Hkh rqyukRed vè;;u gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fo"k;&{ks=k (Scope of Comparative Politics)

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fo"k;&{ks=k vHkh Hkh lhekadu (demarcation) dh voLFkk esa gS blosQ fo"k;&{ks=k dhfuekZ.k&voLFkk osQ dkj.k gh th-osQ- jkcV~lZ (G.K. Roberts) us vius ,d uohu ys[k 'Comparative Politics

today' esa ;gka rd fy[kk gS fd] ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr lc dqN gS ;k og dqN Hkh ugha gSA¸ blosQ fo"k;&{ks=kesa ,d lhek osQ ckn foLrrrk bls jktuhfr&foKku osQ vuq:i cuk nsrh gS rFkk nwljh rjiQ] blosQ {ks=k dh vR;fèkdladqfpr voèkkj.kk bls LorU=k vuq'kklu (Independent discipline) dh voLFkk ls gh oafpr dj nsrh gSa blfy,blosQ fo"k;&{ks=k dh çeq[k leL;k ;g cu tkrh gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr esa D;k&D;k lfEefyr fd;k tk; vkSjD;k&D;k blosQ vè;;u ls ckgj j[kk tk;\ lkFk gh ;g ç'u Hkh vkrk gS fd jktuhfr lEcUèkh fdlh igyw dksblosQ vè;;u esa lfEefyr djus ;k ugha djus dk vkèkkj D;k gks\ fo"k;&{ks=k osQ lhekadu dh ;g leL;k bldkj.k vkSj Hkh my>h gqbZ yxrh gS fd blosQ fopkjd] vè;;u i¼fr;ksa ifjoR;ks±] fo'ys"k.k osQ mikxeksa (analytical

approaches)] fl¼kUrksa osQ çdkjksa o fo'ys"k.k dh bdkbZ ij Hkh ,der ugha gks ik jgs gSaA ;gka gsjh ,DlVhu(Harry Eckstein) dh rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fo"k;&{ks=k osQ lEcUèk esa ;g dFku m¼`r djuk bl fookn dhxEHkhjrk dk Li"Vhdj.k djus osQ fy, i;kZIr gksxkA ,DlVhu us fy[kk gSμ

¶lcls vfèkd vkèkkjHkwr ckr rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ ckjs esa ;g gS fd vkt ;g ,d ,slk fo"k; gS ftlesa vR;fèkdfookn gS D;ksafd ;g laØe.k&fLFkfr esa gSμ,d çdkj dh fo'ys"k.k 'kSyh ls nwljs çdkj dh 'kSyh esa çLFkku djjgk gSA¸

blls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ifjHkk"kk o çdfr dh rjg bldk fo"k;&{ks=k Hkh fookn dk fo"k; gSa blosQ{kss=k dks ysdj ijEijkokfn;ksa o vkèkqfud jktuhfr&'kkfL=k;ksa esa xgjk erHksn gSA thu Cyks.Msy Jean Blondel) us;g fookn nks ckrksa ls lEcfUèkr crk;k gSA igyk gS rqyukRed jktuhfr dh lhek lEcUèkh o nwljk gS ekudksao O;ogkjksa osQ ikjLifjd lEcUèkksa lEcUèkh fooknA bu nksuksa dk foLr`r foospu djosQ gh rqyukRed jktuhfr osQfo"k; {ks=k dk fuèkkZj.k dj lduk lEHko gksxkA

lhek lacaèkh fookn (Controversy over the Boundary): rqyukRed jktuhfr esa lhek lEcUèkh fookn gj vè;;uosQ nf"Vdks.k ls lEcfUèkr gSA lHkh jktuhfr 'kkL=kh bl ckr ij rks lger gSa fd rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jk"Vªh;ljdkjksa ls gS vkSj blesa Hkh osQoy ljdkjh <kapksa (governmental structures) dk gh vè;;u ugha vfirq ljdkjksaosQ dk;Zdykiksa o xSj&jktdh; laLFkkvksa osQ jktuhfrd dk;ks± dk Hkh vè;;u vko';d :i esa lfEefyr jgrk gSA ysfdumuesa fookn bl ckr dks ysdj gS fd rqyuk ls lEcfUèkr jktuhfrd dk;Zdykiksa ls D;k vFkZ le>k tk;\ vFkkZr ljdkjdh fØ;kvksa dh O;k[;k fdl <ax ls dh tk;\ bl lEcUèk esa nks nf"Vdks.k çpfyr gSaA buesa ls dkSu&lk nf"Vdks.krqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u osQ fy, viuk;k tk; rFkk dksbZ fo'ks"k nf"Vdks.k gh dks D;ksa viuk;k tk,] ;g fookndk fo"k; jgk gS\ ;g nf"Vdks.k gSμdkuwuh nf"Vdks.k o O;kogkfjd nf"Vdks.kA bu nksuksa nf"Vdks.kksa dk vFkZ Li"V djosQgh bl fookn dks le>k o bl lEcUèk esa fu"d"kZ fudkyk tk ldrk gSA la{ksi esa budk foospu bl çdkj gS

(d) dkuwuh ;k laLFkkxr n`f"Vdks.k (Legalistic or Institutional Approach)μbl n`f"Vdks.k osQ vuqlkjrqyukRed jktuhfr esa osQoy lafoèkku }kjk LFkkfir ljdkjh lajpuk dk] rFkk lafoèkku }kjk fu;r fd;s x;s

uksV



jktuhfrd O;ogkj dk rqyukRed vè;;u gh fd;k tkuk pkfg,A bl fopkj osQ leFkZdksa dh ekU;rk gS fd lafoèkku

gh ljdkj osQ <kaps dk laxBu djrk gS vkSj blh osQ }kjk gj laLFkk osQ dk;ks± dk fu;eu gksrk gSA blfy, rqyuk

jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa osQ vkèkkj] lafoèkku o buosQ }kjk fu;r dk;Zdykiksa dh gh gksuh pkfg,A muosQ vuqlkj blosQ vykok

vU; fdlh Hkh vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;ogkj dk vè;;u u osQoy vlEHko gksxk] oju~~ vO;kogkfjd Hkh gksxkA

lafoèkku }kjk fu;r dk;Z vxj dksbZ laLFkk fo'ks"k fdlh ifjfLFkfr fo'ks"k osQ dkj.k ugha djrh rks bl fofp=k O;ogkj

dk vè;;u rqyukRed jktuhfr esa mi;ksxh ugha gksxkA bl çdkj osQ fofp=k O;ogkj ls fopyu (deviation)

vLFkk;h gksrk gS blfy, rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ,sls O;ogkjksa dk vè;;u lfEefyr ugha gksuk pkfg,A bu

O;ogkjksa ls lkekU;hdj.k esa Hkh dksbZ lg;ksx ugha feyrkA blfy, dkuwuh n`f"Vdks.k osQ vuqlkj rqyukRed

jktuhfr esa osQoy mlh jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh rqyuk gksuh pkfg, tks lafoèkku esa dkuwu }kjk LFkkfir jktuhfrd

laLFkkvksa ls lEc¼ gksA

dkuwuh n`f"Vdks.k dh vkykspuk dh x;h gSA vkykspdksa dh ekU;rk gS fd bl izdkj dh rqyuk osQoy lrgh o

fn[kkoVh gksxhA ;g jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ vkSipkfjd igyw dk gh vè;;u gksus osQ dkj.k] blls jktuhfrd izfØ;kvksa

dh okLrfodrkvksa dks le>us esa vfèkd lgk;rk ugha feyrhA tSls lksfo;r :l osQ lafoèkku o lafoèkku }kjk fu;r

jktuhfrd dk;Zdykiksa dk vè;;u :l dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh lPph izdfr dk dksbZ laosQr ugha nsrkA ;gh ckr

fczVsu osQ ckjs esa dgh tk ldrh gS tgk¡ laoSèkkfud nf"V ls vkt Hkh fujaoqQ'k jktrU=k (absolute monarchy) fo|eku

gSA Hkkjr osQ mnkgj.k ls ;g vkSj Hkh Li"V gks tk;sxkA Hkkjr esa lafoèkku }kjk ,d lgdkjh la?k (co-operative

federalism) dh LFkkiuk dh x;h gSA ijUrq ,d gh jktuhfrd ny dk izHkqRo o jkT;ksa esa Hkh blh dk cgqer lEiw.kZ

la?kkRed O;oLFkk dks O;ogkj esa ,dkRed osQ leku cuk nsrk gSA mDr mnkgj.kksa ls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr

osQ lhek lEcUèkh fookn dk ;g nf"Vdks.k vè;;u o rqyuk osQ fy, fo'ks"k mi;ksxh ugha gSA

([k) O;ogkjoknh n`f"Vdks.k (Behavioural Approaches)- bl n`f"Vdks.k osQ leFkZdksa dks O;ogkjoknh

(behaviouralists) dgk tkrk gSA muosQ vuqlkj rqyukRed jktuhfr esa osQoy dkuwuh O;oLFkk dk vkSipkfjd

vè;;u o rqyuk i;kZIr ugha gSA okLro esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk fdl izdkj O;kogkfjd curh gS] rFkk jktuhfrd

laLFkkvksa dk okLrfod O;ogkj D;k gS] ;g izeq[k ckr gSA thu Cyks.Msy us rks jktuhfr osQ O;kogkfjd i{k dks

vkèkkjHkwr o ekSfyd (substantive) ekuk gSA mlosQ vuqlkj rqyukRed jktuhfr dks dkuwuh ifjfèk esa u cUèkdj

mlls ckgj fudyuk gSA O;ogkjokfn;ksa osQ vuqlkj rqyukRed jktuhfr esa jk"Vªh; laLFkkvksa o xSj&jktdh; (non-

governmental) laLFkkvksa osQ jktuhfrd O;ogkj ls lEcfUèkr lc rF; ,df=kr djosQ fofHkUu jktuhfrd

O;oLFkkvksa esa rqyuk djuh pkfg,A jkT; ljdkj o laLFkkvksa osQ dk;Z o dk;Zfofèk dk voyksdu dj mudh rqyuk

djuk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh xR;kRedrk (Dynamism) dks lgh vFkks± esa le>uk gSA

O;ogkjoknh n`f"Vdks.k dks vkSj vPNh rjg ls le>us osQ fy, bldk vFkZ tkuuk ykHknk;d gksxkA O;gkjoknh vius

vkidks fo'kq¼ oSKkfud cukus vkSj fl¼ djus esa izo`Ùk gSaA jktuhfr&foKku esa ;g vkUnksyu lekt&foKkuksa ij

izkd`frd foKkuksa osQ izHkko ifj.kke gSA ;g izkd`frd ,oa lkekftd foKkuksa osQ chp esa ,d xq.kkRed fujUrjrk dh

iwoZèkkj.kk ysdj pyrk gSA O;ogkjokfn;ksa dh ewy ekU;rk ;g gS fd lekt&foKkuksa dh voèkkj.kk,¡ ,oa fl¼kUr]

izkd`frd foKkuksa osQ leku gks ldrs gSaA jktuhfr&foKku ij izkd`frd foKkuksa o vU; lekt&foKkuksa osQ izHkko dks

gh Ô;ogkjoknh Økafr* (behavioural revolution) dgk tkrk gSA jktuhfr&foKku esa ;g ,d eksM+ gS] ftlus

jktuhfr&foKku esa] fo"k;&oLrq] vU; vuq'kkluksa ls lEc¼] i¼fr;ksa vkSj çfofèk;ksa (techniques)] ,oa ewY;ksa

bR;kfn dh n`f"V ls vkewy ifjorZu dj fn, gSaA

ghat ;qykm dh ekU;rk gS fd ^jktuhfrd O;ogkj* dk rkRi;Z osQoy çR;{k ;k vçR;{k :i ls i;Zos{k.kh;

(Observational) jktuhfrd fØ;kvksa ls gh ugha gS] vfirq O;ogkj osQ mu cksèkkRed (perceptual)]

vfHkçsj.kkRed (Motivational) rFkk vfHko`Ù;kRed (Attitudinal) ?kVdksa ls Hkh gS tks fd ekuo osQ jktuhfrd

uksV



vfHkKkuksa (Identifications)] ekaxksa vkSj vk'kkvksa rFkk mlosQ jktuhfrd fo'oklksa] ewY;ksa ,o y{;ksa dh O;oLFkkdk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA mlesa laLd`fr vkSj lkekftd O;oLFkk osQ fofHkUu Lrj Hkh lfEefyr gSaA bu lcdkvfHkeq[khdj.k (orientation) vusd dkj.kksa o vk;keksa ls lEc¼ rÙoksa ls gksrk gS] blfy, LoHkkor% jktuhfrdO;ogkj dk vè;;u vU; lekt&foKkuksa ls vyx&Fkyx ugha jg ldrk gSA la{ksi esa os lHkh O;ogkjkRed çfØ;k,¡]tks euq"; osQ jktuhfr vfHkKku] ekaxksa] vkdka{kkvksa vkSj mlosQ y{;ksa] ewY;ksa vkSj jktuhfrd fo'oklksa dh O;oLFkkvksadk fuekZ.k djrh gSa] rqyukRed jktuhfr dk vè;;u&{ks=k cu tkrh gSA

O;ogkjoknh n`f"Vdks.k dk rqyukRed jktuhfr esa egÙo vkSj Li"V djus osQ fy,] O;ogkjokfn;ksa }kjk dh xbZjktuhfr&foKku dh ifjHkk"kk dk mYys[k djuk vko';d gSA MsfoM bZLVu us jktuhfr&'kkL=k dh ifjHkk"kk djrs gq,fy[kk gSμ¶jktuhfr&'kkL=k lekt esa ewY;ksa vfèkd`r forj.k ls lEcfUèkr Kku gSA¸ gj jktuhfrd lekt esa ewY;ksadk vfèkdr forj.k* osQoy ljdkjsa gh djrh gSaA vU; O;fDr;ksa o laLFkkvksa }kjk ewY;ksa dk forj.k o çpyu vo';gksrk gS] ijUrq ;g vfèkd`r ugha gks ldrk_ D;ksafd ;g ckè;dkjh 'kfDr dk ç;ksx ugha dj ldrsA blfy, gjlekt esa 'kklu&rU=k* dk fo'ks"k egÙo gksrk gSA ljdkj gh og rU=k gS] ftlls ewY;ksa dk vfèkd`r forj.k gksrkgSA tks vko';drk iM+us ij blosQ fy, ckè; Hkh djrh gSA bl çdkj] gj jktuhfrd lekt esa gj çdkj lsjktuhfrd xfrfofèk 'kklu&rU=k* osQ bnZ&fxnZ gh pDdj yxkrh gS] vkSj blh osQ lUnHkZ esa gj jktuhfrd xfrfofèkesa bu ewY;ksa osQ forj.k dh O;oLFkk dh fofHkUu jktuhfrd lektksa osQ lUnHkZ esa rqyuk vko';d ekurs gSaA muosQ vuqlkjrqyukRed jktuhfr dk fo"k;&{ks=k ^'kklu&fØ;k* osQ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k ls lEc¼ gSA Lo;a mUgha osQ 'kCnksa esaμ

¶rqyukRed ljdkj (jktuhfr) osQ vè;;u esa] mu rjhdksa dk] ftuls lekt esa ewY;ksa dk vfèkd`r fooj.k gksrkgS] ijh{k.k fd;k tkrk gSA¸

'kklu&fØ;k ;k ewY;ksa dk vfèkd`r forj.k ;kvkoaVu nks&rjiQh fØ;k gSA igys gj 'kklu&rU=kdks fØ;k'khy cukuk gksrk gSA fiQj ;g ljdkjhrU=k] bl çsj.kk (activation) osQ dkj.k vuqfØ;kRed(responsive) curk gSA gj jktuhfrd lekt esa'kklu&rU=k ij pkjksa rjiQ ls çHkko o ncko iM+rsjgrs gSaA ;g çsj.kk rF; 'kklu rU=k dks laosnu'khycukrs gSa ftlls ;g vuqfØ;k djrk gSA bls fp=kls vkSj Hkh Li"V le>k tk ldrk gSA

gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa 'kklu&rU=k ij iM+usokys çHkkoksa o nckoksa ls ;g laosnu'khy cudj rqjUr vuqfØ;k djrk gS vkSj bl vuqfØ;k ls çR;korZu iks"k.k gksrkgS vkSj lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd çfØ;k bl pØ esa pyrh jgrh gSA blesa laLFkkvksa osQ nksuksa gh çdkjμjktuhfrd oxSj&jktdh;μegÙoiw.kZ LFkku j[krs gSa vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr esa bu nksuksa gh dk vè;;u vfuok;Z gSA Cyks.Msyus rqyukRed jktuhfr dks mu lc çHkkoksa osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ls lEc¼ ekuk gS tks 'kklu&rU=k dh laosnu'khyrkosQ ihNs jgrs gSaA muosQ vuqlkjμ

cgqr vfèkd lqfuf'prrk ls ;g O;k[;k djus osQ ctk; fd] ;g oLrq,¡* ljdkj ls lEcfUèkr gSa vkSj og ljdkjksals lEcfUèkr ugha gS] ;g ns[kuk vfèkd mi;ksxh gksxk fd 'kklu&rU=k fdu&fdu rF;ksa o ekxks± (channels) lslaosnu'khy cudj vuqfØ;kRed gksrk gSA¸

bl çdkj] rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk çeq[kr;k 'kklu&fØ;k osQ bnZ&fxnZ ?kwers jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQrqyukRed vè;;u ls gSA ijUrq 'kklu&fØ;k rhu Lrjksa ij lapkfyr gksrh gS ;k ;ksa dgsa fd ewY;ksa dk vfèkd`rvkoaVu rhu Lrjksa ij ifjpkfyr gksrk gSA blfy,] ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ifjpkyurk (operations) osQ bu Lrjksadk] ftuls ewY;ksa dk vkoaVu gksrk gS] ijh{k.k djuk egÙoiw.kZ gSA¸ ;g rhu Lrj gSaμ

^lekt*

laosnu'khyrk(Activation)

vuqfØ;k(Response)

'kklu ra=k

izfrlEHkj.k ;k

izR;korZu iks"k.k(Feed-back)

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(1) ewY;ksa o xUrO;ksa dk fu;eu (Formulation of Values and Goals)

(2) ewY;ksa dks vkRelkr djuk o fufnZ"V fu.kZ;ksa esa :ikUrj.k (Digestion of Values and their Transformation

in goal Decisions)

(3) fu.kZ;ksa dk dk;kZUo;u (Implementation of Decisions)

ewY;ksa o xUrO;ksa osQ fu;eu osQ vUrxZr ml çfØ;k dk vè;;u gksrk gS] ftlosQ }kjk lekt osQ ewY; o mís';ksa dkfuekZ.k gksrk gS vkSj tks ljdkj osQ lkeus turk dh ekaxksa osQ :i esa vkrs gSa ftUgsa bZLVu ekaxksa o leFkZuksa* (Demands

and Supports) dk uke nsrs gSa vkSj tks vke.M osQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ fuos'k (inputs) gSaA buosQ çfr turktkx`r gksrh gS vkSj 'kklu&rU=k dks fHkK cukrh gSA thu Cyks.Msy dh ekU;rk gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr esa gesa¶loZçFke ;g ns[kuk pkfg, fd ewY;ksa dk fdl çdkj fu;eu gksrk gS vkSj fdu&fdu rjhdksa ls ljdkj buls fHkKcurh gSA¸ bl çdkj O;ogkjokfn;ksa osQ vuqlkj mu ewY;ksa o mí';ksa osQ fu;eu dh çfØ;k dk rqyukRed jktuhfresa vè;;u o rqyuk dh tkuh pkfg, tks lekt esa ekaxksa osQ :i esa mHkj vkrs gSaA

ewY;ksa dks vkRelkr djus o fufnZ"V fu.kZ;ksa esa :ikUrj.k ls rkRi;Z ;g ns[kus ls gS fd fofHkUu ekaxksa o ewY;ksa dks^'kklu&rU=k* fdl çdkj xzg.k djrk gS] vkSj budks lEiw.kZ lekt ij ykxw gksus okys fu.kZ;ksa esa fdl çdkj:ikarfjr djrk gS\ ;gka ;g ns[kuk gksrk gS fd 'kklu&rU=k osQ lkeus çLrqr gksus okyh vla[; ekaxksa esa ls ;g fdldksvkRelkr djrk gS vkSj fdu ewY;ksa dks xzg.k djus ls çR;{k ;k vçR;{k :i us badkj djrk gS\

fu.kZ;ksa dk dk;kZUo;u ljdkjh fØ;k dk rhljk vkSj vafre Lrj gSA ljdkj turk osQ ftu mís';ksa o ewY;ksa dksLohdkj dj fu.kZ;ksa dk :i nsrh gS mUgsa fu;eksa ;k fofèk;ksa esa cnydj ykxw djrh gSA ;g 'kklu fØ;k] fu;e fuekZ.k]fu;e fØ;kfUofr vkSj fu;e fu.kZ; dh rhu fØ;kvksa ls lEcfUèkr gksrh gSA

O;ogkjoknh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks ,d bysDVªksfud (electronic) ;U=k osQ :i esa ns[krs gSaA 'kklu&rU=k f}&ekxhZçpkyu gSA ;g ,d ,slh e'khu gS] tks laosQr (signals) xzg.k djrh gS vkSj budk vU; laosQrksa esa :ikUrj.k djrhgSA rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk 'kklu&rU=k }kjk xzg.k fd;s x;s laosQrksa o muosQ :ikUrj.k dh çfØ;k ls gSAbl çdkj rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u&{ks=k esa] jktuhfrd lekt esa ewY;ksa o xUrO;ksa osQ fu;eu dh çfØ;kvksa]bu ewY;ksa dks 'kklu&rU=k }kjk vkRelkr djuk o fufnZ"V fu.kZ;ksa esa :ikUrj vkSj Lohd`r fu.kZ;ksa osQ dk;kZUo;uls lEc¼ çfØ;k,¡ lfEefyr dh tkrh gSA O;ogkjoknh gj ljdkj osQ dk;ks± osQ ;g rhu igyw ekurs gSa vkSj rqyukRedjktuhfr dk {ks=k bu rhuksa çfØ;kvksa ls lEcfUèkr jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k rd ekurs gSaA

O;ogkjokfn;ksa }kjk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh ladYiukRed ljyrk o 'kklu&fØ;k ls lEcfUèkr rhu çfØ;kvksa dhrqyuk rd rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ {ks=k dks lhfer j[kuk bl 'kkL=k dks LorU=k vuq'kklu dh voLFkk ls oafprj[kuk gSA blls jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ lEcUèk esa lkekU; fl¼kUrksa dk loZO;kid Lrj ij fuekZ.k ugha gksrkA vr%rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fo"k;&{ks=k] 'kklufØ;k osQ mijksDr rhu Lrjh; rqyukRed vè;;u rd lfefr djuk vkSjbl vkèkkj ij jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa osQ O;ogkj dks le>us dk ç;kl ,d lhek osQ ckn lEHko ugha gSA

ekudksa o O;ogkj osQ lEcUèkksa dk fookn (Controversy over the Relationship of Norms and Behaviour)

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fo"k;&{ks=k lEcUèkh nwljk fookn vfèkd tfVyrkvksa dk tud gSA ekud (norms) dhvfHkO;fÙkQ] dkuwu çfØ;kvksa (procedures) o fu;eksa (rules) esa gksrh gSA ijUrq jktuhfrd O;ogkj dbZ ckj budkuwuksa osQ çfrdwy gksrk gS vkSj ;gh rqyukRed vè;;u esa isphnfx;k¡ mRiUu djrk gSA vxj jktuhfrd vkpj.kekudksa osQ vuq:i jgs rks rqyuk djuk ljy gksxkA ij lkèkkj.kr;k ,slk ges'kk ugha gksrk ;k gksrk gS rks ckè;dkjh'kfDr osQ tksj ij gksrk gSA blls ;g leL;k mRiUu gksrh gS fd ;g jktuhfrd O;ogkj rqyuk esa lfEefyr djosQvxj fu"d"kZ fudkys x;s rks os fu"d"kZ Lor% gh v'kq¼ gksaxsA lkFk gh bldks rqyuk ls ckgj j[kuk jktuhfrdO;oLFkkvksa dh okLrfodrkvksa ls nwj jguk gSA blfy, rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ;g Hkh ns[kk tkuk pkfg, fd jktuhfrdO;ogkj ekudksa osQ vuqdwy gS ;k çfrdwyA vFkkZr jktuhfrd fØ;k ls lEcfUèkr O;fDr;ksa }kjk ekudksa osQ vfHkO;Dr

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dkuwuksa dk fdruk ikyu vkSj fdruk mYya?ku gksrk gS\

;gka ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd ekud o O;ogkj nksuksa gh vpy ugha jgrsA ;g vko';d ugha fd tks ekudo O;ogkj vkt gSa og vkxs vkus okys le; esa Hkh jgsaA ;g nksuksa gh xR;kRed gSaA buesa lkE; (harmony) oxfrjksèk nksuksa gh gks ldrk gSA lkekU;r;k buesa ikjLifjdrk jgrh gS vkSj nksuksa ,d nwljs dks çHkkfor djrs jgrsgSaA ekud esa ifjorZu] O;ogkj esa Hkh ifjorZu ykrk gS] vkSj Lo;a O;ogkj Hkh uohu ekud dh LFkkiuk dk dkj.kcu ldrk gSA blfy, rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ekud o O;ogkj osQ jktuhfrd igyqvksa dk vè;;u Hkh lfEefyrgksuk pkfg,A thu Cyks.Msy us Hkh fy[kk gSμ

¶tcfd vkèkkjHkwr n`f"V ls rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk ljdkj dh lajpuk ls gksuk pkfg, ij lkFk gh mldklEcUèk O;ogkj osQ LiQfVr (crystallized) çfrekuksa o vkpj.kksa (practices) ls Hkh gksuk pkfg,A D;ksafd] ljdkjdh thfor rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u&{ks=k osQ ckjs esa mijksDr fooknksa osQ foLr`r foospu ls ;g Li"V gS fdblesa u osQoy 'kklurU=kksa o laxBuksa dh rqyuk dh tkrh gS vkSj u gh ekud o O;ogkjksa osQ lEcUèkksa dk fo'ys"k.kek=k gh fd;k tkrk gS] oju~~ blosQ {ks=k esa bu nksuksa dk gh lekos'k vko';d gSA vr% fu"d"kZ :i esa ;g dgktk ldrk gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fo"k;&{ks=k esa fofHkÂ jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh 'kklu&lajpukvksa(governmental structures)] 'kklu&O;ogkj çfrekuksa (governmental behaviour patterns) o xSj&jktdh;laLFkkvksa osQ jktuhfrd O;ogkj çfrekuksa dk vè;;u lfEefyr gSA bl çdkj rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u]dkuwu&fuekZ.k] dkuwu&ç;ksx vkSj fofHkÂ jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ vaxksa ls lEcfUèkr fu.kZ;ksa vkSj jktuhfrd nyksao ncko&lewgksa tSls lafoèkkukfrfjDr vfHkdj.kksa (extra-constitutional agencies) osQ vè;;u rd gh lhfer ughajgrk] oju~~ blls vkxs Hkh c<+rk gSA buesa mu rF;ksa dk vè;;u Hkh ,d fof'k"V rjhosQ ls djuk gksrk gS tkslkekU;r;k vFkZ'kkL=k] lekt'kkL=k vkSj ekuo'kkL=k (anthropology) osQ {ks=k esa vkrs gSaA flMuh ockZ (Sydney

Verba) us rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u&{ks=k dh O;kidrk dk laosQr nsrs gq, fy[kk gSμ

¶rqyukRed jktuhfr esa Økafr dk Jhx.ks'k vusd lkglh fl¼kUrksa osQ dkj.k gqvkμbuesa dgk x;k fd osQoy o.kZuls vkxs c<+dj lS¼kfUrd nf"V ls vfèkd laxr leL;kvksa dh vksj nsf[k,] ,d ekeys ls vkxs c<+dj vusd ekeyksadh rqyuk dh vksj nsf[k,] ljdkj dh vkSipkfjd laLFkkvksa osQ vè;;u ls vkxs c<+rs gq, jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa vkSjjktuhfrd dk;ks± dh vksj nsf[k,] rFkk osQoy if'peh ;wjksih; ns'kksa dk vè;;u u djosQ ,f'k;k] vÚhdk ,oa ySfVuvejhdk osQ uoksfnr jk"Vªksa dh vksj nsf[k,A¸

bldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd jktuhfrd vuqHkoksa] laLFkkvksa] O;ogkjksa vkSj ljdkjksa dh eq[; O;oLFkkvksa dh çfØ;kvksadk O;kid :i ls vè;;u djrs le; rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ltx o lpsr rqyukvksa dk fof'k"V egÙo gSArqyukRed jktuhfr esa mu lafoèkkukfrfjDr vfHkdj.kksa (agencies) dk vè;;u Hkh lfEefyr gksrk gS ftudkvkSipkfjd ljdkjh laLFkkvksa ls çR;{k ;k vçR;{k :i esa fudV dk lEcUèk gksrk gS tSlk fd ,e- dfVZl us HkhLi"V fy[kk gS fd] ¶jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa vkSj jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh dk;Z&ç.kkyh esa egÙoiw.kZ fu;ferrkvksa]lekurkvksa vkSj vlekurkvksa ls rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk gSA¸

vUr esa rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fo"k;&{ks=k osQ lEcUèk esa fu"d"kZr% ;gh dgk tk ldrk gS fd bldk lEcUèk 'kkluç.kkfy;ksa dh fofHkUurk ,oa lekurk nksuksa ls gh gS ijUrq] lekurkvksa ls vfèkd egÙo vlekurkvksa dk gSA ,slkblfy, gS fd vkèkkjHkwr n`f"V ls rqyukRed jktuhfr esa jktuhfrd lekt vkSj 'kklu&rU=k dh ikjLifjdrk ofofoèk jktuhfrd O;ogkjksa ls lEcfUèkr çfØ;kvksa dh rqyuk dh tkrh gS] vkSj ;g çfØ;k,a fofHkUu ns'kksa esa fofHkUuçdkj dh gksrh gSA lkekftd O;oLFkk dk laLFkkxr çdk'ku fHkUu&fHkUu ns'kksa esa fHkUu&fHkUu çdkj dk gksus osQ dkj.kjktuhfrd O;ogkj o mlls lEcfUèkr çfØ;kvksa dks Hkh fHkUu&fHkUu çdkj dk cuk nsrk gSA bl fofoèkrk&fHkUurko fo"kerk;qDr jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ls rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk gSA

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1-2 rqyukRed jktuhfr dk fodkl (Development of comparative Politics)

rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fodkl osQ çeq[k pj.kksa dk foospu djus ls igys dqN fooknksa dh laf{kIr ppkZ vko';dgS D;ksafd] bu fooknksa esa nks fookn çeq[k gSaμigyk fookn gS] vfèk&fl¼kUrh; (Meta-Theoretical) o nwljk gS]iwoZ&fl¼kUrh; (Pre-Theoretical) fooknA bu fooknksa dk laf{kIr foospu bl çdkj gS

vfèk&fl¼kUrh; fookn] fl¼kUrksa osQ fl¼kUr (theory of Theories) ls lEcfUèkr gSA rqyukRed jktuhfr esa bllsrkRi;Z ml fookn ls gS ftlesa rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ dqN fo}ku] bl vkèkkjHkwr fl¼kUr ij er&foHksn gSaArqyukRed jktuhfr osQ dqN fo}ku] bl vkèkkjHkwr fl¼kUr] ftl ij bldh vè;;u i¼fr;ka o fo'ys"k.k 'kSyhvkèkkfjr gSa] dks mfpr ugha ekurs gSaA ;g u osQoy bldks pqukSrh nsrh gS] oju~~ bldk ifjR;kx djuk pkgrs gSaAvkèkqfud jktuhfr'kkfL=k;ksa dh ekU;rk gS fd bl vkèkkjHkwr fl¼kUr dks NksM+uk vko';d gSA tc rd ;gvkèkkjHkwrrk cuh jgsxh] rc rd rqyukRed jktuhfr esa uohu i¼fr;ksa o çfofèk;ksa dk ç;ksx lEHko ugha gksxkAbl çdkj] ,d rjiQ] ijEijkokfn;ksa }kjk bl fl¼kUr dh lkFkZdrk o mi;ksfxrk dh ckr dh tkrh gS] vkSj nwljhrjiQ] vkèkqfud jktuhfr'kkL=kh bUgsa u osQoy vLohdkj djrs gSa] oju~ bUgsa fujFkZd ekurs gSaA ;g fo}ku rqyukRedjktuhfr esa u;s vk;ke <wa< jgs gSa ftudh viuh i¼fr] vius n`f"Vdks.k o vkèkkj gksaA

bl çdkj] vkèkqfud jktuhfr&fo}ku udkjkRed <ax ls rks rqyukRed jktuhfr esa yEch vofèk ls çpfyr fl¼kUrksadks xyr crk jgs gSa vkSj lkdkjkRed <ax ls u;s vk;keksa osQ u;s vkèkkj] ftudh i¼fr o n`f"dks.k fHkUu gksa] çLrqrdj jgs gSaA ;g fl¼kUrksa dk fookn ekSfyd gS blls gh rqyukRed jktuhfr dk iqjkru ls vkèkqfud esa ços'k dhvM+puksa dk vkHkkl feyrk gSA ;g fookn vkt Hkh cuk gqvk gSA ,d rjiQ] jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa dh fofHkUurk,¡o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh fofp=krk,¡] rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k dks pqukSrh ns jgh gSa] vkSj ijEijkxr vè;;u n`f"Vdks.kdks gh] Kku dh orZeku lhekvksa esa loZJs"B Bgjk jgh gSa rks nwljh rjiQ] bu pqukSfr;ksa dk lkeuk djus osQ fy,ubZ voèkkj.kk,¡] ubZ vè;;u i¼fr;k¡ o uohu n`f"Vkdks.k vkSj mikxe çLrqr fd, tk jgs gSaA ;g fl¼kUrksa dkfookn gh vfèk&fl¼kUrh; fookn dgk tkrk gSA

iwoZ&fl¼kUrh; fookn ls rkRi;Z ml fLFkfr ls lEcfUèkr fookn ls gS] tks fl¼kUr ls iwoZ dh fLFkfr ls lEc¼ gSAfdlh Hkh 'kkL=k esa fl¼kUr fuekZ.k dh rhu voLFkk,¡ ;k Lrj gksrs gSaA ;g rhu Lrj gSaμifjdYiukdj.k(hypothesisation) lkekU;hdj.k o lS¼karhdj.kA iwoZ&fl¼kUrh; fookn dk lacaèk igys o nwljs Lrjksa ls gSAvkèkqfud rqyukRed jktuhfr vHkh rd ifjdYiukdj.k o lkekU;hdj.k ls vkxs ugha c<+ ikbZ gSA bu Lrjksa osQlacaèk esa Hkh vusd fookn gSaA gsjh ,DlVhu us bu fooknksa osQ dkj.kksa ij fVIi.kh djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ¶rqyukRedjktuhfr osQ ckjs esa lcls vfèkd vkèkkjHkwr ckr ;g gS fd vkt ;g ,slk vuq'kklu gS ftlesa vR;fèkd fookngS] D;ksafd ;g 'kkL=k ,d çdkj dh fo'ys"k.k 'kSyh ls nwljs çdkj dh 'kSyh esa laØe.k dh voLFkk esa gSA¸

mijksDr foospu ls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr esa fookn gh fookn gSaA bl vuq'kklu dk dksbZ ljy o lhèkkfoospu lEHko ughaA bldh orZeku voLFkk dks le>us osQ fy, gsjh ,DlVhu osQ vuqlkj rhu ckrsa djuh gksaxhAçFke rks blosQ fodkl dk ,sfrgkfld foospuk djuk gksxkA nwljs] ;g le>kuk gksxk fd ;g vuq'kklu orZekuerHksnksa dh voLFkk esa dSls vk;k\ vkSj rhljs] blosQ orZeku fopkjdksa esa O;kIr çeq[k fooknksa o mudh bl 'kkL=kls vis{kkvksa dh O;k[;k djuh gksxhA bu rhuksa ç'uksa osQ mÙkj ijLij xBcfUèkr gSa vkSj bl 'kkL=k osQ fodkl dk,sfrgkfld foospu djus ij cgqr dqN Li"V gks losQxkA blfy, rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fodkl ij n`f"Vikr djukvko';d gSA

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rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ijEijkxr èkkj.kk (The Classical Tradition of Comparative Politics)

rqyukRed jktuhfrd dk bfrgkl yxHkx mruk gh çkphu gS ftruk jktuhfrd fpUru dk bfrgkl gSA lEiw.kZfyf[kr bfrgkl gh rqyukRed jktuhfr dk bfrgkl dgk tk ldrk gSA blosQ loZçFke fpUrd o ys[kd gksus dkJs; vjLrw dks gh çkIr gSA vjLrw dh Hkwfedk rqyukRed jktuhfr dks Bksl vkèkkj nsus esa u osQoy egÙoiw.kZ ekuhtkrh gS] oju~ dbZ dkj.kksa ls ekSfyd Hkh dgh tk ldrh gSA vjLrw us ftu leL;kvksa dks rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kosQ fy, pquk o ftu i¼fr;ksa dk jktuhfrd vè;;u esa çpyu fd;k] os vkt Hkh rqyukRed jktuhfr esa çpfyrgSaA vjLrw us jktuhfr'kkL=k dks vuq'kklu osQ :i esa çèkkurk nh] vkSj bl ckr ij cy fn;k fd jktuhfr dkvè;;u bl çdkj gksuk pkfg, ftlls jktuhfr lEcUèkh Kku dk fodkl ,d 'kkL=k osQ :i esa fd;k tk losQAtc fdlh vè;;u dks 'kkL=k dk :i nsuk gksrk gS rks lcls igys mldh vè;;u i¼fr dh [kkst dh tkrhgS ftlls ;g irk yxk;k tk losQ fd og dkSu&dkSu lh i¼fr;ka gS tks mls 'kkL=k cukus esa vfèkd ls vfèkdlgk;d gksaxh\ vjLrw us loZçFke mu i¼fr;ksa dks crk;k vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr vè;;u dks 'kkL=k osQ :iesa fodflr djus dk çkjfEHkd ç;kl fd;kA

vjLrw us rqyukRed jktuhfr dks osQoy lS¼kfUrd cy gh ugha fn;k] vfirq rRdkyhu fo'o esa çpfyr 158lafoèkkuksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k djosQ jktuhfrd vè;;u dks lqfuf'pr rF;ksa ij vkèkkfjr fd;kA vkuqHkfodfo'ys"k.k dk ;g loZçFke ç;ksx FkkA vjLrw us viuh iqLrd iksfyfVDl esa jktuhfr dh vè;;u i¼fr;ksa lacaèkhç'u mBk;s vkSj vusd ç'uksa dk Lo;a gh bl iqLrd esa mÙkj Hkh fn;kA vjLrw us IysVks }kjk ç;qDr fuxeukRedi¼fr (deductive method) dks jktuhfr'kkL=k esa i;kZIr ugha ekudj vkxeukRed i¼fr (inductive method)

ij cy fn;kA i¼fr;ksa osQ çfr vjLrw dk ;g fo'ks"k yxko iksfyfVDl dks ,d i¼fr lEcUèkh iqLrd cuk nsrkgS] ftlesa loZ=k i¼fr;ksa lacaèkh ç'u mBk;s x;s gSaA vUr esa ;g dguk mi;qDr gksxk fd vjLrw rqyukRed i¼fr*osQ çorZd gksus osQ dkj.k rqyukRed jktuhfr* osQ laLFkkid Hkh FksA mUgksaus ljdkjksa osQ oxhZdj.k osQ fy, lqfuf'prvkèkkj crk, vkSj rqyukRed i¼fr dks çpfyr fd;kA blfy, vjLrw dk rqyukRed jktuhfr esa fo'ks"k LFkku oegÙo gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk çFke fpUrd vkSj ys[kd gksus dk Js; fdls çkIr gS\

eSfd;kosyh o iqu%tkxj.k dky (Machiavelli and Renaissance)

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk vkèkqfud vè;;u] iqu%tkxj.k dky osQ jktuhfrd fpUru ls vkjEHk gqvk ekuk tkrk gSAbl dky esa jkT; dks ^nSoh* (divine) ugha êkuod`r* ekuk x;k vkSj blfy, blosQ iquxZBu ;k uo&fuekZ.k dk;k ;ksa dgsa blesa lqèkkj ekxZ ç'kLr gqvkA

eSfd;kosyh iUægoha&lksygoha 'krkCnh osQ bl lkaLd`frd iqu%tkxj.k dky dk gh f'k'kq FkkA mlus jktuhfr&'kkL=kesa i¼fr lEcUèkh ç'u fiQj mBk, vkSj jktuhfrd vè;;u dks oSKkfud Lo:i çnku djus dk vçR;{k ç;klfd;kA rqyukRed jktuhfr dks rks eSfd;kosyh dh egÙoiw.kZ nsu jgh gS] D;ksafd mlosQ jktuhfr lEcUèkh lHkhfu"d"kZ fofHkÂ 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ij gh vkèkkfjr gSaA mldh iqLrd fçUl (Prince) osQvè;;u ls] rqyukRed jktuhfrd vuq'kklu dks mldh nsu dk laosQr feyrk gSA bl iqLrd esa eSfd;kosyh us;g O;Dr fd;k gS fd jktuhfr dk O;ofLFkr o rqyukRed vè;;u D;ksa vko';d gS\ mlosQ fpUru o ys[kuls ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd jkT; euq"; }kjk fufeZr laLFkk gS vkSj jktuhfr dk mís'; lkekftd vfHk;U=k.k (social

engineering) gSA

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eSfd;kosyh us crk;k fd jkT; euq"; }kjk fufeZr gS blfy, buesa fHkÂrk,a ikbZ tkrh gSaA bu fofoèk jktuhfrd

O;oLFkkvksa osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ls Js"Brj O;oLFkk dk Kku çkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA fofHkÂ çdkj ls jps x,

jkT; fofHkÂ çdkj ls dk;Z djrs gSaA buesa ls dqN vPNs rks dqN cqjs gks ldrs gSaA ;g vPNs o cqjs jkT; dk Kku

fdlh 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ls gh lEHko gSA bl çdkj eSfd;kosyh }kjk çLrkfor rqyukRed

vè;;u osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ ckjs esa çkjfEHkd lkekU;hdj.k dj lduk lEHko gSA

eSfd;kosyh osQ jktuhfrd fpUru ls ,d ckr ;g Hkh mHkjrh gS fd jktuhfr dk mís'; lkekftd vfHk;U=k.k gSA

çR;sd jk"Vª ;g pkgrk gS fd muosQ jktuhfrd dk;Zdykiksa osQ iQyLo:i Js"Bre lekt dh jpuk gksA lekt

dh ,slh jpuk osQ fy, jktuhfrK fHkÂ&fHkÂ ekxZ viukrs gSaA bl dkj.k muosQ dk;ks± osQ çfreku loksZÙke gS\ blosQ

mÙkj osQ fy, vusd ns'kksa osQ 'kkldksa osQ dk;Zdykiksa osQ çfrekuksa dk rqyukRed vè;;u vko';d gks tkrk gSA

;gh eSfd;kosyh us Hkh fd;k vkSj bl dkj.k og rqyukRed jktuhfr dk çsjd cukA

eSfd;kosyh us loksZÙke jktuhfr o lkekftd O;oLFkk osQ Kku osQ fy, fofHkÂ çdkj dh O;oLFkkvksa dh rqyuk dks

vfuok;Z ekuk gSA Lo;a mlus 'kkldksa dks ijke'kZ nsus osQ fy, fofHkÂ ns'kksa dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa o 'kkldksa osQ dk;ks±

dk vè;;u fd;k vkSj mudh ijLij rqyuk dj fu"d"kZ fudkysA ;g fu"d"kZ fçUl uked iqLrd esa 'kkld dks lq>ko

osQ :i esa O;Dr gq,A mnkgj.k osQ :i esa mlus crk;k fd 'kklu dks ^fdjk;s osQ lSfudksa* (mercernary soldiers)

ij fuHkZj ugha jguk pkfg,A bl lkekU;hdj.k dh çkekf.kdrk osQ fy, eSfd;kosyh us fofHkÂ ns'kksa osQ 'kkldksa osQ

rqyukRed vkèkkj ij gh ,df=kr fd, mnkgj.k fn,A rqyukRed jktuhfr dks ;g mudh vçR;{k nsu gSA mlus

rqyukRed jktuhfr ij dksbZ iqLrd rks ugha fy[kh] ijUrq viuh iqLrd fçUl esa fofHkUu 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ

rqyukRed vè;;u osQ vkèkkj ij fudkys x, fu"d"kZ lfEefyr djosQ] rqyukRed jktuhfr vè;;u dk egÙo Li"V

fd;kA

gsjh ,DlVhu us fçUl dk rqyukRed i¼fr dh n`f"V ls ewY;kadu djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ;g fuEu Lrj dh

iqLrd gSA blosQ fu"d"kZ Hkh lqO;ofLFkr ;k mPpdksfV osQ ugha gSa] vkSj bu ij vkèkkfjr fl¼kUr Hkh vLrO;Lr

ls gh gSa o bu fl¼kUrksa dks tks 'kkL=kh; :i fn;k gS og Hkh fod`r gh gSA ysfdu ,DlVhu ;g Lohdkj djrs

gSa fd ;fn eSfd;kosyh us bruk fod`r <ax ls rqyukRed i¼fr dk ç;ksx u fd;k gksrk rks vkt rqyukRed

jktuhfr esa ç;qDr 'kq¼ i¼fr;ksa dh [kkst ugha gks ikrhA blfy, eSfd;kosyh }kjk çLrqr i¼fr;ksa dh [kkst ugha

gks ikrha blfy, eSfd;kosyh }kjk çLrqr i¼fr;ka] rqyukRed vè;;u dh orZeku dh ifj'kq¼ 'kSfy;ksa dh

i`"BHkwfe ekuh tk ldrh gSaA bl çdkj] ;g dguk mfpr gksxk fd eSfd;kosyh dh rqyukRed jktuhfr dks

vçR;{k nsu Hkh vR;Ur egÙo dh gSA

eSfd;kosyh lekt dks lEcUèkksa dk çrhd crkdj bu lEcUèkksa dh fHkUurk dk laosQr nsrk gSA ;g lEcUèk

,d ns'k esa gh fHkÂ&fHkÂ çdkj osQ ugha gksrs] oju~ gj ns'k esa vyx&vyx çdkj osQ gksrs gSaA blls

;g ç'u lkeus vkrk gS fd fdl lekt esa lEcUèk Js"Brj gSa\ eSfd;kosyh us Js"Brj lekt O;oLFkk

dk Kku Hkh rqyukRed vè;;u ls gh lEHko ekuk gSA

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eksUVsLD;w o cqf¼okn ;qx (Montesquieu and The Enlightment): cqf¼okn osQ ;qx esa rqyukRed jktuhfr dhi¼fr;ksa dks NksM+ ftu leL;kvksa dks mBk;k x;k rFkk tks fl¼kUr çfrikfnr fd, x;s os vkèkqfud gh ugha oju~vfèkd ifj'kq¼ Hkh fn[kkbZZZ nsrs gSaA buesa eksUVsLD;w dh d`fr fn fLifjV vkiQ nh ykWt (The Spirit of the Laws)vk'p;Ztud :i esa vkèkqfud gSA

eksUVsLD;w Hkh] eSfd;kosyh dh rjg gh vius fpUru dk y{; ewyr% jktuhfrKrk rd lhfer j[krk gSA ijUrq mldkmís'; ;g crkus osQ ctk; fd ljdkjsa fdl çdkj O;ogkj djsa] ;g crkuk vfèkd Fkk fd ljdkjksa dk laxBu fdlçdkj fd;k tk,\ mlus vkxeukRed i¼fr dk ç;ksx laoSèkkfud vfHk;U=k.k (Constitutional Engineering)esa fd;kA eksUVsLD;w] lafoèkku fuekZ.k dh dyk dks u osQoy fodflr gh djuk pkgrk Fkk] oju~ mls oSKkfud vkèkkjHkh çnku djuk pkgrk FkkA mldh ekU;rk Fkh fd vxj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk] lkekftd O;oLFkk o okrkoj.k esalUrqfyr lEcUèk LFkkfir fd;k tk, rks mfpr lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k lEHko gksxkA mldk ;g Hkh dguk Fkk fdlkekftd O;oLFkk Lo;a ekuo }kjk fufeZr gSA ;g lkekftd O;oLFkk] eksUVsLD;w osQ vuqlkj] lEcUèkksa o laxBuksa dkgh çrhd gSA bu lEcUèkksa vkSj laxBuksa dh çd`fr euq";ksa }kjk cnyh tk ldrh gSA ;g lkekftd ifjorZu dks ,drduhd dgrk gS vkSj bls euq";ksa }kjk lapkfyr ekurk gSA

bu nk'kZfud fopkjksa dks iqLrd :i nsrs le; eksUVsLD;w dks rqyukRed i¼fr dk ç;ksx vfuok;Z fn[kkbZZZ fn;kArqyukRed i¼fr osQ }kjk gh og ns[k ldrk Fkk fd fofHkUu lektksa esa ls fdu lektksa osQ laxBu Js"Brj gSa\ blhosQ }kjk gh] og ns[k ldrk Fkk fd bu lEcUèkksa o laxBuksa dks euq"; us cnyus dk fdl çdkj ç;Ru fd;k gS vkSj;g ç;Ru dgk¡ rd liQy gq, gSa\ vxj liQy gq, gSa rks D;ksa vkSj ugha gq, gSa rks D;ksa ugha gq, gSa\ bu lc ç'uksaosQ mÙkjksa dh ryk'k us mls rqyukRed i¼fr dk ç;ksx djus dh voLFkk esa vfuok;Zr% yk fn;kA bl çdkjrqyukRed vè;;u esa mlosQ fopkjksa dk eq[; fcUnq rqyukRed i¼fr ij cy nsuk cu x;kA blosQ vykok HkheksUVsLD;w dh rqyukRed jktuhfr dks fo'ks"k :i ls ;g nsu jgh gSμ

(d) jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dk lajpukRed rFkk çdk;kZRed fo'ys"k.k (A structural and functionalanalysis of Political systems)μ eksUVsLD;w us ;g crk;k fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks u osQoy laxBuksa dhrqyuk ls le>k tk ldrk gS] vkSj u gh osQoy dk;ks± osQ lUnHkZ esa bUgsa le>uk lEHko gSA buesa ls fdlh ,d vkèkkjls jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh okLrfodrkvksa dks ugha le>k tk ldrkA blfy, mUgksaus crk;k fd jktuhfrdO;oLFkkvksa dks le>us osQ fy, muosQ laxBuksa o fØ;kvksa dk fo'ys"k.k djuk vko';d gSA mlus ;g Hkh crk;kfd jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dk vyx&vyx fo'ys"k.k djuk mi;ksxh ugha gksxkA ;g fo'ys"k.k rqyukRed djukgksxkA eksUVsLD;w }kjk lajpukvksa vkSj dk;ks±] nksuksa gh dks rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k esa lfEefyr djuk okLro esa jktuhfrdO;oLFkkvksa osQ vkèkqfudre mikxe] lajpukRed rFkk çdk;kZRed] dk laosQr nsuk gSA

([k) jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh çdkj.kk (Typology of Political Systems)μ eksUVsLD;w us Li"V fd;k fdjktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ laxBuksa o çfØ;kvksa dk rqyukRed vè;;u vius vki esa iw.kZ ugha gSA mlus dgk fdjktuhfrd O;oLFkk,a] rqyukRed vè;;u vius vki esa iw.kZ ugha gSA mlus dgk fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡]rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k osQ vkèkkj ij oxhZd`r dh tk;sa vkSj bl ckr dk Hkh è;ku j[kuk pkfg, fd muosQ laoxZ cuk,tk losQaA mlus fofHkUu 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k osQ lkè; dks çkIr djus osQ lkèku osQ :i esa rqyukRedi¼fr dks viuk;kA bl çdkj eksUVsLD;w }kjk rqyukRed i¼fr gj çdkj osQ jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k osQ fy, vifjgk;Zekuh xbZA

(x) jktuhfrd O;oLFkk] lekt] vFkZO;oLFkk o ifjos'k esa lEc¼rk (Linkages between polity, society,economy and ecology) μ çR;sd jkT; esa] lekt] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk] vFkZO;oLFkk vkSj ifjos'k esa vVwV lEcUèkgksrk gSA lEcUèk fHkÂ&fHkÂ çdkj dk gks ldrk gSA blfy, rqyukRed i¼fr ls gh bu lacaèkksa dh Js"Brk dk KkuçkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA eksUVsLD;w us rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fo"k;&{ks=k dk Hkh laosQr fn;k fd blesa osQoyjktuhfrd O;oLFkk gh ugha] dqN va'kksa esa lkekftd] vkfFkZd ifjos'k osQ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ij iM+us okys çHkkoksadk Hkh vè;;u lfEefyr fd;k tkuk pkfg,A

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(?k) jktuhfrd xR;kRedrk osQ ;kfU=kdh fl¼kUrksa dk çfriknu (A set of Mechanistic Theories ofPolitical Dynamics)μ eksUVsLD;w dk fopkj Fkk fd jktuhfrd xfrfofèk;ksa osQ fo"k; esa fl¼kUr fuekZ.k djrs le;çeq[k ckr ;g è;ku esa j[kuh pkfg, fd fl¼kUrksa dk vkèkkj euq";ksa dh xfrfofèk;ka ;k ekuo&fØ;k gh jgsaAjktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa dk mlus bl çdkj vè;;u djus dk lq>ko fn;k fd mlesa euq"; gh osQUæ jgsA ;g HkhrqyukRed <ax ls gksus ij gh] jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh okLrfod xR;kRedrkvksa dh rg rd igqapk tk losQxkA bllsLi"V gS fd eksUVsLD;w us rqyukRed jktuhfr dks çR;{k :i ls iksf"kr fd;k o fo'ks"kdj rqyukRed jktuhfr dksçR;{k :i ls iksf"kr fd;k o fo'ks"kdj rqyukRed i¼fr dks ifj"d`r djosQ rqyukRed jktuhfr dk ç.ksrk cukA

1-3 jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk (The Meaning and Definition ofPolitical Development)

jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ vkSj ifjHkk"kk djus ls igys gesa blosQ lEcUèk esa çpfyr mu n`f"Vdks.kksa dks le> ysukvko';d gS tks fodkl dks fo'ks"k ekxZ ij vxzlj çfØ;k osQ :i esa ysrs gSaA jktuhfrd fodkl dks ysdj ,slsnks n`f"Vdks.k gSaμ

(v) jktuhfrd fodkl dk ,d&ekxhZ n`f"Vdks.k (unilinear view) ] vkSj

(c) jktuhfrd fodkl dk cgq&ekxhZ n`f"Vdks.k (multi-linear view) A

(v) jktuhfrd fodkl ij ,d&ekxhZ n`f"Vdks.k j[kus okys fopkjd ;g ekurs gSa fd lHkh jk"Vª fodkl osQ ekxZls gksrs gq, vkxs dh vksj c<+ jgs gSaA budh bl lEcUèk esa igyh ekU;rk gS fd lHkh jkT;ksa esa jktuhfrd fodkldk osQoy ,d gh ekxZ gSA bl fopkj osQ leFkZdksa dh nwljh ekU;rk gS fd nqfu;k osQ lHkh jk"Vª fodkl osQ bl ,dekxZ ij fodkl dh fHkUu&fHkUu voLFkkvksa esa gSaA budh rhljh ekU;rk ;g gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fy,ç;Ru'khy jk"Vªksa osQ lkeus fodflr jkT;ksa dk vkn'kZ gSA bl n`f"Vdks.k osQ leFkZdksa dk vfHker gS ftuesas ls fdlh,d vkn'kZ dks fodflr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk vkn'kZ ekuk tk ldrk gSA igyk vkn'kZ ik'pkR; txr osQ jkT;ksadk] nwljk lksfo;r :l dk vkSj rhljk vkn'kZ phu dk gSA

bl nf"Vdks.k esa jktuhfrd fodkl dk ,d ekxZ vkSj ,d ekxZ osQ dkj.k fodkl dh ,d fn'kk dk gksuk gh Lohdkjfd;k x;k gSA vr% bl vkèkkj ij fdlh Hkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks vfodflr ls fodflr dh fujUrj&js[kk ijvafdr djosQ le>uk dfBu ugha gksxkA bl nf"Vdks.k osQ çfrikndksa dk dguk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ laosQrdksa(indicators) dk fu'p; djosQ jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks bl fodkl&ekxZ ij vafdr djrs gh mudh jktuhfrdlajpukvksa vkSj çfØ;kvksa dh xR;kRedrkvksa dk Kku gks tk,xkA blls jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks lqfuf'pr laoxks±esa foHkDr ;k oxhZd`r djuk vklku gks tkrk gSA bl fodkl ekxZ ij nks jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks fdlh ,dlaosQrd] y{k.k ;k ifjoR;Z osQ vkèkkj ij vafdr djosQ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k djuk Hkh vR;Ur ljy gks tkrk gSAmnkgj.k osQ fy, jktuhfrd laLd`fr osQ ykSfddhdj.k dh fo'ks"krk osQ vkèkkj ij dqN jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dksfodkl ekxZ ij fuEu çdkj ls fpf=kr djosQ mudh çd`fr dks le>k tk ldrk gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl fujUrj js[kk

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk ykSfddhdj.k

vfodflr jkT; fodflr jkT;

(HkwVku) (usiky) (ikfdLrku) (Hkkjr) (vejhdk)

fp=k 1-4 laLd`fr osQ ykSfddhdj.k osQ vkèkkj ij jkT;ksa dk fodkl vadu

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fp=k 1-4 esa geus fofHkUu jkT;ksa dk laLd`fr osQ ykSfddhdj.k osQ vkèkkj ij tks fodkl fujUrj ij vadu fd;kgS og rF;ksa ij vkèkkfjr ugha gSA bl ij erHksn gh gksaxsA D;ksafd] jkT;ksa dk ;g LFkkukadu] osQoy bl n`f"Vdks.kosQ leFkZdksa osQ vuqlkj fodkl osQ bl ,d ekxhZ fopkj dh rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kksa esa mi;ksfxrk Li"V djus osQ fy,euekus <ax ls gh fd;k x;k gSA

(c) jktuhfrd fodkl dk cgq&ekxhZ fopkj blls fHkÂrk j[krk gSA fodkl osQ nwljs nf"Vdks.k osQ leFkZd jktuhfrdfodkl dks cgqekxhZ ekurs gSa vkSj rhu nyhysa bldh iqf"V osQ fy, nsrs gSaA mudh igyh ekU;rk gS fd jktuhfrdfodkl cgq&fn'kkbZ o cgq&vk;keh (multi-directional and multi-dimensional) gSA D;ksafd] Lo;a fodkl dhvusd fn'kk,¡ gksrh gSaA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl lkekU; fodkl dh èkkjk esa lekbZ gqbZ] fdUrq] Li"V :ils fof'k"V èkkjk gSA tc lektksa dk fodkl cgq&fn'kkbZ gS rks mudk jktuhfrd fodkl Hkh cgq&fn'kkbZ gks tkrk gSAbudh nwljh ekU;rk igyh ekU;rk dk ifj.kke dgh tk ldrh gSA ;g ekU;rk jktuhfrd fodkl dks cgq&ekxhZekurh gSA bl ekU;rk osQ ihNs ;g èkkj.kk gS fd fodkl cgqekxhZ; gh gksrk gS vkSj cgq&ekxhZ gh gks ldrk gSA D;ksafd],sfrgkfld] vkfFkZd] lkekftd] lkaLd`frd vkSj jktuhfrd ifjfLFkfr;ksa ls fodkl osQ mís'; o y{; fuèkkZfjr gksrsgSa vkSj blh ls fodkl dh fn'kk dk fu:i.k gksrk gSA vr% fodkl dh rjg gh jktuhfrd fodkl Hkh cgq&ekxhZgSA bu nks ekU;rkvksa ls budh rhljh ekU;rk mHkjrh gSA blosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vkn'kZ ;k xUrO;,d&ls ugha gksrs gSaA lHkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ lkeus dksbZ ,d ;k ,d&lk fodkl&vkn'kZ ugha gksrk gSAfodflr vkSj lkE;oknh jkT;ksa esa Hkh bu vkn'kksZa dks ysdj bruh fHkUurk,¡ gSa fd mudk vkn'kZ ;k y{; viuk lduklEHko gh ugha gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ ekxZ dks ysdj bu nksuksa n`f"Vdks.kksa esa vkaf'kd lekurk gh fn[kkbZZZ nsrh gSA if'pe] lksfo;r:l ;k phu dk jktuhfrd fodkl izfreku vc Lohdkj ugha fd;k tkrk gSA fodkl'khy jkT;ksa dk jktuhfrdfodkl vxj ,d fn'kk esa gh jgk gksrk rks mudh izd`fr dks le>uk vR;Ur ljy gks tkrkA okLrfod dfBukbZ;gk¡ ;g vkrh gS fd bu ns'kksa esa fodkl dh u ,d fn'kk gS vkSj u gh fodkl dk dksbZ ,d ekxZ gSA ;gk¡ rdfd] jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu igyqvksa dks ysdj Hkh fHkUurk,¡ vkSj fofoèkrk,¡ ikbZ tkrh gSaA blfy;s jktuhfrdfodkl osQ ekxZ osQ lEcUèk esa nwljk n`f"Vdks.k vfèkd rdZlaxr o lgh yxrk gSA fdUrq bu n`f"Vdks.kksa ls jktuhfrdfodkl osQ vFkZ osQ ckjs esa osQoy bruk Li"V gks ik;k gS fd ;g cgqeq[kh vkSj vusd&ekxhZ izfØ;k gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vFkZ dks ysdj vHkh Hkh fopkjdksa esa erHksn cuk gqvk gSA blosQ vFkZ ij erHksn dk izeq[kdkj.k bldh O;k[;k dk fopkjd fo'ks"k dk n`f"Vdks.k gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] LiVZ ,elZu] fyilsV] dksyeSu vkSjdVjkbV us jktuhfrd fodkl dks vkfFkZd fodkl dh jktuhfrd iwoZ&'krZ osQ :i esa le>us dk iz;kl fd;k gSAtcfd jksLVkso tSls vFkZ'kkL=kh us bldks vkS|ksfxd lektksa dh fo'ks"k jktuhfr crk;k gSA xqUukj feMZy vkSj yjujtSls lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us jktuhfrd fodkl dks jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dk i;kZ; crk;k gSA fcaMj bldks jk"Vªh;jkT; dk izpkyd ;k la?kVd ekurk gSA fjXl us bldh O;k[;k iz'kkldh; ,oa dkuwuh fodkl osQ vkèkkj ij dhgSA Mk;p vkSj iQkYlZ us bldks tu&lapkj.k vkSj tu&lgHkkfxrk ekuk gSA vkeUM vkSj dksyeSu jktuhfrd fodkldks yksdra=k dk i;kZ; dgrs gSaA lkE;oknh vkSj rkuk'kkgh 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ leFkZd LFkkf;Ro vkSj O;ofLFkrifjorZu dks jktuhfrd fodkl dk uke nsrs gSaA oqQN fopkjd jktuhfrd fodkl dks 'kfDr ,oa laxBu dk ,d:i ekurs gSaA vkeUM] dksyeSu] Cysd] vk;ULVSM vkSj dksuZ gkstj us jktuhfrd fodkl dks lkekftd ifjorZudh cgq&fn'kk&;qDr izfØ;k osQ ,d igyw osQ :i esa foosfpr fd;k gSA

bu mnkgj.kksa ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k,¡ vkSj mlosQ fofHkUu vFkZ fopkjd osQn`f"Vdks.k fo'ks"k ij fuHkZj djrs gSaA lekt'kkL=kh vkSj vFkZ'kkL=kh osQ n`f"Vdks.kksa dh fHkUurk osQ dkj.k bu nksuksa lslEcfUèkr fopkjd jktuhfrd fodkl dh vyx&vyx <ax ls O;k[;k djrs gSaaA blls ;g fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fdjktuhfrd fodkl dk lgh vFkZ le>us ls igys bldh fofHkUu O;k[;kvksa osQ Hkzetky dk foospu djosQ ;g ns[kukgksxk fd bldk fdu&fdu vFkks± esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk jgk gSA Y;wf'k;u ikbZ dk vfHker gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl

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dh fofHkUu O;k[;k,a bldks vyx&vyx n`f"Vdks.kksa ls ns[kus vkSj le>us dh dksf'k'k dk ifj.kke gSA vr%

jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ vkSj ifjHkk"kk le>us ls igys bldh fofHkUu nf"Vdks.kksa ls dh xbZ O;k[;kvksa dks foLrkj

ls le>uk vko';d gS] ftlls blosQ ,d i{kh; ;k n`f"Vdks.k fo'ks"k ij vkèkkfjr vFkZ ls cpk tk losQA Y;wf'k;u

ikbZ us jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu vFkZ vkSj O;k[;kvksa dk mYys[k djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl

dh voèkkj.kk dh brus n`f"Vdks.kksa ls O;k[;k dh tk ldrh gS fd bu lcdh lwph cukuk gh lEHko ugha gSA Lo;a

ikbZ us jktuhfrd fodkl dh nl O;k[;kvksa dk mYys[k djrs gq, ;g crkus dk iz;kl fd;k gS fd fdl rjg ;g

lc jktuhfrd fodkl dk HkzkekRed vFkZ esa iz;ksx gSA bu O;k[;kvksa dk la{ksi esa mYys[k djosQ gh jktuhfrd

fodkl dk lgh vFkZ le>k tk ldrk gSA vr% ge bUgsa ;gk¡ la{ksi esa gh ns jgs gSaA budk foLrkj ls foospu ikbZ

us viuh iqLrd vkLisDV~l vkiQ iksfyfVdy MsosyiesUV esa fd;k gSA ikbZ osQ }kjk iz;qDr 'kh"kZdksa osQ vkèkkj

ij gh ge ;g O;k[;k,¡ dj jgs gSaA

(d) jktuhfrd fodkl vkfFkZd fodkl dh jktuhfrd iwoZ'krZ osQ :i esa (Political development as

the pre-requisite of economic development)— bl O;k[;k osQ leFkZd LiVZ ,elZu] fyilsV] dksyeSu vkSj

dVjkbV gSaA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk] vkfFkZd mUufr dh leqfpr O;oLFkk djus esa l{ke gksrh gSA vr%

jktuhfrd fodkl] jktuhfr dh ,d ,slh fLFkfr dks dgk tk, tks vkfFkZd mUufr] izxfr vkSj le`f¼ esa lgk;d

gksA bu fo}kuksa osQ vuqlkj tks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk vkfFkZd mUufr esa lgk;d ugha gksxhA ml O;oLFkk dks jktuhfrd

n`f"V ls fodflr ugha dgk tk;sxkA

jktuhfrd fodkl dh ;g O;k[;k u O;kogkfjd gS vkSj u gh rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kksa osQ fy, fdlh rjg ls mi;ksxh

gks ldrh gSA blls jktuhfrd fodkl] vkfFkZd fodkl osQ lkFk tqM+dj jg tkrk gSA bu nksuksa dks xBcfUèkr djuk

u rdZ&laxr gS vkSj u gh ;FkkFkZoknhA vr% jktuhfrd fodkl dk ;g vFkZ vkSj O;k[;k Lohdkj ugha dh tk ldrhA

([k) vkS|ksfxd lektksa dh fo'ks"k jktuhfr osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development as

the politics typical of industrial societies)— jktuhfrd fodkl dh ;g èkkj.kk Hkh vkfFkZd fodkl ls tqM+h

gqbZ gSA blesa ;g ekuk x;k gS fd vkS|ksfxd thou Hkh ,d ,sls lkekU; izdkj osQ jktuhfrd thou dks izdV

djrk gS ftldks gj lekt izkIr djuk pkgrk gSA bldk ;gh vFkZ gS fd vkS|ksfxd lekt] pkgs mudh

jktuhfrd izd`fr dSlh Hkh gks] jktuhfrd O;ogkj vkSj dk;Z&lapkyu osQ fo'ks"k ekin.M izLrqr djrs gSa tks

jktuhfrd fodkl esa lgk;d gksrs gSa vkSj lHkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ fy, fodkl osQ leqfpr y{;ksa dk

izfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA jksLVkso us vkfFkZd fodkl dks ijLij lEcfUèkr crk;k gS vkSj ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyk gS fd

vkfFkZd fodkl dk gj Lrj jktuhfrd laxBu dh lajpukRedrk osQ lkFk lke;oh lEcUèk j[krk gSA ;g O;k[;k

Hkh vkfFkZd i{k ij cy nsus okyh vkSj vkfFkZd fodkl osQ lkFk jktuhfrd fodkl dks tksM+us okyh gksus osQ dkj.k

vekU; gks tkrh gSA

(x) jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Ploticial development as political

modernisation)— jktuhfrd fodkl osQ bl igyw ij vyx 'kh"kZd osQ vUrxZr foLrkj ls fopkj fd;k tk,xk

blfy, ;gka bruk dguk gh i;kZIr gksxk fd bl :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dks

,d&lk eku fy;k tkrk gSA vxj dksbZ jktuhfrd lekt jktuhfrd n`f"V ls vkèkqfud gS vFkkZr mlesa lÙkk dh

cqf¼laxrrk] lajpukvksa dk fofHkUuhdj.k vkSj fo'ks"khdj.k rFkk tu&lgHkkfxrk gS rks og jktuhfrd fodkl dh

voLFkk ekuh tk,xhA fdUrq] jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k lekukFkhZ ugha gSA ,d jktuhfrd

O;oLFkk jktuhfrd n`f"V ls fodflr gks ldrh gS] fdUrq jktuhfrd n`f"V ls vkèkqfud Hkh gksxh ;g vko';d ugha

gSA vr% bu nksuksa dks ,d ekudj jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k djuk jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dks ladqfpr

vFkZ osQ nk;js esa ckaèkuk gSA

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(?k) jk"Vªh; jkT; osQ izpkyd osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development as the operation

of nation state)— jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,a vUrr% ,d jk"Vª osQ fuekZ.k ls gh rks lEcksfèkr gksrh gSaA vr%

jktuhfrd fodkl dk ekin.M] jk"Vªh;rk dh Hkkouk osQ fodkl vkSj ,d jk"Vªh; jkT; osQ fuekZ.k ls tksM+ fn;k

tkrk gSA blesa ;g ekuk x;k gS fd jktuhfrd thou dk laxBu vkSj jktuhfrd xfrfofèk;ksa dk lapkyu mu

ekun.Mksa osQ vuqlkj gksuk pkfg, tks ,d vkèkqfud n`f"V ls jk"Vªh; jkT; ls visf{kr gSA bl vFkZ eas jktuhfrd

fodkl] jk"Vªh; jkT; dk lekukFkhZ gksdj bldh LFkkiuk osQ lkFk :d tkuk pkfg,A ;gka ge ;g dg ldrs

gSa fd jktuhfrd fodkl dg nsuk xyr gksxkA oSls vusd fo}ku bl er dk fojksèk djrs gSa vkSj ;g ekurs

gS fd if'pe esa jk"Vªh; jkT; rks vafre Lrj rd igqap x, gSa vkSj jk"Vªh; jkT;ksa osQ :i esa mudk vUr lehi

gS fdUrq mudk jktuhfrd fodkl vHkh Øfed gSA blfy, bl er dks osQoy mu jkT;ksa esa gh lgh ekuk tk

ldrk gS tks uoksfnr gSa vkSj tgka jk"Vªokn ,d izcy cUèkudkjh 'kfDr osQ :i esa lfØ; gSA vr% jktuhfrd

fodkl dks jk"Vªh; jkT; osQ izpkyd osQ :i esa Hkh Lohdkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA

(p) iz'kkldh; vkSj fofèkd fodkl osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development as

administrative and legal development)— dqN yksx ;g ekurs gSa fd dksbZ Hkh jkT; rc rd fodflr ugha

ekuk tk ldrk tc rd mlosQ ikl lkoZtfud ekeyksa dk izHkko'kkyh iz'kklu djus dh O;oLFkk osQ :i esa

fofèklEer ukSdj'kkgh ugha gksA fdlh ns'k esa ukSdj'kkgh gh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks lfØ; cukus dk ekè;e gksrh

gSA blfy, ukSdj'kkgh dh izd`fr] vkdkj vkSj vkèkkj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ izeq[k y{k.k ekus tk ldrs gSaA

ukSdj'kkgh dh rjg gh ns'k esa loZO;kih dkuwuksa osQ ekè;e ls fofèk osQ 'kklu dh LFkkiuk dk gksuk ;k ugha gksuk

Hkh jktuhfrd fodkl osQ lkFk tksM+k tk ldrk gSA ;gh lgh gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl esa jktuhfrd lajpukvksa dk

fofHkUuhdj.k vkSj fo'ks"khdj.k gksrk gS vkSj bldks O;kogkfjd cukus osQ fy, iz'kkldh; dkfeZdksa dh vfuok;Z :i

ls vko';drk iM+rh gS ij ;g rks LosPNkpkjh 'kklu esa Hkh ns[kus dks feyrk gS fd iz'kklu pykus osQ fy, o`gÙkj

ukSdj'kkgh gks fdUrq bl vkèkkj ij budks jktuhfrd n`f"V ls fodflr ugha ekuk tk ldrk gSA vr% ;g O;k[;k

Hkh HkzekRed gh dgh tkuh pkfg,A

(N) tu&lapkj.k vkSj lgHkkfxrk osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development as mass

mobilization and participation)— jktuhfrd n`f"V ls fodflr jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa tu&lapkj.k vkSj

tu&lgHkkfxrk c<+ tkrh gSA ;g lgHkkfxrk jpukRed gh gks ;g vko';d ugha gSA tu&lapkyu vkSj

tu&lgHkkfxrk osQ udkjkRed igyw [krjukd vkSj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ LFkku ij jktuhfrd iru osQ izrhd cu

ldrs gSaA nwljh isphnxh] jktuhfrd fodkl dh bl O;k[;k ls ;g mRiUu gksrh gS fd tu&lgHkkfxrk dk ekin.M

D;k gks\ lksfo;r :l esa fuokZpuksa esa djhc&djhc 'kr&izfr'kr ernku gksrk gS rFkk if'peh teZuh esa ;g er

izfr'kr 93 rd igqap x;k Fkk vkSj vejhdk esa dqN jkT;ksa osQ Lrj osQ pqukoksa esa ;g 40 izfr'kr rd jg tkrk

gSA D;k bu izfr'krksa dks tu&lgHkkfxrk dk eki ekuk tk;A bldk fu"d"kZ ikBdksa ij gh NksM+k tkrk gSA vr%

jktuhfrd fodkl dks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa tu&lapkyu o tu&lgHkkfxrk ls tksM+dj le>uk dfBu gh gSA

(t) yksdrU=k osQ fuekZ.k osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development as the building of

democracy)— yksdrU=k osQ fuekZrk osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k djuk rdZlaxr yxrk gSA bl vFkZ

esa jktuhfrd fodkl] jktuhfrd lajpukvksa vkSj izfØ;kvksa dks izfr;ksxh] LorU=k rFkk tu&lgHkkfxrk osQ y{k.kksa

ls ;qDr djus dh izfØ;k gSA bl fopkj osQ vusd leFkZd gSa fd yksdrkfU=kd O;oLFkk dh LFkkiuk ;FkkFkZ esa

jktuhfrd fodkl gh gSA Åij ls ns[kus ij bu nksuksa dh ijLij lEcUèk&lw=krk dk vo'kksèku gksrk gS fdUrq] yksdrU=k

dk fopkj ewY;ksa vkSj fopkjèkkjkvksa ls xBcfUèkr gS tcfd] jktuhfrd fodkl dh voèkkj.kk ewY;ksa vkSj

fopkjèkkjkvksa ls mUeqDr gSA vr% bu nksuksa esa lEcUèk LFkkfir dj lduk dfBu gks tkrk gSA

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(>) LFkkf;Ro vkSj O;ofLFkr ifjorZu osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development asstability and orderly change)— jktuhfrd fodkl dks LFkkf;Ro vkSj O;ofLFkr ifjorZu dh O;oLFkk Hkhekuk tkrk gSA ftu jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa ifjorZu dh lqfuf'pr vkSj O;ofLFkr izfofèk;ka izpfyr jgh rFkk tgkavuko';d mFky&iqFky ugha gksrh gks os jktuhfrd fodkl dh voLFkk esa ekuh tkrh gSA ;gka LFkkf;Ro lkekftd]vkfFkZd] lkaLd`frd vkSj jktuhfrd lHkh igyqvksa ls lEcfUèkr yxrk gSA blh rjg bUgha {ks=kksa esa O;ofLFkr ifjorZudh O;oLFkk dks jktuhfrd fodkl dgk tk,xkA bl vFkZ esa ;g lkekU; fodkl dh O;k[;k dgh tk ldrh gS]jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k ;g ugha gks ldrhA jktuhfrd fodkl dk bu igyqvksa ls osQoy lEcaèk gh gS] ;gbu ij iw.kZr;k vkfJr ugha jgrk gSA bl vFkZ esa nks dfBukb;ka vkSj mRiUu gksrh gSaA ,d rks ;g fd O;ofLFkrifjorZu fdu fofèk;ksa }kjk fu"ikfnr ifjorZu dks dgk tk,xkA bl ij lgefr gks gh ugha ldrhA nwljh dfBukbZ;g gS fd LFkkf;Ro osQ laosQrd dkSu&dkSu ls cuk, tk,aA vr% jktuhfrd fodkl dks bl :i esa le>us dk iz;klHkh fo'ks"k lgk;d ugha gSA

(V) 'kfDr&lapkjd osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Political development as mobilization ofpower)— jktuhfrd O;oLFkk viuh iw.kZ 'kfDr dk iz;ksx fdl Lrj vFkok ek=kk esa djrh gS bl vkèkkj ij mudhfodkl voLFkk dks ekius dh ckr Hkh i;kZIr egÙo j[krh gSA fodkl okyh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kfDr osQiz;ksx dh vko';drk ugha jgrh gSA blesa ;g vk'k; Hkh lfUufgr gS fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk fodkl osQ fy, fdruh'kfDr lekt ls tqVk ikrh gSA 'kfDr tqVkuk rHkh lEHko gksrk gS tcfd ljdkj dks LokHkkfod tu&leFkZu izkIrgksrk jgsA ,slh voLFkk rHkh vk,xh tc 'kklu esa tu&lgHkkfxrk gksxhA bldks fodkl dh fLFkfr ekuk tkrk gSA;g vFkZ vUrr% jktuhfrd fodkl dk yksdrU=k osQ lkFk lEcUèk dj nsrk gS vkSj ogh isphnfx;ka mRiUu gks tkrhgSa ftudh ppkZ ge blls igys yksdrU=k osQ fodkl osQ :i esa dj vk, gSaA

(B) lkekftd ifjorZu dh cgq&fn'kk;qDr izfØ;k osQ ,d igyw osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl (Politicaldevelopment as an aspect of a multidimensional process of social change)— bl :i esajktuhfrd fodkl dks lkekftd izfØ;k osQ fofHkUu igyqvksa esa ls ,d igys ekudj O;k[;kf;r fd;k x;k gSAbl lEcUèk esa ;g rks Bhd gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl dk ifjorZu dh lkekftd izfØ;k ls ?kfu"B lEcUèk gS ijblls ;g mldk ,d igyw ugha cu tkrk gSA jktuhfrd {kerk] vkfFkZd ;k lkekftd {kerk ls vo'; izHkkforgksrh gS fdUrq] budks bldk fu.kkZ;d ugha ekuk tk ldrk gSA blfy, jktuhfrd fodkl dks lkekftd ifjorZudh cgq&fn'kk;qDr izfØ;k osQ ,d igyw osQ :i esa ugha le>k tk ldrk gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl dh bu O;k[;kvksa osQ laf{kIr foospu ls ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl dh voèkkj.kkosQ vFkZ ij vR;fèkd erHksn gSA bl o.kZu ls ;g Hkh ckr mHkjrh gS fd fofHkUu fopkjd] jktuhfrd fodkl dksvyx&vyx n`f"Vdk.kksa osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd fodkl dk fofHkUu igyqvksa ls lEcUèk gksrs gq, Hkh ;g viusvki esa iFkd vkSj lqfuf'pr y{k.kksa okyh voèkkj.kk gSA blfy, bldks fdlh O;k[;k fo'ks"k ls ckaèkuk u rks okaNuh;gS vkSj u gh bldh okLrfodrk izd`fr dks Li"V djus osQ fy, vko';d gSA vxj ;FkkFkZoknh n`f"Vdks.k ls ns[kktk, rks jktuhfrd fodkl dh ;g lHkh O;k[;k,a ,di{kh; vkSj bl dkj.k vèkwjh gSaA bu O;k[;kvksa esa fopkjdosQ n`f"Vdks.k fo'ks"k osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd fodkl dks le>kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gS tks vkaf'kd :i ls ghekuk tk ldrk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd Y;wf'k;u ikbZ us bu lc O;k[;kvksa dks ,di{kh; ;k viw.kZ ekudj vLohdkjfd;k gS vkSj Lo;a viuh O;k[;k izLrqr dh gSA

ikbZ jktuhfrd fodkl dh voèkkj.kk ij xgjkbZ ls fopkj djus okys fopkjdksa esa izeq[k vkSj vxz.kh fopkjd gSaA ikbZosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ djrs le; blosQ fuekZ.kd rÙoksa dks è;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gSA mlosQ vuqlkjge jktuhfrd fodkl dks rhu Lrjksa ij gksus okys fodklksa osQ :i esa ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSaA mlosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrdfodkl osQ fpã jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ rhu fHkUu&fHkUu Lrjksa ij ns[ks tkrs gSaA Mk- ,l- ih- oekZ us bu rhu Lrjksa dksfuEufyf[kr lanHkks± ;k igyqvksa osQ :i esa foosfpr fd;k gS& (i) lEiw.kZ tula[;k osQ lUnHkZ esa] (ii) 'kkldh; vkSjlkekU; O;oLFkkbZ fu"iknu osQ Lrj osQ lUnHkZ esa] vkSj (iii) jktuhfr osQ laxBu osQ lUnHkZ esaA

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vr% jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ ;k O;k[;k jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ bu rhu igyqvksa esa gksus okys fodklksa dkleqPp; gSA bu rhuksa :iksa esa jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k djosQ bldk vFkZ Li"V djuk lEHko gksxkA vr% la{ksiesa] bu rhuksa dk vyx&vyx foospu djuk vko';d gSA

(i) lEiw.kZ tula[;k osQ lUnHkZ esa jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k esa ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dhturk dh izd`fr esa dksbZ ekSfyd ifjorZu gq, gSa ;k ughaA vxj fdlh O;oLFkk dh turk esa vfHko`ÙkkRed oO;kogkfjd ifjorZu gks tk,a rks bl vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks jktuhfrd n`f"V ls fodflr dgk tk,xkA;g ifjorZu bl izdkj gS& (d) turk ijkèkhurk osQ Lrj ij Åij osQ vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ vkns'k izkIr djus vkSj muosQvuqlkj dk;Z djus osQ LFkku ij jktuhfrd fu.kZ; ysus dh izfØ;k dks fu:fir djus okyh vkSj muesa lgHkkxh cutk,A ([k) turk jktuhfrd izfØ;kvksa osQ izfr mnklhu ;k fuf"Ø; u jgdj muesa vfèkdkfèkd lgHkkxh cu tk,A(x) turk esa lekurk osQ fl¼kUrksa osQ izfr vfèkd laosnu'khyrk (sensitivity) vk tk, vkSj (?k) loZO;kih fu;eksadks O;kidrj Lohd`fr feyus yx tk,A jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh turk esa bl izdkj osQ y{k.kksa dk vkuk turkosQ Lrj ij jktuhfrd fodkl dk lwpd gSA bldks Y;wf'k;u ikbZ lekurk* osQ ,d 'kCn esa vfHkO;Dr djrs agSaAvFkkZr] ftl jktuhfrd lekt esa lekurk gks og jktuhfrd n`f"V ls fodkl okyk lekt ekuk tk ldrk gSA

(ii) 'kkldh; vkSj lkekU; O;oLFkkbZ fu"iknu osQ Lrj ij jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh mlvfHko¼ {kerk ls fy;k tkrk gS ftlls og lkoZtfud ekeyksa dks vkfèkdkfjd vkSj vPNh rjg ls fu"ikfnr djusyxrh gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh {kerk osQ rhu ekun.M iwjs gksus ij O;oLFkk dks fodflr dgk tk ldrk gSA ;grhu ekun.M bl izdkj gS fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk& (d) jktuhfrd ekeyksa dk mfpr izcUèk dj losQ] ([k)jktuhfrd fooknksa dks fu;af=kr j[k losQ] vkSj (x) turk dh ekaxksa dk mfpr fuiVku dj losQA jktuhfrd O;oLFkkrFkk 'kkldksa esa bu rhuksa dk;ksaZ osQ fu"iknu dh {kerk rks mls jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh {kerk dgk tkrk gSA bl rjg]jktuhfrd fodkl dh ;g O;k[;k jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh {kerk osQ lUnHkZ esa dh xbZ O;k[;k gSA

(iii) jktuhfrd laxBd osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl dks jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa lajpukRed vkSj izfØ;kRedifjorZuksa ls tksM+k tkrk gSA ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dh lajpukRed O;oLFkk jktuhfrd fodkl dk y{k.k izLrqr djrh gSAjktuhfr osQ laxBd osQ :i esa jktuhfrd fodkl okyh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa ;g rhu y{k.k vk tkrs gSa& (d)lajpukRed fofHkUuhdj.k c<+ tkrk gSA ([k) lajpukvksa esa cgqr vfèkd izdk;kZRed fo'ks"khdj.k gks tkrk gSA (x)lgHkkxh laLFkkvksa laxBuksa esa vfèkdkfèkd ,drke;h leUo; LFkkfir gks tkrk gSA bl izdkj] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQlaxBu osQ lUnHkZ esa jktuhfrd fodkl lajpukRed fofHkUuhdj.k vkSj dk;kZRed fo'ks"khdj.k dk laosQrd gSA bllslajpukvksa dh ,drk vkSj lkeatL; dks vkap ugha vkrh gSA muesa ,drk] leUo; vkSj ikjLifjdrk cuh jgrh gSA

Y;wf'k;u ikbZ osQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl dh bl f=keq[kh O;k[;k osQ vkèkkj&LrEHk lekurk] {kerk vkSjfofHkUuhdj.k gSA og mUgha jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks jktuhfrd fodkl osQ ekxZ ij vxzlj ekurk gS ftuesa turkesa lekurk dk fl¼kUr ykxw gks] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk vkSj ljdkj vkus okyh ekaxksa] fooknksa vkSj jktuhfrd ekeyksadk fu"iknu djus esa leFkZ gks vkSj buls lEcfUèkr lajpuk,a vyx&vyx vkSj fo'ks"khd`r gksrs gq, Hkh leUo;vkSj lkeatL; j[krh jgssA

jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k (Political Development and Political Modernisation)

jktuhfrd fodkl dks jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k vkSj vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ leku gh fodkl dh izfØ;k ekuus dhizo`fÙk dkiQh izpfyr jgh gSA loZizFke gf.VxVu jktuhfrd fodkl dks vkèkqfudrk ls i`Fkd izfØ;k ekuk vkSj ;gcrk;k fd nksuksa esa lacaèk gksrs gq, Hkh nksuksa i`Fkd izdkj dh izfØ;k,a gSaA mlus vkèkqfudhdj.k dks jktuhfrd fodkldk izsjd ugha crkdj jktuhfrd fodkl dks vkèkqfudhdj.k ykus okyh izfØ;kvksa vkSj lajpukvksa ls lacafèkr ekukgSA gf.VxVu osQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl ^^jktuhfrd laxBuksa vkSj izfØ;kvksa dk laLFkkdj.k gSA** bl izdkj]gf.VxVu us jktuhfrd fodkl dks laLFkkdj.k djus osQ leku ekudj ;g Li"V djus dk iz;kl fd;k fd vPNh

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rjg laLFkkd`r jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa vfèkd vuqdwyrk] tfVyrk] Lok;Ùkrk vkSj Øfedrk vk tkrh gSA tksjktuhfrd fodkl osQ laosQrd gSaA bl fopkj ls jktuhfrd fodkl] jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ leku ghfodkl&izfØ;k ugha ekuk tk ldrk gSA gf.VxVu us bldks vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ leku gh fodkl izfØ;k ugha ekuktk ldrk gSA gf.VxVu us bldks vkèkqfudhdj.k ls fHkUu fdUrq] jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k ls ?kfu"B :i lslEcfUèkr izfØ;k ekuk gSA

tkXokjkbc us jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k esa vUrj djrs gq, ;g ekuk gS fd jktuhfrdfodkl dh voèkkj.kk jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k ls vfèkd O;kid vkSj loZxzkgh gSA mlus bl lEcUèk esa fy[kkgS] ^jktuhfrd fodkl ,d izfØ;k osQ :i esa jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k rFkk jktuhfrd laLFkkdj.k dk tksM+ gSA**(Political development, as a process, is political modernisation plus political institutionalisation)

vk;UVSM us jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dh izfØ;k dks ,sfrgkfld vkSj izdk;kZRed nksuksa gh :iksa esa ns[kus dk iz;klfd;k gSA mlus izdk;kZRed n`f"V ls jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ rhu y{k.kksa dh ppkZ dh gSA ;g y{k.k gS& (d)vR;fèkd fofHkUuhdr jktuhfrd lajpukvksa dk fodkl] ([k) osQUæh; ljdkj dh xfrfofèk;ksa dk c<+rk gqvk foLrkjvkSj (x) ijEijkxr vfHktuksa (elites) dk 'kfDrghu gksukA bldk vfHker gSA fd lajpukRed fofoèkrk vkSjfofHkUuhdj.k vkSj fujarj lajpukRed ifjorZu osQ ifj.kkeLo:i osQUæ vkSj c`grj lewgksa osQ chp ikjLifjdrk vkSjvUr% fØ;k c<+ tkrh gS vkSj mHkjrh lajpukvksa dh lkeF;Z fujarj ifjorZu dk eqdkcyk djus vkSj nh?kZdkfydfodkl ykus okyh gks tkrh gSA jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dks ,sfrgkfld n`f"V ls ns[krs gq, vk;ULVSM us blosQ nkspj.kksa dh ppkZ dh gSA izFke fLFkfr esa] eè;e oxZ fu.kZ;&osQUæ esa lfEefyr dj fy;s tkrs gSa vkSj blosQ lkFk&lkFkmuosQ fy, mUur thou Lrj dh fLFkfr;ksa dh O;oLFkk gksrh gSA blosQ lkFk gh lkFk ykSfddhdj.k dh izfØ;k vkSjizkS|ksfxd fodkl Hkh gkssrk gSA nwljh n'kk esa turk dks iw.kZr;k fu.kZ; osQUæksa esa lfEefyr dj fn;k tkrk gSA

bl izdkj tkXokjkbc vkSj vk;ULVSM jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dks O;kid voèkkj.kk ugha ekurs gSaA tkXokjkbcdk dguk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl esa jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ vykok laLFkkvksa ;k lajpukvksa dk laLFkkdj.kHkh gks tkrk gSA vkeUM osQ vfHker dk mYys[k djrs gq, mlus jktuhfrd fodkl esa (1) Hkwfedk fofHkUuhdj.k]ftlesa (d) Hkwfedkvksa vkSj mi&O;oLFkkvksa dk fo'ks"khdj.k] ([k) L=kksrksa dk yphyhdj.k] (x) izdk;ks± dhcqf¼laxrrk vkSj (?k) lkèkuksa dks fufeZr djuk lfEefyr gS (2) mi&O;oLFkk Lok;Ùkrk vkSj (3) ykSfddhdj.kosQ y{k.kksa dh ckr dgh gSA blls tkXokjkbc ;g Li"V djus dk iz;Ru djrk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl esa jktuhfrdvkèkqfudhdj.k ls vfèkd o fHkUu izdkj dk fofHkUuhdj.k gksrk gSA jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k esa lÙkk dhcqf¼laxrrk] jktuhfrd lajpukvksa osQ fofHkUuhdj.k vkSj jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk gh izeq[k vk;ke ekus x;s gSa tcfdjktuhfrd fodkl esa vxj vkeUM }kjk fn;s x;s mijksDr y{k.kksa dks gh ysa rks Hkh blls c`gÙkj vkSj fHkUu izdkjdh ifjorZu izfØ;kvksa dk vFkZ&cksèku gksrk gSA Y;wf'k;u ikbZ us ftu rhu y{k.kksa dks loZizFke jktuhfrd fodklosQ fy, izfrikfnr fd;k ml vkèkkj ij Hkh jktuhfrd fodkl jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k ls O;kid voèkkj.kk cutkrh gSA bldk lEcUèk ikbZ osQ 'kCnksa esa lekurk] {kerk vkSj fofHkUuhdj.k ls gksrk gSA

mijksDr foospu ls Li"V gS fd jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k vkSj jktuhfrd fodkl esa y{k.kksa dh n`f"V ls ekSfydvUrj ugha ik;k tkrk gSA fdUrq] ckjhdh ls ns[kus ij jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k] laØe.k'khy lektksa dh jktuhfrdO;oLFkkvksa esa vkus okys lajpukRed rFkk lkaLd`frd ifjorZuksa rd gh lhfer gSA ;|fi blls jktuhfrd O;oLFkkdh mi&O;oLFkkvksa] jktuhfrd laLd`fr rFkk mudh izfØ;kvksa esa vkus okys ifjorZuksa dk cksèk Hkh gksrk gS] ijUrqblls jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh {kerk] miO;oLFkkvksa dh Lok;Ùkrk bR;kfn dk laosQr ugha feyrkA bl izdkj]jktuhfrd fodkl u fliZQ vkèkqfudhdj.k dh izfØ;k dk ifj.kke dgk tk ldrk gSA cfYd jktuhfrd fodkldks jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dk i;kZ; ekuk tk ldrk gSA ;|fi jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.kxR;kRed voèkkj.kk,a gSa vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;uksa esa budk fo'ks"k :i ls iz;ksx mi;ksxh fu"d"kks± rdigqapkus esa lgk;d gksrk gS] fiQj nksuksa esa dkiQh vUrj ik, tkrs gSaA

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dqN fo}ku] ftudk ge jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ foLr`r foospu esa mYys[k djsaxs] mijksDr fopkj ls lger

ugha gSaA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl dh voèkkj.kk lhfer vkSj LFkSfrd (static) gS D;ksafd] bldk lEcUèk

izeq[kr;k lajpukvksa osQ laLFkkdj.k ls gS tcfd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ jktuhfrd i{k dk lEcUèk izeq[kr;k lkaLd`frd

ifjorZuksa ls gSA bu fo}kuksa dh ekU;rk gS fd blls jktuhfrd fodkl dk lEcUèk vkSipkfjdrkvksa ls tqM+ tkrk

gSA tcfd] jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dk lEcUèk okLrfodrkvksa ls vfèkd gksrk gSA bl lEcUèk esa ge fo}kuksa esa

erHksn gh vfèkd ikrs gSaA tc rd lc fo}ku jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ vFkZ vkSj y{k.kksa

ij lger u gks tk,a rc rd bu nksuksa esa dkSu&lh voèkkj.kk O;kid vkSj c`gÙkj lanHkZ j[krh gS dg lduk lEHko

ugha gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] vxj Y;wf'k;u ikbZ osQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl dk vFkZ vkSj y{k.k (lekurk] {kerk

vkSj fofHkUuhdj.k) fy;s tk,a rks ;g jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ eqdkcys esa lhfer cu tkrh gSA vxj bldk

vkeUM osQ }kjk crk;k x;k vFkZ vkSj y{k.k (Hkwfedk fofHkUuhdj.k] mi&O;oLFkk Lok;Ùkrk vkSj ykSfddhdj.k)

fy, tk,a rks ;g jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k ls vfèkd loZxzkgh voèkkj.kk cu tkrh gSA blh rjg] tkXokjkbc osQ

}kjk mYysf[kr y{k.k (lkekftd lkeatL;] lgHkkfxrk] lekuq:irk] izfrfuèkkRedrk] oSèkrk vkSj iz;ksT;rk) bldks

bruh O;kid voèkkj.kk cuk nsrs gSa fd jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k bldk ijks{k :i ls ifj.kke cu tkrk gSA

fu"d"kZ esa ge ;gh dg ldrs gSa fd jktuhfrd fodkl vkSj jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k ij bruk erHksn cuk gqvk

gS fd lqfuf'pr :i ls dqN dguk dfBu gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] vk;ULVSM us jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dh izfØ;k

dks izdk;kZRed (vR;fèkd fofHkUuhd`r jktuhfrd lajpukvksa dk fodkl] osQUæ ljdkj dh xfrfofèk;ksa dk c<+rk

gqvk foLrkj vkSj ijEijkxr vfHktuksa dk 'kfDrghu gksuk vkSj blosQ ifj.kkeLo:i osQUæ vkSj o`gÙkj lewgksa osQ eè;

ikjLifjdrk vkSj vUr% fØ;k esa o`f¼ vkSj ÅèoZxkeh ;k mHkjrh lajpukvksa osQ lkFk fujUrj ifjorZu dk eqdkcyk

djus vkSj nh?kZdkfyd fodkl ykus okyh gks tkuk) rFkk ,sfrgkfld (eè;e oxZ fu.kZ; osQUæksa esa lfEefyr fd;s

x;s vkSj nwljh voLFkk esa turk dks iw.kZr;k fu.kZ; osQUæksa esa lfEefyr djuk) n`f"V ls ns[kdj bruh O;kid

voèkkj.kk cuk fn;k gS fd ;g jktuhfrd fodkl ls fdlh rjg lhfer ugha jg tkrh gSA vr% bu nksuksa osQ ckjs

esa lkis{krk okys fu"d"kZ buosQ vFkks± o y{k.kksa fo'ks"k ls tksM+dj gh fudkys tk ldrs gSaA

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj ;k voLFkk,¡ (Stages of Political Development)

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj ;k voLFkkvksa dk fopkj vFkZ'kkL=k ls fy;k x;k izrhr gksrk gSA jksLVkso us viuh iqLrd

LVstst vkWiQ bdksuksfed xzksFk esa vkfFkZd fodkl osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa osQ fopkj dk fodkl fd;k gSA blls ;g izsj.kk

feyh fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Hkh fofHkUu Lrjksa osQ ckjs esa lkspk tkus yxkA jktuhfrd fopkjd Hkh ;g ekuus yxs

fd fo'ys"k.kkRed vkuqHkkfodrk dh n`f"V ls jktuhfrd fodkl osQ lqfuf'pr ifjpkyd vkSj Lrj gks ldrs gSa tks

izfrekfur Øe vkSj Hkfo";ok.kh djus ;ksX; vuqØeksa osQ vuqlkj vo'; gh jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj gksrs gSaA vr%

jksLVkso osQ fopkjksa dk jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj&fu.kZ; ;k Lrj&vè;;u ij fuf'pr izHkko ekuk tk ldrk gSA

tkXokjkbc dk er gS fd êSa bl ckr ij tksj nsdj dgrk gwa fd O;Dr ;k vO;Dr <ax ls os lc fopkjd] tks

jktuhfrd fodkl dks izfØ;k osQ :i esa ysrs gSa] jktuhfrd fodkl dks ,sfrgkfldrk vkSj fo'ys"k.kkRedrk dh

n`f"V ls vfHkKkuuh; fuf'pr Lrjksa osQ Øe esa izLrqr djrs gSaA**

(d) gf.aVxVu osQ fopkj (The views of Huntington)& gf.aVxVu us vius ,d fucUèk îksfyfVdy

MsosyiesUV ,.M iksfyfVdy fMosQ* esa jktuhfrd iru dh ckr dgrs gq, jktuhfrd fodkl osQ voLFkkokfn;ksa ij

xEHkhj vkjksi yxk, vkSj bl foospu izfØ;k esa Lo;a us jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa dh ckr dghA mlus

rhu izeq[k ifjpkyu lsVksa dh ckr dgh gS ftudk mu jkT;ksa ls lEcUèk gS ftUgksaus liQyrkiwoZd jktuhfrd fodkl

dh fuf'pr voLFkk ;k mlls vkxs dh voLFkk rd fodkl dj fy;k gSA bl izdkj] mlus jktuhfrd fodkl osQ

rhu Lrj fo'ks"k ekus gSaA la{ksi esa ;g bl izdkj gS %

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(i) lÙkk dh cqf¼laxrrk dk Lrj] ftlesa vusdksa LFkkuh; lÙkkvksaa osQ LFkku ij ,d osQUæh; lÙkk dk fuekZ.k gks

tkrk gSA bls og lÙkk osQ osQUæhdj.k dh voLFkk dgrk gSA blls mldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl dk

;g og Lrj gS tc lÙkk osQ L=kksrksa osQ :i esa ,d gh osQUæh; lÙkk&vfHkdj.k ;k izdj.k LFkkfir gks tkrk gSA

(ii) u;s jktuhfrd dk;ks± dk fofHkUuhdj.k vkSj muosQ fy, fof'k"V lajpukvksa dk fodkl] jktuhfrd fodkl dh

izfØ;k dk nwljk Lrj gSA blesa jktuhfrd izfØ;k esa uohu jktuhfrd dk;ks± osQ fu"iknu lfEefyr gks tkrs gSaA buosQ

fu"iknu osQ fy, mi;qDr lajpukRed O;oLFkk dk fodkl gks tkrk gSA

(iii) vfHko`¼ lgHkkfxrk tks ifjljh; lkekftd lewgksa vkSj lekt osQ Hkkxksa dks èkhjs&èkhjs osQfUæ; lÙkk esa lfEefyr

djus dk Lrj gSA

gf.aVxVu dh ekU;rk gS fd fodkl dh ;g izfØ;k rHkh lEHko gksrh gS tc ;g rhuksa lqfuf'pr izpkyu ;k

fØ;k&Lrj Øfed :i ls miyCèk fd;s tk,a ftlesa ls gj,d dk fodkl ls lEcfUèkr Lrj ls lEcUèk gksA mldk

vfHker gS fd ;g blh Øe esa izpkfyr gksus ij gh jktuhfrd fodkl osQ :i esa Lrj cu ldrk gS] vFkkZr izFke

osQ ckn nwljk vkSj rhljk Lrj vk ldrk gSA mlus Li"V fd;k gS fd bu rhuksa dk ,d&nwljs osQ Åij&uhps ;k

lkFk&lkFk izpkyu ?kkrd gksrk gS vkSj mlesa jktuhfrd fodkl ugha] jktuhfrd iru vkrk gSA og ;gh Lohdkj

djrk gS fd ;g rhuksa ,d lkFk] ,d&nwljs osQ Åij izpkfyr gks ldrh gS tSlk vkt vfèkdka'k fodkl'khy jkT;ksa

esa gks jgk gS] fdUrq] ml voLFkk esa ;g fodkl dh ?kkrd vojksèk voLFkk gks tk,xhA bl izdkj rhuksa voLFkkvksa

dk ,d&nwljs osQ igys vkjksg.k u gks ;k rhuksa ,d lkFk izpkfyr u gksa mlls cpko osQ fy, og nks lq>ko nsrk gSA

izFke lq>ko esa ;g dgk x;k gS fd ,slh voLFkk ls cpus osQ fy, lapkyu (moblization) izfØ;k dks bruk èkhek

dj fn;k tk, ftlls ifjlj ls O;fDr;ksa dk osQUæ esa vkuk mudh iw.kZ vkRelkrrk osQ vuqlkj gh gksA nwljk lq>ko

;g gS fd laLFkkvksa osQ fuekZ.k dks] tks mlosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl dk izeq[k lkèku gS] izksRlkfgr fd;k tk,A

;g lc crkrs gq, Hkh gf.aVxVu osQ fopkjksa esa jktuhfrd iru dh ckr gh Nk, jgh gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd og

jktuhfrd iru dk foLr`r foospu djrs gq, jktuhfrd fodkl dh voLFkkvksa osQ fopkj dh vkykspuk djrk gSA

fdUrq] bl vkykspuk dk ;g rkRi;Z ugha gS fd og Lo;a jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj ugha ekurk gSA okLRo esa] mldh

f'kdk;r mu jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjokfn;ksa ls gS tks ;g ekurs gSa fd fodkl dh ,d voLFkk rd igqapuk Lor%

gh nwljh voLFkk dh vksj vxzlj gksus dk ekxZ [kksy nsrk gSA mldk vfHker gS fd ,slk u gksdj dksbZ lekt nwljs

Lrj ls rhljs dh rjiQ ugha c<+dj izFke Lrj dh rjiQ Hkh eqM+ ldrk gSA fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa ,slk gh gks jgk

gS vkSj bldk izeq[k dkj.k mlosQ vuqlkj ,d Lrj dk nwljs Lrj osQ lkFk&lkFk izpkfyr gksuk gSA blfy, mlus

jktuhfrd fodkl dh Lrj izfØ;k dks ,d ekxhZ ugha ekudj bl lEcUèk esa dqN fu"d"kZ bl izdkj crk, gSa&

(d) jktuhfrd fodkl vizR;korZuh; (irreversible) ;k ,slh izfØ;k ugha gS tks mYVh ugha tkrh gksA ([k)

fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa gks jgs lc jktuhfrd ifjorZu jktuhfrd fodkl ugha ekus tk ldrs gSaA (x) jktuhfrd

fodkl osQ fodkl Lrj vuqØe esa izpkfyr ugha gksrs gSa D;ksafd vU; dbZ rF; vkSj ifjoR;Z ,slk ugha gksus nsrs gSaA

(?k) jktuhfrd fodkl esa vkèkqfudhdj.k vkSj vkS|ksfxdhdj.k lfEefyr ugha gSaA

([k) vk;ULVSM osQ fopkj (Eisenstadt's views)& vk;ULVSM us Hkh jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa vkSj vkèkkjHkwr

izpkyuksa dks] vrhr dh fodkl'khy O;oLFkkvksa osQ ,sfrgkfld fo'ys"k.k vkSj lkekU; fl¼kUrksa dh vrhr dh izfØ;kvksa

osQ vkèkkj ij Li"V fd;k gSA og jktuhfrd fodkl dh izfØ;k dks vkèkqfud fLFkfr esa vko';d :i ls nks Lrjksa esa

foHkDr ikrk gSA ;g voLFkk,a gSa& (d) lhfer vkèkqfudhdj.k dk Lrj] ftls og if'pe esa vBkjgoha vkSj mUuhloha

lnh osQ fodkl osQ Lrj osQ lkFk ,sfrgkfld nf"V ls tksM+rk gS vkSj blesa og eè;e oxZ osQ yksxksa dks fu.kZ;&osQUæksa esa

lfEefyr djuk vkSj lkaLd`frd ykSfddhdj.k rFkk oSKkfud izkS|ksfxdh fodkl lfEefyr djrk gSA

([k) tu&vkèkqfudhdj.k dk Lrj] ftls og if'pe esa chloha lnh osQ fodkl osQ Lrj osQ lkFk ,sfrgkfld n`f"V

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ls tksM+rk gSA vkSj blesa og tulkèkkj.k dks fu.kZ; osQUæksa esa lfEefyr djuk vkSj cgqr cM+s iSekus ij foKku vkSjizkS|ksfxdh dk foLrkj vkSj izlkj lfEefyr djrk gSA ([k) tu&vkèkqfudhdj.k dk Lrj] ftls og if'pe esa chlohalnh osQ fodkl osQ Lrj osQ lkFk ,sfrgkfld n`f"V ls tksM+rk gSA vkSj blesa og tu&lkèkkj.k dks fu.kZ; osQUæksa esalfEefyr djrk gS vkSj cgqr cM+s iSekus ij foKku vkSj izkS|ksfxdh dk foLrkj vkSj izlkj lfEefyr djrk gSA

vk;ULVSM dk dguk gS fd foxr 'krkfCn;ksa (18oha vkSj 19oha) esa tks lekt lhfer vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ Lrj dkjktuhfrd fodkl ugha dj ik, Fks muesa vkt nksuksa Lrjksa dk va'kkPNknu (overlapping) jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksaij vR;fèkd ncko mRiUu dj nsrk gS vkSj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks rksM+us dh fLFkfr mRiUu djrk gS ftlls rHkhcpk tk ldrk gS tc tulkèkkj.k dk leqfpr lekthdj.k dj fy;k tk, vkSj lekt esa tksM+us okyh rkdrksadks lcy cuk;k tk,A

(x) vkeUM osQ fopkj (Almond's views)— gf.aVxVu vkSj vk;ULVSM us jktuhfrd fodkl dh izR;{k :ils ppkZ ugha dh gSA gf.aVxVu jktuhfrd iru osQ fopkj esa Mwcs jgdj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dk foospudjrk jgk gSA blh rjg] vk;ULVSM jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k vkSj jktuhfrd fodkl dks ,d&lk ekudjvkèkqfudhdj.k osQ Lrjksa osQ lkFk jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dks tksM+ nsrk gSA fdUrq] vkeUM us jktuhfrd O;oLFkkls gh lEcfUèkr vfèkd fo'ys"k.kkRed n`f"Vdks.k dks viukdj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dks foosfpr fd;k gSAmlus jktuhfrd fodkl osQ pkj vkèkkjHkwr izpkyuksa (operations) vkSj Lrjksa dk mYys[k fd;k gSA ;g pkj Lrjbl izdkj gSa&

(d) jkT;&fuekZ.k (state-building) dk Lrj & blesa (i) osQUæh; lÙkk dk fuekZ.k (ii) bl lÙkk dk jktuhfresa izos'k vkSj (iii) fofHkUu lewgksa dk osQUæh; lÙkk osQ vfèkdkj {ksË esa ,dhdj.k gksuk lfEefyr gksrk gSA

([k) jk"Vª&fuekZ.k (nation-building) dk Lrj & blesa (i) fu"Bk vkSj izfrc¼rk mRiUu djuk ftlls(ii) fons'kksa osQ leFkZu c<+ tk,] lfEefyr gksrk gSA

(x) lgHkkfxrk dk Lrj & blesa jktuhfrd izfØ;k esa lfØ; :i ls lfEefyr lewgksa vkSj lekt osQ laLrjksa(strata) dks vfHko`¼ vkSj O;kid cukuk lfEefyr gksrk gSA

(?k) forj.k (distribution) dk Lrj & blesa lkekftd thou osQ fy, ykHkksa dks iqu%fuèkkZj.k dh vusd fofèk;ksaosQ }kjk lcdh igaqp esa ykuk lfEefyr gksrk gSA

vkeUM dh ekU;rk gS fd ftu lektksa esa jktuhfrd fodkl gqvk gS vkSj ftu lektksa esa jktuhfrd fodkl dkvafre Lrj vk x;k gSA os lc blh vuqØe ls ,d Lrj osQ ckn nwljs Lrj esa igqaps gSa vkSj fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esavkSj dqN vU; vfodflr O;oLFkkvksa esa bu lHkh fodkl Lrjksa esa va'kkPNknu ;k budks ,d lkFk pykus osQ iz;Ruksals jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ij vfèkd cks> iM+us yxrk gS tks O;oLFkkvksa dks fo[kf.Mr djus dk dkjd cu tkrk gSA

(?k) vksjxsULdh osQ fopkj (Organski's views)& tkXokjkbc dk dguk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dkJs"Bre foospu] ftls og vR;fèkd iw.kZ o.kZu ekurk gS] vkjxsULdh osQ }kjk viuh iqLrd LVstst vkiQ iksfyfVdyMsosyiesUV esa fd;k x;k gSA vksjxsULdh jktuhfrd fodkl dks] jk"Vªh; xUrO;ksa osQ fy, jk"Vª osQ ekuoh; vkSj HkkSfrdL=kksrksa dk mi;ksx djus esa ljdkj dh c<+rh gqbZ dk;Z&n{krk osQ vkèkkj ij le>us dk iz;Ru djrk gSA blosQ lkFkgh og jktuhfrd fodkl dks jk"Vªh; fodkl] jk"Vªh; o`f¼ vkSj vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ fy, vfHkO;fDr dh 'kCnkoyhekurk gS vkSj ;g dgrk gS fd ;g ,d gh ;FkkFkZ dks mn~?kkfVr djus okyh voèkkj.kk,a gSaA mlosQ vuqlkj vfHko`¼vkfFkZd mRikndrk] c<+rh gqbZ HkkSxksfyd vkSj lkekftd izpkyurk] c<+rh gqbZ jktuhfrd dk;Zdq'kyrk ftlls jk"Vªh;xUrO;ksa dks izkIr djus esa jk"Vª osQ ekuoh; o HkkSfrd L=kksrksa dk izpkyu djuk lfEefyr gS] cgqr dqN ,d&nwljsls tqM+s gq, gSaA og jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dk foospu blh vkèkkj ij djrk gSA

vksjxsUldh ;g ekurk gS fd T;ksa&T;ksa jk"Vª fodflr gksrk tkrk gS oSls gh jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ dk;Z vkSj vkxs fodkl

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dks izsfjr djus osQ fy, mlesa ifjofrZr gksrs jgrs gSa mlosQ vuqlkj ;g Lrjksa osQ ,d Øe ls gh gksrk gSA ;|fi

;g Lrj&Øe vVyuh; ;k vo';aHkkoh ugha gksrk gS fiQj Hkh lkekU;r;k ,slk ik;k tkrk gS rFkk bls vkuqHkfod

:i ls ns[kk tk ldrk gSA og ;g Hkh ekurk gS fd fo'ys"k.kkRed vkSj vkuqHkfod dkj.kksa ls ;g Lrj vkuqØfed

gksrk gS] vFkkZr fdlh Lrj dh iw.kZ izkfIr rc rd vlEHko gS tc rd fd mlosQ igys dk Lrj O;ogkj esa izkIr

ugha gks tkrk gSA nks vkuqØfed Lrjksa ij ykxw gksus okyh leL;kvksa dk dqN va'k rd ,d nwljh ij vkPNknu

gks ldrk gS] fdUrq bl izdkj osQ va'kkPNknu dh Hkh lhek,a gksrh gSa] vFkkZr nks vkuqØfed Lrjksa ij ykxw gksus

okyh leL;k,¡ iw.kZr;k ,d leku ugha gks ldrh gSaA D;ksafd] vksjxsULdh gj fodkl Lrj dh viuh fof'k"V leL;k,¡

ekurs gSa tks nwljs Lrj dh leL;kvksa osQ leku osQoy vkaf'kd :i esa gh gks ldrh gSA vxj nks vkuqØfed Lrjksa

dh viuh&viuh leL;kvksa dk fHkUurk ugha gksdj muesa ,d lekurk gksrh gS rks mldk vk'; ;g gS fd igys

okyk Lrj ;FkkFkZ esa iw.kZr;k izkIr gh ugha gqvk gS vkSj tc rd ;g iw.kZr;k izkIr ugha gks tk, blosQ vkxs osQ Lrj

dks liQyrkiwoZd dHkh izkIr ugha fd;k tk ldrkA vr% vkjsxsULdh dk jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dk foospu

fof'k"V y{k.kksa vkSj ekU;rkvksa ij vkèkkfjr gSA mlosQ }kjk fn;s x, jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa dks le>us

osQ fy, vko';d gS fd ge la{ksi esa bu fo'ks"krkvksa dk foospu djsaA vksjxsULdh osQ jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa

lEcUèkh mijksDr foospu ls fuEufyf[kr ckrsa fo'ks"k :i ls mHkjrh gSa& (d) jktuhfrd fodkl Lok;Ùk fdUrq]

vU; fodklksa (vkfFkZd] lkekftd vkSj lkaLd`frd) ls iw.kZ :i ls i`Fkd vkSj LoraË izfØ;k ugha gSA ([k)

jktuhfrd fodkl vkuqØfed Lrj ls gh gksrk gSA (x) jktuhfrd fodkl osQ gj Lrj dh viuh fof'k"Vrk,¡ gksrh

gSaA tks vU; Lrj ij vfèkd ls vfèkd vkaf'kd :i esa gh ikbZ tk ldrh gSA (?k) jktuhfrd fodkl dk ,d

Lrj iw.kZ :i ls izkIr gksus osQ ckn gh mlosQ vkxs osQ Lrj ij tkuk lEHko gS] vFkkZr vxj fodkl osQ vuqØe

esa igys dk Lrj iw.kZr;k izkIr ugha gqvk gS rks mls vkxs dk Lrj dHkh Hkh liQyrkiwoZd izkIr ugha fd;k tk ldrkA

(p) jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa dk vkuqHkfod i;Zos{k.k ;k voyksdu lEHko gSA bldk vk'k; ;g gS

fd fodkl osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa dks lqfuf'pr izfofèk;ksa }kjk ekiuk lEHko gSA (N) nks Øfed Lrjksa dk va'kkPNknu

lEHko gS fdUrq] lhfer :i esa gh ;g gks ldrk gS rFkk vØfed Lrjksa dk va'kkPNknu lEHko gS fdUrq] lhfer

:i esa gh ;g gks ldrk gS rFkk vØfed Lrjksa esa ;g vlEHko gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] izFke vkSj nwljs Lrj esa dqN

lhfer&lk va'kkPNknu gks ldrk gS] fdUrq izFke vkSj nwljs Lrj esa ,slk va'kkPNknu fcydqy vlEHko gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl Lrjksa osQ lEcUèk esa vksjxsULdh dh mijksDr ekU;rkvksa osQ vkèkkj ij ;g fu"d"kZ fudyrk gSA

fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fuf'pr Lrj rks gksrs gSa] mudh viuh i`Fkd&i`Fkd fof'k"Vrk,¡ Hkh gksrh gSa] fdUrq] ,d

Lrj vkSj nwljs Lrj osQ chp fuf'pr lhek&js[kk Kku dh orZeku lhekvksa esa [khap lduk lEHko ugha gSA blh dkj.k]

vksjxsULdh nks Øfed Lrjksa esa lhfer va'kkPNknu Lohdkj djrs gSaA bl foospu ls ;g ckr Hkh Li"V gksrh gS fd

tc rd igys dk Lrj iw.kZr;k izkIr ugha dj fy;k tk,] jktuhfrd fodkl dk mlls vkxs dk Lrj dHkh Hkh

liQyrkiwoZd izkIr ugha gks ldrkA bu ckrksa osQ lanHkZ esa mlus jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj Lohdkj fd;s gSa tks bl

izdkj gSa&

(i) vkfne ,dhdj.k dh jktuhfr (politics of primitive unification) (ii) vkS|ksfxdhdj.k dh jktuhfr

(politics of industrialisation), (iii) jk"Vªh; yksd&dY;k.k dh jktuhfr (politics of national welfare),

(iv) le`f¼ dh jktuhfr (politics of abundance)

(i) vksjxsULdh osQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl dk igyk Lrj vkfn ,dhdj.k dh jktuhfr dk gSA bl voLFkk esa

aljdkjsa viuh tula[;k ij izHkko'kkyh jktuhfrd ,oa iz'kklfud fu;a=k.k LFkkfir djrh gSaA ,slh osQUæh; lÙkk dk

fuekZ.k fuf'pr HkwHkkx vkSj lqLi"V tula[;k ;k tuleqnk;ksa ls lEcfUèkr gksrk gSA vxj bldks ijEijkxr <ax ls

ns[ksa rks ;g Lrj jkT; dh lqfLFkjrk dk Lrj gS ftlesa jkT; osQ pkjksa rÙo&tula[;k] fuf'pr Hkw&Hkkx] laxBu ;k

ljdkj rFkk lEizHkqrk&fo|eku gksrs gSaA vBkjgoha 'krkCnh osQ eè; rd dk if'pe osQ jkT;ksa dk fodkl Lrj blh

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izdkj dk dgk tk ldrk gSA

(ii) jktuhfrd fodkl dk nwljk Lrj vkfFkZd n`f"V ls vkS|ksfxdhdj.k dh izfØ;kvksaa rFkk lkekftd] jktuhfrdn`f"V ls ,sls ifjorZuksa ls lEcfUèkr gS ftlesa u;s oxZ fufeZr gksrs gSa] lgHkkfxrk dk foLrkj vkSj vfHko`f¼ jk"Vªh;,dhdj.k gksrk gSA ;g Lrj ,sfrgkfld nf"V ls lEiUu gqvk gS vkSj fo'ys"k.k dh nf"V ls rhu oSdfYid lEHkkouk,aizLrqr djrk gSA ;s rhu oSdfYid lEHkkoukvksa okys izfreku bl izdkj gSa&

(v) cqtqZvk ;k eè;oxhZ; ekWMy (Bourgeois Model)& ;g vkèkqfud if'peh yksdrU=k ls fHkUu izfreku gSAblesa Jfedksa dh dher ij iwath&lap; gksrk gSA fdUrq] bl iwath&lap; osQ lkèku futh jgrs gSa vkSj ;g xqIr <axls gh fd;k tkrk gSA bl ekWMy esa u;s cqtqZvk] Økafr ;k èkhjs&èkhjs laØe.krk ls igys osQ vfHktkrraËh vfHktuksadks gVk nsrs gSa vkSj Lo;a 'kklu ij Nk tkrs gSaA

(c) LVkfyu dk ekWMy (Stalinist Model)& blesa Jfedksa dh dher ij iw¡th&lap; gksrk gS fdUrq] iw¡th&lap;osQ lkèku u;s oxZ osQ gkFk esa gksrs gSa] tks [kqys :i ls ,slk djosQ] igys osQ vfHktuksa ;k eè; oxZ dks 'kfDriwoZdo Økafrdkjh lkèkuksa ls gVk dj Lo;a ukSdj'kkgh dk ,d u;k oxZ cu tkrs gSaA

(l) leUo;h ekWMy (Syncratic model)& ;g bVyh osQ lanHkZ esa iQkflTe dk fo'ks"k izfreku gS] ftlesa iqjkus vkSju;s vfHktuksa esa leUo; jgrk gS vkSj ,d LosPNknkjh jkT;] leUo; djkus okys eè;oxhZ; d`"kdksa osQ fgrksa dhj{kk djrk gS vkSj èkheh xfr ls iw¡th&lap; Jfedksa dh dher ij gksrk jgrk gSA

(iii) jk"Vªh; yksd&dY;k.k dh jktuhfr dk ;g Lrj igys okys Lrj osQ iw¡th lap; dh izfØ;k dks myV nsus okyhizfØ;kvksa ls lEcfUèkr gSA blls igys okys Lrj esa iw¡th&lap; turk dh dher ij fd;k tkrk gS fdUrq] blesaturk dks iw¡th }kjk 'kks"k.k ls eqDr j[kk tkrk gS vkSj O;kid iSekus ij cgqr c<+s gq, iw¡th lkèkuksa dks turk esaiqu% forfjr djosQ tu&lgHkkfxrk dks lEHko cuk;k tkrk gSA ;g tu&lgHkkfxrk yksdra=k dh LFkkid gks ;gvko';d ugha gSA

vksjxsULdh dh ekU;rk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj osQ Hkh rhu oSdfYid ekWMy ,sfrgkfldrk vkSjfo'ks"k.kkRedrk dh n`f"V ls ns[ks tk ldrs gSaA ;g rhu oSdfYir ekWMy bl izdkj gSa& (1) tu yksdrU=k (Mass

Democracy), ftlesa erkfèkdkj dk foLrkj vkSj miHkksDrk oLrqvksa rFkk loZlkèkkj.k dh igqap gksrh gSA

(2) ukthokn (Nazism), ftlesa vR;fèkd HkkoukRed ;k vcqf¼laxr lgHkkfxrk vkSj larq"Vhdj.k jgrk gSA blLrj ij jkT; LosPNkpkjh rFkk turk dh ,drk dk izrhd gksrk gSA (3) lkE;oknh (Communism) ekWMy] ftlesayksddY;k.kdkjh jkT; osQ y{k.k] turk dh izrhdkRed tu&lgHkkfxrk] lokZfèkdkjh 'kklu vkSj lkE;oknh ny dhvfèkuk;drk gksrh gSA

(iv) le`f¼ dh jktuhfr dk Lrj tks fd vktdy vejhdk esa vkus yxk gSA ;g Lrj oSKkfud izfofèk;ksa vkSjvR;fèkd ifj"d`r midj.kksa ls vR;fèkd mRikndrk (super-productivity) dk gS ftlesa gjsd osQ fy, oLrqvksadh lkekU; miyfCèk jgrh gSA ;g jktuhfrd fodkl dh lcls tfVy voLFkk gSA blesa dk;Z djus dh vko';drkesa deh gks tkrh gS ftlls mRiknd jkstxkj Hkh de gks tkrk gS fdUrq laxfBr Jfedksa dh 'kfDr c<+ tkrh gSA,sls lekt esa vkfFkZd ls gVdj] jktuhfrd vkSj lkaLd`frd fgrksa ij cy fn;k tkus yxrk gSA blesa vkfFkZd vkSjjktuhfrd vfHktuksa dk foy;u (union) gks tkrk gS tks 'kfDr dk osQUæ yk nsrk gSA fu;kstu dh vko';drk c<+rhtkrh gSA vkSj lektoknh O;oLFkk dh rjiQ lekt c<+us yxrk gS tks yksdrkfU=kd gks Hkh ldrk gS vkSj ugha Hkhgks ldrk gSA oSls vfèkdka'kr% ,sls Lrj ij lekt yksdrkfU=kd ugha jgrk gSA

vksjxsULdh dk jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrj vkuqØeksa dk eq[; fopkj mldh vkS|ksxhdj.k dh le> vkSj O;k[;kij vkèkkfjr gS ftls og nksuksa gh :iksa&vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd] lkaLd`frd] jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dhizfØ;kvksa] esa lekt osQ fodkl osQ fy, egÙoiw.kZ ekurk gSA bl izdkj vksjxsULdh jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dhckr jk"Vªh; fodkl ls lEcfUèkr cukdj djrk gSA bl lEcUèk esa tkXokjkbc rks ;gka rd dgrk gS fd ^vksjxsULdh

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dk fodkl fl¼kUr le>us osQ fy, nks mikxeksa dh vko';drk iM+sxh ftuesa ls ,d dk lEcUèk lekt osQ lexz

jk"Vªh; fodkl ls vkSj mlosQ fofoèk Lrjksa ls jgsxk vkSj nwljs dk lEcUèk jktuhfrd fodkl dh fof'k"V izfØ;kvksa

vkSj Lrjksa ls rFkk igyh okyh izfØ;k ls mldk lEcUèk D;k gS] blls jgsxkA** ;g vksjxsULdh osQ fodkl fl¼kUr

dh lcls cM+h detksjh gS fd og lexz lekt osQ jk"Vªh; fodkl osQ lkFk jktuhfrd fodkl dks o mlosQ Lrjksa

dks le>us dk iz;kl djrk gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa osQ lEcUèk esa geus pkj fopkjdksa osQ }kjk izfrikfnr fodkl vuqØeksa dk foospu fd;k

gSA tkXokjkbo bu lcdks viw.kZ ekurk gS vkSj ;g fopkj izLrqr djrk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa osQ foospu

esa osQoy izdk;kZRed Lrjksa dk ;k osQoy okLrfod Lrjksa dk o.kZu dkiQh ugha gSA mldk vfHker gS fd gf.aVxVu]

vk;ULVSM vkSj vkeUM us jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa dk fuèkkZj.k izdk;kZRed vkèkkj ij fd;k gS tcfd vksjxsULdh

us ;FkkFkZ osQ vkèkkj ij fd;k gSA fdUrq jktuhfrd fodkl osQ okLrfod Lrj vuqØe dks le>us osQ fy, bu nksuksa dks

vkèkkj cukuk vko';d gSA vr% ge vUr esa tkXokjkbc }kjk izLrqr Lrjksa dk foospu djuk vko';d le>rs gSaA

(p) tkXokjkbc osQ fopkj (Jaguaribe's views)& tkXokjkbc us jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa osQ fuèkkZj.k esa nks

n`f"Vdks.kksa dk mi;ksx fd;k gSA ,d ;FkkZFk vkSj nwljk izdk;kZRed n`f"Vdks.k gSaA mldk er gS fd bu nksuksa gh

n`f"Vdks.kksa ls vkèkkjHkwr] fof'k"V vkSj fofp=k izpkyuksa ls tks vkuqØfed Øe ls pyrs gSa] dqN ekSfyd Lrjksa dk

cksèk gksrk gSA ;FkkFkZ n`f"Vdks.k esa izpkyuksa vkSj Lrjksa dk vUrr% lEcUèk ^^lkewfgd ekuo 'kfDr osQ fuekZ.k vkSj

mi;ksx dh izfØ;k** ls gSA ;FkkFkZ izfØ;k okLro esa ekuo osQ lkekU; lkekftd lkaLd`frd fodkl] ftlls mldk

ekuoh; vkSj izkd`frd i;kZoj.k ij fu;U=k.k c<+rk tkrk gS] ls lacafèkr gS vkSj vkuqHkfod n`f"V ls ;g tSlk okLro

esa bfrgkl eas ?kfVr gqvk gS ml ij vkèkkfjr gSA bl n`f"Vdks.k ls lekth; fodkl (societal development) osQ

okLrfod ;k ;FkkFkZ Lrj bl izdkj jgs gSa&

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ Lrjksa osQ fofoèk fopkj

1- lÙkk dh cqf¼laxrrk2- uohu jktuhfrd dk;ks± dk fofHkUuhdj.k3- vfHko`f¼ lgHkkfxrk

1- lhfer vk/qfudhdj.k

1- jkT; fuekZ.k

2- tu vk/qfudhdj.k

2- jk"Vª fuekZ.k3- lgHkkfxrk4- forj.k

1- gf.aVxVu

2- vk;ULVSM

3- vke.M

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2- vkS|ksxhdj.k dh jktuhfr

4- vksjxsULdh(d) cqtqZvk ;k eèoxhZ; izfreku([k) LVkfyu dk izfreku(x) leUo;h izfreku

3- jk"Vªh; yksd&dY;k.k dh jktuhfr(d) tu&yksdrU=k izfreku ;k ekWMy([k) ukth izfreku(x) leUo;h izfreku

4- lef¼ dh jktuhfr

(i) ,dhdj.k (Unification)

(v) jktuhfrd ,dhdj.k (Political unification)

(b) vfrfjDr lekth; foLrkj (Extra societal expansion)

(l) vUr% lekth; fofoèkhdj.k (Intra societal diversification)

(ii) ;U=khdj.k (Mechanization)

(v) vkS|ksfxdhdj.k foLrkj (Industrialization Expansion)

(c) vUrjkZ"Vªh; foLrkj (International expansion)

(l) jk"Vªh; fofoèkhdj.k (National diversification)

(iii) lkekftd laxBu (Socio-organisation)

(v) lkekU;d`r laxBu (Generalized organisation)

(c) vUrjk"Vªh;dj.k (Internationalisation)

(l) iqu% ekuohdj.k (v&ekuohdj.k) (Re-humanization or dehumanization)

tkXokjkbc us lekthdj.k osQ Lrj dk vFkZ djrs gq, crk;k gS fd ;g lekt ij jktuhfrd fu;a=k.k dh LFkkiuk

dk Lrj gSA blosQ rhu mioxZ gksrs gSa tks Øe ls izkIr gksrs gSaA ;U=khdj.k ls izd`fr ij lekth; fu;U=k.k dk vk'k;

gSA blosQ Hkh rhu miLrjksa dh ppkZ dh xbZ gSA lkekftd laxBu ls lekth; Lo&fu;U=k.k dk vFkZ fy;k x;k gS

vkSj blesa Hkh rhu mi&Lrj gksrs gSaA bl izdkj] tkXokjkbc }kjk izfrikfnr jktuhfrd fodkl dk igyk Lrj

vksjxsULdh osQ }kjk izfrikfnr vkfn ,dhdj.k osQ leku gSA bldk nwljk Lrj mlosQ ^vkS|ksfxdhdj.k osQ Lrj osQ

leku gSA tkXokjkbc osQ }kjk izfrikfnr rhljk Lrj] vksjxsULdh osQ jk"Vªh;&yksddY;k.k* vkSj le`f¼ dh jktuhfr*

osQ rhljs vkSj pkSFks Lrj osQ leku gSA fdUrq] buosQ mi&Lrjksa dks ysdj nksuksa osQ Lrj foospuksa esa i;kZIr vUrj gS

ftudh ckjhdh esa tkus dh ;gka vko';drk ugha gSA

izdk;kZRed n`f"Vdks.k ls tkXokjkbc us fodkl osQ pkj Lrjksa dks izeq[k ekuk gSA mldk vfHker gS fd vxj ge

bl n`f"Vdks.k dks ysdj jktuhfrd fodkl dh izfØ;k (jktuhfrd ls tkXokjkbc dk vk'k; vfHko`f¼ jktuhfrd

vkèkqfudhdj.k vkSj laLFkkdj.k ls gS) dk lektksa osQ fdlh ,sfrgkfld dky esa igys n`f"Vdks.k esa crk, x;s Lrjksa

dks è;ku esa j[krs gq,] Lrj fuèkkZj.k djsa rks fuEufyf[kr pkj Lrj izeq[k :i ls Li"V gksaxs& (d) ekWMy&fuekZ.k

(model building), ([k) jkT;&fuekZ.k (state building), (x) jk"Vª&fuekZ.k vkSj (nation-building),

(?k) lkeatL; fuekZ.k (consensus-building)

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tkXokjkbc dh ekU;rk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl dk igyk izdk;kZRed Lrj ekWMy fuekZ.k dk gSA ;g og Lrj gS

tc lÙkk esa ifjorZu vkrk gSA ;g lÙkk ifjorZu igys okys lÙkkèkkfj;ksa osQ LFkku ij osQoy nwljksa dk lÙkk esa vkuk

ek=k gks rks Hkh buosQ u;s fodkl&vfHkeq[kh jktuhfrd <kaps ;k ;kstuk,a cukbZ tkrh gSa tks okLro esa u;k jktuhfrd

ekWMy cukrk gh gSA nwljs Lrj esa uohu jktuhfrd ekWMy osQ vuq:i 'kklu rU=k dks cukuk ;k lqèkkjuk gS rFkk

rhljs Lrj ij jktuhfrd 'kfDr lajpuk dks c`gÙkj lekth; O;oLFkk osQ lkFk rkyesy cSBkus dh voLFkk esa ;k

lekth; O;oLFkk dks jktuhfrd 'kfDr O;oLFkk osQ lkFk rkyesy dh voLFkk esa ykuk gSA pkSFks Lrj esa] lEiw.kZ lekth;

O;oLFkk dks] ubZ lÙkk osQ lkFk leUo; dh voLFkk esa ykdj lkeatL; LFkkfir djus dk iz;Ru fd;k tkrk gSA

bl izdkj] tkXokjkbc us jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa dk ;FkkFkZoknh rFkk izdk;kZRed n`f"Vdks.k] nksuksa ls gh

foospu fd;k gSA fdUrq] jktuhfrd fodkl osQ izkjfEHkd vè;srk dks tkXokjkbc dk ;g Lrj fuèkkZj.k vkSj fofHkUu

Lrjksa dk foospu dqN tfVy lk yxsxkA

jktuhfrd fodkl dh O;k[;k] vFkZ] y{k.kksa vkSj Lrjksa osQ foospu osQ lkFk vxj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fl¼kUr

fuekZ.k osQ iz;Ruksa dh laf{kIr ppkZ ugha djsaxs rks ;g o.kZu vèkwjk gh ekuk tk,xkA jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fl¼kUr

fuekZ.k dk loZizFke iz;kl vkeUM dk gh jgk gSA ckn esa Y;wf'k;u ikbZ] vk;UlVSM] isuksd vkSj gf.aVxVu us blesa

;ksxnku fn;kA fdUrq jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fl¼kUr fuekZ.k esa lokZfèkd ;ksxnku fjXl vkSj gsfy;ksa tkXokjkbc dk

gh ekuk tkrk gSA bUgksaus jktuhfrd fodkl ij lEiw.kZ fparu dks ,d lS¼kfUrd lw=k esa ckaèkus dk iz;kl fd;k

gSA tkXokjkbc }kjk izfrikfnr fl¼kUr vfèkd O;kid vkSj xgure gSA fjXl dk fl¼kUr bl izdkj gS&

fjXl }kjk izfrikfnr jktuhfrd fodkl dk fl¼kUr (Theory of Political Development as Propounded

by Riggs)

fjXl dk er gS fd if'peh jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dk viukuk ik'pkR; laLd`fr osQ izfrekuksa dks viukuk ugha ekuk

tk ldrk gSA blh rjg] og rduhdh ifjorZuksa vkSj lkaLd`frd ifjorZuksa esa vUrj djrk gS vkSj ;g fu"d"kZ

fudkyrk gS fd jktuhfrd laLFkk,a rduhdh izxfr dk ifj.kke gksrh gSaA lkaLd`frd fodklksa ls budh mRifr ugha

gksrh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] jktuhfrd nyksa dh LFkkiuk VsDuksykWth dk ifj.kke gS vkSj if'pe dh rjg lkE;oknh

jkT;ksa dks Hkh Lohdkj gSA mlus jktuhfrd fodkl osQ lajpukRed vkSj izdk;kZRed fo'ys"k.kksa esa vUrj djrs gq,

;g fu"d"kZ fudkyk gS fd lajpukRed fo'ys"k.kksa esa lajpukvks dks gh egRo fn;k x;k gS vkSj muosQ izdk;ksZ esa

gq, ifjorZuksa dh vuns[kh dj nh xbZ gS tcfd] izdk;kZRed fo'ys"k.kksa esa izdk;kZRed ifjorZuksa ij vR;fèkd cy

fn;k x;k gS vkSj lajpukRed ifjorZuksa dh vogsyuk gh gqbZ gSA mlus jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fl¼kUr esa lajpukRed

ifjorZuksa ij cy fn;k gSA fjXl us lajpukoknh gksus osQ dkj.k vius }kjk izfrikfnr jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fl¼kUr

dk ewy vkèkkj lajpukRed fofHkUurkvksa dks gh cuk;k gSA

fjXl] Y;wf'k;u ikbZ osQ fodkl lef"V&y{k.k] tks lekurk] {kerk vkSj fofHkUuhdj.k ij vkèkkfjr gS dks ysdj

vius fodkl fl¼kUr dk izfriknu djrk gSA mldh ewy ekU;rk ;g gS fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa ftruk vfèkd

lajpukRed fofHkUuhdj.k ,oa fo'ks"khdj.k gksxk muesa mruh gh leL;kvksa dk lkeuk djus rFkk y{; izkfIr

dh {kerk gksxhA vxj lajpukRed fofHkUuhdj.k vkSj fo'ks"khdj.k ugha gksxk ;k de gksxk rks mlh vuqikr esa

jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa leL;kvksa dk lekèkku djus dh {kerk Hkh de gks tk,xhA fjXl dh ekU;rk gS fd vxj

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa i;kZIr fofHkUuhdj.k ugha gS rks lekurk vkSj {kerk nksuksa gh csekuh gks tk,axhA pwafd]

vR;fèkd fofHkUuhd`r lekt esa ljdkjh laLFkkvksa osQ fodkl ls gh ,slh jktuhfrd izfØ;k,a O;kogkfjd curh gSa

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ftuesa mPp Lrj dh {kerk gksrh gS vkSj tks dkiQh ek=kk esa lgHkkfxrk dh lekurk ykus esa lgk;d gksrh gSaA bl

dkj.k] fjXl lekurk vkSj {kerk dks lokZfèkd egÙo nsrk gSA og bu esa larqyu dks cuk, j[kus dk lq>ko nsrk

gSA ;g larqyu rHkh lEHko gS tc okeiaFkh vkSj nf{k.kiaFkh 'kfDr;ka lekurk dk fodkl djrh gSa tcfd nf{k.kiaFkh

'kfDr;ka O;oLFkk dh {kerk esa o`f¼ djrh gSA

Lo&ewY;kadu (Self-Assessment)

lgh fodYi pqfu, (Choose the correct option)—

1- rqyukRed jktuhfr dk çFke fpUrd vkSj ys[kd Fkk %&

(d) eksUVsLD;w ([k) vjLrw (x) eSfd;kosyh (?k) ghxy

2- îkfyfVDl* iqLrd fdldh d`fr gS&

(d) vjLrw ([k) eSfd;kosyh (x) ghxy (?k) eksUVsLD;w

3- jktuhfrd vè;;u dks lqfuf'pr rF;ksa ij vkèkkfjr djus osQ fy, vjLrw }kjk rRdkyhu fdrus ns'kksa osQ

lafoèkkuksa dk vè;;u fd;k x;k&

(d) 100 ([k) 120 (x) 140 (?k) 158

4- ¶fçUl¸ iqLrd osQ jpf;rk gSa%&

(d) vjLrw ([k) ghxy (x) eSfd;kosyh (?k) eksUVsLD;w

5- ^n fLifjV vki n ykt* osQ ys[kd gS%&

(d) eksUVsLD;w ([k) eSfd;kosyh (x) vjLrw (?k) ghxy


rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vFkZ dk foLr`r foospu djus ls igys bldk ^rqyukRed ljdkj* (comparative

government) ls vUrj le> ysuk vko';d gSA lkekU;r%] rqyukRed jktuhfr dks ^rqyukRed 'kklu*

;k rqyukRed ljdkj* dk i;kZ; le> fy;k tkrk gSA nksuksa dk gh lEcUèk jktuhfr* ls gksus osQ dkj.k budk

,d nwljs osQ fy, vny&cny dj ç;ksx djuk dqN LokHkkfod gh gSA

thu Cyks.Msy rqyukRed ljdkj dh ifjHkk"kk djrs gq, fy[kk gSμ¶rqyukRed ljdkj ledkyhu fo'o

esa jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa osQ çfrekuksa dk vè;;u gSA¸

rqyukRed ljdkj dh mijksDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls Li"V gS fd blesa jkT; ls lEcfUèkr vkSipkfjd laLFkkvksa dk

gh eq[;r% rqyukRed vè;;u gksrk gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh lEiw.kZrk (totality of political behaviour) osQ

vè;;u ls gSA blesa ljdkjksa o jktdh; laLFkkvksa ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dk rqyukRed vè;;u rks Lor%

gh lfEefyr jgrk gSA

jkYiQ czscUrh us rqyukRed jktuhfr dh O;kid ifjHkk"kk dh gSA bUgksaus fy[kk gSμ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr

lEiw.kZ lkekftd O;oLFkk esa mu rÙoksa dh igpku o O;k[;k gS tks jktuhfrd dk;ks± o muosQ laLFkkxr

çdk'ku dks çHkkfor djrs gSaA¸

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rqyukRed jktuhfr dh laf{kIr o 'kk;n lcls Li"V ifjHkk"kk ,eñ dfVZl us nh gSA muosQ vuqlkjμ¶rqyukRed

jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh dk;Zfofèk o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh egÙoiw.kZ fujUrjrkvksa]

lekurkvksa vkSj vlekurkvksa ls gSA¸

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çdfr dks ysdj fo}kuksa esa fopkj&foHksn gSA eksVs rkSj ij bldh çdfr lEcUèkh fopkjksa

dks nks çeq[k èkkj.kkvksa esa foHkDr fd;k tkrk gSA jktuhfr&'kkL=k osQ fo}ku o rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vxz.kh

de ;k vfèkd ek=kk esa nksuksa esa ls fdlh ,d èkkj.kk osQ leFkZd fn[kkbZZ nsrs gSaA ;g nks èkkj.kk,¡ gSaμ

(d) rqyukRed jktuhfr yEckRed rqyuk gSA (It is vertical comparative study)

([k) rqyukRed jktuhfr {kSrhth; rqyuk gSA (It is horizontal comparative study)

rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d gh ns'k esa fLFkr fofHkUu Lrjksa ij LFkkfir ljdkjksa o mudks çHkkfor djus okys

jktuhfrd O;ogkjksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k o vè;;u gSA

lekurkvksa osQ ckotwn] jk"Vªh; o vkaf'kd ljdkjksa osQ lEcUèk esa] vlekurkvksa dk gh vfèkd vkHkkl gksrk

gSA blfy;s rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu&Lrjh; ljdkjksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k lEHko

fn[kkbZZ nsrs gq, Hkh lkekU;hdj.k (generalization) dh lEHkkouk,¡ ugha j[krkA ,d tSlh fo"k;&ifjfèk osQ

vHkko osQ dkj.k blosQ fu"d"kZ çekf.kd (valid) ugha gksaxs vkSj blls tks fl¼kUr cuk;s tk;saxs mudks Hkh

fdlh laoxZ (category) esa j[kdj muls vU; ns'kksa dh ljdkjksa dks le>uk lEHko ugha gksxkA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr lEcUèkh nwljh èkkj.kk osQ vuqlkj ;g jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dk {kSrhth; rqyukRed

vè;;u gSA

vxj rqyukRed jktuhfr jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh {kSrhth; rqyuk gS rks blesa nks lEHkkouk,¡ lfEefyr fn[kkbZZ nsrh

gSaA igyh rks ;g fd ;g rqyuk] ,d gh ns'k dh fofHkUu dkyksa esa fo|eku jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh vkil esa

gks ldrh gS] rFkk nwljh] mu jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa esa] tks vkt lEiw.kZ fo'o esa fo|eku gSa] gks ldrh gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ,sfrgkfld lUnHkhZ jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dh le&Lrjh; rqyuk dh tkrh gSA bl çdkj dh

rqyuk dk viuk vyx egÙo Hkh gSA ijUrq rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ;gh dkiQh ughaA bldh bl 'kkL=k esa lhfer

mi;ksfxrk gh gSa blls osQoy ,d jkT; dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dks fofHkÂ dkyksa esa le>us esa gh lgk;rk feyrh

gSA ml jk"Vª ls fHkÂ çdkj dh laLd`fr] lH;rk o laxBu okys jkT; esa lapkfyr ljdkj dh çd`fr o

jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks le>us osQ fy, ;g i;kZIr ugha gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dh çd`fr osQ mijksDr foospu ls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d LorU=k vuq'kklu

gS tks jktuhfr&foKku esa ,d egÙoiw.kZ 'kk[kk cu x;k gSA ;|fi bldk vè;;u Hkh jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa

ls lEcfUèkr jktuhfr ls gS fiQj Hkh ;g jktuhfr&foKku ls bl vFkZ esa fHkUu gS fd blesa jkT; o xSj&'kkldh;

jktuhfr] nksuksa dk gh vè;;u lfEefyr gksrk gSA tcfd jktuhfr&foKku] xSj&'kkldh; jktuhfr ls çR;{k

:i esa lEcfUèkr ugha gksrkA bl çdkj] rqyukRed jktuhfr] ,d gh ns'k dh jk"Vªh; ljdkjksa dk ,sfrgkfld

lUnHkZ o jk"Vªh; lhekvksa osQ vkj&ikj rqyukRed vç.k;u gh ugha gS_ ;g blosQ lkFk] jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa

o jktuhfrd O;ogkj rFkk ljdkjh rU=kksa dks çHkkfor djus okyh xSj&ljdkjh O;oLFkkvksa dk Hkh rqyukRed

vè;;u gSA

¶lcls vfèkd vkèkkjHkwr ckr rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ ckjs esa ;g gS fd vkt ;g ,d ,slk fo"k; gS ftlesa

vR;fèkd fookn gS D;ksafd ;g laØe.k&fLFkfr esa gSμ,d çdkj dh fo'ys"k.k 'kSyh ls nwljs çdkj dh 'kSyh

esa çLFkku dj jgk gSA¸

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blls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr dh ifjHkk"kk o çd`fr dh rjg bldk fo"k;&{ks=k Hkh fookn dk fo"k;gS blosQ {kss=k dks ysdj ijEijkokfn;ksa o vkèkqfud jktuhfr&'kkfL=k;ksa esa xgjk erHksn gSA thu Cyks.Msy JeanBlondel) us ;g fookn nks ckrksa ls lEcfUèkr crk;k gSA igyk gS rqyukRed jktuhfr dh lhek lEcUèkho nwljk gS ekudksa o O;ogkjksa osQ ikjLifjd lEcUèkksa lEcUèkh fooknA

bl çdkj] rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk çeq[kr;k 'kklu&fØ;k osQ bnZ&fxnZ ?kwers jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQrqyukRed vè;;u ls gSA ijUrq 'kklu&fØ;k rhu Lrjksa ij lapkfyr gksrh gS ;k ;ksa dgsa fd ewY;ksa dk vfèkdrvkoaVu rhu Lrjksa ij ifjpkfyr gksrk gSA blfy,] ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ifjpkyurk (operations) osQbu Lrjksa dk] ftuls ewY;ksa dk vkaoVu gksrk gS] ijh{k.k djuk egÙoiw.kZ gSA¸ ;g rhu Lrj gSaμ

(1) ewY;ksa o xUrO;ksa dk fu;eu (formulation of values and goals)

(2) ewY;ksa dks vkRelkr djuk o fufnZ"V fu.kZ;ksa esa :ikUrj.k (digestion of values and their transformationin goal decisions)

(3) fu.kZ;ksa dk dk;kZUo;u (implementation of decisions)

O;ogkjoknh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks ,d bysDVªksfud (electronic) ;U=k osQ :i esa ns[krs gSaA 'kklu&rU=kf}&ekxhZ çpkyu gSA ;g ,d ,slh e'khu gS] tks laosQr (signals) xzg.k djrh gS vkSj budk vU; laosQrksaesa :ikUrj.k djrh gSA rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk 'kklu&rU=k }kjk xzg.k fd;s x;s laosQrksa o muosQ:ikUrj.k dh çfØ;k ls gSA bl çdkj rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u&{ks=k esa] jktuhfrd lekt esa ewY;ksao xUrO;ksa osQ fu;eu dh çfØ;kvksa] bu ewY;ksa dks 'kklu&rU=k }kjk vkRelkr djuk o fufnZ"V fu.kZ;ksa esa:ikUrj vkSj Lohd`r fu.kZ;ksa osQ dk;kZUo;u ls lEc¼ çfØ;k,¡ lfEefyr dh tkrh gSaA

rqyukRed jktuhfrd dk bfrgkl yxHkx mruk gh çkphu gS ftruk jktuhfrd fpUru dk bfrgkl gS lEiw.kZfyf[kr bfrgkl gh rqyukRed jktuhfr dk bfrgkl dgk tk ldrk gSA blosQ loZçFke fpUrd o ys[kdgksus dk Js; vjLrw dks gh çkIr gSA vjLrw dh Hkwfedk rqyukRed jktuhfr dks Bksl vkèkkj nsus esa u osQoyegÙoiw.kZ ekuh tkrh gS] oju~ dbZ dkj.kksa ls ekSfyd Hkh dgh tk ldrh gSA vjLrw us ftu leL;kvksa dksrqyukRed fo'ys"k.k osQ fy, pquk o ftu i¼fr;ksa dk jktuhfrd vè;;u esa çpyu fd;k] os vkt HkhrqyukRed jktuhfr esa çpfyr gSaA

vjLrw us rqyukRed jktuhfr ij osQoy lS¼kfUrd cy gh ugha fn;k] vfirq rRdkyhu fo'o esa çpfyr 158lafoèkkuksa dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k djosQ jktuhfrd vè;;u dks lqfuf'pr rF;ksa ij vkèkkfjr fd;kAvkuqHkfod fo'ys"k.k dk ;g loZçFke ç;ksx FkkA vjLrw us viuh iqLrd iksfyfVDl esa jktuhfr dh vè;;ui¼fr;ksa lEcUèkh ç'u mBk;s vkSj vusdksa ç'uksa dk Lo;a gh bl iqLrd esa mÙkj Hkh fn;kA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dk vkèkqfud vè;;u] iqu%tkxj.k dky osQ jktuhfrd fpUru ls vkjEHk gqvk ekuk tkrkgSA bl dky esa jkT; dks nSoh* (divine) ugha ekuodr* ekuk x;k vkSj blfy, blosQ iquxZBu ;k uo&fuekZ.kdk ;k ;ksa dgsa blesa lqèkkj ekxZ ç'kLr gqvkA

rqyukRed jktuhfr dks rks eSfd;kosyh dh egÙoiw.kZ nsu jgh gS] D;ksafd mlosQ jktuhfr lEcUèkh lHkh fu"d"kZfofHkÂ 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ij gh vkèkkfjr gSaA mldh iqLrd fçUl (Prince) osQ vè;;uls] rqyukRed jktuhfrd vuq'kklu dks mldh nsu dk laosQr feyrk gSA bl iqLrd esa eSfd;kosyh us ;gfopkj O;Dr fd;k gS fd jktuhfr dk O;ofLFkr o rqyukRed vè;;u D;ksa vko';d gS\ mlosQ fpUru oys[ku ls ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd jkT; euq"; }kjk fufeZr laLFkk gS vkSj jktuhfr dk mís'; lkekftd vfHk;U=k.k(social engineering) gSA

eSfd;kosyh lekt dks lacaèkksa dk çrhd crkdj bu lEcUèkksa dh fHkUurk dk laosQr nsrk gSA ;g lEcUèk ,dns'k esa gh fHkÂ&fHkÂ çdkj osQ ugha gksrs] oju~~ gj ns'k esa vyx&vyx çdkj gksrs gSaA

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eSfd;kosyh osQ jktuhfrd fpUru ls ,d ckr ;g Hkh mHkjrh gS fd jktuhfr dk mís'; lkekftd vfHk;U=k.k gSA

eSfd;kosyh us loksZÙke jktuhfr o lkekftd O;oLFkk osQ Kku osQ fy, fofHkÂ çdkj dh O;oLFkkvksa dh rqyukdks vfuok;Z ekuk gSA Lo;a mlus 'kkldksa dks ijke'kZ nsus osQ fy, fofHkÂ ns'kksa dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa o'kkldksa osQ dk;ks± dk vè;;u fd;k vkSj mudh ijLij rqyuk dj fu"d"kZ fudkysA ;g fu"d"kZ fçUl ukediqLrd esa 'kkld dks lq>ko osQ :i esa O;Dr gq,A

bfrgkl rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fodkl dks mUuhloha 'krkCnh esa ys vkrk gSA bl dky dh jktuhfrdfopkjèkkjkvksa dh Hkwfedk rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u osQ lEcUèk esa udkjkRed gh jgh gSA blls ;gvfHkçk; gS fd bl ;qx esa rqyukRed i¼fr osQ fodkl dks ;k rqyukRed vè;;u osQ fopkj dks çR;{k :iesa çksRlkgu ugha feykA

ghxy teZu nk'kZfud FkkA mlosQ vuqlkj vkRek dk eks{k ekuo thou dk vafre mís'; gSA ekuo dk fodkl,d uSfrdrk dh fn'kk esa gks jgk gS] vkSj vafre okLrfodrk dk Kku çkIr djuk (relization of ultimate

reality) gh eks{k çkIr djuk gSA mlosQ vuqlkj tks vafre foosd (reason) gS] og fHkUu&fHkUu çdkj osQ :iesa i`Foh ij vorkj ysrk gS vkSj mldk ,d :i Lo;a euq"; gSA jkT; Hkh ,d ,slk gh vorfjr Lo:i gSA

ghxy blfy, gh ¶jkT; dks bZ'oj dk i`Foh ij fopj.k¸ dgrk gSA bl vkèkkj ij og ,d loZ'kfDrekujkT; dh dYiuk djrk gS] ftlesa euq"; iw.kZr;k jkT; osQ vèkhu jgrk gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl ij ,d&ekxhZ n`f"Vdks.k j[kus okys fopkjd ;g ekurs gSa fd lHkh jk"Vª fodkl osQ ekxZls gksrs gq, vkxs dh vksj c<+ jgs gSaA budh bl lEcUèk esa igyh ekU;rk gS fd lHkh jkT;ksa esa jktuhfrdfodkl dk osQoy ,d gh ekxZ gSA bl fopkj osQ leFkZdksa dh nwljh ekU;rk gS fd nqfu;k osQ lHkh jk"Vª fodklosQ bl ,d ekxZ ij fodkl dh fHkUu&fHkUu voLFkkvksa esa gSaA budh rhljh ekU;rk ;g gS fd jktuhfrdfodkl osQ fy, ç;Ru'khy jk"Vªksa osQ lkeus fodflr jkT;ksa dk vkn'kZ gS bl n`f"Vdks.k osQ leFkZdksa dkvfHker gS fd ,sls rhu vkn'kZ gS ftuesas ls fdlh ,d vkn'kZ dks fodflr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk vkn'kZekuk tk ldrk gSA igyk vkn'kZ ik'pkR; txr osQ jkT;ksa dk] nwljk lksfo;r :l dk vkSj rhljk vkn'kZphu dk gSA

bl nf"Vdks.k osQ çfrikndksa dk dguk gS fd jktuhfrd fodkl osQ laosQrdksa (indicators) dk fu'p; djosQjktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks bl fodkl&ekxZ ij vafdr djrs gh mudh jktuhfrd lajpukvksa vkSj çfØ;kvksadh xR;kRedrkvksa dk Kku gks tk,xkA

jktuhfrd fodkl dk cgq&ekxhZ fopkj blls fHkÂrk j[krk gSA fodkl osQ nwljs n`f"Vdks.k osQ leFkZdjktuhfrd fodkl dks cgqekxhZ ekurs gSa vkSj rhu nyhysa bldh iqf"V osQ fy, nsrs gSaA mudh igyh ekU;rkgS fd jktuhfrd fodkl cgq&fn'kkbZ o cgq&vk;keh (multi-directional and multi-dimensional) gSAD;ksafd] Lo;a fodkl dh vusd fn'kk,¡ gksrh gSaA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl lkekU; fodkl dh èkkjkesa lekbZ gqbZ] fdUrq] Li"V :i ls fof'k"V èkkjk gSA tc lektksa dk fodkl cgq&fn'kkbZ gS rks mudk jktuhfrdfodkl Hkh cgq&fn'kkbZ gks tkrk gSA budh nwljh ekU;rk igyh ekU;rk dk ifj.kke dgh tk ldrh gSA ;gekU;rk jktuhfrd fodkl dks cgq&ekxhZ ekurh gSA

bu nks ekU;rkvksa ls budh rhljh ekU;rk mHkjrh gSA blosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vkn'kZ ;k xUrO;,d&ls ugha gksrs gSaA lHkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ lkeus dksbZ ,d ;k ,d&lk fodkl&vkn'kZ ugha gksrkgSA fodflr vkSj lkE;oknh jkT;ksa esa Hkh bu vkn'kksZa dks ysdj bruh fHkUurk,¡ gSa fd mudk vkn'kZ ;k y{;viuk lduk lEHko gh ugha gSA

if'pe] lksfo;r :l ;k phu dk jktuhfrd fodkl izfreku vc Lohdkj ugha fd;k tkrk gSA fodkl'khyjkT;ksa dk jktuhfrd fodkl vxj ,d fn'kk esa gh jgk gksrk rks mudh izd`fr dks le>uk vR;Ur ljy gks

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tkrkA okLrfod dfBukbZ ;gk¡ ;g vkrh gS fd bu ns'kksa esa fodkl dh u ,d fn'kk gS vkSj u gh fodkldk dksbZ ,d ekxZ gSA

jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vFkZ dks ysdj vHkh Hkh fopkjdksa esa erHksn cuk gqvk gSA blosQ vFkZ ij erHksn dkizeq[k dkj.k bldh O;k[;k fopkjd fo'ks"k dk nf"Vdks.k gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] LiVZ ,elZu] fyilsV] dksyeSuvkSj dVjkbV us jktuhfrd fodkl dks vkfFkZd fodkl dh jktuhfrd iwoZ&'krZ osQ :i esa le>us dk iz;klfd;k gS tcfd jksLVkso tSls vFkZ'kkL=kh us bldks vkS|ksfxd lektksa dh fo'ks"k jktuhfr crk;k gSA xqUukj feMZyvkSj yjuj tSls lekt'kkfL=k;ksa us jktuhfrd fodkl dks jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dk i;kZ; crk;k gSA fcaMjbldks jk"Vªh; jkT; dk izpkjd ;k la?kVd ekurk gSA

vkeUM vkSj dksyeSu jktuhfrd fodkl dks yksdra=k dk i;kZ; dgrs gSaA lkE;oknh vkSj rkuk'kkgh 'kkluO;oLFkkvksa osQ leFkZd LFkkf;Ro vkSj O;ofLFkr ifjorZu dks jktuhfrd fodkl dk uke nsrs gSaA dqN fopkjdjktuhfrd fodkl dks 'kfDr ,oa la?kVu dk ,d :i ekurs gSaA vkeUM] dksyeSu] Cysd] vk;ULVSM vkSjdksuZ gkstj us jktuhfrd fodkl dks lkekftd ifjorZu dh cgq&fn'kk&;qDr izfØ;k osQ ,d igyw osQ :iesa foosfpr fd;k gSA

ikbZ us bldh loZizFke ifjHkk"kk ml le; nh tc bl voèkkj.kk dk fodkl gks jgk FkkA mlosQ }kjk nh xbZifjHkk"kk bl izdkj gS&^^jktuhfrd fodkl] laLd`fr dk folj.k (diffusion) vkSj thou osQ iqjkus izfrekuksadks ubZ ekaxksa osQ vuqdwy cukus] mUgsa muosQ lkFk lkeatL; cSBkuk gSA**


vkRelkrμ xzg.k djuk

fogaxe n`f‘dks.kμ foLr`r utfj;k

1-6 vH;kl&iz'u (Review Questions)

1- rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj ljdkj ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\ blosQ vFkZ&izÑfr] ifjHkk"kk vkSj foLrkj {ks=kdh O;k[;k dhft,A

2- rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ fodkl ij izdk'k Mkfy,A

3- jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk dh foospuk dhft,A

mÙkj % Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- ([k) 2- (d) 3- (?k) 4- (x) 5- (d)

1-7 lanHkZ iqLrosaQ (Further Readings)

1- rqyukRed 'kklu ,oa jktuhfrμMkW- chjosQ'oj izlkn flag] Kkunk izdk'ku (ih- ,.M Mh-) 24]nfj;kxat] valkjh jksM] fnYyhA

2. rqyukRed jktuhfrμts-lh- tkSgjh] LVfy±x ifCy'ktZ izk-fy-] fnYyhA

3- rqyukRed jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjhjksM] fnYyhA

4- rqyukRed jktuhfr dh :ijs[kkμ vkse izdk'k xkck] e;wj isij cSDl] uks,MkA

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bdkbZμ2% rqyukRed i¼fr vkSj jktuhfr



(Comparative Method and Politics)


mís'; (Objectives)


2-1 rqyukRed i¼fr vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr (Comparative Method and Comparative Politics)

2-2 rqyukRed i¼fr dh izÑfr (The Nature of Comparative Method)

2-3 rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ ijEijkxr mikxe (Traditional Approach to the Study of

Comparative Politics)





mís'; (Objectives)


rqyukRed i¼fr dh izÑfr vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ ijEijkxr mikxe dh O;k[;k djus esaA


rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx jktuhfr'kkL=k osQ vè;;u esa jktuhfr'kkL=k osQ tud vjLrw osQ le; ls gksrk vk;k

gSA fllsjks] iksyhfc;l VslhVl] eSfd;kosyh] eksUVsLD;w] VkDdfoy] cstgkV] lj gsujh esu rFkk czkbl bR;kfn

vusd jktuhfrd nk'kZfudksa o jktuhfr'kkfL=k;ksa us vius vè;;u esa bl i¼fr dk mi;ksx fd;k gSA bl i¼fr

osQ iz;ksx ls vè;;udrkZ] fofHkUu jkT;ksa] muosQ laxBuksa] mudh uhfr;ksa ,oa dk;Zdykiksa dk rqyukRed vè;;u

djrk gS vkSj bl izdkj dh rqyukvksa osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd fu"d"kZ fudkyus dk iz;Ru djrk gSA ijUrq] nwljs

fo'o;q¼ ls igys osQ jktuhfr'kkfL=k;ksa }kjk] rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx vrhr o izpfyr jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa

dh ijLij rqyuk djosQ ^vkn'kZ izdkj* ;k jktuhfrd bfrgkl dh izxfr'khy 'kfDr;ksa dh [kkst djus rd gh

lhfer jgk FkkA mUgksaus bl i¼fr dk iz;ksx ,slh lkekU; èkkjk (general current) dh [kkst djus esa fd;k tks

lHkh lafoèkkuksa esa izokfgr gksrh gks vkSj ftl ij vuqHko osQ vuqeksnu dh Nki yx xbZ gksA bl izdkj 1945

rd bl i¼fr dk iz;ksx] jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh vkSipkfjd] dkuwuh o laoSèkkfud rqyukvksa rd gh lhfer

jgk A ;|fi ;q¼ osQ ckn osQ rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kksa esa Hkh rqyukRed i¼fr dk ewyr% ogh rkfoZQd (Logical)

Øe iz;ksx esa vkrk gS] fiQj Hkh] ,f'k;k o vÚhdk osQ uoksfnr jkT;ksa osQ dkj.k] jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh

vusdrk] fofp=krk us rFkk rqyuk osQ izR;;ksa vkSj fo'ys"k.k midj.kksa osQ ifj"dj.k (sophistication) us

rqyukRed i¼fr dks ifjekftZr dj fn;k gSA

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2-1 rqyukRed i¼fr vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr (Comparative Method andComparative Politics)

vc rqyukRed i¼fr] fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks fdlh vU; jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ls ;kfU=kdh rqyuk

(mechanical comparison) ekË ugha ekuh tkrh gSA vc bldk iz;ksx ltZukRed izfØ;k (creative process)

osQ :i esa bl izdkj ls gksrk gS ftlls rqyuk,¡ vfèkd vFkZiw.kZ cukbZ tk losQaA lkekftd foKkuksa esa ;kfU=kdh rqyuk,¡

fdlh vFkZiw.kZ fu"d"kZ rd ugha igaqp ldrh gSaA tSls Hkkjr osQ izèkkueUËh dh] Hkkjr osQ fdlh xkao dh iapk;r

osQ ljiap ls rqyuk dh tk, rks ;g rqyuk osQoy ;kfUËdh gh gks ldrh gS vkSj ,slh rqyuk ls u rks izèkkueU=kh

osQ ckjs esa vkSj u gh ljiap osQ ckjs esa dksbZ vFkZiw.kZ fu"d"kZ fudkyk tk ldrk gSA vc rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx

fo'ks"k vFkks± esa gksus yxk gSA ;g ,d l`tukRed izfØ;k osQ :i esa ns[kh tkus yxh gSA ij bl u;s vFkZ esa bldk

iz;ksx cgqr dfBu cu x;k gS] D;ksafd lkekftd foKkuksa esa rqY; ?kVukvksa dh viuh bPNk o êkul* gksrk gSA

;gh dkj.k gS fd lkekftd foKkuksa esa bl i¼fr dk mi;ksx vfèkd izsjd] pqukSrh okyk ij lkFk gh iQynk;d

cu x;k gSA

vjs.M fy”kiQkVZ us bl i¼fr dh ifjHkk"kk djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ^^rqyukRed i¼fr] vU; lHkh ifjoR;ksZa

dks fLFkj j[krs gq,] nks ;k vfèkd ifjoR;ks± osQ chp lkekU; vkuqHkfod lEcUèk dh LFkkiuk djus dh fofèk gSA**

vFkkZr rqyukRed i¼fr lkekU; vkuqHkfod izLFkkiuk,¡ LFkkfir djus dh vkèkkjHkwr i¼fr;ksa esa ls ,d gSA

vkFkZj ,y- dkycxZ us bl i¼fr dh laf{kIr ifjHkk"kk dh gSA og rqyukRed i¼fr dks ekiu dk ,d :i

(form of measurement) ekË ekurk gSA yklosy vkSj vke.M us rqyukRed i¼fr dks oSKkfud i¼fr

dgdj ifjHkkf"kr fd;k gSA yklosy osQ vuqlkj] ^rqyukRed i¼fr] oSKkfud i¼fr ls fHkUu gks gh ugha ldrh

gSA** mldh ekU;rk gS fd jktuhfrd ?kVukvksa ij oSKkfud n`f"Vdks.k j[kus okys fdlh Hkh O;fDr osQ fy, ,d

LorUË o i`Fkd rqyukRed i¼fr vuko';d gSA vr% buosQ vuqlkj rqyukRed i¼fr] oSKkfud i¼fr dh

rjg gh lkekU; fu;eksa dh [kkst osQ y{; dh izkfIr dh fofèk gSA

dkycxZ] yklosy o vke.M }kjk fd;k x;k rqyukRed i¼fr dk vFkZ] bl i¼fr dh izd`fr dk lgh fp=k.k ugha

djrk gSA ;g ekiu dk ,d :i ekË ugha dgk tk ldrk gSA ekiu ls gh rqyuk,¡ ugha gks tkrh gSaA ;|fi ;g

lgh gS fd ekiu esa rqyuk vUrfuZfgr gS] ij ekiu ,d ?kVuk osQ ckjs esa lkekU; fu"d"kZ ls vkxs ugha ys tk ldrk

gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] ;g ekiu dk fu"d"kZ gS fd fdlh ns'k esa lalnh; yksdrU=k liQy gS] vo'; gh fdlh vU;

lalnh; yksdrU=k osQ ckjs esa lkekU;hdj.k ugha fudkys tk ldrs gSaA blls ;g rks crk;k tk ldrk gS fd lalnh;

yksdrU=k ,slk gS ij blosQ ckjs esa ;g Li"V ugha fd;k tk ldrk fd ,slk D;ksa gS\ blfy, dkycxZ dh ifjHkk"kk]

fd rqyukRed i¼fr ekiu dk ,d :i gS] lgh ugha ekuk tk ldrk gSA

yklosy o vke.M }kjk bls oSKkfud i¼fr gh eku ysuk Hkh Bhd ugha gSA oSKkfud i¼fr rks ,d eukso`fÙk gSA

;g O;ofLFkr i;Zos{k.k] oxhZdj.k vkSj vkadM+ksa dh O;oLFkk gS ftlesa rqyuk Hkh gksrh gks ;g vko';d ugha gSA

tSls] fdlh ns'k dh O;oLFkkfidk dk oSKkfud i¼fr ls vè;;u lEHko ugha gSA bl i¼fr osQ }kjk vè;;u rHkh

gksxk tc fdlh vU; ns'k dh O;oLFkkfidk ls bldh rqyuk dh tk,A vr% rqyukRed i¼fr o oSKkfud i¼fr

dks ,d gh ugha ekuk tk ldrk gSA

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rqyukRed jktuhfr esa rqyukRed i¼fr vkèkkjHkwr gSA rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jktuhfrdlaLFkkvksa dh dk;Zfofèk o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh egRoiw.kZ fujUrjrkvksa] lekurkvksa vkSj vlekurkvksals gksus osQ dkj.k] bl i¼fr osQ }kjk gh ;g fujUrjrk,¡] lekurk,¡ vkSj vlekurk,¡ le>h o [kksthtk ldrh gSaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd dbZ ckj rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj rqyukRed i¼fr dks leku&vFkhZ(synonyms) ;k ,d&nwljs dk i;kZ; eku fy;k tkrk gSA ;g okLro esa ,d&nwljs dk i;kZ; ugha gSA

fu"d"kZ esa ;gh dgk tk ldrk gS fd rqyukRed i¼fr fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk] laLFkk] izfØ;k o jktuhfrdO;ogkj ls lEcfUèkr nks ;k vfèkd ifjoR;ks± esa ijLij vkuqHkfod lEcUèk LFkkfir djus dh ,slh fofèk gS ftlesarqyuk dh lHkh bdkbZ;ksa ls lEcafèkr vU; lHkh ifjoR;ks± dks fLFkj j[kk tkrk gSA tSls] fdlh fuokZpu {ksË esatkfr o ernku vkpj.k (voting behaviour) dk lEcUèk ekywe djus osQ fy, vU; fuokZpu {ksËksa esa ernkuvkpj.k ls bldh rqyuk dh tk,xhA ;gka tkfr osQ vykok lHkh fuokZpu {ksËksa esa ckdh lc ckrsa leku ekudjpyk tk,xk vFkkZr tkfr o er&O;ogkj osQ vykok lHkh ifjoR;Z fLFkj ekus tk,axsA mnkgj.k osQ fy, lHkhfuokZpu {ksËksa esa ckdh lc ckrsa leku ekudj pys tk,axsA mnkgj.k osQ fy, lHkh fuokZpu {ksË xzkeh.k gksaxs]lHkh esa ,d lh f'k{kk gksxh] lHkh esa ernkrkvksa dh vkfFkZd lEiUurk Hkh leku gksxhA blh izdkj f'k{kk] èkeZ]Hkk"kk bR;kfn ifjoR;ks± dk er O;ogkj ls lEcUèk LFkkfir fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj ijLij vusd fuokZfpr {ksËksaesa bu lEcUèkksa dh rqyuk djosQ er O;ogkj osQ lEcUèk esa lkekU;hdj.k rd igqapk tk ldrk gSA mijksDrfoospu ls Li"V gS fd rqyukRed i¼fr dh fuEufyf[kr fo'ks"krk,¡ gksrh gSaμ

(1) ;g fuf'pr :i ls ,d i¼fr gSA (2) ;g oSKkfud i¼fr;ksa esa ,d gS] Lo;a oSKkfud i¼fr ugha gSA(3) ;g ifjoR;ks± osQ chp vkuqHkfod lEcUèk&lwËrk dh [kkst djus dh fofèk gSA (4) ;g rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kdh fofèk gS] izfofèk izfØ;k ;k rqyuk dk n`f"Vdks.k ugha gSA

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ vFkZ o ifjHkk"kk ls ;g Li"V gS fd rqyukRed jktuhfr esa bl i¼fr dk fo'ks"k egÙogh ugha gS cfYd fo'ks"k vFkZ Hkh gSA bl i¼fr dh izd`fr osQ foospu ls ;g vkSj Li"V gks tk,xkA

2-2 rqyukRed i¼fr dh izd`fr (The Nature of Comparative Method)

rqyukRed i¼fr dh izd`fr dk Li"Vhdj.k blosQ iz;ksx dh iwoZ 'krks± osQ foospu }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;gbl vè;k; osQ izkjEHk esa gh ns[kk tk ldrk gS fd rqyukRed i¼fr fdlh Hkh ,d oLrq dh fdlh vU; oLrqls rqyuk djuk ugha gSA ;g ltZukRed izfØ;k gSA bldk rqyukvksa esa iz;ksx rHkh fd;k tk ldrk gS tcfdrqyuk dh bdkb;ksa esa dqN y{k.k vfuok;Zr% fo|eku gksa vFkkZr rqyukRed i¼fr dh rqyuk djus dh dqNiwoZ 'krs± gSaA la{ksi esa ;g iwoZ 'krs± bl izdkj gSa&

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx dh iwoZ 'krs±% (Pre-requisites of Comparative Method)

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx dh dqN fof'k"V iwoZ 'krs± gSaA buosQ iwjk gq, fcuk rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx lsdh xbZ rqyuk,¡ lkekU;hdj.k dh voLFkk rd ugha ys tk ldrh gSA okLro esa] ;g os fof'k"V 'krs± gSa ftulsrqyukRed vè;;uksa dks vFkZ&iw.kZ cukus esa lgk;rk feyrh gSA bu 'krks± dh iwfrZ osQ vHkko esa Hkh rqyukRedfo'ys"k.k rks fd;k tk ldrk gSA ij rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa osQ ckjs esa mi;ksxh fu"d"kZ fudkyuk lEHko ugha gksrkgSA tSls fdlh ns'k dh loksZPp U;k;ky; dh ,d xkao dh U;k; iapk;r ls rqyuk djus ij Hkh rqyuk dh munksuksa bdkb;ksa esa fdlh osQ ckjs esa Hkh dksbZ lkekU; fu;e ugha cuk;k tk losQxkA ;gka bu bdkb;ksa esa izR;;hvarj gksus osQ dkj.k rqyuk gh fujFkZd gksxhA vr% rqyukRed i¼fr dk fdlh Hkh bdkbZ dh fdlh Hkh vU;

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bdkbZ ls rqyuk djus esa mi;ksx lkFkZd ugha gksrk gSA bldh lkFkZdrk osQ fy, dqN iwoZ 'krks± dk iwjk gksukvko';d gSA ;g fof'k"V iwoZ 'krs± fuEufyf[kr gSa&

(d) rqyuk dh bdkbZ p;u osQ dkjd osQ :i esa izR;;h <kapk ;k fopkjcUèk (Conceptual framework

as a factor in unit selection)— rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx esa rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa dk izR;;h <kapk ,d&lk gksukvko';d gSA ,d&ls izR;;h <kaps ls ;gka ;g rkRi;Z gS fd lHkh bdkb;k¡ ,d gh izR;; ls lEcfUèkr gksaA mnkgj.kosQ fy,] Hkkjr dh laln dh rqyuk] fczVsu dh laln ls djus ij] rqyuk dh nksuksa bdkb;k¡&Hkkjr o fczVsu dh lalnsa]leku izR;;h <kaps okyh bdkb;k¡ dgh tk,axhA ;gk¡ ;g è;ku j[kuk gS fd rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa dk ,d&lk izR;;h<kapk nksuksa dh ,d:irk ;k lekurk dk laosQrd ugha gSA bl mnkgj.k esa nksuksa dh lalnksa esa fofHkUurk vkSj fofpËrkgksus ij Hkh izR;; dh n`f"V ls nksuksa dk fopkjcUèk ,d leku gSA vFkkZr nksuksa gh jk"Vªh; laln gSa] ij vxj jktLFkkudh foèkku lHkk dh vejhdk dh dkaxzsl (O;oLFkkfidk) ls rqyuk dh tk, rks nksuksa bdkb;ksa dk izR;;h <kapkvyx&vyx gks tk,xk vkSj rqyuk rks dh tk losQxh] ij ;g ltZukRed ugha gks losQxhA ;gka jktLFkku dh foèkkulHkk o vejhdk dh dkaxzsl izR;;h <kaps dh lekurk ugha j[krh gSA blfy, bu nksuksa dh rqyuk rks gks losQxh rFkkdqN fu"d"kZ Hkh fudkyuk lEHko gksxk ij mlls vkxs bl rqyuk osQ vkèkkj ij] bu nksuksa bdkbZ;ksa esa ls fdlh osQckjs esa Hkh lkekU; fl¼kUr ugha cuk, tk losQaxs vkSj u gh nksuksa osQ ckjs esa dksbZ Li"Vhdj.k nsuk lEHko gksxkA vr%rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx osQ fy, rqyuk dh bdkbZ osQ pquko esa ,d&lk&izR;;h <kapk gksuk vko';d gh ughavfuok;Z Hkh gksrk gSA

([k) vUos"k.k osQ osQUæ osQ :i esa rqY; izR;;h fo"k; (Comparable conceptual issue as focus of

enquiry)— rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx dh ,d iwoZ 'krZ ;g Hkh gS fd vUos"k.k osQ osQUæ osQ :i esa rqyuk ;ksX;o leku izR;;ksa osQ fo"k; gh rqyukRed vè;;uksa osQ fy, pqus tk,¡ vU;Fkk vè;;u osQ lEcUèk esa ifjdYiuk djukgh dfBu gks tk,xkA leku izR;;h fo"k; ls rqyuk dh fo"k;&oLrq dh ,d:irk dk vFkZ ugha gS cfYd fo"k; oLrqvksaesa eksVh lekurk ls gSA blls 'kksèk dk;Z esa fn'kkbZ ,drk (directional unity) jgsxh vkSj vFkZiw.kZ rqyukRedfo'ys"k.k lEHko gks losQxkA

(x) rqyuk dh izR;;h bdkb;ksa dh ifjHkkf"krrk (Definationally conceptual units of comparison)—

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx esa osQoy ,slh gh izR;;h bdkb;ksa dk p;u djuk pkfg, ftudh ifjHkk"kk dh tk losQAbdkb;ksa osQ pquko esa ;g è;ku j[kuk t:jh gS fd muls lEcafèkr izR;; le;] LFkku vkSj laLd`fr osQ cUèkuksa lseqDr gksa rFkk lHkh voLFkkvksa o ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ykxw gksus okys gksaA blls osQoy ;gh rkRi;Z gS fd izR;;h bdkb;k¡,slh gksa ftudh ekU; ifjHkk"kk gksA tSls jktuhfrd O;oLFkk jktuhfrd fodkl ;k jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dhifjHkk"kk djuk lEHko gSA rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa ls lEcfUèkr izR;; ,sls ugha gksus pkfg, fd ;k rks mudh ifjHkk"kkgh ugha dh tk losQ vkSj vxj mudks ifjHkkf"kr djuk lEHko gks rks Hkh gj 'kksèkdrkZ dh ifjHkk"kk] gj nwljs 'kksèkdrkZdh ifjHkk"kk ls fHkUu gksA ^lektokn* o yksdrU=k* vkt ,sls gh izR;; cu x, yxrs gSaA vr% rqyuk esa ,sls ghizR;;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tk, ftudh ifjHkk"kk dh tk losQ rFkk tks fopkjèkkjk] LFkku vkSj ewY;ksa osQ cUèkuksa ls eqDrgksA ,slk gksus ij gh rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k vFkZiw.kZ fu"d"kks± rd tk losQxkA

(?k) 'kksèk osQ osQUæ dh lqfuf'prrk (Definiteness of the focus of enquiry)— rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kksa esarqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx mi;ksxh cukus osQ fy, vè;;u dk lqfuf'pr è;s; ;k eUrO; gksuk pkfg,A bls fujFkZdrF;ksa dh rqyuk ls cpuk lEHko gksrk gSA vxj 'kksèk osQ osQUæ dh lqfuf'prrk ugha gksxh rks vuko';d vkadM+ksa osQladyu dk [krjk jgsxkA lqfuf'pr mís'; ls vè;;u dh bdkb;ksa osQ ckjs esa ifjdYiuk djuk Hkh ljy gks tkrk gSA

(p) izR;;h bdkbZ osQ de ls de mnkgj.kksa dh vfuok;Zrk (Necessity of atleast two cases of

conceptual units)— rqyuk djus dk rkRi;Z gh ;g gS fd de ls de nks mnkgj.k rks miyCèk gksaA vxj nks ;knks ls vfèkd mnkgj.k ugha gksaxs rks rqyuk lEHko gh ugha gksxhA tgk¡ osQoy ,d gh ?kVuk ;k mnkgj.k gS ogkarqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA

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mijksDr iwoZ 'krs± bl i¼fr osQ mi;ksx esa vR;f/d&egRo j[krh gSA rqyukvksa dks l`tukRed cukus osQ fy, bu'krks± dh vko';drk Lor% Li"V gSA buesa ls ,d dk Hkh vHkko vU; 'krks± dh iwfrZ dks vlEHko cuk nsrk gSA vr%;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd rqyukvksa dks vFkZiw.kZ cukus osQ fy, rqyukRed i¼fr dh ;g 'krs± iwjh gksuh gh pkfg,vU;Fkk rqyuk,¡ osQoy ;kfUËdh cu dj jg tk,¡xhA

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx dh iwoZ 'krks± osQ foospu ls bl i¼fr dh izd`fr dk Li"Vhdj.k gks tkrk gSA blls;g Hkh le> esa vk tkrk gS fd fdlh Hkh izdkj dh bdkb;ksa dh ijLij rqyuk djuk rqyukRed i¼fr dk vuqlj.kugha dgk tk ldrk gSA bu 'krks± osQ foospu osQ ckn mu pj.kksa dk mYys[k djuk vko';d gS tks bl i¼fr osQizR;;ksa esa iz;qDr gksrs gSa ;g la{ksi esa fuEufyf[kr gSa&

rqyukRed i¼fr dk ifjpkyukRed fopkj (Operational View of Comparative method)

rqyukRed i¼fr dh iwoZ 'krks± osQ foospu ls ;g laosQr feyrk gS fd bl i¼fr dk iz;ksx fof'k"V izdkj ls ghgks ldrk gSA blosQ iz;ksx osQ dqN fuf'pr pj.k gSa ftudk vuqxeu djrs gq, gh rqyuk,¡ l`tukRed cu ikrhgSaA lkekU;r;k bl i¼fr osQ iz;ksx osQ fuEufyf[kr pj.kksa dk ikyu gksus ij gh ;g i¼fr fØ;kRed :i ysldrh gSA

(d) izR;;h <kaps osQ vkèkkj ij rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa dk p;u (Selection of units of comparison on the

basis of conceptual framework)— ;g igys gh ns[kk tk pqdk gS fd rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa dks pquko djrs le;izR;;h <kaps dk vkèkkj D;ksa fy;k tkuk pkfg,A ;gk¡ bruk gh ;kn j[kuk i;kZIr jgsxk fd vxj rqyuk dh bdkb;ksadk vkèkkj] ,d gh izdkj dk izR;; ugha jgk rks rqyuk,¡ lkekU; fu"d"kZ fudkyus esa lgk;d ugha gks losQaxhAmnkgj.k osQ fy, fdlh ns'k dh dk;Zikfydk dh vU; ns'k dh U;k;ikfydk ls rqyuk djuk nks fHkUu&fHkUu izdkjosQ izR;;ksa osQ dkj.k] laHko gksrs gq, Hkh mi;ksxh ugha gksxkA ;gk¡ ;g Hkh è;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr gS fd oSls rks bl i¼frosQ fy, nks gh mnkgj.k gksus ij Hkh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gS ij fu"d"kks± dks lkekU;hdj.k dk :i nsus osQ fy,ftrus vfèkd mnkgj.k gksaxs mruh gh ifj'kq¼rk c<+rh tk,xhA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] vxj lalnh; 'kklu O;oLFkk vkSjnyh; O;oLFkk dh izd`fr dk ijLij lEcUèk tkuuk gks rks lalnh; 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa osQ vusd mnkgj.k gksus ij'kq¼rk;qDr fu"d"kZ fudkyus esa lgwfy;r jgsxhA mnkgj.kksa dh vfèkdrk rqyuk dks O;kidre cukus dk volj iznkudjrh gSA blfy, izR;;h bdkb;ksa dk vè;;u mruk gh Js"Brj gksxk ftruh fd mnkgj.kksa dh la[;k] ftUgsa rqyukesa lfEefyr fd;k x;k gSA

([k) rqyuk dh bdkb;ksa dk oxhZdj.k (Classfication of the units of comparison)— rqyuk osQ fy, pquhxbZ izR;;h bdkb;ksa dk oxhZdj.k djosQ gh rqyukRedrk dh voLFkk esa igq¡pk tk ldrk gSA oxhZdj.k ls rqyukdk {ksË o bdkb;ksa osQ oxZ dk lhekadu gks tkrk gSA blls rqyuk dk {ksË lqfuf'pr o lqLi"V gks tkrk gSA mnkgj.kosQ fy,] vxj 50 jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡ rqyukRed vè;;u esa lfEefyr dh xbZ gksa rks budh lEHkkfor ifjdYiukdks è;ku esa j[krs gq, oxhZdj.k djuk mi;ksxh jgrk gSA vxj ifjdYiuk yksdrUË osQ fdlh igyw ls lEcfUèkrgS vkSj osQoy yksdrkaf=kd O;oLFkkvksa dh rqyuk gh djuh gks rc bu 50 jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dk nks oxks± esa foHkDrgksuk vko';d gSA ,d oxZ yksdrkfUËd O;oLFkkvksa dk rFkk nwljk fujadq'k O;oLFkkvksa dk djuk gksxkA oxhZdj.kls ifjdYiuk djuk ljy gks tkrk gS rFkk O;FkZ osQ vkadM+ksa osQ ladyu ls cpk tk ldrk gSA

(x) rqyuk dh lHkh bdkb;ksa osQ lEcUèk esa ifjdYiukRed izLFkkiukvksa dh LFkkiuk (Formulation of

hypothetical propositions about all the units under comparison)— ifjdYiukRed izLFkkiukvksa dhLFkkiuk dks ysdj fookn gS fd ;g bdkbZ osQ p;u osQ igys gksuh pkfg, ;k mlosQ ckn esaA dqN yksxksa dk fopkjgS fd budh LFkkiuk igys gksrh gS rFkk budks è;ku esa j[kdj gh vè;;u dh bdkb;ksa dk p;u fd;k tk ldrkgSA nwljs oxZ osQ yksxksa dk dguk gS fd ifjdYiuk fcuk vkèkkj osQ ugha dh tk ldrh gSA blfy, bdkbZ dk p;uigys gksuk pkfg,A lkekU;r;k nwljk fopkj gh ekU; gSA D;ksafd bdkb;ksa osQ p;u osQ ckn izLFkkiukvksa dh LFkkiukesa vfèkd NwV fey tkrh gSA pquh xbZ bdkb;ksa dks ysdj gj lEHko ifjdYiuk dh tk ldrh gS vkSj muesa ls ,d;k dqN ;k lHkh dh rqyukRed <ax ls ij[k dh tk ldrh gSA

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(?k) rqyuk dh gj bdkbZ dks ysdj ifjdYiukRed izLFkkiuk dh oSèkrk dh ij[k (Testing the validity

of hypothetical proposition about each instace of comparison) - ifjdYiukRed izLFkkiukvksa dh oSèkrk dhij[k bdkb;ksa ls lEcafèkr vkadM+ksa osQ ladyu osQ }kjk dh tkrh gSA lHkh vko';d vkadM+ksa dk] vkadM+s ,dfËr djusdh fofoèk fofèk;ksa esa ls dqN dk ;k vusd dk iz;ksx djosQ] ladyu djosQ rqyuk dh gj bdkbZ osQ lEcUèk esa izLFkkiukvksadh oSèkrk ij[kh tkrh gSA izLFkkiukvksa dh oSèkrk dh ;g ij[k vkadM+ksa dh ijLij rqyuk djosQ dh tkrh gSA

(Ä) ifj.kkeksa osQ vuqlkj izLFkkiuk dk lR;kiu R;kx vFkok ifjektZu&la'kksèku djuk (Confirming,

abandoning or refining the proposition according to results)— izLFkkiukvksa dks vkadM+ksa }kjk ij[k djosQlR;kiu] R;kx ;k ifjektZu fd;k tkrk gSA vxj ladfyr vkadM+s izLFkkiuk dh iqf"V djrs gksa rks izLFkkiuk LFkkfir gkstkrh gSA foijhr vkadM+s gksus ij bldk R;kx ;k ifjektZu djosQ mldks vkadM+ksa osQ vuqlkj la'kksfèkr dj fy;k tkrk gSA

(p) vewrhZdj.k ;k fl¼kUr fuekZ.k (Abstraction or theory building)— tc ,d vè;;u osQ lkekU;fu"d"kZ izkIr gks tkrs gSa rks mudh rqyuk vU; vè;;uksa osQ fu"d"kksZa ls dh tkrh gS vkSj vxj vusd mnkgj.kksa esa,d gh izdkj osQ fu"d"kZ fudyrs gSa rks bl vkèkkj ij lkekU;hdj.k fd, tk ldrs gSaA bu lkekU;hdj.kksa osQ }kjkfl¼kUr fuekZ.k esa lgk;rk feyrh gSA tc vusd izdkj dh voLFkkvksa] O;oLFkkvksa rFkk fHkUu&fHkUu laLd`fr;ksa esaHkh rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k osQ fu"d"kZ ,d ls ik, tkrs gksa rks fl¼kUr cu tkrs gSa tks le;] LFkku vkSj fopkjèkkjkvksaosQ cUèkuksa ls eqDr vkSj gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa [kjs mrjrs gSaA vxj rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k O;kid iSekus ij vusdfofoèkrk okyh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa dk;Zjr jgus okyh bdkb;ksa dks ysdj fd, x, gksa rks fo'oO;kih fl¼kUr cuk, tkldrs gSa] vU;Fkk eè;&Lrjh; (middle-range) ;k fuEu&Lrjh; (low-levle) fl¼kUr cu ikrs gSaA

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx esa lkekU;r;k mijksDr pj.kksa osQ vuqlkj rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k fd;k tkrk gSA ,dmnkgj.k osQ }kjk bldk Li"Vhdj.k bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gSA eku fy;k tk, fd rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksxls lalnh; iz.kkyh rFkk nyh; O;oLFkk osQ ijLij lEcUèk dk vè;;u djuk gSA rc ;g vko';d gS fd ,sls vè;;uls lEcafèkr lHkh bdkb;ksa osQ }kjk bl i¼fr dh lHkh iwoZ 'krs± iwjh gksuh pkfg,A ;gk¡ rqyuk dh izR;;h bdkbZ lalnh;iz.kkyh ls lEcaafèkr gS ftldks ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gS rFkk nyh; O;oLFkk ls bldk lEcUèk 'kksèk dk osQUælqfuf'pr dj nsrk gSA blosQ ckn ;g i¼fr rHkh iz;qDr gks ldrh gS tc lalnh; iz.kkyh osQ vusd mnkgj.k gksaA;g fofHkUu O;oLFkkvksa dk] tks vusd gks ldrh gS] lalnh; vkSj vè;{kkRed O;oLFkkvksa esa oxhZdj.k djosQ fd;ktkrk gSA vxj bl oxhZdj.k esa osQoy ,d gh mnkgj.k ,slk gS tgk¡ ij lalnh; iz.kkyh gS rc rqyukRed i¼frdk bl vè;;u esa iz;ksx ugha gks ldrkA eku ysa fd bl vè;;u esa vusd lalnh; iz.kkfy;ksa osQ mnkgj.k gSaA blosQckn ifjdYiukRed izLFkkiuk ;k izLFkkiuk,¡ djuh gksrh gSaA tSls bl mnkgj.k esa ;g izLFkkiuk dh tk ldrh gSfd lalnh; iz.kkyh ogha liQy gksrh gS tgka f}nyh; O;oLFkk gksA bl izLFkkiuk osQ ckn] gj ns'k dh lalnh; iz.kkyhdh liQyrk osQ laosQrd] (indicator) tks igys gh fuèkkZfjr fd, gq, gksrs gSa] vkadM+ksa osQ :i esa ladfyr fd,tkrs gSa rFkk bUgsa fofHkUu lalnh; iz.kkfy;ksa& ,dnyh; O;oLFkk] ,dnyh; izèkku O;oLFkk (one party dominancesystem)] f}nyh; O;oLFkk vkSj cgqnyh; O;oLFkk okyh lalnh; iz.kkfy;ksa osQ lacaèk esa izLFkkiuk dh oSèkrk dks ij[kosQ fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA tSls mnkgj.k esa ;g ns[kk tk,xk fd lalnh; yksdra=k tgk¡&tgk¡ liQy gS ogk¡ dkSu&lhnyh; O;oLFkk gS vxj rqyukRed vkadM+s ;g laosQr nsa fd gj liQy lalnh; yksdra=k esa f}nyh; O;oLFkk gS rcizLFkkiuk dh lR;rk dh iqf"V gks tk,xh vkSj ;g lkekU;hdj.k fd;k tk losQxk fd lalnh; yksdrU=k dh liQyrkosQ fy, f}nyh; O;oLFkk vko';d gSA ijUrq vxj vkadM+s ;g Li"V djsa fd gj liQy lalnh; iz.kkyh esa cgqnyh;O;oLFkk,¡ ikbZ tkrh gSa rks ,slh voLFkk esa izLFkkiuk dk lR;kiu ugha gks ldrk vkSj bldk la'kksèku djuk vko';dgksxkA ;fn lHkh fHkUu mnkgj.kksa esa vkadM+s ;g Li"V djsa fd gj mnkgj.k esa lalnh; yksdraË liQy gS vFkkZr] lHkhizdkj osQ nyh; O;oLFkkvksaa esa lalnh; yksdra=k liQyrkiwoZd dk;Z dj jgk gS rks ,slh voLFkk esa ifjdYiukRedizLFkkiuk dk R;kx djuk gksxk vkSj ;g lkekU;hdj.k cuk;k tk losQxk fd lalnh; yksdrU=k dh liQyrk ;kvliQyrk dk nyh; O;oLFkk dh izd`fr ls dksbZ lEcUèk ugha gSA tc vusd mnkgj.k] dbZ izdkj dh ifjfLFkfr;ksao vyx&vyx le; esa vè;;u osQ fy, fy;s tk,¡ vkSj gj le; lkekU;hdj.k ,d gh izdkj osQ gksa rks buosQ}kjk fl¼kar fuekZ.k gks ldrk gS vFkkZr ;g fl¼kUr gj ifjfLFkfr] gj izdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk o nyksa dh

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voLFkk esa gj ns'k dh lalnh; iz.kkyh ij ykxw fd;k tk losQxkA bl mnkgj.k ls ;g Li"V gS fd rqyukRed i¼frdks l`tukRed izfØ;k osQ :i esa rHkh iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gS tc dqN fuf'pr 'krs± iwjh gksa vkSj dqN fof'k"Vpj.kksa dk vuqlj.k fd;k tk,A

mijksDr foospu ls bl i¼fr dh izd`fr dk Li"Vhdj.k gks tkrk gSA blls ;g Hkh le> esa vk tkrk gS fd fdlhizdkj dh bdkb;ksa dh] fdlh izdkj ls rqyuk djuk rqyukred i¼fr dk iz;ksx ugha dgk tk ldrk gSA bldhizd`fr osQ bl o.kZu ls bl i¼fr osQ fo"k;&{ks=k dk laosQr Hkh feyrk gSA

rqyukRed i¼fr dh mi;ksfxrk (Utility of Comparative Method)

jktuhfrd vè;;uksa o fo'ks"kdj rqyukRed jktuhfr esa rqyukRed i¼fr dh cgqr mi;ksfxrk gSA nwljsfo'o;q¼ osQ ckn jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh rqyukvksa esa ØkfUrdkjh ifjorZu vk x;k gSA vc jktuhfrd O;oLFkkdks fofHkUu ijLij fojksèkh nkoksa vkSj ekaxksa dks Lohd`r fu.kZ;ksa esa ifjofrZr djus dh O;oLFkk dgk tkus yxkgSA bl izdkj osQ fu.kZ;ksa rd igq¡pus esa cgq:ih lkekftd lewgksa] nyksa] la?k"kks±] fgr&laxBuksa vkSj {ks=kksa osQijLij fojksèkh fopkjksa esa lkeatL; LFkkfir djuk gksrk gS ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ,d rjiQ rksdk;Zikfydk] O;oLFkkfidk] U;k;ikfydk o ukSdj'kkgh osQ :i esa ljdkjh lajpuk,¡ (structure) gksrh gSa rFkknwljh rjiQ lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd izfØ;k ls lEcfUèkr lewg gksrs gSaA bu nksuksa dh la;kstu&dM+h lekt osQlnL;ksa osQ os fo'okl vkSj ewY; gksrs gSa tks os jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ ckjs esa j[krs gSaA fofHkUu ljdkjhvaxksa&vkfFkZd] lkekftd] lkaLd`frd lewgksa vkSj fopkjèkkjkvksa osQ chp vuojr vuar&fØ;k,¡ gksrh jgrh gSaAbUgha vuar&fØ;kvksa osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfr dh xR;kRed 'kfDr dk fuekZ.k gksrk gS vkSj ;gh 'kfDr O;oLFkkesa fu.kZ; dh fLFkfr ykrh gSA bu lHkh esa LFkkf;Ro osQ lkFk gh lkFk yxkrkj ifjorZu vkSj mFky&iqFky gksrsjgrs gSaA ;g ,d dq'ky vkSj izHkko'khy jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ugha gS tks ifjorZuksa vkSj LFkkf;Ro osQ chp larqyucuk, j[ksA nwljs 'kCnksa esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh izHkko'khyrk dh dlkSVh bl ckr esa fufgr gS fd oglEHkkfor ifjorZuksa vkSj orZeku LFkkf;Ro osQ chp larqyu j[kus esa dgk¡ rd liQy gksrh gSA rqyukRed i¼frosQ iz;ksx ls orZeku esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh ,slh izHkko'khyrk ;k blosQ vHkko osQ dkjdksa dks le>kuso le>us esa lgk;rk feyrh gS blfy, rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx egÙoiw.kZ cu x;k gSA D;ksafd] ,djktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vU; jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ls rqyuk djrs gh nksuksa O;oLFkkvksa esa ifjorZu ;k tM+rkosQ dkjdksa dk laosQr feyus yxrk gSA vr% rqyukRed i¼fr] jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh xgjkbZ rd igq¡pusosQ fy, vko';d gSA rqyukvksa osQ ekè;e ls gh jktuhfrd le> c<+rh gSA la{ksi esa rqyukRed i¼fr osQiz;ksx dh mi;ksfxrk dks fuEufyf[kr fcUnqvksa ls Li"V dj ldrs gSa&

(1) jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks le>us esa lgk;d gSA

(2) jktuhfr dks oSKkfud vè;;u cukus esa lgk;d gSA

(3) jktuhfr esa fl¼kUr fuekZ.k djus esa lgk;d gSA

(4) izpfyr jktuhfrd fl¼kUrksa dh iqu%izkekf.kdrk fl¼ djus esa lgk;d gSA

vc rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx ?kVuk&izokgksa (trends) osQ ckjs esa foLrr o O;kid Hkfo";okf.k;k¡ djus dh voLFkkrd igq¡pus osQ fy, Hkh fd;k tkus yxk gSA vc nyh; O;oLFkkvksa ;k fofHkUu lkekftd O;oLFkkvksa osQ jktuhfrdizfrekuksa ij izHkko dh rqyuk] jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa vfLFkjrk dh leL;k ;k Js"B jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dhLFkkiuk osQ y{; ls dh tkus yxh gS] ftlls ljdkj o lekt dks lEHkkfor [krjksa ls vkxkg fd;k tk losQA blesarqyuk gh vkèkkjHkwr gSA rqyuk djosQ gh ,slh psrkofu;k¡ nh tk ldrh gSaA bl rjg rqyukRed i¼fr dh rqyukRedjktuhfr esa gh ugha] lHkh lkekftd foKkuksa esa mi;ksfxrk c<+rh tk jgh gSA

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vjLrw us jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro o ØkfUr;ksa osQ dkj.kksa dks le>us osQ fy, gh ;wuku osQ

uxj&jkT;ksa osQ 158 lafoèkkuksa dh rqyuk dh FkhA blhfy, vjLrw dks rqyukRed i¼fr

dk izorZd dgk tkrk gSA

rqyukRed i¼fr dh leL;k,¡ (Problems of Comparative Method)

jktuhfrd O;ogkj ls lacafèkr rqyukRed fo'ys"k.kksa esa rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx izeq[kr;k nks dkj.kksa ls gks tkrkgSA ,d rks i`"BHkwfe ifjoR;ks± (back ground variables) dh la[;k dh leL;k jgrh gS rFkk nwljh leL;k ,dls izR;;h <kaps osQ vkèkkj ij gh mnkgj.kksa osQ p;u osQ dkj.k osQlst (cases) dh la[;k esa cgqr deh dh gSAjktuhfrd thou esa djksM+ksa O;fDr;ksa dh xfrfofèk;k¡ lfEefyr jgrh gSaA ;g xfrfofèk;k¡ o mu lc O;fDr;ksa dkO;ogkj izfreku vusd rRoksa ls izHkkfor gksrk gSA vkfFkZd fLFkfr;ksa ls ysdj tyok;q rd o HkkSxksfyd fo'ks"krkvksals ,sfrgkfld nq?kZVukvksa rd dk izR;{k ;k vizR;{k izHkko 'kkldksa o ljdkjksa osQ O;ogkj ij iM+rk gSA rqyukRedi¼fr osQ iz;ksx esa bu ifjoR;ks± dh leL;k vR;fèkd tfVy gS D;ksafd jktuhfrd O;ogkj] gj Lrj ij gj {k.kbuls izHkkfor gksrk jgrk gSA blfy, rqyukvksa dks ;FkkFkZoknh cukus osQ fy, bu i`"BHkwfe ifjoR;ks± dh u osQoytkudkjh gh vko';d gS oju~ budh igpku Hkh t:jh gSA ;g ifjoR;ks± dh vla[;rk] tfVyrk] buosQ eki dhdfBukbZ bR;kfn budh tkudkjh lEHko gh ugha gksus nsrh gSA nwljh dfBukbZ mnkgj.kksa dh la[;k dh gSA rqyukRedi¼fr osQ iz;ksx osQ fy, vusd ugha rks Hkh dkiQh mnkgj.k vko';d gSA bu leL;kvksa dk mUewyu rks lEHko gSgh ughaA ijUrq buls cpus osQ fy, lkekU;r% nks mik; fd, tkrs gSaA ,d rks rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k dks rqyukRedfLFkfr;ksa ij gh osQfUær fd;k tkrk rFkk nwljk] rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k dks izeq[k ifjoR;ks± ij vkèkkfjr j[kk tk,Ablls mijksDr leL;kvksa dk vkaf'kd :i ls lekèkku gks tk,xk rFkk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k djus esa ljyrk jgsxhA

rqyukRed i¼fr osQ vFkZ] izd`fr rFkk {ksË osQ o.kZu ls Li"V gks tkrk gS fd ;g i¼fr jktuhfrd vè;;uksa esavfèkdkfèkd iz;qDr gksxhA bl i¼fr dh oSKkfud] iz;ksxkRed rFkk lakf[;dh fofèk;ksa ls Js"Brk osQ dkj.k rqyukRedjktuhfr osQ vè;;u esa bldk mi;ksx c<+rk tk jgk gSA

2-3 rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ ijEijkxr mikxe (Traditional Approachto the Study of Comparative Politics)

ijEijkxr mikxe & jktuhfr osQ ewY;&Hkkfjr vè;;u ij cy

jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ mikxeksa dks eksVs rkSj ij nks oxks± esa ckaVk tk ldrk gS&ekuijd (normatice) vkSjO;kogkjijd (empirical) ekuijd mikxe dks ewY;&eqDr (value free) osQ :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA nwljs'kCnksa esa] tgk¡ igys dh fo'ks"krk fu;kedrk gS nwljs dh fo'ks"krk O;ogkjokn gSA vr% bl ckjs esa gekjs oxhZdj.kdk vkèkkj rF;&ewY; (fact value) lEcUèk gSaA blosQ vkèkkj ij ge ;g dg ldrs gSa fd tcfd ijEijkxrmikxeksa dk >qdko ewY;ksa* dh vksj gksrk gS] nwljk mikxe rF;ksa* dk lgkjk ysrk gSA bldk ifj.kke rF;&ewY;}U} (dichotomy) fuèkkZjd dkjd cu tkrk gSA ijEijkxr mikxeksa dk Lo:i ,sfrgkfld] fooj.kkRed vkSjvkns'kkRed gS ftlesa ewY;ksa vkSj y{;ksa osQ fy;s izeq[k LFkku gSA mudh fofHkUu fdLeksa dh ppkZ uhps dh tkjgh gSA

1- nk'kZfud mikxe% jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ fy, lcls iqjkuk mikxe nk'kZfud (philosophical appraoch)gS ftls vkpkj'kkL=kh; mikxe osQ uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;gk¡ jkT;] ljdkj vkSj ekuo dk jktuhfrd lÙkk osQ:i esa vè;;u dqN mís';ksa] uSfrd f'k{kkvksa] lR;ksa ;k mPp fl¼krksa osQ vuqlj.k osQ lkFk vfHkUu :i ls tqM+kgqvk gS tks leLr Kku vkSj okLrfodrk esa varfuZfgr gksrk gSA bl {ks=k esa jktuhfr dk vè;;u euu'khy Lo:i

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èkkj.k dj ysrk gS] D;ksafd nk'kZfud 'kCn dk lEcUèk gh fparu ls gSA nk'kZfud fo'ys"k.k fdlh fo"k; osQ Lo:iosQ fopkj dks Li"V djus vkSj mlosQ lkèkuksa ,oa lkè;ksa osQ vè;;u djus dk iz;kl gSA bls ;fn vkSj vfèkd lkekU;'kCnksa esa izLrqr fd;k tk;s rks ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd tks O;fDr fdlh fo"k; osQ izfr nk'kZfud mikxe dks viukrkgS] mldk mís'; Hkk"kk Li"Vrk dks c<+kuk vkSj Hkk"kk;h vLi"Vrk dks de djuk gksrk gSA og ;g eku ysrk gS fdfooj.k esa bLrseky dh xbZ Hkk"kk okLrfodrk dh ladYiukvksa dks ifjyf{kr djrh gS vkSj og okLrfodrk dhladYiukvksa dks ;FkklEHko vfèkd ls vfèkd Li"V] laxr] lgk;d vkSj lqlaxr cukuk pkgrk gSA og fpaÙku vkSjfopkj vfHkO;fDr dks izHkkfor vkSj mldk ekxZn'kZu djuk pkgrk gS ftlls bl laHkkouk dks vfèkd ls vfèkdO;kid fd;k tk losQ fd okLrfodrk dk pquk gqvk i{k (jktuhfr) cksèkxE; cu tk,A

blh dkj.k] nk'kZfud vkSj vkpkj'kkL=kh; mikxe dk leFkZu djus okys ys[kd vkSj fopkjd 'kkldksa vkSj jktuhfrdleqnk; osQ lnL;ksa dks ;g ijke'kZ nsuk pkgrs gSa fd os fdUgha mPp y{;ksa dk vuqlj.k djsaA blhfy,] IysVks] eksj]csdu] gSfjaxVu] :lks] dkaV] ghxy] xzhu] ckslkaosQ] uSfVyf'ki] fyMls vkSj fy;ks LVªkl osQ egku xzUFkksa esa jktuhfrosQ vè;;u dks vewÙkZrk osQ cgqr mPp Lrj rd mBk;k x;k gS vkSj lkFk gh muesa ewY;ksa dh iz.kkyh dks vkn'kZjktuhfrd iz.kkyh osQ dqN mPp fu;eksa osQ lkFk tksM+ fn;k x;k gSA ;gka ekuijdrk dk izHkqRo'kkyh LFkku gSA vjLrq]eSfd;kosyh] cksnka] gkCl] ykWd vkSj ekUVsLD;w tSls ys[kdksa osQ izeq[k xzaFkksa esa tks O;ogkjokn ik;k tkrk gS og ;krks jktuhfr osQ vè;;u dks vkpkj'kkL=k ;k bfrgkl ;k euksfoKku ;k fofèk'kkL=k osQ vè;;u osQ lkFk lesfdr djrkizrhr gksrk gS rkfd lqO;ofLFkr jktuhfrd leqnk; dh rLohj dks is'k djus dk iz;kl fd;k tk losQA

nk'kZfud mikxe dh bl vkèkkj ij vkykspuk dh tkrh gS fd ;g fparukRed vkSj vewrZ gSA ;g dgk tkrk gSfd ;g ;FkkFkZ dh nqfu;k ls cgqr nwj ys tkrk gSA bl ij ifjdYiukRed gksus dk nks"k yxk;k tkrk gSA dkaV vkSjghxy osQ gkFkksa ;g jkT; dks jgL;kRed Å¡pkb;ksa rd ys tkrk gSA vr% jktuhfr vkpkj'kkL=k ;k n'kZu osQ gkFkksaesa dBiqryh cu tkrh gSA ;FkkFkZ ij oLrqvksa osQ vkn'kZ :i dk izHkqRo gkoh gks tkrk gSA cgjgky] ,sls mikxeosQ fy;ks LVªkl tSls egku leFkZd bl ckr dh iqf"V djrs gSa fd ewY; jktuhfrd n'kZu osQ vfHkUu Hkkx gSa vkSjmUgsa jktuhfr osQ vè;;u ls ckgj ugha j[kk tk ldrk] ^^;fn ;g funs'kdrk Li"V gks tkrh gS vkSj yksx vPNsthou vkSj vPNs lekt dks izkIr djus osQ Kku dks izkIr djus osQ y{; dks Li"V dj ysrs gSa] rks jktuhfrd n'kZudk mn; gksrk gSA**

rqyukRed jktuhfr esa nk'kZfud mikxe ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\

2- ,sfrgkfld mikxe % bl mikxe dk fof'k"V y{k.k vrhr ;k dky dh pquh gqbZ vofèk rFkk fdlh fo'ks"kpj.k osQ Hkhrj pquh ?kVukvksa osQ Øe ij cy gS rkfd bl ckr dh O;k[;k dh tk losQ fd dkSu lh laLFkk,¡ pyhvk jgh gSa] vkSj os D;k dke dj jgh gSa] ;g izk;% bl Kku dh [kkfrj gksrk gS fd os D;k jgh gSa] os vfLrRoeas fdl izdkj vkbZ] os D;k gSa] vkSj vius fo'ys"k.k osQ lEcUèk esa mudk D;k LFkku gSA ;gk¡ bl ckr dk Hkh mYys[kfd;k tkuk pkfg;s fd vè;s;rk bfrgkl dks vkuqoaf'kd izfØ;k le>rk gS& bl ckr dk vè;;u fd ekuo dSlsvfLrRo esa vk;k] og dHkh D;k Fkk] vkSj vc D;k gSA bl n`f"V ls jktuhfr dk vè;;u mls bl ckr osQ fy,izsfjr djrk gS fd og ,sfrgkfld lkrR; vkSj ifjorZu esa O;fDrxr iszsj.kkvksa] dk;ks±] miyfCèk;ksa] vliQyrkvksa vkSjizklkafxdrkvksa dks ns[ksA¸

,sfrgkfld mikxe bl èkkj.kk ij fVdk gS fd jktuhfrd fl¼kar dk Hk.Mkj lkekftd&vkfFkZd ladV rFkk muosQ}kjk egku fpardksa osQ euksa ij NksM+h xbZ izfrfØ;kvksa esa ls vkrk gSA blfy,] ,sfrgkfld lk{; dk viuk ghegRo gSA izkphu ;wuku dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa us IysVks vkSj vjLrq dks vkSj blh izdkj l=kgoha 'krkCnh osQ bXySaM usgkCl vkSj ykWd dks tUe fn;k] mUuhloha 'krkCnh dh iwathoknh iz.kkyh us ekDlZ vkSj fey dks tUe fn;kA tkfgj

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gS fd jktuhfrd fl¼kar dks le>us osQ fy, le;] LFkku vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa dks le>uk vko';d gS ftleasmldk fodkl gqvk gSA jktuhfrd nk'kZfud vius ;qx dh jktuhfr esa okLro esa pkgs Hkkx u ys] ysfdu ogmlls izHkkfor gksrk gS vkSj og vius nkao ij bldks cgqr vfèkd izHkkfor djus dk iz;kl Hkh djrk gSA lSokbutc ;g dgrs gSa fd lHkh egku jktuhfrd fl¼kar jktuhfrd vkSj lkekftd ladVksa osQ vUrjkyksa esa ls fudyrsgSa] rks og blh rF; ij cy ns jgs gksrs gSaA

cgjgky] bl LFky ij bl ckr dk vo'; gh mYys[k dj fn;k tkuk pkfg, fd vR;fèkd egÙoiw.kZ iz'uksaosQ izfr ,sfrgkfld mikxe dh fHkUurk vè;s;rk }kjk viuk, x;s pquko izpkj ij fuHkZj djrh gSA ;fn jkseuksadks c<+k&p<+kdj crkus esa eSfd;kosyh us bfrgkl dk mi;ksx fd;k vkSj bl izdkj mlus jkse osQ xkSjo dh LFkkiukdjus osQ fy, vius yksxksa osQ dkjukeksa dk vkokgu fd;k] rks vksosQ'kkV bls vuqnkjokn dh izo`fÙk osQ lkFklEcafèkr djrs gSaA ;g mlosQ }kjk jktuhfr dks ,sls cgqr ls yksxksa dh lkekU; O;oLFkkvksa dh xfrfofèk le>usesa fufgr gS] tks mldh O;oLFkkvksa dh vksj è;ku nsus dh leku ekU;rk osQ dkj.k ,d leqnk; dk fuekZ.k djrkgS vFkkZr] jktuhfrd xfrfofèk eq[; :i ls u rks Rofjr bPNkvksa ls iSnk gksrh gS vkSj u lkekU; fl¼karksa ls]cfYd og rks Lo;a O;ogkj dh ekStwnk ijEijkvksa esa ls mRiUu gksrh gSA tSlk mUgksaus dgk gS] fdlh Hkh ih<+hesa ;gk¡ rd fd lcls vfèkd Økafrdkjh ih<+h esa Hkh] ftu O;oLFkkvksa dks mi;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gS] mudh la[;kges'kk muls vfèkd gksrh gS] ftUgsa ekU;rk dh vko';drk gksrh gS vkSj muosQ eqdkcys esa ftuesa la'kksèku fd;ktkrk gS mudh la[;k de gksrh gS ftUgsa mi;ksx osQ fy, rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA u, dk lekuqikr lkjs esa ux.;gqvk djrk gSA fiQj ge ftls le>us dk iz;kl dj jgs gSa og jktuhfrd ijEijk ;k O;ogkj dh ,d Bkslfofèk gS vkSj blh dkj.k ;g mi;qDr gS fd 'kSf{kd Lrj ij] jktuhfr dk vè;;u ,sfrgkfld vè;;u gksukpkfg;sA

,sfrgkfld mikxe dh dqN detksfj;k¡ gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] tSlk tsEl czkbl us dgk gS ;g vDlj lrghlekurkvksa ls Hkkfjr gksrk gSA bl ukrs ,sfrgkfld lekukarj dqN gn rd Kkuo¼Zd gks ldrs gSa] ysfduvfèkdka'k fLFkfr;ksa esa os iFkHkz"V djus okys Hkh gksrs gSaA blh izdkj] izks- vusZLV ckjdj dk er gS dbZ èkjk,agSa& dqN tks vpkud #d tkrh gSa] dqN tks okil eqM+rh gSa] tks ,d nwljs dks dkVrh gSa vkSj ge ,sls eq[;ekxZ osQ ckjs esa Hkh lksp ldrs gSa ftl ij cgqr ls jkLrksa dk tatky gSA vFkkZr~ bl mikxe dk leFkZd vè;s;rk,sfrgkfld vkadM+ksa dk bLrseky djus esa viuh ilUn osQ fo'ks"k jkLrs dk vuqlj.k vkSj ckn esa viuk Li"Vhdj.kizLrqr dj ldrk gS ;gk¡ rd fd vU; egRoiw.kZ igyqvksa dh vogsyuk dj nh tkrh gSA ;g Hkh laHko gS fdbl mikxe dk mi;ksx djrs gq, og viuh Hkkoukvksa vkSj i{kikrksa ls dke ys tSlk ge eSfd;kofy vkSjvksd'kkWV dh fLFkfr;ksa esa ikrs gSaA

fiQj Hkh blosQ ,sfrgkfld fodkl vkSj o`f¼ osQ lUnHkZ esa jktuhfrd fl¼kar osQ vè;;u dk ewY; bruh vklkuhls de ugha fd;k tk ldrkA th- ,p- lsckbu] vkj- th- eSVy] MCY;w- ,- Mfuax] lhlh- eSDlh Vh- vkb-dqd] vkj- th- dkjykby] th- bZ- th- dSVfyu lh- bZ- okgka] vkfn tSlksa osQ xzUFkksa dk viuk gh egRo gSA izkphudky esa IysVks vkSj vjLrq ls ysdj eè; ;qx esa lsUV vxLrkbu] lsUV Vkel vkSj eklhZfxy;kas rd vkSj vkèkqfud;qx esa eSfd;kosyh] cksfgu gkCl] ykWd] :lks] ghxy] fey] ekDlZ vkSj ykLdh tSls egku jktuhfrd fpUrdksaosQ vk'k; dks le>us osQ fy, ,sls mikxe dh viuh gh mi;ksfxrk gSA ;fn jktuhfrd fl¼kar dk lEeku ;ksX;vkSj lkoZHkkSfed Lo:i gS rks blosQ dkj.k bl iqf"V esa <wa<s tkus pkfg;sa fd bldh ,sfrgkfld ijEijkvksa esafufgr gSaA

3- lkaLFkkfud mikxe %& ;gk¡ jktuhfr dk vè;;udÙkkZ O;oLFkkfidk] dk;Zikfydk vkSj U;k;ikfydk tSlsjktuhfrd laxBuksa dh vkSipkfjd lajpuk osQ vè;;u ij cy nsrk gSA bl ço`fÙk dks çkphu dky osQ vjLrw lsiksyhfc;l rd vkSj vkèkqfud ;qx esa czkbl vkSj iQkbuj tSls dbZ jkT; oSKkfudksa dh jpukvksa esa [kkstk tk ldrkgSA cgjgky] vkèkqfud ys[kdksa osQ ckjs esa tks ckr lcls vfèkd fofp=k gS] og ;g gS fd os jktuhfrd O;oLFkk

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dh lajpukvksa esa ny ç.kkyh dks Hkh prqFkZ oxZ osQ :i esa 'kkfey djrs gSa] tcfd oSUVys (bentely) ykWFke

(Latham) vkSj ohvks- dh- twfu;j (V.O. Key. Jr.) tSls lelkef;d ys[kd ,d dne vkSj vkxs tkdj vla[;

fgr lewgksa dks Hkh blesa 'kkfey dj ysrs gSa tks fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh volajpuk gSaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd

;g mikxe lajpukRed mikxe (structural approach) osQ uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA

lkaLFkkfud ;k lajpukRed mikxe dks dbZ vejhdh vkSj vaxzst ys[kdksa dh jpukvksa esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA ge

okYVj csxgkV] ,iQ- ,- vkx] MCy;w- ch- equjks] gesZu iQkbuj] ,p- ts- ykLdh] fjpMZ U;wtMkV] lh- ,iQ- LVªkax]

cukMZ fØd] tsEl czkbl gsjkYM ftad] ekSfjl Mqcstj vkSj ft;ksokuh lkjVksjh osQ xzUFkksa dh vksj funsZ'k dj ldrs

gSaA mudh jpukvksa dh lcls vfèkd mYys[kuh; fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd jktuhfr dk vè;;u jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ

vkSipkfjd] ,oa lkaLFkkfud lajpukvksa rd lfefr gks x;k gSA lkFk gh] bu fu"d"kks± dh iqf"V osQ fy, if'pe osQ

dqN mUur ns'kksa dh eq[; 'kkldh; ç.kkfy;ksa dks rqyukRed vè;;u dk fo"k; cuk;k x;k gSA

cgqr vfèkd ladh.kZ gksus osQ dkj.k bl mikxe dh vkykspuk dh xbZ gSA blesa mu O;fDr;ksa dh Hkwfedk dh mis{kk

dh xbZ gS tks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vkSipkfjd o vukSipkfjd lajpukvksa ,oa milajpukvksa dk fuekZ.k ,oa mUgsa

ifjpkfyr djrs gSaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd O;ogkjkRed mikxe bl mikxe dh egÙkk ij Nk x;k gSA ,d vkSj dfBukbZ

;g gS fd lkaLFkkfud mikxe dk vk'k; vkSj ijkl vè;;udÙkkZ osQ fopkjksa osQ lkFk&lkFk fHkUu&fHkUu gksrk tk jgk

gSA ftUgksaus ljdkj laLFkkvksa] inksa vkSj vfHkdj.kksa dh dYiuk dh gS os mlh osQ vuqlkj ljdkj osQ ckjs esa crkrs

gS vkSj fy[krs gSa] muosQ cuk, gq, laxBukRed pkVZ mlh dk lq>ko nsrs gSaA vUr esa bl ckr dk Hkh mYys[k fd;k

tkuk pkfg;s fd ¶bl mikxe osQ vè;;udÙkkZ vUrjkZ"Vªh; jktuhfr dh Hkh vuns[kh djrs gSa D;ksafd cgqr le;

rd jkT; ;k ljdkj tSlh dksbZ laLFkk,¡ ugha Fkha] blfy, ,slk çrhr gksrk gS fd jkT;&oSKkfudksa osQ fy, bl {ks=k

esa ,slk dqN ugha feyrk ftlosQ ckjs esa ppkZ dh tk losQA*

4- dkuwuh mikxe % vUr esa] ijEijkxr mikxeksa osQ {ks=k esa ge dkuwuh ;k U;kf;d mikxe dk mYys[k dj ldrs

gSa blosQ vUrxZr jktuhfr dk vè;;u dkuwuh çfØ;kvksa vkSj laLFkkvksa osQ lkFk ?kqy fey x;k gSA dkuwu vkSj U;k;

osQ fo"k;ksa dks U;k;'kkL=k osQ ekeys gh ugha le>k tkrk cfYd jkT; oSKkfud jkT; dks çHkkoh vkSj lkE;iw.kZ dkuwu

vkSj O;oLFkk dks cuk, j[kus okyk le>rs gSaA vr% U;kf;d laLFkkvksa osQ laxBu] vfèkdkj {ks=k vkSj Lora=krk ls

lEcafèkr ekeys jkT; oSKkfud dk ,d vko';d fo"k; cu tkrs gSaA çkphu dky esa fo'ys"k.kkRed U;k;'kkL=kh

fllsjks (Cicero) ls ysdj vkèkqfud dky osQ Mkblh (Dicey) rd us jkT; dks çeq[k :i ls ,d fuxe ;k U;kf;d

O;fDr le>k gS vkSj bl çdkj] bl mikxe esa jkT; dks çeq[k :i ls dkuwu cukus vkSj mls ykxw djus okyk

laxBu dgk x;k gSA

bl lUnHkZ esa ge çkjafHkd vkèkqfud ;qx osQ thu cksfMu] Þ;wxks xzksf'k;l vkSj Vkel gkCl dh jpukvksa dk mYys[k

dj ldrs gSa] ftUgksaus çHkqlÙkk (servereignty) osQ fl¼kar dk çorZu fd;k FkkA gkCl dh ç.kkyh esa] jkT;i{k

mPpre dkuwuh çkfèkdkjh gS vkSj mldk vkns'k gh dkuwu gS ftldk ikyu ;k rks ltk ls cpus ;k Hk;kud çkdfrd

voLFkk dks nwj j[kus osQ fy, fd;k tkuk pkfg,A bl lEcUèk esa cSFke] tkWu vkfjVu] lsfoXuh] lj gsujh eSu vkSj

,- oh- Mkblh dh jpukvksa dh vksj Hkh funsZ'k fd;k tk ldrk gSA bldk ifj.kke ;g gqvk gS fd jktuhfr osQ vè;;u

dks vfHkUu :i ls dkuwuh çfØ;kvksa ls tksM+ fn;k x;k gS vkSj Lora=krk o lekurk dh lkeatL;iw.kZ fLFkfr dks

fofèk'kklu (rule of law) osQ 'kkunkj uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA

jk"Vªh; vkSj vUrjkZ"Vªh; jktuhfr osQ vè;;u ij ykxw fd;k x;k og dkuwuh mikxe bl dYiuk ij fLFkr gS fd

dkuwu esa og O;oLFkk dh tkrh gS fd fdlh fo'ks"k voLFkk esa D;k dk;Zokgh dh tk, vkSj og Hkh O;oLFkk dh

tkrh gS fd fdu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ,slh dk;Zokgh dh tkrh gS] lkFk gh blesa vuqes; dk;Zokgh dh lhekvksa dk fuèkkZj.k

Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA blesa bl rF; ij Hkh cy fn;k x;k gS fd tgk¡ ukxfjd dkuwuksa dk ikyu djus okys gSa ogk¡

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yksxksa osQ jktuhfrd O;ogkj ls lEcafèkr iwokZuqeku djus esa dkuwu dk Kku cgqr egÙoiw.kZ vkèkkj iznku djrk gSAbl mikxe dk tsysfud tSlk ,d fof'k"V vè;s;rk gesa ijke'kZ nsrk gS fd laxfBr lekt dks ek=k lkekftd ;kjktuhfrd ifj?kVuk gh ugha cfYd mls lkoZtfud dkuwu] vfèkdkjksa vkSj drZO;ksa dk leqPp; le>k tk, ftldhuhao fo'kq¼ rdZ vkSj dkj.k ij Mkyh xbZ gSA bldk vk'k; ;g gS fd o`f¼ vkSj fodkl osQ tho osQ :i esa fofèkrjvkSj lkekftd 'kfDr;ksa osQ fopkj dks le>s fcuk] jkT; dks ugha le>k tk ldrk tks bl fopkj dh i`"BHkwfe esafufgr gS vkSj bl dkj.k os bldh cgqr lh fØ;kvksa vkSj vkilh izfrfØ;kvksa osQ fy, ftEesnkj gSaA cgjgky] ;gk¡bl ckr dk vo'; gh mYys[k fd;k tkuk pkfg, fd bl mikxe osQ ifjizs{; cgqr gh ladh.kZ gSA dkuwu osQ vèkhulkoZtfud thou dk ,d gh i{k vkrk gS vkSj blh dkj.k blosQ vUrxZr jktuhfrd dk;ks± dk iw.kZ O;ogkj ughavk ldrkA tSls vkn'kZokfn;ksa dh bl vkèkkj ij vkykspuk dh tk ldrh gS fd jkT; ,d uSfrd lÙkk osQ vfrfjDrvkSj dqN ugha gSa] fo'ys"k.kkRed U;k;okfn;ksa }kjk Hkh ;g xyrh dh tkrh gS fd os gj jktuhfrd iz.kkyh osQ gji{k dks ,d U;kf;d lÙkk dk :i iznku dj nsrs gSaA dkuwu dh vUroZLrq dk foèkk;h 'kfDr osQ ekè;e ls fuèkkZj.kdjuk jktuhfrd dk;Z gSa lkekU;r;k bldh O;k[;k fofèkd mikxe osQ vfrfjDr fdlh vU; mikxe osQ vkèkkjij gksuh pkfg,A

tSlh Åij ppkZ dh xbZ gS ijEijkxr mikxeksa dh pkj eq[; fdLesa gSaA mudk mYys[kuh; y{; ;g gS fd muesaewY;&Hkkfjr iz.kkyh dk izHkqRo gSA fu;kedrkokn mUgsa fofp=k vkSj fof'k"V y{k.k iznku djrk gSA blosQ ifj.kkeLo:i]jktuhfrd fl¼kar dks ewrZ] dkYifud] fparukRed vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd nk'kZfud dgk tkrk gSA fo'ks"kr% fu;kedrkoknmYys[kuh; ppkZ ij cy nsrk gS ;g jktuhfrd vkpj.k osQ uSfrd ekun.M dh LFkkiuk djuk pkgrk gS

Lo&ewY;kadu (Self Assessment)

fjDr LFkkuksa dh iwfrZ dhft, (Fill in the Blanks)—

1- jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ fy, lcls iqjkuk mikxe -------------------------- gSA

2- ------------------ bl èkkj.kk ij fVdk gS fd jktuhfrd fl¼kar dk Hk.Mkj] lkekftd&vkfFkZd ladVrFkk muosQ }kjk egku fpUrdksa osQ euksa ij NksM+h xbZ çfrfØ;kvksa esa ls vkrk gSA

3- ------------------ dks dbZ vejhdh vkSj vaxzst ys[kdksa dh jpukvksa esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA

4- jk"Vªh; vkSj vUrjkZ"Vªh; jktuhfr osQ vè;;u ij ------------------- ykxw fd;k tkrk gSA

5- jkT; dks çeq[k :i ls dkuwu cukus vkSj mls ykxw djus okyk laxBu ---------- esa dgk x;kgSA


rqyukRed i¼fr dk iz;ksx jktuhfr'kkL=k osQ vè;;u esa jktuhfr'kkL=k osQ tud vjLrw osQ le; ls gksrk

vk;k gSA fllsjks] iksyhfc;l VslhVl] eSfd;kosyh] eksUVsLD;w] VkDdfoy] cstgkV] lj gsujh esu rFkk czkbl

bR;kfn vusd jktuhfrd nk'kZfudksa o jktuhfr'kkfL=k;ksa us vius vè;;uksa esa bl i¼fr dk mi;ksx fd;k gSA

bl i¼fr osQ iz;ksx ls vè;;udrkZ] fofHkUu jkT;ksa] muosQ laxBuksa] mudh uhfr;ksa ,oa dk;Zdykiksa dk

rqyukRed vè;;u djrk gS vkSj bl izdkj dh rqyukvksa osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd fu"d"kZ fudkyus dk iz;Ru

djrk gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr esa rks rqyukRed i¼fr vkèkkjHkwr gSA rqyukRed jktuhfr dk lEcUèk jktuhfrd

laLFkkvksa dh dk;Zfofèk o jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh egRoiw.kZ fujUrjrkvksa] lekurkvksa vkSj vlekurkvksa ls

gksus osQ dkj.k] bl i¼fr osQ }kjk gh ;g fujUrjrk,¡] lekurk,¡ vkSj vlekurk,¡ le>h o [kksth tk ldrh

gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd dbZ ckj rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj rqyukRed i¼fr dks leku&vFkhZ (synonyms)

;k ,d&nwljs dk i;kZ; eku fy;k tkrk gSA

uksV



jktuhfrd vè;;uksa o fo'ks"kdj rqyukRed jktuhfr esa rqyukRed i¼fr dh cgqr mi;ksfxrk gSA nwljs fo'o;q¼osQ ckn jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh rqyukvksa esa ØkfUrdkjh ifjorZu vk x;k gSA vc jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks fofHkUuijLij fojksèkh nkoksa vkSj ekaxksa dks Lohdr fu.kZ;ksa esa ifjofrZr djus dh O;oLFkk dgk tkus yxk gSA

la{ksi esa rqyukRed i¼fr osQ iz;ksx dh mi;ksfxrk dks fuEufyf[kr fcUnqvksa ls Li"V dj ldrs gSa&

(1) jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks le>us esa lgk;d gSA

(2) jktuhfr dks oSKkfud vè;;u cukus esa lgk;d gSA

(3) jktuhfr esa fl¼kUr fuekZ.k djus esa lgk;d gSA

(4) izpfyr jktuhfrd fl¼kUrksa dh iqu% izkekf.kdrk fl¼ djus esa lgk;d gSA

jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ mikxeksa dks eksVs rkSj ij nks oxks± esa ckaVk tk ldrk gS&ekuijd (normatice) vkSjO;kogkojd (empirical) ekuijd mikxe dks ewY;&eqDr (value free) osQ :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA nwljs'kCnksa esa] ;gk¡ igys dh fo'ks"krk fu;kedrk gS nwljs dh fo'ks"krk O;ogkjokn gSA

jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ fy, lcls iqjkuk mikxe n'kZfud (philosophical appraoch) gS ftls vkpkj'kkL=kh;mikxe osQ uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;gka jkT;] ljdkj vkSj ekuo dk jktuhfrd lÙkk osQ :i esa vè;;udqN mís';ksa] uSfrd f'k{kkvksa] lR;ksa ;k mPp fl¼krksa osQ vuqlj.k osQ lkFk vfHkUu :i ls tqM+k gqvk gS tksleLr Kku vkSj okLrfodrk esa varfuZfgr gksrk gSA bl {ks=k esa jktuhfr dk vè;;u euu'khy Lo:i èkkj.kdj ysrk gS] D;ksafd nk'kZfud 'kCn dk lEcUèk gh fparu ls gSA

blh dkj.k] nk'kZfud vkSj vkpkj'kkL=kh; mikxe dk leFkZu djus okys ys[kd vkSj fopkjd 'kkldksa vkSjjktuhfrd leqnk; osQ lnL;ksa dks ;g ijke'kZ nsuk pkgrs gSa fd os mUgha mPp y{;ksa dk vuqlj.k djsaA

nk'kZfud mikxe dh bl vkèkkj ij vkykspuk dh tkrh gS fd ;g fpraukRed vkSj vewrZ gSA ;g dgk tkrkgS fd ;g ;FkkFkZ dh nqfu;k ls cgqr nwj ys tkrk gSA bl ij ifjdYiukRed gksus dk nks"k yxk;k tkrk gSAdkaV vkSj ghxy osQ gkFkksa ;g jkT; dks jgL;kRed Å¡pkb;ksa rd ys tkrk gSA

bl mikxe dk fof'k"V y{k.k vrhr ;k dky dh pquh gqbZ vofèk rFkk fdlh fo'ks"k pj.k osQ Hkhrj pquh?kVukvksa osQ Øe ij cy gS rkfd bl ckr dh O;k[;k dh tk losQ fd dkSu lh laLFkk,¡ pyh vk jgh gSa]vkSj os D;k dke dj jgh gSa] ;g izk;% bl Kku dh [kkfrj gksrk gS fd os D;k jgh gSa] os vfLrÙo eas fdlizdkj vkbZ] os D;k gSa] vkSj vius fo'ys"k.k osQ lEcUèk esa mudk D;k LFkku gSA

,sfrgkfld mikxe bl èkkj.kk ij fVdk gS fd jktuhfrd fl¼kar dk Hk.Mkj lkekftd&vkfFkZd ladV rFkkmuosQ }kjk egku fpardksa osQ euksa ij NksM+h xbZ izfrfØ;kvksa esa ls vkrk gSA blfy,] ,sfrgkfld lk{; dkviuk gh egRo gSA izkphu ;wuku dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa us IysVks vkSj vjLrq dks vkSj blh izdkj l=kgoha 'krkCnhosQ bXySaM us gkCl vkSj ykWd dks tUe fn;k] mUuhloha 'krkCnh dh iwathoknh iz.kkyh us ekDlZ vkSj fey dkstUe fn;kA

,sfrgkfld mikxe dh dqN detksfj;k¡ gSaA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] tSlk tsEl czkbl us dgk gS ;g vDlj lrghlekurkvksa ls Hkkfjr gksrk gSA bl ukrs ,sfrgkfld lekurk,¡ dqN gn rd Kkuo¼Zd gks ldrs gSa] ysfduvfèkdka'k fLFkfr;ksa esa os iFkHkz"V djus okys Hkh gksrs gSaA

;gk¡ jktuhfr dk vè;;udÙkkZ O;oLFkkfidk] dk;Zikfydk vkSj U;k;ikfydk tSls jktuhfrd laxBuksa dhvkSipkfjd lajpuk osQ vè;;u ij cy nsrk gSA bl ço`fÙk dks çkphu dky osQ vjLrw ls iksyhfc;l rd vkSjvkèkqfud ;qx esa czkbl vkSj iQkbuj tSls dbZ jkT; oSKkfudksa dh jpukvksa esa [kkstk tk ldrk gSA

lkaLFkkfud ;k lajpukRed mikxe dks dbZ vejhdh vkSj vaxzst ys[kdksa dh jpukvksa esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSAge okYVj csxgkV] ,iQ- ,- vkx] MCY;w- ch- equjks] gesZu iQkbuj] ,p- ts- ykLdh] fjpMZ U;wtMkV]

uksV



lh- ,iQ- LVªkax] cukMZ fØd] tsEl czkbl gsjkYM ftad] ekSfjl Mqcstj vkSj ft;ksokuh lkjVksjh osQ xzUFkksa dhvksj funsZ'k dj ldrs gSA mudh jpukvksa dh lcls vfèkd mYys[kuh; fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd jktuhfr dkvè;;u jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ vkSipkfjd ,oa lkaLFkkfud lajpukvksa rd lhfer gks x;k gSA

cgqr vfèkd ladh.kZ gksus osQ dkj.k bl mikxe dh vkykspuk dh xbZ gSA blesa mu O;fDr;ksa dh Hkwfedkdh mis{kk dh xbZ gS tks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vkSipkfjd o vukSipkfjd lajpukvksa ,oa milajpukvksa dkfuekZ.k ,oa mUgsa ifjpkfyr djrs gSaA

vUr esa] ijEijkxr mikxeksa osQ {ks=k esa ge dkuwuh ;k U;kf;d mikxe dk mYys[k dj ldrs gSaA blosQ vUrxZrjktuhfr dk vè;;u dkuwuh çfØ;kvksa vkSj laLFkkvksa osQ lkFk ?kqy fey x;k gSA dkuwu vkSj U;k; osQ fo"k;ksadks U;k;'kkL=k osQ ekeys esa gh ugha le>k tkrk cfYd jkT; oSKkfud jkT; dks çHkkoh vkSj lkE;iw.kZ dkuwuvkSj O;oLFkk dks cuk, j[kus okyk le>rs gSaA

ijEijkxr mikxeksa dh pkj eq[; fdLesa gSaA mudk mYys[kuh; y{; ;g gS fd muesa ewY;&Hkkfjr iz.kkyh dkizHkqRo gSA fu;kedrkokn mUgsa fofp=k vkSj fof'k"V y{k.k iznku djrk gSA blosQ ifj.kke Lo:i] jktuhfrdfl¼kar dks ewrZ] dkYifud] fparukRed vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd nk'kZfud dgk tkrk gSA


lqO;Dr % ljyrk ls O;Dr djus okykA

vO;Dr % ftldks O;Dr u fd;k tk losQA

fod`r % ftldk ewy Lo:i fcxM+ dj [kjkc gks x;k gSA


1- rqyukRed i¼fr vkSj jktuhfr osQ ikjLifjd lEcaèkksa dk foospu dhft,A

2- rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u osQ ijEijkxr mikxeksa dk fo'ys"k.kkRed foospu dhft,A

3- rqyukRed i¼fr dh izÑfr dh O;k[;k dhft,A

Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- nk'kZfud mikxe 2- ,sfrgkfld mikxe 3- laLFkkfud mikxe 4- dkuwuh mikxe

5- dkuwuh mikxe


iqLrosaQ 1- rqyukRed 'kklu ,oa jktuhfrμMkW- chjosQ'oj izlkn flag] Kkunk izdk'ku (ih- ,.M Mh-) 24]nfj;kxat] valkjh jksM] fnYyhA


3- rqyukRed jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk] fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjhjksM] fnYyhA


uksV

boQkbZμ3% lafoèkku vkSj lafoèkkuokn


boQkbZμ3: lafoèkku vkSj lafoèkkuokn(Constitution and Constitutionalism)

vuqØef.koQk (Contents)

mís'; (Objectives)


3-1 lafoèkku oQk vFkZ vkSj fooQkl (Meaning and Development of Constitution)

3-2 lafoèkkuokn oQh voèkkj.kk,¡% mnkjoknh vkSj ekDlZoknh èkkj.kk (Concepts of constitutionalism :

Liberal and Marxist notions)


3-4 'kCnoQks'k (Keywords)



mís'; (Objectives)

bl boQkbZ osQ vè;;u osQ i'pkr~ fo|kFkhZ ;ksX; gksaxsμ

lafoèkku vkSj lafoèkkuokn osQ vFkZ vkSj muoQh voèkkj.kkvksa oQh O;k[;k oQjus esaA


ekuo lekt esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr* oQk çknqHkkZo oQc vkSj foQu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gqvk ;g vHkh roQ oQYiuk oQk ghfo"k; gS\ ekuo us oQc vius vkioQks ^jktuhfroQ 'kfDr* osQ vèkhu foQ;k] bl ckjs esa fuf'pr :i ls vkt HkhoQqN ugha oQgk tk loQrkA ijUrq tc ls çkjfEHkoQ lekt oQk mn; gqvk] 'kk;n rHkh ls gh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr* oQkstUe nsus okyh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ çLrqr gqb±A lEHkor;k blh 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx ls vkfnoQkyhu ekuo lekt esa oQqN O;oLFkko fLFkjrk oQh LFkkiuk gqbZA blfy;s jktuhfroQ 'kfDr* oQk gj lekt esa vkjEHk ls gh egÙo ekuk tk loQrk gSAijUrq T;ksa&T;ksa euq"; esa lkekftoQrk c<+rh xbZ vkSj laxfBr thou oQk egÙo o mi;ksfxrk Li"V gksus yxh] R;ksa&R;ksaO;ofLFkr thou oQks O;kogkfjoQ cukus okyh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr* esa voihM+u o ckè;rk oQk rÙo lekfo"V gksrkx;kA ;g ;gk¡ roQ c<+k foQ orZeku esa bl 'kfDr }kjk vU; lHkh çoQkj oQh 'kfDr;ksa (vkfFkZoQ] lkekftoQ o lSfuoQ)ij u osQoy fu;a=k.k gh j[kk tkrk gS] vfirq muoQh lhekvksa oQk fuèkkZj.k Hkh gksrk gSA

^jktuhfroQ 'kfDr* esa ;g ckè;rk o vfuok;Zrk oQk rÙo blosQ mi;ksx vkSj nq#i;ksx osQ {ks=k oQks O;kioQre cuknsrk gSA bloQh loksZifjrk blesa nq#i;ksx oQh vkSj Hkh lEHkkouk,¡ fufgr oQj nsrh gSA jkT;] tks bl 'kfDr oQk çrhoQgS] oQgha vius vki esa lkè; u cu tk,] rFkk jkT; oQh 'kfDr oQks O;ogkj esa ç;qDr oQjus okyh ljoQkj ;k 'kkloQ]LosPNkpkjh cuoQj mu lc mís';ksa o y{;ksa oQh vogsyuk u oQjsa] ftuoQh çkfIr osQ fy,] euq"; us jktuhfroQ lÙkkoQh l`f"V oQh rFkk vjktoQ vLrO;oLrrk oQh cksf>y tathjksa ls cpus osQ fy, jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQ voihM+oQ(coercive) cUèku LohoQkj foQ;s] ;g vko';oQ gS foQ ljoQkj vkSj 'kkloQksa oQks fu;af=kr o lhfer j[kk tk,A oQksbZ

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rqyukReoQ jktuhfr vkSj ljoQkj


Hkh 'kkloQ tks O;oLFkk oQh LFkkiuk osQ fy, ckè;oQkjh 'kfDr ls ;qDr gks] og blh 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx ls O;fDr oQhLorU=krk vkèkkjHkwr gksrh gSA bloQh lekfIr ekuo oQks oQaqfBr oQjrh gSA blfy;s] ,oQ rjiQ rks euq"; us jktuhfroQ'kfDr oQh loksZifjrk LohoQkj oQh rFkk nwljh rjiQ] ml ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.kksa oQh O;oLFkk Hkh oQh ftlls 'kkloQ]O;fDr oQh LorU=krk oQh O;oLFkk o lqj{kk osQ fy, vkxs c<+ losQa vkSj lkFk gh blosQ guu osQ çyksHku ls jksoQktk losQA ;gh oQkj.k gS foQ çkphu oQky ls gh 'kkloQksa oQks fofèk;ksa] çfØ;kReoQ lqj{kkvksa o larqyukReoQ 'kfDr;ksaosQ ekè;e ls fu;af=kr vkSj çfrcfUèkr foQ;k tkrk jgk gSA

lafoèkkuokn oQk vFkZ] vkèkkj] rÙo o fofHkUu voèkkj.kkvksa oQks le>us ls igys] ;g vko';oQ gS foQ lafoèkku olaoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj oQk vFkZ Li"V foQ;k tk;] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkuokn oQk vFkZ] lafoèkku o laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj osQ vFkZosQ lanHkZ esa gh Li"V gks loQrk gSA okLro esa lafoèkku o laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj] lafoèkkuokn oQh iwoZxkeh ifjfLFkfr;k¡gSaA lafoèkkuokn osQoy mlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa lEHko gS] tgk¡ lafoèkku gks vkSj bl lafoèkku }kjk jktuhfroQ'kfDr osQ ç;ksxoQrkZvksa oQh u osQoy HkwfeoQk fuèkkZfjr oQh tk, vfirq bl HkwfeoQk oQh O;ogkfjoQrk oQh O;oLFkk HkhoQh tk,] vFkkZr ljoQkj] lafoèkku oQh O;oLFkk osQ vuq:i gh lapkfyr gks vkSj bls O;ogkj esa lEHko cukus osQfy, laoSèkkfuoQ fu;a=k.kksa o çfrcUèkksa oQh çHkko'kkyh O;oLFkk gksA ;g fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk oQSls vkSj foQu&foQu çfØ;kvksao lajpukvksa ls gks] bloQk foospu oQjus ls iwoZ] lafoèkku] laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj vkSj lafoèkkuokn oQk vFkZ le> ysukvko';oQ gSA

3-1 lafoèkku oQk vFkZ vkSj fooQkl (Meaning and Development ofConstitution)

çR;soQ jkT; osQ fy, lafoèkku oQk gksuk vko';oQ gSA lafoèkku osQ fcuk foQlh Hkh jkT; oQk 'kklu pyuk vR;UroQfBu gSA bfrgkl osQ vè;;u osQ vkèkkj ij ;g oQgk tk loQrk gS foQ çR;soQ jkT; esa 'kklu oQks pykus osQfy, oQqN u oQqN fu;e lnk ls foQlh u foQlh :i esa vo'; jgs gSaA çR;soQ jkT; esa] pkgs og yksoQrkaf=koQgks ;k vfèkuk;oQoknh] oQqN ,sls fu;eksa oQk LohoQkj foQ;k tkuk vko';oQ gS tks jkT; oQh jktuhfroQ laLFkkvksao 'kkloQksa oQh HkwfeoQk oQks fuèkkZfjr o lqfuf'pr oQj] vjktoQrk ls lekt oQks eqDr j[k losQA ;gk¡ roQ foQvR;fèkoQ fujaoQq'k o LosPNpkjh jkT;ksa esa Hkh oQqN fu;eksa oQk ik;k tkuk furkUr vko';oQ gSA ljoQkjsa pkgsfujaoQq'k gksa vFkok yksoQrU=kkReoQ] muosQ lapkyu osQ fy, oQqN fl¼kUrksa vFkok fu;eksa oQk gksukA lnSo lgk;oQgksrk gSA pwafoQ çR;soQ lafoèkku esa ljoQkj osQ fofHkUu vaxksa rFkk muosQ ikjLifjoQ lEcUèkksa oQk o.kZu gksrk gSA vr%bu lEcUèkksa oQk o.kZu oQjus okys fu;eksa oQh fo|ekurk ls ljoQkj osQ fofHkUu vax ,oQ nwljs osQ lg;ksx lsoQq'kyrkiwoZoQ oQk;Z oQj loQrs gSa vkSj muesa la?k"kZ ;k fojksèk oQh lEHkkouk,¡ Hkh oQe gks tkrh gSaA lafoèkku esaukxfjoQksa osQ vfèkoQkjksa oQk Hkh o.kZu gksrk gSA ;g o.kZu gh buoQh lqj{kk O;oLFkk gSA bl çoQkj lafoèkku osQ }kjkfoQlh Hkh jkT; oQk vkèkkjHkwr <akpk laLFkkxr :i esa [kM+k foQ;k tkrk gS] ftlls gj O;fDr] laLFkk o lewg oQhHkwfeoQk lqfuf'pr gks tkrh gSA

lkekU;r;k ;g le>k tkrk gS foQ lafoèkku ,oQ ,slk vkys[k (document) gh gksrk gS tks fuf'pr le; esa fufeZro LohoQ`r gks] ij ;g lafoèkku oQk lgh o BhoQ vFkZ ugha gSA lafoèkku oQk vkys[k] vFkkZr~ fyf[kr :i esa gksukvko';oQ ugha] foQlh Hkh jkT; esa ijEijkxr fu;eksa oQh ,slh O;oLFkk gks loQrh gS] ftuoQks fofèkor oQHkh fy[kkugha x;k fiQj Hkh tks 'kkloQksa o ukxfjoQksa osQ fny&fnekx esa bruh xgjkbZ ls tes gksa foQ blls ljoQkj ij u osQoyçHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k jgrk gks vfirq lEiw.kZ jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa gj ,oQ oQh HkwfeoQk fuèkkZfjr jgrh gksA ,slsjktuhfroQ lekt esa ;g ijEijkxr fu;e gh lafoèkku oQgykrs gSaA

¶lafoèkku fu;eksa oQk og laxzg gS tks mu mís';ksa oQh çkfIr oQjkrk gS ftuosQ fy, 'kklu 'kfDr çofrZr oQh

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tkrh gS vkSj tks 'kklu osQ mu fofoèk vaxksa oQh l`f"V oQjrk gS ftuosQ ekè;e ls ljoQkj viuh 'kfDr oQkç;ksx oQjrh gSA

lafoèkku mu leLr fyf[kr vkSj vfyf[kr (ijEijk,¡) fu;eksa vkSj oQkuwuksa oQk lewg gS ftuosQ vkèkkjij foQlh Hkh ns'k oQh 'kklu O;oLFkk laxfBr oQh tkrh gS rFkk mu fl¼kUrksa oQk fuèkkZj.k gksrk gS ftuosQvuqlkj os 'kfDr;k¡ ç;ksx esa ykbZ tkrh gSaA

ijUrq oQbZ jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkvksa esa] vusoQ ckj ,slk ns[kk tkrk gS foQ lafoèkku esa O;oLFkk oQqN vkSj O;ogkj esaljoQkj oQqN vkSj oQjrh gSA ,slh voLFkk esa lafoèkku osQ vè;;u ls 'kklu rU=k osQ }kjk jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa osQ ç;ksxosQ ckjs esa oQqN Hkh Kku çkIr ugha gksrk gSA blfy;s lafoèkku oQk vFkZ le>rs le; ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';oQ gSfoQ vkSipkfjoQ <kapk D;k O;oLFkk oQjrk gS rFkk O;ogkj esa 'kklu foQl çoQkj lapkfyr gksrk gS\ tc lafoèkkuosQ vuq:i jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk ç;ksx ugha gksrk gks rks ,sls lafoèkku oQks ^vkSipkfjoQ* lafoèkku oQgsaxsA ,slklafoèkku fo'ks"k :i ls rFkk Li"Vr;k fofèk;ksa] vfèkfu;eksa o ?kks"k.kki=kksa esa of.kZr gksrk gS vkSj fl¼kUr esa ghjktuhfroQ O;oLFkk oQk laxBu oQgk tk loQrk gSA nwljh rjiQ] O;ogkj esa fofèk vkSj ^vkSipkfjoQ* lafoèkku osQçfroQwy jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk ç;ksx gksrk gks rks ,slk jktuhfroQ vkpkj çHkkoh* lafoèkku oQgk tkrk gSA ;g 'kkluosQ okLrfooQ lapkyu ls lEc¼ gksrk gSA bl çoQkj oQh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa 'kkloQksa oQk O;ogkj] egÙoiw.kZjktuhfroQ ekeyksa esa] lafoèkku }kjk fuèkkZfjr çfØ;k o fofèk osQ vuq:i ugha gksrk gSA tSls vkSipkfjoQ* lafoèkkuosQ vuqlkj fczVsu esa jktrU=k gS] ijUrq jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk O;ogkj esa okLrfooQ ç;ksx bls lalnh; yksoQrU=koQh Js.kh esa yk nsrk gSA lksfo;r :l esa 'kklu oQk lapkyu vkSipkfjoQ* o çHkkoh* lafoèkkuksa osQ vUrj oQks vkSjHkh Li"V oQjrk gSA vkSipkfjoQ n`f"V ls :l oQk lafoèkku Js"Bre lalnh; yksoQrU=k o la?kkReoQ 'kklu oQh LFkkiukoQjrk gSA ijUrq O;ogkj esa ;gk¡ 'kklu lafoèkku oQh èkkjkvksa osQ vuq:i u gksoQj lkE;oknh ny osQ vkns'kksa osQ vuqlkjpyrk gSA bl ny oQh O;ogkj esa fujaoQq'krk o ,oQkfèkoQkj vkSipkfjoQ* lafoèkku esa of.kZr jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQhlaoSèkkfuoQ O;oLFkk osQ vuqlkj 'kklu&lapkyu ltho ugha gksus nsrkA ;gk¡ lEiw.kZ 'kklu rU=k] lkE;oknh ny osQvkns'kksa osQ vuqlkj lapkfyr gksrk gS] lafoèkku esa micfUèkr O;oLFkkvksa osQ vuqlkj ughaA ;g vkSipkfjoQ* o çHkkoh*lafoèkkuksa osQ vUrj oQks gh Li"V ugha oQjrk] vfirq ;g Hkh laosQr nsrk gS foQ nksuksa esa foQlh çoQkj oQk lkE; Hkhugha gksrk gSA fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa ,sls vusoQ mnkgj.k feyrs gSaA uoksfnr LorU=k jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfroQvuqHko osQ vHkko esa] 'kh?kzrk ls viuk, x, lafoèkkuksa oQk rsth ls cnyrh ifjfLFkfr;ksa vkSj ubZ&ubZ vko';oQrkvksaosQ vuq:i u cu loQus osQ oQkj.k] bu lafoèkkuksa oQh mis{kk oQj jktuhfroQ usrkvksa oQk vkpj.k O;ogkj esa fHkUuçoQkj oQk gksrk jgrk gSA bu ns'kksa esa vDlj vkfFkZoQ fooQkl oQh etcwfj;ksa o ewyHkwr jktuhfroQ ç'uksa ij lgefrosQ vHkko esa fooQkl o ,oQrk oQh O;oLFkk oQjus osQ fy, oQqN usrk jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQ ,oQ ek=k mi;ksxoQrkZ cursjgs gSaA ,slh voLFkk esa 'kklu O;oLFkk vkSipkfjoQ* lafoèkku osQ vuq:i ugha jg tkrh gS vkSj çHkkoh* lafoèkku^vkSipkfjoQ* lafoèkku ls fHkUu gks tkrk gSA

vr% lafoèkku oQk vFkZ le>rs le; ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';oQ gS foQ vkSipkfjoQ lafoèkku* D;k O;oLFkk oQjrkgS rFkk O;ogkj esa ;g foQl lhek roQ jktuhfroQ vkpj.k oQk vkèkkj cuk jgrk gS\ lafoèkku jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkoQk pfj=k ;k çoQ`fr Li"V oQjrk gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkku jkT; osQ fy, BhoQ oSlk gh gS tSlk O;fDr osQ fy, pfj=k!;g u osQoy jktuhfroQ [ksy* oQk vkèkkj çLrqr oQjrk gS vfirq fofHkUu jktuhfroQ fopkjksa o ekaxksa esa lkeatL;oQh vfHkO;fDr Hkh oQjrk gSA foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk oQh okLrfooQ çoQ`fr oQks le>us osQ fy, lafoèkku osQ bl<kaps o rÙo (substance) fl¼kUr o O;ogkj] nksuksa oQks le>uk vko';oQ gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkuokn ogha lEHko gS

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tgk¡ lafoèkku osQ <kaps o rÙoksa esa lkE; gks vFkkZr laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj gksA gj jkT; esa lafoèkku rks vfuok;Zr% gksrkgS ij laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj Hkh gks ;g vko';oQ ugha gSA laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj u gksus ij lafoèkkuokn oQh O;oLFkkO;kogkfjoQ ugha gks loQrhA blfy, lafoèkkuokn oQk vFkZ le>us osQ fy, u osQoy lafoèkku oQk vFkZ Li"V oQjukgh oQkiQh gksxk vfirq bloQk ewy vkèkkj] laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj oQk foospu Hkh vfuok;Z gSA la{ksi esa laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkjoQk foospu bl çoQkj gSA

laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj vFkZ (The Meaning of Constitutional Government)

lkekU;r;k ,slk le>k tkrk gS foQ ftl jkT; esa lafoèkku gks ogk¡ laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj Hkh gksrh gS] ijUrq okLro esa;g lgh ugha gSA gj jkT; esa foQlh u foQlh çoQkj oQk lafoèkku rks vfuok;Zr% gksrk gS] ij gj ,sls jkT; esa laoSèkkfuoQljoQkj Hkh gks ;g t:jh ugha gSA laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj ls lhfer vFkZ&cksèku gksrk gS] D;ksafoQ laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj ogljoQkj gh gksrh gS tks lafoèkku oQh O;oLFkkvksa osQ vuqlkj laxfBr] lhfer vkSj fu;af=kr gks] rFkk O;fDr fo'ks"k oQhbPNkvksa osQ LFkku ij] osQoy fofèk osQ vuq:i gh lapkfyr gksrh gksA fgVyj o Lrkfyu osQ le; esa teZuh o :lesa lafoèkku rks Fks ij laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkjsa Hkh Fkh ,slk ugha oQgk tk loQrkA buesa jktuhfroQ vkpj.k oQk vkèkkjlafoèkku ugha gksoQj] O;fDr ;k ny oQh egÙokoQka{kk,¡ gh oQgh tk loQrh gSaA vr% jkT; esa osQoy lafoèkku oQk gksukek=k ljoQkj oQks laoSèkkfuoQ ugha cukrk gSA osQoy og ljoQkj gh laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj oQgh tk;sxh tks lafoèkku ijvkèkkfjr gks] lafoèkku }kjk lhfer vkSj fu;af=kr gks o LosPNkiwoZoQrk osQ LFkku ij osQoy fofèk osQ vuq:i gh lapkfyrgksrh gksA la{ksi esa laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj fofèk jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa gh lafoèkkuokn lEHko gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkuokn muekU;rkvksa] vkLFkkvksa vkSj ekuo ewY;ksa oQk uke gS ftloQk lafoèkku esa o.kZu o leFkZu gksrk gS vkSj ftuoQh miyfCèko lqj{kk gsrq jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.kksa o jksoQksa (restraints) oQh O;oLFkk gksrh gSA lafoèkku olaoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj osQ mijksDr foospu osQ lanHkZ esa lafoèkkkuokn oQk vFkZ le>uk ljy lk gks tkrk gSA

lafoèkkuokn oQk vFkZ (The Meaning of Constitutionalism)

lafoèkkuokn mu fopkjksa o fl¼kUrksa oQh vksj laosQr oQjrk gS] tks ml lafoèkku oQk fooj.k o leFkZu oQjrs gSa]ftuosQ ekè;e ls jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir foQ;k tk losQA ;g lafoèkku ij vkèkkfjrfopkjèkkjk gS] ftloQk ewy vFkZ ;gh gS foQ 'kklu lafoèkku esa fyf[kr fu;eksa o fofèk;ksa osQ vuqlkj gh lapkfyrgks o ml ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir jgs] ftlls os ewY; o jktuhfroQ vkn'kZ lqjf{kr jgsa ftuosQ fy, lektjkT; osQ caèku LohoQkj oQjrk gSA ijUrq bloQk ;g vFkZ ugha foQ lafoèkku osQ fu;eksa osQ vuqlkj 'kklu lapkyuek=k gh lafoèkkuokn gSA ,slk rks foQlh fujaoQq'k 'kklu esa Hkh gks loQrk gSA ,oQ rkuk'kkg viuh bPNk osQ vuqlkjlafoèkku cukoQj] turk oQh bPNkvksa vkSj vkoQka{kkvksa oQh vogsyuk oQjrk gqvk mu ij ;g lafoèkku cyiwoZoQykxw oQj loQrk gSA ,sls lafoèkku esa turk osQ vkn'kks± o ewY;ksa oQk lekos'k ugha gksrk gS] vkSj bl oQkj.k ;gO;oLFkk lafoèkkuokn oQk foykse gh gksxhA vr% lafoèkkuokn lafoèkku osQ fu;eksa osQ vuq:i 'kklu lapkyu lsvfèkoQ gSA bloQk vFkZ gS] fujaoQq'k 'kklu osQ foijhr fu;ekuqoQwy 'kklu] ftlesa euq"; oQh vkèkkjHkwr ekU;rkvksa]vkLFkkvksa vkSj ewY;ksa oQh O;ogkj esa miyfCèk lEHko gksA blls ;g fu"oQ"kZ fuoQyrk gS foQ lafoèkkuokn 'kkluoQh og i¼fr gS ftlesa 'kklu turk oQh vkLFkkvksa] ewY;ksa o vkn'kks± oQks ifjyf{kr oQjus okys lafoèkku osQ fu;eksao fl¼kraksa osQ vkèkkj ij gh foQ;k tk, o ,sls lafoèkku osQ ekè;e ls gh 'kkloQksa oQks çfrcafèkr o lhfer j[kktk, ftlls jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk oQh ewy O;oLFkk,¡ lqjf{kr jgsa vkSj O;ogkj esa gj O;fDr oQks miyCèk gks losQaA

oQqN fopkjoQ 'kklu oQks lhfer o fu;af=kr oQjus osQ fy, rFkk ekuo ewY;ksa oQh lqj{kk lEHko cukus osQ fy,'kfDr foHkktu oQks vfèkoQ egÙo nsrs gSa o mls lafoèkkuokn oQk ewy vkèkkj ekurs gSaA muoQh ekU;rk gS foQlafoèkkuokn jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk foHkktu oQj ljoQkj osQ oQk;ks± ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir oQjuk gSA vr%lafoèkkuokn rHkh laHko gS tc foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa 'kfDr foHkktu osQ }kjk ljoQkjh oQk;ks± ij çHkko'kkyhfu;a=k.k LFkkfir foQ;k tk losQA

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mijksDr o.kZu ls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkku o lafoèkkuokn ,oQ nwljs osQ i;kZ;okph ugha gSaA blls ;g Hkh Li"V gSfoQ tgk¡ lafoèkku gS ogk¡ lafoèkkuokn vko';oQ :i ls ik;k tkrk gks ;g t:jh ugha gSA lafoèkku osQ ekè;els rks ge foQlh Hkh ns'k oQh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk] vFkkZr ljoQkj osQ Lo:i] mloQh 'kfDr;ksa o ukxfjoQksa vkSjljoQkj osQ lEcUèkksa ls lEcfUèkr fl¼kUrksa o fu;eksa oQk laosQr ikrs gSa tcfoQ lafoèkkuokn ,oQ ,slh O;oLFkk gSftlesa lafoèkku osQ ekè;e ls gh ljoQkj oQh 'kfDr;ksa ij 'kfÙkQ forj.k }kjk çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir foQ;ktkrk gS ftlls og vkoQka{kk,¡ o ewY; lqjf{kr jgsa ftuoQh miyfCèk osQ lkèku osQ :i esa lafoèkku oQks viuk;ko lefFkZr foQ;k x;k o vkt Hkh leFkZu fn;k tkrk gSA

bl çoQkj] fiuksoQ o fLeFk osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶lafoèkkuokn osQoy çfØ;k ;k rF; (substance) oQk uke gh ughagS vfirq jktuhfroQ lÙkk osQ lqfoLr`r lewgksa] nyksa o oxks± ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.kksa] vewrZ rFkk O;kioQçfrfuèkkReoQ ewY;ksa] çrhoQksa] vrhroQkyhu ijEijkvksa vkSj Hkkoh egRokoQka{kkvksa ls lEc¼ Hkh gSA¸ euq"; mÙkjksÙkjo lok±xh.k fooQkl oQh vkoQka{kk j[krk gS] vkSj bloQh O;oLFkk oQjus osQ fy, ges'kk ls ç;Ru'khy jgk gSA ;gcgqeq[kh fooQkl oQh O;oLFkk] vkèkqfuoQ jkT;ksa esa lafoèkku osQ ekè;e ls lEHko cukrh gSA ij 'kkloQ lafoèkkuoQh vogsyuk oQj] fooQkl osQ y{; vkSj vkn'kZ lekIr gh ugha oQj nsa] blfy, lekt] jktuhfroQ lÙkk oQkslaxfBr gh ugha] mls fu;af=kr] çfrcfUèkr o lhfer j[kus osQ lkèku Hkh tqVkrk gSA ekuo lekt oQh ekU;rkvksao vkn'kks± oQh miyfCèk gsrq foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa lqj{kkReoQ fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk gh lafoèkkuokn gSA oQkyZts- ÚsfMªoQ us BhoQ gh oQgk gS foQ] ¶O;ofLFkr ifjorZu oQh tfVy çfØ;kReoQ O;oLFkk gh lafoèkkuokn gSA¸bl ifjorZu oQks ljoQkj o ukxfjoQ gh lEHko cukrs gSaA fofy;e th- ,sUMªwt osQ vuqlkj] lafoèkkuokn bu nksçoQkj osQ] ljoQkj o ukxfjoQ] rFkk ,oQ ljoQkjh lÙkk osQ nwljh ljoQkjh lÙkk ls] lEcUèkksa oQk lapkyu ek=k gSAvFkkZr lafoèkkuokn ljoQkj o ukxfjoQ rFkk ,oQ ljoQkjh lÙkk osQ nwljh ljoQkjh lÙkk ls lEcUèkksa oQh Bksl O;oLFkkgS ftlls ;g lHkh y{;;qÙkQ O;ofLFkr ifjorZu lEHko cus vkSj jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk fo'ks"k esa] ekuo vkn'kks±]jktuhfroQ ewY;ksa o vkLFkkvksa oQks O;kogkfjoQrk çnku gksrh jgsA

lafoèkkuokn vkSj lafoèkku osQ vFkZ ls Li"V gS foQ bu nksuksa esa oQkiQh vUrj gSA buoQk vUrj le>uk t:jh gS] vU;FkklaoSèkkfuoQ O;oLFkk ek=k oQks lafoèkkuokn le>us oQk Hkze mRiUu gksuk LokHkkfooQ gSA vr% buesa vUrj oQjukvko';oQ gSA

¶lafoèkkuokn ml fu"Bk oQk uke gS tks euq"; lafoèkku esa fufgr 'kfDr esa j[krk gS ftlls

ljoQkj O;ofLFkr cuh jgrh gSA¸ vFkkZr og fu"Bk o vkLFkk oQh 'kfÙkQ ftlesa lqlaxfBr

jktuhfroQ lÙkk fu;af=kr jgrh gS] lafoèkkuokn* gSA

lafoèkku o lafoèkkuokn esa vUrj (Difference Between Constitution and Constitutionalism)

lafoèkku] lafoèkkuokn oQh vfHkO;fDr oQjrk gSA blh ij lafoèkkuokn vkèkkfjr gksrk gSA vr% nksuksa esa vUrj oQhfoHkktoQ js[kk [khapuk O;kogkfjoQ :i esa oQfBu gSA ijUrq nksuksa oQk vUrj le>uk vko';oQ gS] D;ksafoQ nksuksaoQk vUrj oQjus ij gh mu ifjfLFkfr;ksa oQks igpkuk tk loQrk gS] tks lafoèkku vkSj lafoèkkuokn oQh vyx&vyxfn'kkvksa oQk laosQr oQjrh gSA tSls Økafr;ksa }kjk cyiwoZoQ LFkkfir lSfuoQ rkuk'kkgh O;oLFkkvksa esa lafoèkku olafoèkkuokn osQ vUrj osQ lanHkZ esa gh Li"V gks loQrh gSA blfy, nksuksa oQk vUrj Li"V le> ysuk pkfg,A la{ksiesa bu nksuksa osQ vUrj oQk foospu bl çoQkj gS %&

(oQ) ifjHkk"kk oQh nf"V ls lafoèkkuokn fopkjèkkjk oQk çrhoQ gSA blesa jk"Vª osQ ewY;] fo'okl o jktuhfroQ vkn'kZvkrs gSa] ftuls feyoQj fopkjèkkjk curh gS] vkSj ml fopkjèkkjk (Ideology) oQk çrhoQ lafoèkkuokn oQgykrk

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gSA lafoèkku laxBu oQk çrhoQ gSA ;g mu fl¼kUrksa oQk laoQyu oQgk tk loQrk gS ftuosQ vuqlkj ljoQkj oQh'kfDr;ksa o 'kkflrksa osQ vfèkoQkjh osQ eè; lEcUèkksa oQk lek;kstu foQ;k tkrk gSA blls ljoQkj] O;fDr o lektosQ laxBuksa osQ vkilh lEcUèkksa oQk cksèk gksrk gSA buesa ikjLifjoQrk o iwjoQrk oQk lEcUèk gSA lkE;] lekt esaO;oLFkk] LFkkf;Ro o çxfr'khyrk oQk lwpoQ gSA nksuksa esa lkE; u jgus ij] vFkkZr nksuksa oQh fn'kkvksa oQkvyx&vyx gksuk Økafr oQh i`"BHkwfe rS;kj oQjrk gSA

bl çoQkj lh- ,iQ- LVªksax osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶lafoèkku mu fl¼kUrksa oQk lewg gS ftuosQ vuqlkj jkT; osQ vfèkoQkj]ukxfjoQksa osQ vfèkoQkjksa] ukxfjoQksa] vkSj nksuksa osQ lacaèkksa esa lkeatL; LFkkfir foQ;k tkrk gSA¸ okLro esa lafoèkkutgk¡ ,oQ rjiQ ljoQkj ij fu;fer fu;a=k.k j[krk gS] ogk¡ ;g nwljh rjiQ] lekt esa ,oQrk ykus okyhs 'kfDrosQ çrhoQ osQ :i esa Hkh oQk;Z oQjrk gSA iQkbuj us blfy, gh lafoèkku oQks foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa 'kfDrlEcUèkksa oQh vkReoQFkk* cryk;k gSA jktuhfroQ çfØ;k osQ :i esa lafoèkku U;k;ksfpr [ksy oQh xkjaVh oQjusokys fu;eksa oQks oQgk x;k gSA lafoèkkuokn mu fopkjksa vkSj fl¼kUrksa oQh vksj laosQr oQjrk gS tks lafoèkkuoQk fooj.k vkSj leFkZu oQjrs gSa rFkk ftuosQ ekè;e ls jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij çHkkoh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir oQjuklEHko gksrk gSA oQkSjh rFkk vczkge osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶LFkkfir lafoèkku osQ funsZ'kksa osQ vuq:i 'kklu oQkslafoèkkuokn ekuk tkrk gSA¸

([k) mRifÙk oQh n`f"V ls Hkh nksuksa esa vUrj gSA lafoèkkuokn ges'kk gh fooQkl oQk ifj.kke jgk gSA gj ns'k osQewY;] fo'okl o vkn'kks± oQk fooQkl 'krkfCn;ksa osQ vkoj.k esa rFkk le; oQh ifjfèk esa èkhjs&èkhjs gksrk gSAijEijkxr] laLFkkxr o ekuo lEcUèkh rÙoksa ls jk"Vªksa osQ fo'okl o vkn'kZ fooQflr gksrs jgrs gSa] vkSj tulkèkkj.kosQ thou esa brus ?kqy&fey tkrs gSa foQ buoQh çkfIr vkSj j{kk gsrq lekt cM+s ls cM+k cfynku oQjus osQ fy,rS;kj jgrk gSA lafoèkku] osQoy fczVsu osQ lafoèkku oQks NksM+oQj] lkèkkj.kr;k fufeZr gksrs gSa rFkk ckn esa ijEijkvksaosQ ekè;e ls lafoèkkuokn oQh vko';oQrkvksa osQ vuq:i Lor% cnyrs&<yrs tkrs gSaA Lor% ugha cnyrs] ijvkSipkfjoQ la'kksèkuksa ls lafoèkkuksa oQks lafoèkkuokn osQ vuq:i cuk, j[kk tkrk gSA bl çoQkj] mRifÙk oQh n`f"Vls lafoèkku lqfuf'pr ç;Ruksa ls fuf'pr vofèk esa fufeZr gksrs gSa] tcfoQ lafoèkkuokn] jk"Vª esa ewY;ksa oQh O;oLFkkgh gksus osQ oQkj.k] yEch vofèk esa fooQflr gksrk gSA

(x) lafoèkku o lafoèkkuokn esa çoQ`fr esa Hkh ekSfyoQ vUrj gSA lafoèkkuokn esa çèkkurk foQlh jktuhfroQ lektosQ y{;ksa vkSj mís';ksa oQh gksrh gSA vUrr% gj lekt ,oQ xUrO; oQh çkfIr oQk y{; j[krk gS] vkSj xUrO;ksaoQh çkfIr oQh O;oLFkk gh lafoèkkuokn oQk ewy gS tcfoQ lafoèkku çeq[kr;k mu xUrO;ksa roQ igq¡pus osQ lkèkuksaoQh lqO;oLFkk gSA ;g lafoèkkuokn osQ mís';ksa oQh çkfIr gsrq lkèku tqVkus oQk uke gSA vr% lafoèkkuoknlkè;&çèkku vkSj lafoèkku&çèkku èkkj.kk gSA

(?k) lafoèkkuokn vUrHkwZroQkjh (inclusive) rFkk lafoèkku viotZoQ (exclusive) èkkj.kk gSA lafoèkkuokn oQbZ ns'kksaoQk ,oQ&lk gks loQrk gSA ,oQ jk"Vª osQ ewY;] fo'okl] o jktuhfroQ vkn'kZ o laLoQ`fr osQ çfr vU; ns'k Hkh fu"Bkj[k loQrk gSA laLoQfr] ewY;] fo'okl o jktuhfroQ vkn'kZ oQbZ ns'kksa osQ ,oQ&ls gks loQrs gSaA vr% ;g ugha le>ukpkfg, foQ gj ns'k oQk viuk vyx ekSfyoQ lafoèkkuokn gksrk gSA vkaXy&vejhoQu ftls ik'pkR; laLoQ`fr oQgrsgSa] bu jk"Vªksa osQ lafoèkkuokn esa lekurk oQk laosQr oQjrh gSA lkE;oknh txr esa Hkh oQbZ ns'kksa esa jktuhfroQ ewY;ksao vkn'kks± oQk ,oQ&lk gksuk] lafoèkkuokn oQh ,oQ:irk ifjyf{kr oQjrk gS ijUrq vusoQ jk"Vªksa esa lafoèkkuokn oQhlekurk esa çoQkj oQk rks ugha ij ek=kk oQk vUrj vo'; gks loQrk gSA ik'pkR; jk"Vªksa esa Úkal o teZuh rFkk lkE;oknhtxr esa phu o vyckfu;k bl ek=kkReoQ vUrj oQk mnkgj.k fn[kkbZ nsrs gSA fooQkl'khy ns'kksa esa ;g vUrj vfèkoQik;k tkrk gS] D;ksafoQ bu jk"Vªksa esa] jk"Vªh; vga (national ego) cukus osQ fy, ekSfyoQ thou n'kZu oQh [kkst buoQksvfèkoQ fHkUurk ls ;qDr cuk nsrh gSA bu ns'kksa oQh laLoQ`fr esa fHkUurk oQk iqV vfèkoQ ik;k tkrk gS] vkSj ;g Hkhlafoèkkuokn esa ek=kkReoQ vUrj oQk vkèkkj cu tkrk gSA blls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn O;kioQ èkkj.kk gS] vkSj vusoQjk"Vªksa esa leku :i ls ikbZ tk loQrh gSA

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lafoèkku gj ns'k oQk vyx gksrk gSA ;|fi lafoèkkuokn oQh oQbZ ns'kksa esa lekurk lafoèkkuksa oQks Hkh lekurk oQk Åijhvkoj.k iguk nsrh gS] ij blosQ ckotwn lafoèkku fHkUurk vfèkoQ j[krs gSaA fofHkUu jkT;ksa osQ lafoèkkuksa esa ek=kk vkSjçoQkj nksuksa gh oQk vUrj ns[kus oQks feyrk gSA lafoèkku] çeq[kr;k lkèkuksa oQh O;oLFkk gksus osQ oQkj.k ,oQ ls lkè;ksaoQks Hkh jkT; fo'ks"k oQh fof'k"V ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ oQkj.k vyx&vyx çoQkj osQ lkèkuksa ls çkIr oQjus oQk çkoèkku ek=kgksrs gSa vkSj blls gj ns'k oQk lafoèkku fHkUu gks tkrk gSA bl çoQkj] lafoèkku ls lhfer èkkj.kk oQk cksèk gksrk gSA;g jkT; fo'ks"k oQk gh jgrk gSA oQbZ jkT;ksa oQk ,oQ&lk ugha cu loQrk gSA ftl çoQkj gj euq"; oQk 'kjhjvyx&vyx gksrk gS BhoQ blh çoQkj gj jkT; oQk lafoèkku vyx o fof'k"V gksrk gSA ij gj euq"; esa çk.k vkRekeksVs :i esa leku gh gksrh gSA blh rjg vusoQ jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn oQh lekurk Hkh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA

(Ä) lafoèkku o lafoèkkuokn oQk vUrj vkSfpR; ;k oSèkrk (legitimacy) osQ vkèkkj ij Hkh foQ;k tkrk gSAlafoèkkuokn esa vkn'kks± osQ vkSfpR; oQk çfriknu eq[;r% fopkjèkkjk (Ideology) osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gS tcfoQlafoèkku oQh oSè;rk fofèk ;k oQkuwu osQ vkèkkj ij BgjkbZ tkrh gSA

mijksDr foospu ls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkku vkSj lafoèkkuokn esa xgjk lEcUèk gksrs gq, Hkh nksuksa esa vkèkkjHkwr vUrjgksrk gSA ;g vUrj gh ;g Li"V oQjrk gS foQ oQHkh&oQHkh jkT;ksa esa bu nkuksa oQh fn'kk,¡ fHkUu&fHkUu D;ksa gks tkrhgSa\ vkSj bl fn'kk fHkUurk oQk D;k ifj.kke gks loQrk gS\ bl o.kZu ls ,oQ ckr vkSj Li"V gksrh gS foQ foQlh jkT;esa lafoèkkuokn oQqN vkèkkjHkwr erSD;ksa (consensus) osQ gksus ij gh lEHko gS] D;ksafoQ ljoQkj] ukxfjoQ rFkk fofHkUuljoQkjh lÙkkvksa esa lkeatL;] lg;ksx rFkk ikjLifjoQrk bu vkèkkjksa oQh vuqifLFkfr esa vFkZiw.kZ ugha cu loQrhA vr%lafoèkkuokn osQ bu ewy vkèkkjksa oQks la{ksi esa le>uk vko';oQ gS] D;ksafoQ bUgha oQh uhao ij lafoèkkuokn oQk Hkou[kM+k jgrk gSA

laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj oQk D;k vFkZ gS\

lafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkj (Foundations of constitutionalism)

lkekU;r;k lHkh ljoQkjsa muoQk fojksèk oQjus okyss oQk neu] gj jkT; esa 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx ls gh oQjrh gSA ijUrq ljoQkjksaoQks 'kfDr oQk ç;ksx oQHkh&oQHkh gh oQjuk gksrk gSA lkèkkj.kr% gj jktuhfroQ lekt esa bruk O;kioQ o Bksl ,sD;gksrk gS foQ ljoQkj oQks 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx oQh vko';oQrk ugha iM+rh vkSj turk ljoQkj osQ vkn'kks± oQk Lor% ikyuoQjrh jgrh gSA ;g erSD; oQh ifjfLFkfr lafoèkkuokn oQh vko';oQ 'krZ gSA ;g erSD;] iw.kZ fojksèk o iw.kZ lgefrosQ nks èkzqoksa oQks tksM+us okyh fujarj js[kk ij foQlh LFkku ij gksrk gS] tks fp=k 3-1 ls vkSj Hkh Li"V gks tkrk gSA

ljoQkj oQk fojksèk&leFkZu fujUrj

iw.kZ fojks/

leFkZu

'kfDr lgefr iw.kZ leFkZu

lafo/kuokn

rkuk'kkgh yksdra=k

(1) (2)(5)

(3) (4)

fojks/

fp=k 3-1 'kkloQ&'kkflrksa oQk lEcUèk fp=k.k

fp=k 3-1 esa 'kkloQ&'kkflrksa osQ lEcUèkksa oQks le>kus oQk ç;kl foQ;k x;k gSA ljoQkj osQ fojksèk&leFkZu fujUrj

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ij igyh o pkSFkh voLFkk,a osQoy oQkYifuoQ gh gSa] D;ksafoQ foQlh jktuhfroQ lekt esa 'kkloQksa oQk iw.kZ fojksèk

Økafr oQh voLFkk oQks NksM+oQj ugha gksrk gSA blh çoQkj 'kkloQksa osQ gj vkns'k oQk] gj vkneh] gj ifjfLFkfr

esa ikyu oQjrk gks ;g Hkh ije&vkn'kZ voLFkk gh gksxhA bu nks èkzqoksa osQ chp foQlh u foQlh LFkku ij lHkh

jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk,¡ vafoQr oQh tk loQrh gSaA iw.kZ fojksèk o iw.kZ leFkZu osQ nks èkzqoksa osQ chp ,oQ vO;k[;kf;r

lh ,slh voLFkk Hkh gksrh gS tks fp=k esa ikap ij vafoQr ekuh xbZ gS] ftlosQ ckbZ rjiQ oQh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkvksa

oQks fujaoQq'k (fcUnq nks) rFkk nkfguh rjiQ oQh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkvksa oQks yksoQrkaf=koQ (fcUnq rhu) oQgk tk loQrk

gSA lafoèkkuokn oQh mifLFkfr osQoy yksoQrkfU=koQ O;oLFkkvksa esa gh lEHko gSA jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkvksa oQh ;g og

voLFkk gS ftlesa lekt esa bruk O;kioQ o Bksl ,sD; gksrk gS foQ ljoQkj oQks 'kfDr oQk ç;ksx oQHkh&oQHkh o

fof'k"V ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gh oQjuk gksrk gS vkSj lkekU; le; esa ljoQkj oQks 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx oQh vko';oQrk gh

ugha iM+rhA ;g erSD; oQh ifjfLFkfr] lafoèkkuokn oQh vkèkkjHkwr o vko';oQ 'krZ gSA ;g ,sD; ftruk gh iw.kZ

lgefr ;k leFkZu osQ èkzqo osQ lehi gksxk mruh gh lafoèkkuokn esa Bkslrk o O;kogkfjoQrk gksxhA fofy;e th-

,sUMwªt us ;g pkj çoQkj ekuk gSA

(oQ) laLFkkvksa osQ <kaps vkSj çfØ;k ij erSD; (consensus on the form of institutions and procedures)μ

,sUMwªt oQh ekU;rk gS foQ jktuhfroQ laLFkkvksa osQ <kaps vkSj çfØ;kvksa ij erSD; laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj osQ fy, fo'ks"k

egÙo j[krk vxj ukxfjoQksa oQh cM+h la[;k og vuqHko oQjrh gks foQ ljoQkj oQk rU=k muosQ vfgr esa] vU;k;iw.kZ

<ax ls lapkfyr gksrk gS] rks os lkekftoQ la?k"kks± osQ lekèkku oQh o vius vkn'kks± oQh çkfIr oQh] ljoQkjh O;oLFkk

LohoQkj ugha oQjsaxsA blls ljoQkjh lÙkk {kh.k gksxh vkSj ljoQkj oQks turk oQk leFkZu ugha] fojksèk feysxkA blfy,

laLFkkvksa osQ <kaps vkSj çfØ;kvksa ij ukxfjoQksa esa lkekU; ,sD; vko';oQ gh ugha] vfuok;Z Hkh gSA ljoQkjh O;oLFkk

osQ çfr vlUrks"k oQh fLFkfr lafoèkkuokn osQ vuqoQwy ugha gksxhA lafoèkkuokn osQ fy, ;g vko';oQ gS foQ laLFkkvksa

oQh çoQ`fr ij turk esa eksVh lgefr gksA bl lkekU; lgefr osQ vHkko esa lafoèkku rFkk lafoèkkuokn esa lkE;

ugha jgsxk vkSj lafoèkku] lafoèkkuokn oQh lqj{kk oQk lkèkoQ ugha jgoQj mlesa ckèkoQ cu tk,xk vkSj Økafr oQk

ekxZ ç'kLr oQjsxkA blfy, lafoèkku rFkk lafoèkkuokn esa lkE; cuk, j[kus osQ fy, vko';oQ gS foQ laLFkkvksa

vkSj çfØ;kvksa ij jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ukxfjoQksa esa erSD; gksA

([k) ljoQkj osQ vkèkkj osQ :i esa fofèk&'kklu oQh vko';oQrk ij lgefr (Agreement on the

desirability of the rule of law as basis of government) μ lafoèkkuokn oQk nwljk egÙoiw.kZ vkèkkj 'kklu

lapkyu osQ fu;eksa ij lgefr ls lEc¼ gSA jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ukxfjoQksa esa bl ckr ij Hkh lgefr vko';oQ

gS foQ ljoQkj osQ lapkyu oQk vkèkkj fofèk oQk 'kklu gh gksA ;|fi oQqN vlkekU; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa lekt esa

blosQ çfroQwy erSD; Hkh gks loQrk gSA tSls ns'k esa laoQV osQ le; esa ,slk usrk mHkj loQrk gS] ftlesa ,slh

;ksX; vkSj vuks[kh lw>cw> gks loQrh gS foQ tuleqnk; mloQks lafoèkkuokn osQ cUèkuksa ls eqDr gksus nsA

teZuhokfl;ksa us 1933 esa fgVyj osQ fy, vkSj Úkalokfl;ksa us 1958 esa pkYlZ fMxkWy osQ le; esa ,slk foQ;k]

;|fi Úkal esa lafoèkkuokn osQ <kaps oQh vkSipkfjoQrk cuh jgh FkhA ijUrq ;g rHkh gksrk gS tc vfèkoQka'k

tuleqnk; oQh vkLFkk laoQV fo'ks"k oQk lkeuk oQjus osQ fy, lafoèkku }kjk O;ofLFkr çfØ;kvksa ls mB tk,A

,slh voLFkk esa lekt] jkT; osQ lEiw.kZ lkèkuksa oQks tqVkus osQ fy, lafoèkku osQ fu;U=k.kksa o funsZ'kksa oQh vogsyuk

gksus osQ fy, lger gh ugha gks tkrk] vfirq ,slk oQjus osQ fy, ljoQkj ij ncko roQ Mkyrk gSA ,slk x`g

;q¼ osQ le; vejhoQk esa gqvk rFkk foxr egk;q¼ osQ le; fczVsu esa foQ;k x;k ij ;g lafoèkkuokn oQk vUr

oQjuk ugha] ml ij lEHkkfor [krjs ls mls cpkus oQh lqj{kk O;oLFkk gSA ;g laoQV osQ lkFk gh lekIr gks tkrh

gSA vr% ;g fof'k"V ifjfLFkfr;ksa o laoQV oQh ckr gqbZA lkekU;r;k] ljoQkj oQk lapkyu o funsZ'ku oQk vkèkkj

fofèk gh gks bl ij lgefr oQh voLFkk esa gh lafoèkkuokn lEHko gSA

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(x) lekt osQ lkekU; mís';ksa ij lgefr (Agreement on the general goals of the society) μlafoèkkuokn osQ fooQkl osQ fy, ;g Hkh vko';oQ gS foQ jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ukxfjoQksa esa lekt osQ lkekU;mís';ksa ij lgefr ikbZ tk,A ijUrq lafoèkkuokn osQ iwoZ&of.kZr vkèkkjksa ftruk egÙoiw.kZ vkèkkj ;g ugha gS]D;ksafoQ tc laLFkkvksa oQh çoQ`fr o çfØ;kvksa ij lgefr gks rc lekt osQ y{;ksa o xUrO;ksa oQk la'kksèku o iqu%fuèkkZj.k ckrphr o le>kSrs }kjk foQ;k tkuk lEHko gSA ijUrq fiQj Hkh] lekt osQ lkekU; mís';ksa ij jtkeUnhoQk vHkko jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa ,sls ruko] f[akpko o ncko mRiUu oQj loQrk gS foQ blls nwljs {ks=kksa oQk erSD;[krjs esa iM+oQj] lEiw.kZ laoSèkkfuoQ rU=k oQks pkSiV oQjus oQk lw=kikr oQj loQrk gSA bl çoQkj] lekt osQ lkekU;mís';ksa ij lgefr u gksus oQh ifjfLFkfr] lEiw.kZ laoSèkkfuoQ <kaps oQks vLrO;Lr oQj loQrh gSA blfy, ghfofy;e thñ ,sUMªwt oQh ekU;rk gS foQ] ¶mí';ksa ij lgefr rFkk leku jktuhfroQ n'kZu esa vkLFkk lafoèkkuoknesa Bkslrk ykus osQ fy, vko';oQ gSA¸

(?k) xkS.k y{;ksa o fof'k"V uhfr&ç'uksa ij lgefr (Concurrence in lesser goals and on psecific policy

questions) μ xkS.k y{;ksa rFkk fof'k"V uhfr& ç'uksa ij lgefr oQks lafoèkkuokn oQk ewy vkèkkj ekuk tk, ;kugha bl ij yksxksa esa erHksn gSA ;fn ;g lafoèkkuokn osQ fy, vfuok;Z vkèkkj u Hkh ekuk tk, rks Hkh ;g rks LohoQkjoQjuk gh gksxk foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh O;ogkj esa miyfCèk osQ fy, ;g t:jh gS foQ xkS.k mís';ksa o fof'k"V uhfr&ç'uksaij Hkh lekt esa lgefr gksA D;ksafoQ bu ij vlgefr] og çkjfEHkoQ n'kk gS tks lafoèkkuokn osQ Hkou oQks èkjk'kk;hoQjus oQh i"BHkwfe rS;kj oQjrh gSA fof'k"V uhfr&ç'uksa ij vlgefr ls vlUrks"k oQh og fLFkfr mRiUu gks loQrh gStks lgefr osQ vU; {ks=kksa esa Hkh ruko] lUnsg vkSj fojksèk osQ cht cks ns] ftlls lafoèkkuokn osQ lEiw.kZ Hkou esa njkjsaiM+us yxsa] tks vUrr% mloQks oQetksj oQj èkjk'kk;h oQjus oQk oQkj.k cu tk,aA blfy, vxj ;g eku Hkh fy;k tk,foQ ;g lafoèkkuokn oQk vR;Ur vko';oQ vkèkkj ugha gS] fiQj Hkh ;g rks LohoQkj oQjuk gh gksxk foQ blls lafoèkkuokn:ih Hkou oQh lhesUV esa Bkslrk vkrh gS vkSj jktuhfroQ <kapk gYosQ&iQqYosQ rukoksa ls fgy ugha ikrkA

lafoèkkuokn osQ mijksDr pkjksa vkèkkj foQlh Hkh jkT; esa bloQh O;kogkfjoQ miyfCèk oQh vko';oQ 'krZ gSA vxj foQlhjktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa ;s vkèkkj mifLFkr u gksa rks lafoèkkuokn oQh O;oLFkk vfèkoQ fnu LFkk;h ugha jg loQrh gSAnh?kZoQkyhu o lfn;ksa ls LFkkfir lafoèkkuokn Hkh bu vkèkkjksa osQ vHkko esa lekIr gks tkrk gSA lekt esa bu pkjksavkèkkjksa ij vlgefr Bksl lafoèkkuokn oQh Hkh lekfIr oQk oQkj.k cu tkrh gS blfy, buoQk lafoèkkuoknh O;oLFkkesa vkèkkjHkwr ;ksxnku gSA

lafoèkkuokn oQk vFkZ vkSj vkèkkj le>us osQ i'pkr blosQ fofHkUu rÙoksa oQks le>uk t:jh gSA lafoèkku esa bu rÙoksaoQk fufgr gksuk ;k ugha gksuk gh lafoèkku }kjk LFkkfir ljoQkj oQks laoSèkkfuoQ ;k vlaoSèkkfuoQ cukrk gS vkSj ;glafoèkkuokn oQh vfHkO;fDr gksrh gS ;k ugha] bloQk fu.kkZ;oQ curk gSA

lafoèkkuokn osQ rÙo (Elements of Constitutionalism)

fiuksoQ o fLeFk us viuh iqLroQ iksfyfVoQy lk;al % ,su bUVªksMD'ku esa lafoèkkuokn osQ pkj rÙoksa oQk mYys[kfoQ;k gSA buoQh ekU;rk gS foQ foQlh ns'k esa lafoèkkuokn oQh O;ogkfjoQrk osQ fy, mlosQ lafoèkku esa bu rÙoksa oQkgksuk ;k foQlh jkT; osQ lafoèkku esa buoQk u ik;k tkuk bl ckr oQk lwpoQ gS foQ ,slh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa lafoèkkuosQ gksrs gq, Hkh lafoèkku }kjk lafoèkkuokn oQk çoQk'ku o O;ogkjhoQj.k ugha gksrk gS rFkk ;g voLFkk lafoèkku olafoèkkuokn esa u osQoy vlkE; oQk laosQr gS vfirq nksuksa oQh fHkUu&fHkUu fn'kkvksa oQh lwpoQ gS] tks vurr% lafoèkkuoQks lafoèkkuokn osQ vuq:i cukus osQ fy, tuØkafr oQh i`"BHkwfe rS;kj oQjrk gSA

vr% lafoèkkuokn osQ rÙoksa osQ lanHkZ esa gh ;g le>uk lEHko gS foQ foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa lafoèkku]lafoèkkuokn oQk çrhoQ o çfrfcEcoQ gS vFkok ugha A vxj foQlh jkT; osQ lafoèkku esa lafoèkkuokn osQ bu rÙoksaoQk lekos'k ugha gksrk gS rks og lafoèkku] lafoèkkuokn oQh vfHkO;fÙkQ oQk ekè;e ugha jgrk gS] vkSj ,slh jktuhfroQO;oLFkk esa lafoèkku osQoy vkSipkfjoQ :i esa gh jgrk gS rFkk ns'k oQh okLrfooQ 'kklu O;oLFkk oQk LFkkioQ ugha

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gksrk gSA bruk gh ugha] oQgha&oQgha lafoèkku esa lafoèkkuokn osQ rÙo rks fufgr gksrs gSa ijUrq O;ogkj esa lafoèkku çHkkohugha gksrk] vfirq vkSipkfjoQ gh jgrk gSA ,slh voLFkkvksa esa jktuhfroQ laLFkkvksa oQh LFkkiuk o lapkyu lafoèkkuosQ vuq:i ugha gksoQj] mlls fHkUu çoQkj ls gksrk gSA bl vUrj oQks lafoèkkuokn osQ rÙoksa osQ lanHkZ esa lgh le>ktk loQrk gSA

(oQ) lafoèkku vifjgk;Z laLFkkvksa oQh vfHkO;fDr (The constitution as an embodiment of essential

institutions)μ lkekU;r;k] lHkh fyf[kr lafoèkkuksa esa ljoQkj osQ çeq[k inkfèkoQkfj;ksa] mlosQ fofHkUu vaxksa] muoQh'kfDr;ksa vkSj mu ij yxh lhekvksa oQk mYys[k gksrk gSA tgk¡ fyf[kr lafoèkku ugha gksrk gS vkSj vxj og laoSèkkfuoQjkT; gS] rks ,sls jkT; esa çeq[k ljoQkjh laLFkkvksa oQh LFkkiuk o muoQh 'kfÙkQ;ksa o lhekvksa oQk fu'p; ,sfrgkfloQrkls gksrk gSA lafoèkku pkgs fyf[kr gks ;k fooQflr o vfyf[kr] mlesa O;oLFkkfioQk] oQk;ZikfyoQk o U;k;ikfyoQkosQ laxBu] oQk;ks± o muosQ ikjLifjoQ lEcUèkksa oQh Li"V O;oLFkk] lafoèkkuokn oQh vfHkO;fDr osQ fy, vfuok;Z gSAlafoèkku esa ljoQkj osQ fofHkUu Lrjksa o vaxksa oQh 'kfDr;ksa oQh O;k[;k gh ugha gks oju~ muosQ ikjLifjoQ lEcUèkksa oQk]mu ij yxh lhekvksa vkSj muoQh oQk;Zfofèk oQk Li"V mYys[k Hkh gksuk pkfg,] vU;Fkk lafoèkku] lafoèkkuokn oQhvfHkO;fDr oQk lkèku ugha cu loQrkA orZeku jkT;ksa esa lafoèkku oQh lthork oQk ekin.M gh ;g gS foQ lafoèkkuoQgk¡ roQ ljoQkj oQh vkèkkjHkwr laLFkkvksaμ O;oLFkkfioQk] oQk;ZikfyoQk o U;k;ikfyoQk rFkk jktuhfroQ nyksa] lewgksa,oa ç'kkloQh; lsokvksa oQh leqfpr O;oLFkk o LFkkiuk oQjrk gSA vxj foQlh lafoèkku }kjk vkèkkjHkwr jktuhfroQlaLFkkvksa oQh LFkkiuk o muoQh 'kfDr;ksa oQh Li"V O;k[;k ugha gksrh gS rks ,slh O;oLFkk esa lafoèkkuokn lEHko ughagksrk gSA ,sls jkT;ksa esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa osQ ç;ksxoQÙkkZ vius vfèkoQkj{ks=k esa bPNkuqlkj o`f¼ oQjosQ 'kklu 'kfDr;ksaosQ nq#i;ksx oQk volj çkIr oQj ysrs gSaA blfy;s lafoèkku esa vkèkkjHkwr laLFkkvksa oQh Li"V O;oLFkk] lafoèkkuoknoQk ,oQ egÙoiw.kZ rÙo gSA

([k) lafoèkku jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk çfrcUèkoQ (The Constitution as restraint upon political power )μfiuksoQ o fLeFk rks çfrcaèkksa oQks lafoèkkuokn oQk ewy eU=k ekurs gSaA gj jkT; esa ljoQkj laoSèkkfuoQ cuk, j[kus osQfy,] mloQk foQlh u foQlh çoQkj fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk osQ vèkhu gksuk vko';oQ gS oSls rks lafoèkku }kjk ljoQkj osQra=k oQh LFkkiuk ek=k gh 'kfDr oQh fu;a=koQ O;oLFkk cu tkrh gS] fiQj Hkh lafoèkku Li"V :i ls ljoQkj oQh 'kfDr;ksaoQk lhekaoQu Hkh oQjs ;g vko';oQ gSA blls ljoQkjh fØ;k lqfuf'pr gks tkrh gS ftlls 'kkflr] 'kkloQksa osQLosPNkpkjh oQR;ksa ls cps jgsa] vkSj 'kklu osQoy fofèk gh osQ vuq:i lapkfyr gksrk jgsA blosQ fy, gj yksoQrkfU=koQjktuhfroQ O;oLFkk osQ lafoèkku esa oQqN ,sls çkoèkku foQ;s tkrs gSa] tks ljoQkj oQks gj le; o gj oQne ij fu;af=kr]çfrcfUèkr oQjrs gq, vius vfèkoQkj {ks=k esa lhfer j[krs gSa vkSj lafoèkku oQk O;ogkj esa foQlh Hkh vfèkoQkjh }kjkmYya?ku ugha foQ;k tkrk gSA lkèkkj.kr;k] gj yksoQrkfU=koQ jkT; esa oQqN u oQqN fu;a=k.k 'kkloQksa ij yxk, tkrsgSaA eksVs rkSj ij ;g fu;a=k.k gSμ (1) fofèk osQ 'kklu oQh LFkkiuk] (2) ekSfyoQ vfèkoQkjksa oQh O;oLFkk] (3) jkT;oQh 'kfDr;ksa osQ foHkktu] i`FkDoQj.k o foosQUæhoQj.k oQh O;oLFkk] rFkk (4) lkekftoQ cgqyokn oQh ifjfLFkfr;ksaoQks cuk, j[kus oQh O;oLFkkA

bu fu;a=k.k O;oLFkkvksa osQ ekè;e ls ljoQkj o ukxfjoQ] nksuksa gh vius vfèkoQkj o oQk;Z {ks=k esa lhfer jgus osQfy, ckè; gks tkrs gSaA ,oQ }kjk vfèkoQkj {ks=k oQk vfrØe.k Lor% gh nwljs }kjk bu fu;a=k.kksa osQ ekè;e ls vojksfèkroQj fn;k tkrk gSA ,slh O;oLFkk esa] lafoèkku lekt osQ vkn'kks±] vkLFkkvksa vkSj jktuhfroQ ewY;ksa oQh çkfIr oQk lkèkucuk jgrk gSA vxj foQlh jkT; esa lafoèkku }kjk ,sls çfrcUèk LFkkfir ugha foQ;s tkrs gSa rks ;g lafoèkku jktuhfroQvkpj.k oQk funs'koQ o fu;a=koQoQrkZ ugha jg ikrk gSA ,slh fu;a=koQ eqÙkQ jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa 'kkloQ LosPNk lslc oQqN oQj loQrs gSa vkSj ftl jkT; esa 'kkloQ mUeqÙkQ gksoQj lc oQqN oQj losQa] ogk¡ lafoèkkuokn lEHko ughagks loQrk gSA blfy;s lafoèkku oQk jktuhfroQ 'kfÙkQ oQk çfrcUèkoQ gksuk lafoèkkuokn oQk vkèkkjHkwr rÙo gSA

(x) lafoèkku fooQkl oQk funs'koQ (The constitution as the director of development)μ lafoèkku] ,oQçHkkoh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQoy orZeku esa gh u gks vfirq lqnwj Hkfo"; esa Hkh çHkkoh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr cuk jgsA

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blosQ ihNs vko';oQ gS foQ lafoèkku jktuhfroQ la?k"kZ oQk çHkko'kkyh <ax ls lhekaoQu o <kapk LFkkfir oQjs vkSjHkkoh çxfr osQ fy, fooQkl l{ke ;kstuk çLrqr oQjsaA le;] ifjfLFkfr;ksa vkSj vko';oQrkvksa esa ifjorZu osQ lkFkgh lkekftoQ ekU;rkvksa] ewY;ksa o vkn'kks± esa gsj&iQsj Hkh gksrk jgrk gSA oQkypØ esq xqtjrk gqvk lekt] u;s]ifj"oQ`r vkSj laof¼Zr xUrO;ksa oQks çkIr oQjus oQk y{; fuèkkZfjr oQjrk tkrk gSA bu uohu vkLFkkvksa oQh O;ogkjesa çkfIr oQh ;kstuk gj lafoèkku esa lfÂfgr gksuh pkfg,] ftlls lafoèkku lekt oQks fn'kkReoQ lqLi"Vrk ls ;qDrj[k losQA vxj foQlh jkT; oQk lafoèkku ,slh O;oLFkk ugha j[krk gS rks ifjofrZr o vçR;kf'kr ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa oglekt oQh cnyrh gqbZ ekU;rkvksa oQk çrhoQ ugha jg tk,xkA u;s vkfFkZoQ fooQklksa vkSj lekt osQ u;s lewgksa oQhHkh jktuhfroQ çHkko roQ igqap gksrh jgsA bu lewgksa oQh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr roQ igqap rHkh gks loQrh gS tc lafoèkkuesa ,slh O;oLFkk gks foQ] ftuoQk leFkZu lekIr gks tk, rks mUgsa LFkku ysus nsa] tks vc roQ lÙkk ifjfèk ls ckgjFksA blosQ fy, ;g vko';oQ gS foQ lafoèkku Hkfo"; osQ lEHkkfor fooQklksa oQk Js"Bre lkèku ugha curk og 'kh?kzgh lekt oQh vkèkkjHkwr ekU;rkvksa ls foyx gksrk tkrk gSA ,slk lafoèkku lekt oQh vkoQka{kkvksa oQh çkfIr oQk lkèkuu jgoQj mloQk ckèkoQ cu tkrk gSA ;g voLFkk lafoèkkuokn oQh lekfIr oQk çkjEHk gSA lafoèkku oQh xfrghurkoQk lwpoQ gSa ;g lekt oQks vuko';oQ toQM+uksa esa ckaèkoQj çxfr osQ iFk ij tM+rk ykrk gS vkSj og lafoèkkuoknoQk xyk ?kksaVrk gSA blfy, lafoèkku oQk fooQkl osQ funs'koQ osQ :i esa gksuk lafoèkkuokn oQh O;ogkfjoQrk gj le;cuk, j[kus osQ fy, vfuok;Z gSA ;g lafoèkkuokn esa lthork o xR;kReoQrk ykus okyk rÙo gS tks le; ifjorZuosQ lkFk vk, lekt osQ ewY;ksa esa ifjorZu osQ vuqoQwy lEiw.kZ laoSèkkfuoQ O;oLFkk oQks <kyus oQh Lor% gh O;oLFkkcu tkrk gSA

(?k) lafoèkku jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk laxBoQ (The constitution as an organiser of political authroity)

μ lafoèkku osQoy ljoQkj oQh lhekvksa oQh LFkkiuk gh ugha oQjrk vfirq ljoQkj oQh fofHkUu laLFkkvksa esa 'kfDr;ksaoQk {kSrhth; o yEckReoQ forj.k Hkh oQjrk gSA lafoèkku ;g O;oLFkk Hkh oQjrk gS foQ ljoQkj osQ oQk;Z vfèkoQkj;qDr jgsa] vkSj Lo;a ljoQkj Hkh oSè; (legitimate) jgsA vxj oQksbZ lafoèkku ljoQkj osQ oQk;ks± oQks vfèkoQkj ;qDro Lo;a ljoQkj oQks oSè; ugha cukrk rks ,slh ljoQkj o lafoèkku vfèkoQ fnu roQ LFkkbZ ugha jg loQrs gSa rFkk] ,slhjktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa lafoèkkuokn jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk laxBoQ ugha jgrkA blls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkku }kjk gjjktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk laxBu gksuk vko';oQ gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkokn oQh vfHkO;fDr lafoèkku}kjk o bloQh O;ogkj esa çkfIr ljoQkj }kjk gh lEHko gSA

oQksbZ Hkh lafoèkku jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk laxBoQ mlh voLFkk esa jgrk gS tcfoQ lafoèkku }kjk ;g O;oLFkk gks foQljoQkj osQ oQk;Z vfèkoQkj&;qDr jgsa] rFkk ljoQkj Lo;a oSè; jgsA lafoèkku ljoQkj oQks vfèkoQkj;qDr mlh voLFkkesa cuk loQrk gS tc ;g ljoQkj osQ çfrf"Br vkèkkjksa rFkk lgefr;qDr çfØ;kvksa oQk foospoQ o çrhoQ gksA ,slku gksus ij jktuhfroQ lekt ijLij fojksèkh nkoksa ls mRiUu oQj] ljoQkj oQh 'kfDr oQks {kh.k oQjrk gSa tc oQHkhlafoèkku lekt osQ ewyHkwr ewY;ksa osQ erSD; ij vkèkkfjr gks] bl çoQkj osQ erSD; oQk çrhoQ jgs vkSj ,sls erSD;oQk iks"koQ cus rks ljoQkj vfèkoQkj ;qDr curh gSA ,slh laoSèkkfuoQ O;oLFkk ij vkèkkfjr ljoQkj oQk fojksèk ughagksrk gSA lekt] lafoèkku o ljoQkj esa ikjLifjoQrk] lg;ksx o vuqoQwyrk jgrh gSA ljoQkj osQ oQk;Z vfèkoQ`r(authoritative) jgrs gSa rFkk lafoèkku tu&ekul esa o turk osQ fnyksa esa lekbZ ekU;rkvksa oQks çfrfcfEcr oQjrkgSA bloQk ;g vFkZ Hkh ugha gS foQ ljoQkj vfèkoQkj&;qDr cuh jgus osQ fy, ewyHkwr elyksa ij turk osQ erSoQ;oQh vfHkO;fDr ek=k gh oQjrh jgs] oju~ ljoQkj oQks blls vfèkoQ Hkh oQqN oQjuk gksrk gSA ljoQkj oQks ,slh oQk;Z&'kSyhoQh LFkkiuk oQjuh gksrh gS ftlls blosQ çfr fo'okl tkx`r gks vkSj yksxksa esa blosQ çfr fu"Bk o jktHkfDr cuhjgsA ljoQkj oQks bl çoQkj oQk;Zjr jguk pkfg, ftlls bloQh fØ;kvksa o oQk;Z&oQykiksa }kjk lafoèkku esa fufgrèkkj.kkvksa o ewY;ksa oQks çHkko'kkyh o çrhoQkReoQ (symbolic) jgrh gS] vfirq ljoQkj oQh vfèkoQkj;qDrrkO;ogkfjoQ Hkh curh gSA ;g rHkh lEHko gksrk gS tc ljoQkj oQk laxBoQ lafoèkku] osQoy ekU; fl¼kUrksa oQk lkekU;foospu gh ugha oQjs] vfirq ljoQkj oQh okLrfooQ oQk;Z&ç.kkyh oQh lqLi"V O;k[;k o O;oLFkk Hkh oQjsA lkFk gh

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lafoèkku ljoQkj ls lEc¼ çfrekuksa] ewY;ksa o fç; voèkkj.kkvksa oQk çHkkoh çrhoQ Hkh cus ftlls yksxksa osQ fny vkSj

fnekx esa ljoQkj osQ çfr fu"Bk esa fo|eku jgrh gSA osQoy ogh ljoQkj vUrr% oSèk cu loQrh gS tks tulkèkkj.k

oQh fu"Bk o fo'okl çkIr j[krs gq, lapkfyr gksrh gSA

vxj ljoQkj vfèkoQkj;qDr o oSèkrkiw.kZ ugha jgrh rks lafoèkku u jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk laxBoQ jgs vkSj u gh ,slh

O;oLFkk esa lafoèkkuokn ltho gksxk blfy, lafoèkkuokn osQ vko';oQ rÙo osQ :i esa lafoèkku oQk jktuhfroQ 'kfDr

oQk laxBoQ jguk vfuok;Z gS ftlls ljoQkj oSèk jgs vkSj lafoèkkuokn] vfHkO;fDr og O;kogkfjoQ :i esa jktuhfroQ

lekt esa O;kIr jgsA

fu"oQ"kZ :i esa ;g oQguk mfpr gksxk foQ lafoèkkuokn osQ mijksDr of.kZr pkjksa rÙo lafoèkku esa fufgr gksus pkfg,A

vxj foQlh jkT; osQ lafoèkku esa lafoèkkuokn osQ bu rÙoksa oQk lekos'k ugha gksrk rks og lafoèkku lafoèkkuokn lEHko

ugha gks loQrkA

lafoèkkuokn osQ vFkZ] vkèkkj o rÙoksa osQ foospu ls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh oQqN fo'ks"krk,¡ gksrh gSa ;|fi gj

jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa vuqierk o fofp=krk fo|eku gksrh gS] vkSj blls lafoèkku oQk Hkh fof'k"V gksuk vfuok;Z

gks tkrk gSA lafoèkku oQk vuks[kkiu] lafoèkkuokn esa Hkh fof'k"Vrk yk nsrk gks ,slk ugha le>uk pkfg,] D;ksafoQ

lafoèkkuokn rks jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ewY;ksa] ekU;rkvksa vkSj vkLFkkvksa oQks laj{k.k çnku oQjus oQh fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk

gSA blfy, lafoèkkuokn vUrjHkwroQkjh èkkj.kk gS] tks ,slh fo'ks"krkvksa ls ;qDr fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] tks oQe ;k vfèkoQ

ek=kk esa gj jktuhfroQ lekt esa O;kIr lafoèkkuokn esa ikbZ tkrh gSA

lafoèkkuokn oQh lkekU; fo'ks"krk,¡ (General Characteristics of Constitutionalsim)

lafoèkkuokn foQlh Hkh ns'k ;k lekt fo'ks"k oQk gks mloQh oQqN lkekU; fof'k"Vrk,¡ gksrh gSa] tks oQe ;k vfèkoQ

ek=kk esa gj lafoèkkuokn esa ifjyf{kr gksrh gSaA lafoèkkuokn oQh èkkj.kk oQks vkSj vfèkoQ vPNh rjg le>us osQ fy,

;g mi;qDr gksxk foQ mloQh oQqN oQfri; lkekU; fo'ks"krkvksa oQks Hkh ns[k fy;k tk,A

(oQ) lafoèkkuokn ewY;&lEc¼ voèkkj.kk gS (Constitutionalism is a value based concept)μ lafoèkkuokn

oQk lEcUèk jk"Vª osQ thou n'kZu ls gSA ;g mu ewY;ksa] fo'oklksa o jktuhfroQ vkn'kks± oQh vksj laosQr oQjrk gS tks

jk"Vª osQ gj ukxfjoQ oQks fç; gSA tks gj jk"Vª oQk thou vkèkkj gksrs gSaA ;g laoSèkkfuoQ n'kZu] jktuhfroQ lekt

oQks vfHktuksa (elites) }kjk çnku foQ;k tkrk gS ijUrq ;g n'kZu vfHktuksa roQ gh lhfer ugha jgrk gSA lekt oQk

fopkj'khy oxZ bls turk roQ igq¡pkrk gS] vkSj lekt LohoQkj oQj bls u osQoy cy çnku oQjrk gS] oju bls

lgh vFkks± esa ^jk"Vª&n'kZu* cukrk gSA ij blls ;g ugha le>uk pkfg, foQ lafoèkkuokn osQ ewY;ksa esa ns'k oQh

ijEijkvksa] ifjfLFkfr;ksa] vko';oQrkvksa o leL;kvksa oQk oQksbZ ;ksx ugha gksrk gSA osQoy vfHktu gh lekt oQks ewY;

ugha çnku oQjrs gSa] D;ksafoQ cqf¼thoh Lo;a okrkoj.k osQ f'k'kq gksrs gSaA muosQ }kjk çnÙk ewY;ksa ij okrkoj.k oQh Nki

gksrh gSA bl çoQkj lafoèkkuokn gj ns'k esa ,oQ ugha vusoQ Ïksrksa ls fufeZr ewY;ksa ls ;qDr èkkj.kk gSa ;g os ewY;

gSa tks lekt oQks fç; gS] vkSj ftuoQh j{kk] çkfIr vkSj vko';oQ çxfr osQ fy, lekt cM+s ls cM+k cfynku oQjus

osQ fy, rRij jgrk gSA bUgha ls ;qDr èkkj.kk lafoèkkuokn oQgykrh gSA blls ;gh fu"oQ"kZ fuoQyrk gS foQ gj

lafoèkkuokn oQk lEcUèk ewY;ksa ls gS vkSj blfy, gh ;g ewY;&lEc¼ voèkkj.kk oQgh tkrh gSA

([k) lafoèkkuokn laLoQ`fr lEc¼ voèkkj.kk gS (Constitituionalism is a culture-bound concept)μ

foQlh Hkh jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ewY;ksa oQk fooQkl o fuekZ.k 'kwU; esa ugha gksrk gS ;s lekt oQh laLoQ`fr ls lEc¼

gksrs gSa gj ns'k osQ vkn'kZ ewY; o fopkjèkkjk,¡ ml ns'k oQh laLoQfr oQh gh mit gksrh gS] vkSj laLoQfr ls gh xBcfUèkr

jgrs gSaA og le;] LFkku o turk osQ lkFk caèks gksrs gSaA lafoèkkuokn bUgha ij vkèkkfjr oQgk tk loQrk gSA blls

;g fu"oQ"kZ fuoQyrk gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh èkkj.kk gj txg o LFkku fo'ks"k oQh laLoQ`fr ls lEc¼ ikbZ tkrh gSA

lafoèkkuokn oQk laLoQ`fr&lEc¼ gksuk blesa okLrfooQrk ykrk gS vkSj bls vFkZ;qDr cukrk gSA orZeku ;qx esa oQbZ

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jktuhfroQ lekt brus fo'kky gksrs gSa foQ muesa laLoQ`fr;ksa oQh fofoèkrk vkSj fHkÂrk ikbZ tkrh gSA ,sls jk"Vªksa esalafoèkkuokn bu fofHkUu laLoQ`fr;ksa osQ leUo; oQk lwpoQ gSA muesa la?k"kZ rFkk fojksèk osQ LFkku ij lg;ksx vkSjlkeatL; oQh O;oLFkk lafoèkkuokn }kjk gh gksrh gSA ;g ,oQ jkT; oQh lHkh laLoQfr;ksa osQ fooQkl o lqj{kk oQh lclsvfèkoQ lqO;oLFkk gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkuokn bu lHkh laLoQ`fr;ksa ls lEc¼ gksrk gS o buls le`¼ vkSj 'kfÙkQ;qÙkQ curkgSA vr% ;g oQgk tkuk pkfg, foQ lafoèkkuokn oQk rkuk&ckuk gj ns'k oQh laLoQ`fr ls xqaFkk jgrk gSA

(x) lafoèkkuokn xR;kReoQ voèkkj.kk gS (Constitutionalism is a dynamic Concept)μ lafoèkkuoknxfrghu èkkj.kk ugha gS ij bloQk ;g vFkZ Hkh ugha foQ lafoèkkuokn esa fLFkjrk ugha gksrh gSA lafoèkkuokn esa ;ghlcls fof'k"V ckr gS foQ blesa LFkkf;Ro osQ lkFk gh lkFk xR;kReoQrk Hkh ikbZ tkrh gS ;gh oQkj.k gS foQ ;g çxfresa ckèkoQ ugha] çxfr oQk lkèkoQ cuk jgrk gSA fooQkl osQ fy, LFkkf;Ro Hkh vfr vko';oQ gS] vU;Fkk fooQkl oQhfn'kkvksa esa Øe ugha jgsxkA vr% lafoèkkuokn oQh èkkj.kk fLFkjrk&;qDr xR;kReoQrk oQk lwpoQ gSA bloQh xfr'khyçoQ`fr vfr&vko';oQ gS] D;ksafoQ le; ifjorZu osQ lkFk ewY;ksa esa ifjorZu vkrk gS] rFkk laLoQ`fr fooQflr gksrhgSA blh ls lafoèkkuokn xR;kReoQrk çkIr oQjrk gSA blls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn xR;kReoQ voèkkj.kk gS ;gk¡ ;gHkh le>uk t:jh gS foQ lafoèkkuokn foQlh lekt osQ mu ewY;ksa o vkLFkkvksa oQk] tks turk oQks ,oQ le; fo'ks"kesa fç; gS] çrhoQ ek=k gh ugha gS ;g u;s ewY;ksa oQh LFkkiuk o çkfIr oQk ekè;e Hkh gSA ;g lekt osQ orZeku esafç; ewY;ksa osQ lkFk gh mloQh Hkfo"; oQh vkoQka{kkvksa oQk çrhoQ Hkh gksrk gSA blls ;g xR;kReoQ voèkkj.kk cutkrk gSA blfy, oQkyZ ts- ÚsfMªoQ us lafoèkkuokn oQks fooQkl oQh çfØ;k oQgk gSA

(?k) lafoèkkuokn leHkkxh voèkkj.kk gS (Constitutionalism is a shared concept)μ ,oQ jk"Vª osQ ewY;]fo'okl ,oa jktuhfroQ vkn'kZ o laLoQfr osQ çfr vU; ns'kksa esa Hkh fu"Bk gks loQrh gSA vr% oQbZ ns'kksa osQ jktuhfroQvkn'kZ] vkLFkk,¡ o ekU;k,¡ leku gks loQrs gSaA ,sls ns'kksa esa lafoèkkuokn vkèkkjHkwr lekurk,¡ j[krk gSA tSls ik'pkR;laLoQ`fr okys ns'kksa esa lafoèkkuokn esa lekurk ikbZ tkrh gSA bl çoQkj oQh lekurk esa çoQkj oQk vUrj ugha gksrk;|fi ek=kk oQk vUrj gj ns'k osQ lafoèkkuokn esa fn[kykbZ nsrk gSA ;g vUrj lkE;oknh ns'kksa esa Hkh ik;k tkrk gS]ij ;gk¡ Hkh vUrj osQoy ek=kk oQk gh gksrk gS çoQkj oQk ugha gksrkA blls Li"V gS foQ gj ns'k oQk viuk vyxekSfyoQ lafoèkkuokn ugha gksrk gSA fooQkl'khy yksoQrkfU=koQ ns'kksa esa] ;|fi vlekurk,¡ vfèkoQ gksrh gSa rFkk gj ns'kviuk vyx jk"Vªh; vga (national ego) cukus osQ fy, ekSfyoQ thou n'kZu oQh LFkkiuk oQk ç;Ru oQjrk gS] vkSjbu ns'kksa esa laLoQ`fr esa Hkh fHkUurk oQk vfèkoQ iqV gksrk gS] fiQj Hkh bu ns'kksa esa eksVs :i ls lafoèkkuokn ,oQ&lkgh oQgk tk loQrk gSA blls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn leHkkxh èkkj.kk gSA

(Ä) lafoèkkuokn çèkkur% lkè; ewyoQ voèkkj.kk gS (Constitutionalism is predominantly an ends

concept)μ lafoèkkuokn çèkkur% lkè;ksa ls lEcfUèkr fopkj gS ijUrq lkè; ewyoQ fopkj iw.kZr;k lkèkuksa oQhvogsyuk ugha oQj loQrkA vr% buesa Hkh varj çoQkj ugha osQoy ek=kk oQk jg tkrk gSA oSls Hkh lkèkuksa o lkè;ksaoQks ,oQ nwljs ls vyx ugha foQ;k tk loQrkA fiQj Hkh lafoèkkuokn ls çeq[kr;k y{;ksa oQk gh laosQr feyk gSA tcge ;g oQgrs gSa foQ lafoèkkuokn lkè;&çèkku fopkj gS rks mloQk vFkZ mu vkn'kks± ls gS ftUgsa lekt lkè; osQ:i esa vaxhoQkj oQjrk gSA bl çoQkj lafoèkkuokj oQk lkè;ksa oQh vksj çeq[k laosQr gksrk gS vkSj lkèkuksa oQh vksjxkS.k laosQr gh gksrk gSA

(p) lafoèkkuokn lkekU;r;k lafoèkkutU; voèkkj.kk gS (Constitutionalism is generally a constitution

based concept)μ lkèkkj.k ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gj ns'k oQh ewyHkwr vkLFkkvksa oQk ml ns'k osQ lafoèkku esa gh mYys[kgksrk gS ij oQbZ ckj ,slk Hkh gksrk gS foQ lafoèkkuokn osQ vkn'kks± oQk çfrfcEc lafoèkku esa ugha feyrk gSA nksuksa esa]vFkkZr~ lafoèkku o lafoèkkuokn esa] lkE; ugha gksrk gSA nksuksa oQh] ,slh voLFkk esa] vyx&vyx fn'kk,¡ gksrha gSA ;gvoLFkk ns'k esa 'kkloQksa o 'kkflrksa oQh jktuhfroQ ekU;rkvksa esa fojksèk vkSj erHksn oQk laosQr oQjrh gSA bl voLFkkesa jktuhfroQ mFky&iqFky vo';aHkkoh cu tkrh gSA ;g jktuhfroQ laoQV oQk laosQr gS] ijUrq ;g rks vlkèkkj.kifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gh gksrk gSA lkekU; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gj yksoQrkaf=koQ jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ewY;ksa o xUrO;ksa oQk lafoèkku

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esa Li"V mYys[k foQ;k tkrk gS] ijUrq ;g rks vlkèkkj.k ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gh gksrk gSA lkekU; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gjyksoQrkaf=koQ jktuhfroQ lekt osQ ewY;ksa o xUrO;ksa oQk lafoèkku esa Li"V mYys[k foQ;k tkrk gSA ,sls lafoèkku ijgh lafoèkkuokn vkèkkfjr jgrk gSA ;gh mu laLFkkxr çfØ;kvksa oQk laxBu o LFkkiuk oQjrs gSa ftuls lafoèkkuoknO;kogkfjoQ o okLrfooQ curk gSA vr% lafoèkku] lafoèkkuokn osQ fy, og vkèkkjf'kyk çLrqr oQjrk gS ftlesalafoèkku oQh uhao Bkslrk ls teh jg loQrh gSA

gj lafoèkkuokn esa ;g lkekU; fof'k"Vrk,¡ fo|eku gksrh gSaA ;g fo'ks"krk,¡ gj ns'k esa oQe ;k vfèkoQ ek=kk esalafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkj osQ :i esa ikbZ tkrh gSaA ,oQ lafoèkkuokn ls nwljs lafoèkkuokn esa bu fof'k"Vrkvksa esa fHkUurkosQoy ek=kk oQh gh gksrh gS] çoQkj oQh ugha gksrhA

lafoèkkuokn osQ vFkZ] vkèkkj] rÙoksa o lkekU; fo'ks"krkvksa oQh tkuoQkjh osQ ckn bloQh fofHkUu voèkkj.kkvksa oQhtkuoQkjh vko';oQ gS] oqQN jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn O;fDr oQh Lora=krk] jktuhfroQ lekurk] lkekftoQ o jktuhfroQU;k; rFkk yksoQ oQY;k.k oQh lkèkuk oQk vkn'kZ j[krk gS] rks oQqN jkT;ksa esa vkfFkZoQ lekurk vkSj lekt osQ ,oQgh xUrO; esa vkLFkk vkèkkjHkwr ewY; ekuk tkrk gSA buoQh çkfIr osQ fy, viuk, x;s lkèku Hkh vyx&vyx jkT;ksaesa] vyx&vyx çoQkj osQ gksrs gSaA

3-2 lafoèkkuokn oQh voèkkj.kk,¡% mnkjoknh vkSj ekDlZoknh èkkj.kk (Concept ofConstitutionalism: Liberal and Marxist Notions)

fiuksoQ o fLeFk] oQkyZ ts- ÚSfMªoQ vkSj oQqN vU; ik'pkR; fopkjoQksa oQh ekU;rk gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh osQoy ,oQgh èkkj.kk gSA muosQ vuqlkj mnkj yksoQra=kksa oQh voèkkj.kk gh lafoèkkuokn oQh lgh O;k[;k gksrh gS] ijUrq ;g ekU;rkBhoQ ugha gSA vxj lafoèkkuokn] jktuhfroQ lekt osQ vkn'kks±] jktuhfroQ ekU;rkvksa vkSj ewY;ksa oQk] tks foQlh jk"VªoQk vkèkkj gS] vkSj ftUgsa jk"Vª O;ogkj esa çkfIr oQk y{; j[krk gS] oQk gh cksèk oQjkrk gSA rc ;g vkn'kZ rFkkbu vkn'kks± oQh çkfIr osQ fy, ç;ksx esa vkus okys lkèku] vyx&vyx çoQkj oQk gksuk LokHkkfooQ gSA buoQh fHkUurko buoQh çkfIr osQ fy, viuk, tkus okys lkèkuksa oQh fHkUurk osQ vkèkkj ij lafoèkkuokn oQh fHkUurk Li"V oQh tkloQrh gSA eksVs rkSj ij mís';ksa o mís';ksa oQh çkfIr osQ lkèkuksa osQ vkèkkj ij lafoèkkuokn oQh rhu voèkkj.kk,¡ gksloQrh gSaAμ (1) mnkj yksoQra=kksa oQh èkkj.kk] (2) lkE;oknh ;k lektoknh yksoQra=kksa oQh èkkj.kk] rFkk (3) uoksfnr;k fooQkl'khy yksoQrU=kksa oQh èkkj.kkA

mnkjoknh èkkj.kk (Liberal Notions)

mnkj yksoQrU=kksa oQh voèkkj.kkvksa oQks ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn Hkh oQgk tkrk gSA bloQh eq[; fo'ks"krk O;fDr oQhLora=krk oQh lkèkuk gSA O;fDr oQh Lora=krk osQ vykok] jktuhfroQ lekurk] lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ U;k; rFkkyksoQoQY;k.k oQh lkèkuk ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkjHkwr lkè; gSA ;g lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ lekurk o LorU=krkij cy ugha nsrk gSA Lora=krk vkSj lekurk osQ lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ igyqvksa ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn osQ lkè;ksa esavHkko gh bloQks lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk ls vyx èkkj.kk cukrk gSA lkE;oknh èkkj.kk esa ;g ewY; çèkkurk j[krs gSaijUrq ik'pkR; voèkkj.kk esa rks O;fDr oQh LorU=krk oQks ekSfyoQ ewY; ekuk tkrk gS vkSj blfy;s gh ik'pkR;lafoèkkuokn oQks mnkjokn oQk n'kZu* Hkh oQgk tkrk gSA

ik'pkR; voèkkj.kk esa lafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkjHkwr lkè;ksa oQh O;kogkfjoQrk osQ fy, ljoQkj oQh 'kfDr;ksa oQks foHkkftroQjosQ jktuhfroQ fØ;k oQks çHkko'kkyh <ax ls çfrcfUèkr o fu;fU=kr oQjus oQh O;oLFkk,¡ oQh tkrh gSa] ftlls ljoQkjoQk oQksbZ Hkh vax] jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk nq#i;ksx ugha oQj losQ] o jk"Vª osQ jktuhfroQ ewY; lqjf{kr o LFkk;h cusjg losQaA fiuksoQ o fLeFk rks ¶ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn oQk vUrHkkZx (core) çfrcUèkksa oQh O;oLFkk¸ oQks gh ekurs gSaAbu çfrcUèkksa oQh LFkkiuk mnkj yksoQrkaf=koQ jkT;ksa esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk laLFkkoQj.k oQjosQ oQh tkrh gS] vFkkZrjktuhfroQ 'kfDr O;fDr;ksa osQ LFkku ij laLFkkvksa esa fufgr oQh tkrh gS if'peh lektksa oQh ;g ekU;rk gS foQ 'kfDr]

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O;fDr osQ LFkku ij laLFkkvksa esa fufgr gksus ls mloQk ç;ksx foQlh O;fDr fo'ks"k oQh bPNk ls u gksoQj laLFkkxrfofèk;ksa o çfØ;kvksa }kjk gksxk rFkk 'kfDr oQk fofèk osQ vuq:i ç;ksx] blosQ nq#i;ksx oQh çHkko'kkyh cpko O;oLFkkcu tk,xhA blls ;gh fu"oQ"kZ fuoQyrk gS foQ mnkj yksoQrU=kksa esa lafoèkkuokn oQk çeq[k vkèkkj laLFkkxr oçfØ;kReoQ çfrcUèkksa ls fu;af=kr ljoQkj gSA ;g çfrcUèk gh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr }kjk O;fDr oQh Lora=krk osQ guuls cpko O;oLFkk oQjrs gSaA blfy;s ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij lqfuf'pr fu;=k.k O;oLFkk ghewy rÙo gSA ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn esa lkè; rÙo O;fDr oQh Lora=krk* vkSj lkèku rÙo ljoQkj* gSA mnkj yksoQra=kksesa lafoèkkuokn oQks O;fDr oQh Lora=krk oQh èkqjh osQ bnZ&fxnZ ?kwerk gqvk oQgk tk; rks oQksbZ vfr';ksfDr ugha gksxhAlafoèkkuokn oQh bl voèkkj.kk osQ oQqN fof'k"V vkèkkj gSaA

lkE;oknh vFkok ekDlZoknh èkkj.kk (Socialist or Marxist Notions)

jktuhfr 'kfDr osQ nq#i;ksx oQks jksoQus osQ fy, ljoQkj ij fu;a=k.k oQh O;oLFkk,¡] lafoèkkuokn oQh ik'pkR;voèkkj.kk oQk ewy gSA bl rF; oQks lkE;oknh jkT; Hkh LohoQkj oQjrs gSa] ij fu;a=k.kksa osQ fy, muoQh laLFkkReoQO;oLFkk,¡ laoSèkkfuoQ vkèkkj ugha j[krh gSaA bl voèkkj.kk esa fu;a=k.k O;oLFkkvksa oQh fHkUurk oQks le>us osQ fy,;g le>uk vko';oQ gS foQ lkE;oknh ljoQkj rFkk jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ls D;k rkRi;Z ysrs gSaA lkE;okn oQh ljoQkjo 'kfDr oQh vyx èkkj.kk gh] lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk oQks] lafoèkkuokn oQh ik'pkR; voèkkj.kk ls fHkUu cukrh gSA

lkE;oknh ^ljoQkj* oQks iwathifr;ksa osQ gkFk oQh oQBiqryh ekurs gSa] tks ^èkfuoQ oxZ* oQh xjhc oxks± ls j{kk oQkgh oQk;Z oQjrh gSA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk vkèkkj vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr gS ftuosQ gkFk esa vkfFkZoQ 'kfDrgksxh mlh osQ gkFk esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr Hkh vk tk,xhA blfy;s iawthifr gh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQ èkkjoQ olapkyoQ gksrs gSaA mRiknu osQ izeq[k lkèku o vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr] iwathoknh O;oLFkk esa osQoy oQqN yksxksa osQ gkFkesa jgrh gS] tks bloQk iz;ksx vius gh fgrksa oQh j{kk vkSj lEeku oQh o`f¼ esa oQjrs gSaA vr% lkE;oknh ;gekurs gSa foQ ik'pkR; ns'kksa esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk iz;ksx rFkk ekSfyoQ vfèkoQkjksa osQ :i esa miyCèk lqfoèkkvksaoQk mi;ksx] tulkèkkj.k ugha] osQoy èkfuoQ oxZ gh oQjrk gSA ;g lafoèkkuokn oQh] ik'pkR; txr esavkSipkfjoQrk ek=k oQk lwpoQ gS] D;ksafoQ vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr ;qDr oxZ] lEiw.kZ jktuhfroQ rU=k oQk lapkyoQ o fu;a=koQgksrk gSA jktuhfroQ 'kfDr okLro esa blh oxZ osQ vèkhu jgrh gSA blfy;s ik'pkR; lafoèkkuoknh jkT;ksa esajktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk,¡ [kks[kyh gksrh gSaA

lkE;oknh] bl oQkj.k ,slh fu;a=k.k O;oLFkkvksa o laLFkkvksa oQh LFkkiuk oQjrs gSa ftlls vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQqN oxks±osQ LFkku ij lc O;fDr;ksa osQ gkFk esa jgsA muoQh èkkj.kk gS foQ] vxj vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr egÙoiw.kZ lekt esa fufgrgksxh rks jktuhfroQ 'kfDr Hkh lEiw.kZ lekt osQ fu;a=k.k esa vk tk,xhA lkE;okfn;ksa osQ vuqlkj vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr]vU; lHkh izoQkj oQh 'kfDr;ksa ls loksZifj gksrh gS rFkk jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQ lEiw.kZ laLFkkxr o izfØ;kReoQ lkèkublh osQ vèkhu jgrs gSaA lafoèkkuokn oQh O;kogkfjoQrk rHkh lEHko gks loQrh gS tc fu;a=k.k vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr ij yxsgksaA muosQ vuqlkj vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr ij fu;a=k.k Lor% gh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQks Hkh fu;af=kr oQj nsrs gSaA vr% lafoèkkuoknoQh lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk oQk Li"VhoQj.k lkE;okn oQh vkèkkjHkwr ekU;rkvksa osQ lanHkZ esa gh foQ;k tk loQrk gSA ;gekU;rk,¡ fuEufyf[kr gSa & (1) lkekftoQ thou esa 'kfDr osQ vkfFkZoQ igyw oQh loksZPprk (2) lekt esa vkfFkZoQ'kfDr ls lEiUu oxZ oQk izHkqÙo vkSj (3) jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ vèkhu gksukA

(1) lkE;okfn;ksa oQh ekU;rk gS foQ lkekftoQ thou esa 'kfDr osQ vkfFkZoQ igyw oQh loksZifjrk gh egÙoiw.kZgksrh gSA blls euq"; oQk lEiw.kZ lkekftoQ thou lapkfyr gksrk gS rFkk ftl oxZ osQ gkFk esa vkfFkZoQ 'kfDrgksrh gS og oxZ vU; oxks± ij vkfèkiR; tekoQj] mUgsa vius fy, oQk;Z oQjus oQks ckè; oQjrk gSA ;g voLFkkoxZ&la?k"kZ o 'kks"k.k oQk vkèkkj curh gSA lkE;okfn;ksa oQks ik'pkR; lekt oQh Hkkafr vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr ij oQqNO;fDr;ksa oQk fu;a=k.k LohoQkj ugha gSA muosQ vuqlkj ;g 'kfDr lc O;fDr;ksa osQ gkFk esa jguh pkfg;s ftllsoxZ&la?k"kZ] 'kks"k.k bR;kfn oQh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ mRiUu u gksaA

(2) vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQh loksZifjrk oQk roQZlaxr ifj.kke vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr&;qDr oxZ oQk izHkqRo oQh voLFkk esa gksuk

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gSA ;g jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQh xkS.krk oQk lwpoQ gSA vr% O;ogkj esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr izHkqrk;qDr ugha jgrh gSAO;ogkj esa lEiw.kZ lekt vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ funsZ'ku esa pyus osQ fy, ckè; gks tkrk gS] vkSj vkfFkZoQ 'kfDrlEiw.kZ lekt ij NkbZ lh jgrh gSA

(3) vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQh loksZifjrk rFkk lekt esa blls lEiUu oxZ oQk izHkqRo] jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQks Hkh blosQ vèkhucuk nsrk gSA lekt esa fo|eku lHkh laLFkk,¡ vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ le{k ureLroQ jgrh gSaA vr% fu;a=k.k jktuhfroQ'kfDr ij ugha] cfYoQ vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr ij yxk, tkus pkfg,A ;gh oQkj.k gS foQ lkE;oknh ljoQkj oQks] lkekftoQO;oLFkk esa fo'ks"k egÙkk iznku ugha oQjrs vkSj bls vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr&;qDr oxZ osQ gkFk oQh oQBiqryh ekurs gSaA

lkE;okn oQh izeq[k èkkj.kkvksa osQ foospu ls Li"V gS foQ lkE;oknh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQ fu;a=k.k osQ LFkku ijvkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ fu;a=k.k oQks ijeko';oQ ekurs gSaA blfy;s buosQ fu;a=k.kksa oQh O;oLFkk o lkèku ik'pkR;jktuhfroQ lektksa esa O;ofLFkr fu;a=k.kksa ls fHkUu izoQkj osQ gSaA lkE;oknh lektksa esa izfrcUèkksa o fu;a=k.kksa oQhlaLFkkReoQ O;oLFkk oQk eq[; y{; vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQks lkoZtfuoQ lÙkk osQ vkfèkiR; esa j[kuk gSA vkfFkZoQ 'kfDroQks lkoZtfuoQ lÙkk osQ vèkhu cukus osQ fy, lkE;oknh lektksa esa izk;% bu laLFkkxr O;oLFkkvksa oQks izeq[krknh tkrh gSμ (v) mRiknu rFkk forj.k osQ lkèkuksa ij lkoZtfuoQ LokfeRo (c) lEifÙk oQk leku forj.k vkSj(l) lkE;oknh ny oQk ,oQkfèkoQkjA

(v) lkE;oknh fopkjèkkjk oQh vkèkkjHkwr ekU;rk gS foQ mRiknu o forj.k osQ lkèkuksa ij O;fDrxr LokfeRovkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQks vUrr% oQqN O;fDr;ksa esa osQfUær oQj nsrk gSA vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ bl izoQkj osQ osQUæ.k lsoxZ&la?k"kZ mRiUu gksrk gSA blls vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr&;qDr oxZ] bl 'kfDr ls jfgr oxZ oQk neu o 'kks"k.k oQjus yxrkgSA jktuhfroQ 'kfDr Hkh bUgha osQ gkFkksa esa osQfUær gksus osQ oQkj.k] lekt osQ cgqla[;oQ ukxfjoQ viuh jktuhfroQekU;rkvksa] vkn'kks± o ewY;ksa osQ LFkku ij iwathifr;ksa }kjk vkjksfir vkn'kks± o ewY;ksa oQks ekuus o viukus osQ fy,ckè; gks tkrs gSaA ,slh lkekftoQ voLFkk oQks lkE;oknh] lafoèkku oQh lgh vfHkO;fDr ugha ekurs gSaA blfy;smuoQk oQguk gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQks okLro esa O;kogkfjoQ cukus osQ fy,] lafoèkkuokn oQh ekU;rkvksa osQ izoQk'kuosQ jkLrs esa vkus okyh #oQkoVsa nwj oQh tkuh pkfg,A muoQh èkkj.kk gS foQ ;g #oQkoVsa mRiknu o forj.k osQlkèkuksa ij lkoZtfuoQ LokfeRo oQh O;oLFkk oQjus ij gh nwj gks loQrh gSaA vr% lkE;okn oQh ekU;rk esalafoèkkuokn osQ ewy y{; o lkè; rc roQ O;kogkfjoQ ugha cu loQrs tc roQ mRiknu o forj.k osQ lkèkuksa oQkLokfeRo lEiw.kZ lekt esa fufgr ugha gksA mRiknu o forj.k osQ lkèkuksa oQk lkekftoQ LokfeRo 'kfDr osQ vkèkkjksaoQks lkekftoQ :i ns nsrs gSa ftlls lEiw.kZ lekt 'kfDr osQ nq#i;ksx ls cpko oQh O;oLFkk cu tkrk gSA

(c) mRiknu o forj.k osQ lkèkuksa oQk lkekftoQ LokfeRo lEifÙk osQ lekt forj.k oQh O;oLFkk vfuok;Z cuk nsrkgSA lEifÙk oQk cjkcj forj.k gksus ls] lEifÙk la?k"kZ oQk oQkj.k ugha curh gS] vkSj lekt esa vlekurk oQks tUeugha ns ikrh vkfFkZoQ lkèkuksa oQk lEiw.kZ lekt esa fo|eku gksuk] lekt oQks mu cUèkuksa ls eqDr oQjrk gS] tks lafoèkkuoQh ekU;rkvksa oQh miyfCèk esa #oQkoVsa Mkyrs gSaA vkfFkZoQ n`f"V ls ,sls lekurk okys lekt esa gh lafoèkkuoknO;kogkfjoQ curk gSA

(l) vkfFkZoQ lekurk okys lekt esa oQksbZ oxZ&foHksn ;k vyx&vyx fgr ugha gksrs gSa vkSj blfy;s oxks± osQ fof'k"Vfgrksa oQk izfrfufèkRo o lqj{kk oQjus osQ fy, vusoQ jktuhfroQ ny cuus oQh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ ugha gksrh gSaA oxZ&foghulekt esa jktuhfroQ nyksa oQh vko';oQrk gh ugha jg tkrh gSA ;gh oQkj.k gS foQ lkE;okn jktuhfroQ nyksa oQhvusoQrk oQks LohoQkj ugha oQjrkA ijUrq lkE;oknh lekt osQ y{;ksa oQh izkfIr osQ fy, lekt oQk usr`Ro o funsZ'kugksuk vko';oQ gS ftlls lekt osQ lEiw.kZ lkèkuksa o 'kfDr;ksa esa leUo; j[kk tk losQ vkSj lkè;ksa oQh iwfrZ oQhlqO;oLFkk oQh tk losQA blosQ fy, ,oQ gh jktuhfroQ ny oQh vko';oQrk gksrh gS ftls jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa osQiz;ksx] funsZ'ku o fu;a=k.k oQk ,oQkfèkoQkj izkIr gksA lkE;oknh ny oQh LFkkiuk o mloQk gh ,oQkfèkoQkj lkE;oknhlektksa oQk ,oQ izeq[k y{k.k gSA ukxfjoQ o lekt rFkk ljoQkj esa mís';ksa o y{;ksa oQk oQksbZ fojksèk ;k fHkUu fn'kku gksus osQ oQkj.k] ,sls gh mís';&y{; j[kus okyk lkE;oknh ny] bu lcoQk lPpk izfrfufèkRo oQjrk gS vkSj lcosQfgr esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk iz;ksx lEHko cukrk gSA ,slk jktuhfroQ ny] 'kks"k.k o neu oQk izrhoQ ugha gksrk

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gS] oju~ lkoZtfuoQ fgr oQh lkèkuk oQk lkèku jgrk gSA bl izoQkj] lkE;oknh lekt O;oLFkk esa oxZ&Hksn u gksusosQ oQkj.k ny&Hksn Hkh ugha gksrk gSA lekt oQk ,oQ gh oxZ gksrk gS& foQlkuksa o etnwjksa oQk oxZ vkSj bloQk funsZ'koQ,oQ gh ny&lkE;oknh ny gSA

Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk esa lekt osQ ewY;ksa] jktuhfroQ vkn'kks± o vkLFkkvksa oQh izkfIrosQ lkèku] ik'pkR; lafoèkku oQh voèkkj.kk ls u osQoy fHkUu izoQkj osQ gSa] vfirq mu vkèkkjHkwr oQkj.kksa oQk] ftulslekt esa vlekurk oQk mn~Hko gksrk gS] var oQjus okys Hkh gSaA lkE;okfn;ksa oQh ekU;rk gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQksokLrfooQrk osQ iqV ls ;qDr oQjus osQ fy, Åij gh Åij oQh xbZ fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk,¡ izHkko'kkyh ugha gks loQrhaA buosQfy, Åijh :oQkoVksa oQks nwj oQjus osQ LFkku ij vkèkkjHkwr O;oLFkk esa gh ifjorZu vfuok;Z gSA muosQ vuqlkj mRiknuo forj.k osQ lkèkuksa ij lkoZtfuoQ LokfeRo o lEifÙk oQk leku forj.k ,slh vkèkkjHkwr O;oLFkk,¡ gSa tks jktuhfroQ'kfDr osQ nq#i;ksx oQks izHkko'kkyh <ax ls jksoQrh gS] vkSj lafoèkkuokn osQ vkn'kksZ oQks O;ogkj esa oQqN yksxksa oQks ugha]lc ukxfjoQksa oQks miyCèk oQjkrh gSA blosQ vykok Hkh] lkE;oknh txr esa mu lHkh vkSipkfjoQ laLFkkvksa oQks] tksik'pkR; lafoèkkuoknh O;oLFkk okys lektksa esa] jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij fu;a=k.k LFkkiuk osQ fy, O;ofLFkr oQh tkrhgS] lafoèkku esa viuk;k x;k gSA tSls lafoèkku oQks fyf[kr] vpy o loksZPp cuk;k tkrk gSA jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksaoQk foHkktu o i`FkDoQj.k ik;k tkrk gSA ukxfjoQksa oQks ekSfyoQ vfèkoQkj o oQrZO; lafoèkku }kjk iznku foQ;s tkrsgSa] vkSj ljoQkj oQk yxkrkj mÙkjnkf;Ro jgs blosQ fy, laLFkkxr O;oLFkk oQh tkrh gSA bruk gh ugha] ^fofèk osQ'kklu* oQk fn[kkok Hkh oQkuwuh n`f"V ls lqLFkkfir foQ;k tkrk gSA ;g laoSèkkfuoQ O;oLFkk,¡] jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ijizHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k yxkoQj mlosQ nq#i;ksx ij vaoQq'k oQk oQke oQjus okyh gSaA blfy;s ;g oQgk tkrk gS foQlkE;oknh jkT;ksa esa gh okLrfooQ yksoQra=k gS rFkk lafoèkkuokn oQh O;kogkfjoQrk oQh Bksl O;oLFkk gSA fofy;e th-,sUMªwt fy[krs gSa foQ ¶izfØ;kReoQ lafoèkkuokn oQh n`f"V ls :l oQk lafoèkku] mu lHkh lalnh; laLFkkvksa oQh] tksik'pkR; ns'kksa esa izpfyr gSa] LFkkiuk oQjrk gS] vkSj muosQ vkilh lEcUèkksa oQks Hkh BhoQ blh rjg e;kZfnr oQjrkgSA lafoèkku esa oQbZ ,slh O;oLFkk,¡ gSa tks ik'pkR; osQ vuq:i gh 'kfDr fu;a=k.k osQ ekuoQ o izfØ;kReoQ fu;ferrk,¡LFkkfir oQjrh gSaA :l osQ lafoèkku es ukxfjoQksa osQ ekSfyoQ vfèkoQkjksa vkSj Lora=krkvksa oQh lqO;ofLFkr j{kk O;oLFkkgS] fofHk=k 'kklu lÙkkvksa osQ ikjLifjoQ lEcUèkksa oQh Li"V O;k[;k gS] rFkk lkoZtfuoQ uhfr osQ fuèkkZj.k o fØ;kUo;uoQk izfØ;kReoQ vuqcUèk gSA bu lc ckrksa esa ;g ik'pkR;~ yksoQrkaf=koQ lafoèkkuksa ls fcYoQqy Hkh fHkUu ugha gSA¸

:l rFkk vU; lkE;oknh lafoèkkuksa esa ikbZ tkus okyh lHkh laLFkkReoQ O;oL;k,¡ lafoèkkuokn oQh LFkkiuk oQjrhgqbZ fn[kkbZ nsrh gSaA ijUrq okLro esa] lksfo;r :l esa lafoèkkuokn oQk vuqlj.k ugha gksrk gSA :l esa jktuhfroQ'kfDr osQ èkkjoQksa ij laoSèkkfuoQ fu;a=k.kksa oQh lHkh laLFkkReoQ O;oLFkk,¡ osQoy ^vkSipkfjoQrk* ek=k gSaA :l esausrkvksa ij izHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k laoSèkkfuoQ ugha gSaA ogka fu;a=k.kksa oQh okLrfooQ izfØ;k,¡ lafoèkku }kjk LFkkfirO;oLFkkvksa ls loZFkk fHkUu gSaA fofy;e th- ,sUMªwt us BhoQ gh fy[kk gS Lo;a lafoèkku esa gh vusoQ ,slh èkkjk,¡gSa ftlls ny oQks] laoSèkkfuoQ vkèkkj o lafoèkku }kjk ,oQkfèkoQkj izkIr gSaA blus 'kklu uhfr oQk lkoZtfuoQfu;a=k.k] laoSèkkfuoQ izfØ;kvksa osQ ekè;e ls Hkh ny esa fufgr gks tkrk gSaA lkE;oknh ny gh lkekftoQ Lora=krkvksaosQ mös';ksa oQh O;k[;k oQjrk gS vkSj muoQh miyfCèk osQ lkèku tqVkrk gSA¸ vr% lafoèkku ljoQkj ij izHkkoh]fu;a=k.kksa oQh LFkkiuk oQh O;oLFkk ugha oQjrk gSA lafoèkku esa mfYyf[kr fu;a=k.k oQh laLFkkxr O;oLFkk,¡ lkE;oknhny oQh loksZifjrk rFkk vaoQq'k osQ oQkj.k osQoy ^vkSipkfjoQrk* jg tkrh gSA ;g lc lafoèkkuokn osQ fopkj lscsesy iM+rh gSA blfy;s fu"oQ"kZr% fofy;e th- ,sUMªwt oQk ;g oQguk lR; yxrk gS foQ ¶:l oQk lafoèkku gh]lafoèkkuokn oQh voèkkj.kk osQ vuq:i ugha gSA¸ th- es;j us rks bls ¶lafoèkku osQ fopkj oQk gh rh{.k fu"ksèk¸crk;k gSA

lkE;oknh ny :l esa fu.kZ; ysus okyk laxBu gS] tks lEiw.kZ lekt osQ fy, u osQoy ewyHkwr uhfr;ksa oQk fuèkkZj.koQjrk gS] vfirq lekt osQ Yk{;ksa oQh O;k[;k Hkh oQjrk gSA ny gh mu izfØ;kvksa o lajpukvksa oQk fu.kkZ;oQgS] ftuls lekt osQ lkè;ksa oQh izkfIr rFkk uhfr;ksa oQk lapkyu foQ;k tkrk gSA ,sYizQsM th- es;j us BhoQ gh

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fy[kk gS foQ ^^lkE;oknh ny gh ljoQkj] iz'kklu rFkk lekt osQ lEiw.kZ laLFkkReoQ thou oQks laxfBr o iqu%laxfBr oQjrk gSA** ;g lc oQk;Z lkE;oknh ny loksZPp :i esa oQjrk gSA ;g mu lHkh laLFkkvkasa osQ izfrcUèkksals Hkh eqDr jgrk gS] tks lafoèkku }kjk LFkkfir gksrh gSaA :l esa lEiw.kZ jktuhfroQ] vkfFkZoQ o lkekftoQ lÙkkoQk Ïksr lkE;oknh ny gh gSA ;gh jktuhfroQ usrkvksa oQks 'kfDr nsrk vkSj muls Nhurk gS rFkk jktuhfroQ [ksy*osQ fu;eksa oQk fuèkkZj.k o muesa ifjorZu oQjrk gSA es;j oQk rks ;gk¡ roQ oQguk gS foQ ^lkE;oknh ny lEizHkqosQ leku O;ogkj oQjrk gS] viuh bPNk ls ;g usrkvksa oQks foQjk, ij j[krk vkSj gVkrk gSA* fu"oQ"kZ :i esaes;j osQ 'kCnksa esa gh oQgk tk loQrk gS foQ ^^:l oQk lEiw.kZ lafoèkku ,oQ èkks[kk gS] ;c fØ;kfUor ugha gksrkgS] vkSj blls jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk oQh izoQ`fr oQk lgh fp=k.k Hkh ugha gksrk gSA** :l oQk okLrfooQ lafoèkku rksvfyf[kr o vn`'; gh jgrk gSA var esa ;gh oQgk tk loQrk gS foQ :l oQk lafoèkku rks lafoèkkuokn oQk ghfu"ksèk gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkuokn rks ^jktuhfroQ lekt esa gh lEHko gks loQrk gSA :l oQk lkE;oknh ny] mloQkizHkqRo o ,oQkfèkoQkj bl lcoQh LFkkiuk oQk ekxZ vo#¼ oQjosQ lafoèkkuokn oQks vlEHko cuk nsrk gSA

fooQkl'khy yksoQrU=kksa oQh voèkkj.kk (The Concept of Developing Democretic Nations)

fooQkl'khy ns'kksa esa lafoèkkuokn vHkh roQ vLFkkf;Ro osQ nkSj ls xqtj jgk gSA bu ns'kksa esa jktuhfroQ izfØ;k,¡ laØe.koQh voLFkk esa gksus osQ oQkj.k] lafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkj lqfuf'pr ugha gks ik, gSaA fooQkl'khy yksoQrkfU=koQ lektksaesa lafoèkkuokn oQh fo'ks"krkvksa oQk mYys[k oQjus ls igys] mu fof'k"V leL;kvksa oQk foospu oQjuk vko';oQ gS]ftuls lafoèkkuokn oQh voèkkj.kk] ik'pkR; o lkE;oknh voèkkj.kkvksa ls fHkUu curh gSA bu ns'kksa oQh leL;k,¡ bruhfofoèk vkSj bruh vfèkoQ gSa] foQ bu lcoQh lwph cukuk vR;Ur oQfBu gSaA ijUrq eksVs rkSj ij lHkh fooQkl'khyjktuhfroQ O;oLFkkvksa esa U;wukfèkoQ ek=kk esa oQqN leL;k,¡ O;kIr gSaA buoQk laf{kIr foospu oQjosQ gh lafoèkkuoknoQh bu voèkkj.kkvksa oQh fo'ks"krkvksa oQks le>k tk loQrk gSA gj uoksfnr jktuhfroQ lekt esa fuEu leL;k,¡ ikbZtkrh gSaS&(1) jktuhfroQ LFkkf;Ro oQh leL;k_ (2) vkfFZkoQ fooQkl oQh leL;k_ (3) lqj{kk oQh [kkst_(4) jktuhfroQ lÙkk oQh oSèkrk oQh leL;k_ (5) lkekftoQ&lkaLoQ`froQ lkE; oQk y{;_ (6) vkèkqfuoQhoQj.k esa#oQkoVksa oQh leL;k_ (7) jktuhfroQ lajpuk&fooQYiksa osQ pquko oQh leL;k_ vkSj (8) vUrjkZ"Vªh; izfr"Bk ovfHkKku oQh ryk'kA

(1) vfèkoQka'k fooQkl'khy jkT;] lkezkT;oknh 'kfDr;ksa osQ neu o 'kks"k.k osQ f'koQkj jgs gSaA bu jkT;ksa esa Lora=krkoQh izkfIr osQ vusoQ ekxZ jgs gSaA oQghsa ij lÙkk oQk gLrkarj.k yEcs jk"Vªh; vkanksyu osQ ckn gqvk rks oQgha vpkuoQgh 'kkafriwoZoQ <ax ls lÙkk gLrkarfjr oQj nh xbZA Hkkjr igys oQk rFkk JhyaoQk nwljs oQk mnkgj.k oQgs tk loQrsgSaA oQqN jkT;ksa esa l'kL=k la?k"kZ o lSfuoQ vkUnksyuksa osQ ifj.kkeLo:i LorU=krk feyh tSls bUMksusf'k;k o vYthfj;kesa gqvkA vusoQ ,sls jkT; Hkh gSa tgka Økafr;ksa }kjk lsuk us lÙkk gfFk;k yh FkhA vrhroQkyhu vuqHkoksa oQh fHkUurkrFkk LorU=krk izkfIr osQ ekxks± esa vkbZ vM+puksa oQh fofoèkrkvksa osQ oQkj.k lHkh uoksfnr jkT;ksa esa isphnfx;ka mRiUugks xb± rFkk izkjEHk ls gh jktuhfroQ lÙkk oQh Nhuk&>iVh osQ oQkj.k uoksfnr jkT;ksa esa ls vfèkoQka'k] jktuhfroQvLFkkf;Ro ls xzLr gks x;sA jktuhfroQ [ksy* osQ vkèkkjHkwr fu;eksa ij erSD; oQk vHkko] jktuhfroQ nYkksa oQh vusoQrko turk osQ vlarks"k osQ oQkj.k bu jkT;ksa esa jktuhfroQ vLFkkf;Ro O;kIr gks x;kA blls buesa lafoèkkuokn osQfpjLFkk;h ewY; tUe gh ughsa ys ikrs gSaA

(2) vkfFkZoQ fooQkl oQh leL;k] jktuhfroQ vLFkkf;Ro oQh voLFkk esa vkSj Hkh tfVy cu tkrh gSA ,oQ rjiQ turkmUur Lrj osQ fy, gj izoQkj oQh ekax oQjrh gS] rks nwljh rjiQ] roQuhoQh o oSKkfuoQ tkuoQkjh osQ vHkko esa ns'kosQ lkèkuksa oQk leqfpr mi;ksx ugha gks ikrk gSaA blls turk esa vlUrks"k mRiUu gksrk gS] tks ljoQkjksa oQks ckj&ckjcnyoQj lafoèkkuoknh vkèkkjksa oQks gh èkjk'kk;h oQj nsrk gSA

(3) uoksfnr jktuhfroQ lektksa esa vfèkoQka'kr% cgqy lekt gSA vusoQ èkeZ] laLoQ`fr;k¡ o jk"Vªh;rk,¡ gksus osQ oQkj.kjktuhfroQ O;oLFkk ij ijLij fojksèkh ncko iM+rs jgrs gSa ftlls lekt esa ruko oQh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ mRiUu gksrh gSaA

uksV



bl oQkj.k ljoQkjksa ij vkarfjoQ lqj{kk O;oLFkk oQk egÙoiw.kZ nkf;Ro bruk vfèkoQ cks> cu tkrk gS foQ cgqr lsjkT;ksa esa ljoQkjsa bloQh O;oLFkk esa gh my>h jg tkrh gSaA ckgjh vkØe.k osQ [krjs Hkh oQe ugha jgrs gSaA oQbZ ckjvkarfjoQ lqj{kk esa turk oQk lg;ksx izkIr oQjus osQ fy, ns'kksa }kjk iM+kslh jkT;ksa ij vkØe.k roQ foQ;s x;s gSaAbl rjg] vusoQ fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa ljoQkjsa lqj{kk oQh O;oLFkk esa gh yxh jg tkrh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSa rFkk lektosQ fo'ks"k xUrO;ksa] y{;ksa ;k ekU;rkvksa oQh O;oLFkk lqj{kk osQ iz'u osQ lkeus xkS.krj oQh jg tkrh gSaA vr%lafoèkkuokn oQh laLFkkReoQ O;oLFkkvksa oQks etcwr cukus ;k muosQ fy, lekt esa erSD; LFkkfir oQjus osQ u voljjgrs gSa vkSj u gh lkèku tqV ikrs gSaA

(4) lekt osQ vfèkoQka'k yksxksa }kjk ;g eglwl foQ;k tkuk foQ 'kklu oQh izfØ;k,¡ o O;oLFkk,¡ mfpr gSa] ljoQkjoQks oSèk cukrk gSA vkt Hkh fooQkl'khy lektksa esa] 'kkluoQÙkkZvksa oQks viuh lÙkk oQh oSèkrk esa vk'kaoQk,¡ gh vfèkoQfn[kkbZ nsrh gSaA Lora=k ;k fu"i{k pquko ;k rks gksrs ugha vkSj vxj gksrs gSa rks buosQ ifj.kkeksa oQks gkjus okys oxZ;k ny lgtr% LohoQkj ugha oQjrsA blls ljoQkj oQh lÙkk {kh.k iM+rh gS vkSj ljoQkjsa lekt osQ ewY;ksa oQks fØ;kfUoroQjus oQk lkèku ugha cu ikrh gSaA

(5) fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa O;kIr cgqyrk osQ oQkj.k ;g lekt] la?k"kZjr lekt gks tkrs gSaA lekt oQk gj oxZ] gjlakLoQ`froQ lewg jktuhfroQ lÙkk izkfIr oQh gj lEHko oQksf'k'k oQjrk gSA lÙkk izkIr lewg vU; lewgksa oQks mHkjusls jksoQus esa jktuhfroQ 'kfÙkQ roQ iz;ksx oQjus yxrk gS ftlls vkilh oQVqrk c<+rh jgrh gS vkSj ,oQ lkaLoQ`froQlewg vU; lkaLoQ`froQ lewg osQ fojksèk esa [kM+k fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA ,slh voLFkk esa lekt ,oQ ls ewY;ksa esa fo'okl j[klosQ ,slk vlEHko ugha rks oQe ls oQe oQfBu vo'; gks tkrk gSA

(6) vkèkqfuoQhoQj.k oQh leL;k uoksfnr lektksa oQh lcls fo"ke leL;k gSA ,sls lekt nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr fn[kkbZnsrs gSaA ,oQ oxZ ijEijkokfn;ksa oQk rFkk nwljk oxZ vfHktuksa o vkèkqfuoQhoQj.k esa vkLFkk j[kus okyksa oQk cu tkrkgSA okMZ rFkk eSØhfMl us fy[kk gS foQ îjEijkxrrk okys yksx o vkèkqfuoQhoQj.k oQjus okys vfHktu oSpkfjoQ ijigqapus esa vleFkZ gSaA** bl oQkj.k oQjhc&oQjhc lHkh fooQkl'khy ns'kksa esa la?k"kZ o vjktoQrk oQh lEHkkouk,¡ vfèkoQgSaA ;gka izkphu vkSj uohu ewY;ksa esa vHkh Hkh la?k"kZ] vfuf'prrk o Hkze O;kIr gS] tks lafoèkkuokn osQ jkLrs oQh lclsl'kDr :oQkoV gSA

(7) uoksfnr jktuhfroQ lektksa osQ lkeus jktuhfroQ lajpuk&fooQYiksa osQ pquko oQh leL;k cgqr xEHkhj gSAvkèkqfuoQhoQj.k] LFkkf;Ro] lqj{kk o izfr"Bk oQh leL;kvksa osQ izfr 'kh?kz lekèkku osQ fy, os foQl izoQkj oQh jktuhfroQO;oLFkkvksa oQks viuk,a\ blosQ fy, yksoQrkfU=koQ o fujaoQq'k rFkk iwathoknh o lkE;oknh izfreku igys ls gh ekxZn'kZuo vkoQ"kZ.k izLrqr oQjrs gSaA vrhr oQk vuqHko] yksoQrkfU=koQ O;oLFkkvksa oQks viukus osQ fy, izsfjr oQjrk gS] rksnwljh rjiQ fooQkl] Bkslrk o ,oQrk oQh vko';oQrk,¡ foQlh izoQkj oQh funsZf'kr ;k fujaoQq'k O;oLFkk viukus osQfy, ncko Mkyrk gSA bl izoQkj oQh voLFkk esa fooQkl'khy jkT; bu fofoèk fooQYiksa esa ls foQlh ,oQ oQk pqukoHkh oQj ysrs gSa rks ckn esa muoQks R;kxus vkSj ubZ laLFkkReoQ O;oLFkk viukus osQ fy, etcwj oQjrs gSaA bl oQkj.koQqN vuqoknksa oQks NksM+oQj] lHkh fooQkl'khy jktuhfroQ lekt] jktuhfroQ lajpukvksa ij vafre :i ls iQSlykoQj ik;s gksa ,slk ugha oQgk tk loQrk A jktuhfroQ fooQkl osQ laLFkkReoQ ekxksZa oQk vfu'p;] bu ns'kksa esa lafoèkkuoknoQh fLFkfr oQks Li"V gh ugha gksus nsrk gSA

(8) vUrjkZ"Vªh; izfr"Bk o vius jk"Vªh; vfHkKku oQh ryk'k esa] fooQkl'khy jkT; gj lEHko iz;Ru oQjrs ik, x,gSaA blosQ fy,] nks ijLij fojksèkh xqVksa esa ls foQlh esa lfEefyr gksus osQ tcjnLr nckoksa ls cpuk vkSj Hkkjr }kjkviuk, x, vlayXurk osQ ekxZ oQk y{k.k oQbZ oQkj.kksa ls lEHko ugha yxrkA ,oQ rjiQ jk"Vªh; vga oQks izoQk'kunsus oQk izeq[k y{; gS rks nwljh rjiQ vkarfjoQ vko';oQrkvksa osQ ncko ls bloQks rkoQ esa j[koQj foQlh xqV* fo'ks"kls xBcUèku oQh etcwfj;ka gSaA ,slh voLFkk esa lekt osQ lqfuf'pr ewY; ncoQj gh jg tkrs gSaA

fooQkl'khy yksoQrU=kksa oQh fo'ks"k leL;k,¡ rFkk vko';oQrk,¡] lafoèkkuokn oQh voèkkj.kk oQks vLi"V o vfuf'prrk

uksV



oQh voLFkk esa yk nsrh gSaA bu ns'kksa esa O;kIr fofHkUu Hkk"kkvksa] èkeks±] lEiznk;ksa vkSj fopkjèkkjkvksa esa leUo; oQkvHkko] mfpr lqn<+ lafoèkkuokn oQk vkèkkj LFkkfir ugha gksus nsrk gSA fIkQj Hkh lafoèkkuokn oQh èkkj.kk osQ oQqN y{k.kLi"V ifjyf{kr gksus yxs gSaA la{ksi esa ;g fuEu gSa&(1) lafoèkkuokn fuekZ.k oQh voLFkk esa gSA (2) lafoèkkuoknfefJr izoQ`fr j[krk gSA (3) lafoèkkuokn izokg osQ nkSj esa gSA (4) lafoèkkuokn fn'kk jfgr pj.k esa gSA

(1) fooQkl'khy jktuhfroQ lekt esa fooQkl oQh ifjfLFkfr;ka gh ugha ikbZ tkrh gSA lekt esa vusoQ ckrksa ij erSD;oQk vHkko ik;k tkrk gSaA ;gka roQ foQ jktuhfroQ laLFkkvksa oQh lajpukvksa vkSj izfØ;kvksa ij Hkh erSD; ugha gks ikrkgSA blfy;s vfèkoQka'k fooQkl'khy fuekZ.k oQh voLFkk esa oQgk tk loQrk gSA

(2) uoksfnr jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn fefJr izÑfr oQk gSA oQqN ns'k ik'pkR; o lksfo;r fopkjèkkjkvksa oQks feykusoQk iz;Ru oQj jgs gSaA og Lora=krk] lekurk] U;k; o lektokn oQks ,oQ lkFk gh LFkkfir oQjus oQk iz;Ru oQj jgsgSaA vkarfjoQ ifjfLFkfr;ka o vko';oQrk,¡] lafoèkkuokn oQh ik'pkR; voèkkj.kkvksa osQ ekSfyoQ rÙoksa oQks vfuok;Zr%viukus oQk ncko Mkyrh gSaA tSls Lora=krk osQ lkFk gh vkfFZkoQ lekurk ykus osQ fy, lEifÙk ij vfèkoQkfèkoQlaoSèkkfuoQ fu;a=k.k oQk iz;Ru lafoèkkuokn oQks fefJr :i iznku oQjrk gSA lafoèkku izfrcUèkoQ oQk oQk;Z Hkh oQjrkgS vkSj fu;a=k.kksa ls eqfÙkQ Hkh fnykus osQ laLFkkxr izkoèkkuksa ls Hkjiwj jgrk gSA bl n`f"V ls Hkkjr esa ekSfYkoQ vfèkoQkjksaoQh O;oLFkk rFkk mu ij mfpr izfrcUèkksa oQh lafoèkku esa gh O;oLFkk] fefJrrk oQh laosQroQ gSA

(3) fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn izokg osQ nkSj esa gSA ;g fLFkjrk IkzkIr ugha oQj ik;k gSA jktuhfroQ fooQklosQ ekxZ esa tc yEch vofèk oQk LFkkf;Ro ;g Hkze mRiUu oQjrk gS foQ lafoèkkuoknh ewY; lqfu'p; oQh voLFkkesa vk x;s gSaA ijUrq vpkuoQ mRiUu fLFkfr;ka] lektksa osQ fooQkl&IkFk esa ifjorZu oQjosQ] lafoèkkuokn oQks izokgoQh voLFkk esa èkosQyrh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSaA

(4) mijksDr rhu fo'ks"krkvksa osQ o.kZu ls Li"V gS foQ fooQkl'khy jktuhfroQ lektksa esa lafoèkkuokn fn'kk jfgrpj.k esa gSA bu lektksa esa oQHkh mnkj yksoQrU=kksa oQk vkn'kZ vkoQ"kZoQ cu tkrk gS rks oQHkh lkE;oknh fopkjksa esafu"Bk n<+ gksus yxrh gSA oQqN jkT; uohu vkn'kZ [kkstrs ik, tkrs gSa A jk"Vªh; vkSj varjkZ"Vªh; ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ oQkj.k]fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn oQh fn'kkvksa esa tc&rc ifjorZu] ,oQ rjg ls fn'kk&'kwU;rk gh yxrk gSAlafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkjksa oQk vHkko o ewY;ksa oQh vfuf'prrk lafoèkkuokn oQh lqLi"V fn'kk fuèkkZj.k esa ckèkoQ gSAblfy, fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn rc roQ fn'kk;qDr ugha cu loQrk] tc roQ lafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkjksa oQhlqfLFkj i`"BHkwfe izLrqr ugha gks tkrhA

lafoèkkuokn oQh bu fo'ks"krkvksa osQ o.kZu ls Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa oQh voèkkj.kk esa lkè;rks] ik'pkR; voèkkj.kk osQ leku] Lora=krk] jktuhfroQ lekurk] lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ U;k; rFkk yksoQ oQY;k.koQh lkèkuk osQ gh gSaA ljoQkj oQh izfrcUèkrk o vusoQ {ks=kksa esa oQk;Z osQ fy, cgqr oQqN Lora=krk rFkk lafoèkku oQhvkSipkfjoQrk] bls lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk oQh laLFkkxr O;oLFkkvksa oQks viukus osQ fy, izksRlkfgr oQjuk gh gSA fu"oQ"kZesa] gkoMZz jhfxUl osQ oQFku oQk mYys[k oQjuk fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa osQ lafoèkkuokn oQk lgh fp=k.k oQjrk gSA jhfxUlus fy[kk gS foQ ^jkT; u;s gSa vkSj jktuhfroQ [ksy osQ fu;e izokc esa gSa blfy, lafoèkkuokn vHkh roQ lqfLFkj ughagks loQk gSA ;gk¡ okMZ rFkk eSØfMl oQk ;g oQguk foQ ^fooQkl'khy lafoèkkuokn osQ fy, ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn oQhlhfer ljoQkj oQh ijEijk] O;fÙkQxr o lewg vfèkoQkj vkSj jktuhfroQ izcUèkksa oQh LFkkiuk izfreku o vuqoQj.kh;mnkjg.k gSA BhoQ ugha yxrk gS] D;ksafoQ bu jkT;ksa esa lkE;oknh ewY;ksa o laLFkkxr O;oLFkkvksa osQ izfr vkLFkk Hkhcyorh curh tk jgh gSA var eas ;gh oQgk tk loQrk gS foQ fooQkl'khy jkT;ksa esa lafoèkkuokn oQh lqfLFkjrk yEchvofèk osQ ckn gh vk ik,xhA

lafoèkkuokn oQh fofHkUu voèkkj.kkvksa osQ foospu ls Li"V gS foQ ^lafoèkkuokn oQk fpjLFkk;h ewY; pkgs og ik'pkR;gks ;k lkE;okn] fooQflr ns'kksa oQk gks ;k fooQkl'khy ns'kksa oQk] iw.kZr;k LFkkfir gks vFkok LFkkiuk osQ iz;Ru roQlhfer jgk gks] mloQh izkfIr oQh izfØ;kvksa o laLFkkReoQ O;oLFkkvksa osQ lkèkuksa ls oQgha nwj ik;k tkrk gSA ;glkekftoQ O;oLFkk osQ mu uSfroQ mís';ksa esa] ftuoQh ;g j{kk oQjrk gS] fopkj&èkkjkvksa osQ mu ewY;ksa esa] tks bls

uksV



fiz; gSa rFkk 'kkloQksa osQ ml n`'; esa] ftls ;g LFkkf;Ro iznku oQjrk gS] ik;k tkrk gSA blfy, lafoèkkuokn oQkewY;kaoQu] cgqizpfyr fu;a=k.k izfØ;kvksa osQ vkèkkj ij ugha foQ;k tkuk pkfg;sA bu fu;a=k.k izfØ;kvksa oQksizHkkoghurk o izHkko;qÙkQrk oQk fookn Hkh fujFkZoQ gSA lafoèkkuokn oQk ewY;kaoQu oQjrs le; ;g ns[kuk pkfg, foQlekt osQ uSfroQ ewY; D;k gSa\ fooQkl osQ foQl ekxZ o fopkjèkkjk esa lekt oQh vkLFkk gS\ fooQkl oQjus oQk nkf;Roysus okys usrkvksa esa D;k xq.k gSa\ ;gh lanHkZ] laafoèkkuokn oQh okLrfooQrkvksa oQks ifjyf{kr oQjrk gS] D;ksafoQ vUrr%lafoèkkuokn O;ofLFkr lekt esa O;ofLFkr ifjorZu oQh izfØ;kReoQ lqO;oLFkk gh rks gSA

mijksDr fu"oQ"kZ osQ lanHkZ esa gh rqyukReoQ jktuhfr osQ fo|kFkhZ oQks ik'pkR;] lkE;oknh o fooQkl'khy lektksa osQlafoèkkuokn oQk vè;;u o ewY;kaoQu oQjuk gSA izfØ;kvksa }kjk LFkkfir fu;a=k.k O;oLFkk] lafoèkku o laLFkkvksa }kjkvkn'kks± o vkLFkkvksa oQk xq.kxku] lafoèkkuokn oQk fn[kkok izLrqr oQjrs gSa ;k lekt osQ okLrfooQ uSfroQ ewY;ksa oQhLFkkiuk o izkfIr oQk lkèku tqVkrs gSaA ;gh vUrj le>uk] lafoèkkuokn oQk lgh vFkZ o foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkkesa bloQh ;FkkFkZrk oQks le>uk gSA

Lo&ewY;kaoQu (Self Assessment)

fjDr LFkkuksa oQh iwfrZ oQhft, (Fill in the Blanks)—

1- mnkjoknh èkkj.kk esa --------------------- o ------------------------ U;k; oQk vkèkkj cgqr egRoiw.kZ gSA

2- yksoQ oQY;k.k oQh lkèkuk oQk y{; ---------------------- osQ mn; osQ lkFk gh fooQflr gqvk gSA

3- yksoQrkaf=koQ <ax ls xfBr lekt ----------------- lekt gksrk gSA

4- lkE;oknh --------------------- oQks iw¡thifr;ksa osQ gkFk oQh oQBiqryh ekurs gSaA

5- lkE;okfn;ksa oQh ekU;rk gS foQ lkekftoQ thou esa 'kfDr osQ vkfFkZoQ igyw oQh ------------------ ghegRoiw.kZ gksrh gSA


ljoQkj pkgs fujaoQq'k gksa vFkok yksoQrU=kkReoQ] muosQ lapkyu osQ fy, oQqN fl¼kUrksa vFkok fu;eksa oQk gksuklnSo lgk;oQ gksrk gSA pwafoQ çR;soQ lafoèkku esa ljoQkj osQ fofHkUu vaxksa rFkk muosQ ikjLifjoQ lEcUèkksa oQko.kZu gksrk gSA vr% bu lEcUèkksa oQk o.kZu oQjus okys fu;eksa oQh fo|ekurk ls ljoQkj osQ fofHkUu vax ,oQ nwljsosQ lg;ksx ls oQq'kyrkiwoZoQ oQk;Z oQj loQrs gSa vkSj muesa la?k"kZ ;k fojksèk oQh lEHkkouk,¡ Hkh oQe gks tkrh gSaAlafoèkku esa ukxfjoQksa osQ vfèkoQkjksa oQk Hkh o.kZu gksrk gSA ;g o.kZu gh buosQ lqj{kk O;olk; gS] D;ksafoQ ;g ljoQkjoQh igqap ls bl çoQkj iSus cu tkrs gSaA bl çoQkj lafoèkku osQ }kjk foQlh Hkh jkT; oQk vkèkkjHkwr <akpk laLFkkxr:i esa [kM+k foQ;k tkrk gS] ftlls gj O;fDr] laLFkk o lewg oQh HkwfeoQk lqfuf'pr gks tkrh gSA

¶lafoèkku fu;eksa oQk og laxzg gS tks mu mís';ksa oQh çkfIr oQjkrk gS ftuosQ fy, 'kklu 'kfDr çofrZr oQhtkrh gS vkSj tks 'kklu osQ mu fofoèk vaxksa oQh l`f"V oQjrk gS ftuosQ ekè;e ls ljoQkj viuh 'kfDr oQkç;ksx oQjrh gSA

vr% lafoèkku oQk vFkZ le>rs le; ;g è;ku j[kuk vko';oQ gS foQ vkSipkfjoQ lafoèkku* D;k O;oLFkkoQjrk gS rFkk O;ogkj esa ;g foQl lhek roQ jktuhfroQ vkpj.k oQk vkèkkj cuk jgrk gS\ lafoèkku jktuhfroQO;oLFkk oQk pfj=k ;k çoQ`fr Li"V oQjrk gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkku jkT; osQ fy, BhoQ oSlk gh gS tSlk O;fDr osQfy, pfj=k! ;g u osQoy jktuhfroQ [ksy* oQk vkèkkj çLrqr oQjrk gS vfirq fofHkUu jktuhfroQ fopkjksa oekaxksa esa lkeatL; oQh vfHkO;fDr Hkh oQjrk gSA foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk oQh okLrfooQ çoQ`fr oQks le>usosQ fy, lafoèkku osQ bl <kaps o rÙo (substance) fl¼kUr o O;ogkj] nksuksa oQks le>uk vko';oQ gS] D;ksafoQlafoèkkuokn ogha lEHko gS tgk¡ lafoèkku osQ <kaps o rÙoksa esa lkE; gks vFkkZr laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj gksA

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gj jkT; esa foQlh u foQlh çoQkj oQk lafoèkku rks vfuok;Zr% gksrk gS] ij gj ,sls jkT; esa laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkjgks ;g Hkh t:jh ugha gSA laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj ls lhfer vFkZcksèku gksrk gS] D;ksafoQ laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj ogljoQkj gh gksrh gS tks lafoèkku oQh O;oLFkkvksa osQ vuqlkj laxfBr] lhfer vkSj fu;af=kr gks rFkk O;fDr fo'ks"koQh bPNkvksa osQ LFkku ij] osQoy fofèk osQ vuq:i gh lapkfyr gksrh gksA fgVyj o Lrkfyu osQ le; esa teZuho :l esa lafoèkku rks Fks ij laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkjsa Hkh Fkh ,slk ugha oQgk tk loQrkA

osQoy og ljoQkj gh laoSèkkfuoQ ljoQkj oQgh tk;sxh tks lafoèkku ij vkèkkfjr gks] lafoèkku }kjk lhfer vkSjfu;af=kr gks o LosPNkiwoZoQrk osQ LFkku ij osQoy fofèk osQ vuq:i gh lapkfyr gksrh gksA la{ksi esa laoSèkkfuoQljoQkj fofèk jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa gh lafoèkkuokn lEHko gS] D;ksafoQ lafoèkkuokn mu ekU;rkvksa] vkLFkkvksavkSj ekuo ewY;ksa oQk uke gS ftloQk lafoèkku esa o.kZu o leFkZu gksrk gS vkSj ftuoQh miyfCèk o lqj{kkgsrq jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.kksa o jksoQksa (restraints) oQh O;oLFkk gksrh gSA

lafoèkkuokn mu fopkjksa o fl¼kUrksa oQh vksj laosQr oQjrk gS] tks ml lafoèkku oQk fooj.k o leFkZu oQjrsgSa] ftuosQ ekè;e ls jktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir foQ;k tk losQA

lafoèkkuokn 'kklu oQh og i¼fr gS ftlesa 'kklu turk oQh vkLFkkvksa] ewY;ksa o vkn'kks± oQks ifjyf{kr oQjusokys lafoèkku osQ fu;eksa o fl¼karaksa osQ vkèkkj ij gh foQ;k tk, o ,sls lafoèkku osQ ekè;e ls gh 'kkloQksaoQks çfrcafèkr o lhfer j[kk tk, ftlls jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk oQh ewy O;oLFkk,¡ lqjf{kr jgsa vkSj O;ogkj esagj O;fDr oQks miyCèk gks losQaA

¶lafoèkkuokn ml fu"Bk oQk uke gS tks euq"; lafoèkku esa fufgr 'kfDr esa j[krs gS ftlls ljoQkj O;ofLFkrcuh jgrh gSA¸ vFkkZr og fu"Bk o vkLFkk oQh 'kfÙkQ ftlesa lqlaxfBr jktuhfroQ lÙkk fu;af=kr jgrh gS]^lafoèkkuokn* gSA

oQqN fopkjoQ 'kklu oQks lhfer o fu;af=kr oQjus osQ fy, rFkk ekuo ewY;ksa oQh lqj{kk lEHko cukus osQ fy,'kfDr foHkktu oQks vfèkoQ egÙo nsrs gSa o mls lafoèkkuokn oQk ewy vkèkkj ekurs gSaA muoQh ekU;rk gS foQlafoèkkuokn jktuhfroQ 'kfDr;ksa oQk foHkktu oQj ljoQkj osQ oQk;ks± ij çHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir oQjuk gSAvr% lafoèkkuokn rHkh laHko gS tc foQlh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk esa 'kfDr foHkktu osQ }kjk ljoQkjh oQk;ks± ijçHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir foQ;k tk losQA

blls ;g Hkh Li"V gS foQ tgk¡ lafoèkku gS ogk¡ lafoèkkuokn vko';oQ :i ls ik;k tkrk gks ;g t:jh ughagSA lafoèkku osQ ekè;e ls rks ge foQlh Hkh ns'k oQh jktuhfroQ O;oLFkk] vFkkZr ljoQkj osQ Lo:i] mloQh'kfDr;ksa o ukxfjoQksa vkSj ljoQkj osQ lEcUèkksa ls lEcfUèkr fl¼kUrksa o fu;eksa oQk laosQr ikrs gSa tcfoQlafoèkkuokn ,oQ ,slh O;oLFkk gS ftlesa lafoèkku osQ ekè;e ls gh ljoQkj oQh 'kfDr;ksa ij 'kfÙkQ forj.k }kjkçHkko'kkyh fu;a=k.k LFkkfir foQ;k tkrk gSA

ifjHkk"kk oQh n`f"V ls lafoèkkuokn fopkjèkkjk oQk çrhoQ gSA blesa jk"Vª osQ ewY;] fo'okl o jktuhfroQ vkn'kZvkrs gSa] ftuls feyoQj fopkjèkkjk curh gS] vkSj ml fopkjèkkjk (Ideology) oQk çrhoQ lafoèkkuokn oQgykrkgSA lafoèkku laxBu oQk çrhoQ gSA ;g mu fl¼kUrksa oQk laoQyu oQgk tk loQrk gS ftuosQ vuqlkj ljoQkjoQh 'kfDr;ksa o 'kkflrksa osQ vfèkoQkjh osQ eè; lEcUèkksa oQk lek;kstu foQ;k tkrk gSA

mRifÙk oQh n`f"V ls Hkh nksuksa esa vUrj gSA lafoèkkuokn ges'kk gh fooQkl oQk ifj.kke jgk gSA gj ns'k osQ ewY;]fo'okl o vkn'kks± oQk fooQkl 'krkfCn;ksa osQ vkoj.k esa rFkk le; oQh ifjfèk esa èkhjs&èkhjs gksrk gSA ijEijkxr]laLFkkxr o ekuo lEcUèkh rÙoksa ls jk"Vªksa osQ fo'okl o vkn'kZ fooQflr gksrs jgrs gSa] vkSj tulkèkkj.k osQthou esa brus ?kqy&fey tkrs gSa foQ buoQh çkfIr vkSj j{kk gsrq lekt cM+s ls cM+k cfynku oQjus osQ fy,rS;kj jgrk gSA lafoèkku] osQoy fczVsu osQ lafoèkku oQks NksM+oQj] lkèkkj.kr;k fufeZr gksrs gSa rFkk ckn esaijEijkvksa osQ ekè;e ls lafoèkkuokn oQh vko';oQrkvksa osQ vuq:i Lor% cnyrs&<yrs tkrs gSaA

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lafoèkku o lafoèkkuokn esa çoQ`fr oQk Hkh ekSfyoQ vUrj gSA lafoèkkuokn esa çèkkurk foQlh jktuhfroQ lektosQ y{;ksa vkSj mís';ksa oQh gksrh gSA vUrr% gj lekt ,oQ xUrO; oQh çkfIr oQk y{; j[krk gS] vkSj xUrO;ksaoQh çkfIr oQh O;oLFkk gh lafoèkkuokn oQk ewy gS tcfoQ lafoèkku çeq[kr;k mu xUrO;ksa roQ igq¡pus osQ lkèkuksaoQh lqO;oLFkk gSA ;g lafoèkkuokn osQ mís';ksa oQh çkfIr gsrq lkèku tqVkus oQk uke gSA vr% lafoèkkuoknlkè;&çèkku vkSj lafoèkku&çèkku èkkj.kk gSA

lafoèkkuokn oQk lEcUèk jk"Vª osQ thou n'kZu ls gSA ;g mu ewY;ksa] fo'oklksa o jktuhfroQ vkn'kks± oQh vksjlaosQr oQjrk gS tks jk"Vª osQ gj ukxfjoQ oQks fç; gSA tks gj jk"Vª oQk thou vkèkkj gksrs gSaA ;g laoSèkkfuoQn'kZu] jktuhfroQ lekt oQks vfHktuksa (Elites) }kjk çnku foQ;k tkrk gSA ijUrq ;g n'kZu vfHktuksa roQ ghlhfer ugha jgrk gSA lekt oQk fopkj'khy oxZ bls turk roQ igqapkrk gS] vkSj lekt bls LohoQkj oQj uosQoy cy çnku oQjrk gS] oju~ bls lgh vFkks± esa ^jk"Vª&n'kZu* cukrk gSA

lafoèkkuokn xfrghu èkkj.kk ugha gS ij bloQk ;g vFkZ Hkh ugha foQ lafoèkkuokn esa fLFkjrk ugha gksrh gSAlafoèkkuokn esa ;gh lcls fof'k"V ckr gS foQ blesa LFkkf;Ro osQ lkFk gh lkFk xR;kReoQrk Hkh ikbZ tkrh gSa;gh oQkj.k gS foQ ;g çxfr esa ckèkoQ ugha] çxfr oQk lkèkoQ cuk jgrk gSA

lafoèkkuokn çèkkur% lkè;ksa ls lEcfUèkr fopkj gSA ijUrq lkè; ewyoQ fopkj iw.kZr;k lkèkuksa oQh vogsyukugha oQj loQrkA vr% buesa Hkh varj çoQkj oQk ugha osQoy ek=kk oQk jg tkrk gSA oSls Hkh lkèkuksa o lkè;ksaoQks ,oQ nwljs ls vyx ugha foQ;k tk loQrkA fiQj Hkh lafoèkkuokn ls çeq[kr;k y{;ksa oQk gh laosQr feyrkgSA tc ge ;g oQgrs gSa foQ lafoèkkuokn ls çeq[kr;k y{;ksa oQk gh laosQr feyrk gSA

mnkj yksoQrU=kksa oQh voèkkj.kkvksa oQks ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn Hkh oQgk tkrk gSA bloQh eq[; fo'ks"krk O;fDroQh Lora=krk oQh lkèkuk gSA O;fDr oQh Lora=krk osQ vykok] jktuhfroQ lekurk] lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ U;k;rFkk yksoQoQY;k.k oQh lkèkuk ik'pkR; lafoèkkuokn osQ vkèkkjHkwr lkè; gSaA ;g lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ lekurko LorU=krk ij cny ugha nsrk gSA Lora=krk vkSj lekurk osQ lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ igyqvksa ik'pkR;lafoèkkuokn osQ lkè;ksa esa vHkko gh bloQks lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk ls vyx èkkj.kk cukrk gSA

lkE;okn oQh ljoQkj o 'kfDr oQh vyx èkkj.kk gh] lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk oQks] lafoèkkuokn oQh ik'pkR;voèkkj.kk ls fHkUu cukrh gSA

lkE;oknh ljoQkj* oQks iwathifr;ksa osQ gkFk oQh oQBiqryh ekurs gSa] tks èkfuoQ oxZ* oQh xjhc oxks± ls j{kkoQk gh oQk;Z oQjrh gSA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQk vkèkkj vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr gS ftuosQ gkFk esa vkfFkZoQ'kfDr gksxh mlh osQ gkFk esa jktuhfroQ 'kfDr Hkh vk tk,xhA blfy;s iawthifr gh jktuhfroQ 'kfDr osQ èkkjoQo lapkyoQ gksrs gSaA

lkE;okfn;ksa oQh ekU;rk gS foQ lkekftoQ thou esa 'kfDr osQ vkfFkZoQ igyw oQh loksZifjrk gh egÙoiw.kZ gksrhgSA blls euq"; oQk lEiw.kZ lkekftoQ thou lapkfyr gksrk gS rFkk ftl oxZ osQ gkFk esa vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr gksrhgS og oxZ vU; oxks± ij vkfèkiR; tekoQj] mUgsa vius fy, oQk;Z oQjus oQks ckè; oQjrk gSA ;g voLFkkoxZ&la?k"kZ o 'kks"k.k oQk vkèkkj curh gSA

vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQh loksZifjrk oQk roQZlaxr ifj.kke vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr;qDr oxZ oQk izHkqRo oQh voLFkk esa gksukgSA ;g jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQh xkS.krk oQk lwpoQ gSA

vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr oQh loksZifjrk rFkk lekt esa blls lEiUu oxZ oQk izHkqRo] jktuhfroQ 'kfDr oQks Hkh blosQ vèkhucuk nsrk gSA lekt esa fo|eku lHkh laLFkk,¡ vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ le{k ureLroQ jgrh gSaA vr% fu;a=k.kjktuhfroQ 'kfDr ij ugha] cfYoQ vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr ij yxk, tkus pkfg,A

lkE;oknh fopkjèkkjk oQh vkèkkjHkwr ekU;rk gS foQ mRiknu o forj.k osQ lkèkuksa ij O;fDrxr LokfeRo vkfFkZoQ'kfDr oQks vUrr% oQqN O;fDr;ksa esa osQfUær oQj nsrk gSA vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr osQ bl izoQkj osQ osQUæ.k ls oxZ&la?k"kZmRiUu gksrk gSA blls vkfFkZoQ 'kfDr&;qDr oxZ] bl 'kfDr ls jfgr oxZ oQk neu o 'kks"k.k oQjus yxrk gSA

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vkfFkZoQ lekurk okys lekt esa oQksbZ oxZ ;k vyx&vyx fgr ugha gksrs gSa vkSj blfy;s oxks± osQ fof'k"V fgrksaoQk izfrfufèkRo o lqj{kk oQjus osQ fy, vusoQ jktuhfroQ ny cuus oQh ifjfLFkfr;ka ugha gksrh gSaA oxZ&foghulekt esa jktuhfroQ nyksa oQh vko';oQrk gh ugha jg tkrh gSA ;gh oQkj.k gS foQ lkE;okn jktuhfroQ nyksaoQh vusoQrk oQks LohoQkj ugha oQjrk ijUrq lkE;oknh lekt osQ y{;ksa oQh izkfIr osQ fy, lekt oQk usr`Roo funsZ'ku gksuk vko';oQ gSA ftlls lekt osQ lEiw.kZ lkèkuksa o 'kfDr;ksa esa leUo; j[kk tk losQ vkSj lkè;ksaoQh iwfrZ oQh lqO;oLFkk oQh tk losQA

Li"V gS foQ lafoèkkuokn oQh lkE;oknh voèkkj.kk esa lekt osQ ewY;ksa] jktuhfroQ vkn'kks± o vkLFkkvksa oQhizkfIr osQ lkèku] ik'pkR; lafoèkku oQh voèkkj.kk ls u osQoy fHkUu izoQkj osQ gSa] vfirq mu vkèkkjHkwr oQkj.kksaoQk] ftuls lekt esa vlekurk oQk mn~Hko gksrk gS] vUr oQjus okys Hkh gSaA

3-4 'kCnoQks'k (Keywords)

loksZifjrk % çeq[krk] loZJs"Brk

voihM+u % çrkfM+r oQjuk] 'kks"k.k oQjuk] mRihM+u oQjuk

lekfo"V % lfEefyr oQjuk


1- lafoèkkuokn ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\ O;k[;k oQhft,A

2- lafoèkkuokn oQh eq[; voèkkj.kkvksa oQk o.kZu oQhft,A

3- lafoèkkuokn osQ mnkjoknh n`f"VoQks.k oQk fo'ys"k.kkReoQ foospu oQhft,A

4- lafoèkkuokn osQ mnkjoknh ,oa lkE;oknh voèkkj.kkvksa esa ewyHkwr D;k fofHkUurk,¡ ik;h tkrh gSa\ o.kZuoQhft,A

Lo&ewY;kaoQu (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- lkekftoQ o vkfFkZoQ 2- yksoQra=kksa

3- [kqyk 4- ljoQkj

5- loksZifjrk


iqLrosaQ 1- rqyukReoQ 'kklu ,oa jktuhfrμMkW- chjosQ'oj izlkn flag] Kkunk izoQk'ku (ih- ,.M Mh-) 24]nfj;kxat] valkjh jksM] fnYyhA

2- rqyukReoQ jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfroQ laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk] fooQkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjhjksM] fnYyhA

3- rqyukReoQ jktuhfr oQh :ijs[kkμ vkse izoQk'k xkck] e;wj isij cSDl] uks,MkA

4. rqyukReoQ jktuhfrμts-lh- tkSgjh] LVfy±x ifCy'ktZ izk-fy-] fnYyhA

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bdkbZμ4% jktuhfrd laLÑfr


bdkbZμ4% jktuhfrd laLÑfr (Political Culture)


mís'; (Objectives)


4-1 jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vFkZ ,oa f=kLrjh; ewY;k¡du (Meaning and Mapping; the Three Levelsof Political Culture)

4-2 ledkyhu jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dh izo`fÙk (Trends in Contemporary Political Culture)





mís'; (Objective)


jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vFkZ vkSj f=kLrjh; ewY;k¡du dks le>us ,oa ledkyhu jktuhfrd izofÙk;ksa dh O;k[;kdjus esaA


jktuhfrd laLÑfr (Polticial Culture) dh ladYiuk dk vè;;u jktuhfrd fodkl osQ fo"k; osQ lkekftdoSKkfud igyqvksa dk ijh{k.k djuk gSA tc osQ dqN vejhdh ys[kdksa] tSosQ mye (Ulam)] chj (Beer) vkeaM(Almond) us bl 'kCn dks yksdfiz;rk iznku dh gS] ;g jktuhfrd O;oLFkk;ksa osQ vkdkfjdh; vè;;u(Morphological study) osQ fy, ,d egRoiw.kZ dlkSVh cu x;k gSA blus lekt fl¼kar 'kkfLË;ksa dks bl ckrdk vkxzg djus osQ fy, izHkkfor fd;k gS fd ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk nwljh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ u osQoylajpuk dh n`f"V osQ cfYd viuh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh n`f"V osQ Hkh fHkUu gS ftlesa ;g fLFkr gksrh gSA blhrF; osQ dkj.k lalnh; 'kklu iz.kkyh fczVsu tSosQ ns'k esa vPNh rjg osQ dk;Z dj ldh gS] ysfdu rhljh nqfu;kosQ dbZ fiNM+s ns'kksa esa bldks mruh liQyrk ugha fey ldh gSA vr% vc ;g ,glkl tksj idM+rk tk jgkgS fd tks vfHko`fÙk;k¡ (Attitudes)] laosnuk,¡ (sentiments) vkSj laKku (cognitions) fdlh lekt esajktuhfrd O;ogkj dks izHkkfor dj mldk lapkyu djrh gSa] os vkdfLed HkhM+ gh ugha cfYd os mu laxrizfrekuksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrh gS tks ,d nwljs osQ mi;qDr gks ldrs gSa vkSj ,d nwljs dks izfrcfyr djus okysgSa_ fdlh leqnk; fo'ks"k esa ,d lhfer vkSj fof'k"V jktuhfrd laLÑfr gksrh gS tks jktuhfrd izfØ;k dkslkFkZdrk] iwokZuqekurk vkSj vkdkj iznku djrh gS_ gjsd O;fDr dks vius ,sfrgkfld lanHkZ esa viuh turk vkSjvius lekt osQ ckjs esa tkudkjh ,oa Hkkoukvksa osQ ckjs esa Kku izkIr djosQ mosQ vius O;fDrRo dk vax cukysuk pkfg,A**

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4-1 jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vFkZ ,oa f=kLrjh; ewY;k¡du (Meaning and Mapping;the three Levels of Political Culture)

jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkk dk Hkkx gS] fdUrq ;g blosQ dqN Lok;Ùkrk Hkh j[krh gSA lkekU;laLÑfr dh rjg gh jktuhfrd laLÑfr Hkh jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ ekè;e osQ laizsf"kr ;k gLrkarfjr gksrhgSA bl rjg] ;g lh[kk gqvk jktuhfrd O;ogkj gS tks O;fDr;ksa ;k lewgksa esa lkekftd ifjorZu ;k lkaLÑfrdla?k"kZ dh pqukSfr;ksa ;k ubZ ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ vuqdwy cuus dh izfØ;k esa mRiUu ;k fufeZr gks ldrk gSA jktuhfrdlaLÑfr dk vFkZ djrs gq, Y;wf'k;u ikbZ us vius ,d fucUèk îksfyfVdy dYpj ,.M iksfyfVdy MsosyiesUV*tks blosQ vkSj ockZ }kjk lEikfnr iqLrd ftldk uke Hkh iksfyfVdy dYpj ,.M iksfyfVdy MsosyiesUV gS]esa fy[kk gS fd ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk crykrh gS fd fdlh lekt dh ijEijk,¡] mldh lkoZtfudlaLFkkvksa dh vkRek] mlosQ ukxfjdksa dh vkdka{kk,¡ vkSj mudk lkewfgd foosd vkSj mlosQ usrkvksa osQ rjhosQ vkSjdk;Z'khy gksus osQ lkèku o fu;e vkfn osQoy ,sfrgkfld vuqHko dh mV&iVkax mit ugha gSa] cfYd ;s lc,d vFkZiw.kZ O;oLFkk osQ vax gSa vkSj lEiw.kZ lEcUèkksa dk ,d cksèkxE; rFkk Li"V izfreku mifLFkr djrs gSaAO;fDr osQ fy, jktuhfrd laLÑfr izHkko'khy jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh fn'kk esa ekxZ&funsZ'ku djrh gS vkSj lektosQ fy, ;g mu ewY;ksa rFkk foosdiw.kZ fopkjksa dh O;ofLFkr :i&jpuk iznku djrh gS tks fd laLFkkvksa vkSjlaxBuksa dh xfrfofèk;ksa esa laxfr cSBkrs gSaA**

Y;wf'k;u ikbZ dk vfHker gS fd ^^,d jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lkewfgd bfrgkl dhHkh mit gS vkSj mu O;fDr;ksa osQ thou&bfrgklksa dh Hkh mit gS ftUgksaus gky gh esa bl O;oLFkk dks cuk;kgSA bl izdkj] jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh tM+as lkoZtfud ?kVukvksa vkSj O;fDrxr vuqHkoksa esa leku :i osQ fufgrjgrh gSaA jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ jktuhfr foKku esa O;ogkjoknh n`f"Vdks.k osQ {ks=k esa] O;fDr osQjktuhfrd O;ogkj dh euksoSKkfud O;k[;kvksa ij vkèkkfjr O;f‘&fo'ys"k.k (macro-analysis) osQ chp dh[kkbZ dks ikVk x;k gSA bl izdkj] jktuhfrd laLÑfr euksoSKkfud vkSj lekt&'kkL=kh vè;;u n`f"Vdks.kksa esaleUo; djosQ budh rduhdksa esa vkèkqfud izxfr;ksa dks xfr'khy jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k osQ fy, iz;ksx djus dkekè;e izLrqr djrh gSA

mijksDr foospu osQ Li"V gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,d vkèkqfud voèkkj.kk gSA ;g jk"Vªh; jktuhfrd euksfoKkurFkk yksxksa osQ vkèkkjHkwr ewY;ksa osQ lEcfUèkr Kku dks vfèkd O;ofLFkr :i esa j[kus dk iz;kl djrh gSA blosQLi"V gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk izeq[kr;k jktuhfrd gSA usrkvksa vkSj ukxfjdksa osQ jktuhfrdvfHkeq[khdj.kksa osQ lEcfUèkr gksus osQ dkj.k] jktuhfrd laLÑfr ^jktuhfr&'kSyh* vFkok îzpkyu&lafgrk*(Operational code) vkfn voèkkj.kkvksa osQ] tks fd fof'k"V oxZ osQ O;ogkj ij izdk'k Mkyrh gS] vfèkdmi;qDr vkSj bu voèkkj.kkvksa osQ vfèkd xgjk vFkZ j[krh gSA blh rjg ;g ^tuer* vkSj jk"Vªh; pfjË tSlhvoèkkj.kkvksa dh rqyuk esa vfèkd lhfer vkSj fu;ksftr rFkk vkuqHkfod fo'ys"k.k ;ksX; gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ lkekU; vFkZ osQ ckn bldh ifjHkk"kk djuk ljy gks tkrk gSA ;gk¡ ge dqN izeq[k fo}kuksa}kjk nh xbZ ifjHkk"kk,¡ ns jgs gSa ftlosQ bldk vFkZ vkSj izÑfr Hkh Li"V gks losQA ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr* 'kCn dk]ftl vFkZ esa bosQ vktdy le>k tkrk gS] loZizFke vkeUM us gh vius ,d fucUèk dEisjsfVo iksfyfVdyflLVEl esa 1956 esa fd;k Fkk blfy, ge vkeUM }kjk nh xbZ ifjHkk"kk gh igys ns jgs gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,d lqfuf'pr rFkk vkuqHkfod ijh{k.k ;ksX; rF;ksa osQ lEc¼

voèkkj.kk gSA

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vkeUM vkSj ikosy us bldh ifjHkk"kk djrs gq, fy[kk gS % ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lnL;ksadh jktuhfr osQ izfr oS;fDrd vfHko`fÙk;ksa o vfHkeq[khdj.kksa dk izfreku gSA** bUgksaus bl ifjHkk"kk dks Li"V djrsgq, fy[kk gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr O;fDrfu"B {ks=k gS tks jktuhfrd fØ;k osQ ewy esa gksrk gS vkSj bldks vFkZiznku djrk gSA

flMuh ockZ us jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fofHkUu igyqvksa dks è;ku esa j[krs gq, bldh O;kid ifjHkk"kk nh gSA mlosQvuqlkj ^^jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa vkuqHkfod fo'oklksa] vfHkO;DrkRed izrhdksa vkSj ewY;ksa dh og O;oLFkklfUufgr gS tks ml ifjfLFkfr vFkok n'kk dks ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS ftlesa jktuhfrd fØ;k lEiUu gksrhA** blizdkj ockZ us jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk rFkk mlosQ vo;oksa ,oa O;oLFkk esa 'kfDr osQO;fDrxr&dk;ksZa osQ izfr fof'k"V jktuhfrd vfHkeq[khdj.kksa rFkk vfHko`fÙk;ksa dk la;qDr :i dgk gSA

Y;wf'k;u ikbZ osQ vuqlkj ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr vfHko`fÙk;ksa] fo'oklksa rFkk euksHkkoksa dk ,slk iqat gS tks jktuhfrdfØ;k dks vFkZ ,oa O;oLFkk iznku djrk gS rFkk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks fu;fU=kr djus okyh varfuZfgr iwoZèkkj.kkvksa rFkk fu;eksa dks cukrk gSA**

mijksDr ifjHkk"kkvksa osQ Li"V gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr O;oLFkk esa jktuhfr osQ izfr oS;fDrd vfHko`fÙk;ksa vkSjvfHkeq[khdj.kksa dk izfreku gS] vFkkZr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk rFkk jktuhfrd eqíksa osQ lEcfUèkr lkekftdn`f"Vdks.kksa] fo'oklksa vkSj ewY;ksa osQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk fuekZ.k gksrk gSA dbZ ckj ;g gks ldrk gS fd ;svfHko`fÙk;k¡ lpsru :i osQ èkkfjr u gksa vkSj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa fdlh O;fDr ;k xqV osQ lEcUèkksa esa ;s fufgrgksaA bl rjg] bldk cgqr gh ljy vFkZ ysa rks jktuhfrd laLÑfr] jktuhfr osQ izfr yksxksa dh èkj.kk,¡ gSa] vFkkZrdgk¡ rd ukxfjd ;g eglwl djrs gSa fd os fu.kZ;dkjh izfØ;k (decision making process) esa Hkkx ysdjmosQ izHkkfor dj ldrs gSa] osQ Hkko osQ lacfUèkr vfHko`fÙk gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vFkZ vkSj ifjHkk"kk osQ ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa osQoy mu leh{kkRed]fdUrq O;kid :i osQ izpfyr fo'oklksa vkSj euksHkkoksa dks gh fy;k tkrk gS tks vfHkeq[khdj.k osQ mu fof'k"Vizfrekuksa dk fuekZ.k dj losQa tks fd jktuhfrd izfØ;k dks O;oLFkk vkSj Lo:i iznku djrs gSaA lkjka'k :iesa jktuhfrd laLÑfr] jktuhfrd {ks=k dks mlh izdkj lajpuk vkSj vFkZ iznku djrh gS ftl izdkj laLÑfr(General culture) lkekftd thou dks esy vkSj ,dhdj.k iznku djrh gSA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,dfuf'pr vkSj lhfer voèkkj.kk gS tks lkekU; laLÑfr osQ lEcfUèkr vkSj izHkkfor jgrs gq, Hkh mlosQ dqNLok;Ùkrk j[krh gSA bl izdkj ;g jktuhfr osQ izfr yksxksa dh èkkj.kkvksa vkSj vfHko`fÙk;ksa dk uke gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh fo'ks"krk,¡ vkSj y{; (The Characteristics and Features ofPolitical Culture)

jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ nwljh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ekËkRed vUrj j[k ldrh gSAlkèkkj.kr% ,d jktuhfrd lekt dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr nwljs jktuhfrd lekt dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ ekËkdh n`f"V osQ i;kZIr fHkUu gh gksrh gSA ;g lekt esa fo|eku fo'okl ;k vfo'okl dh ekËk] lekurk ;kinkuqØe ij fn, tkus okys tksj] LorUËrk ;k ckè;dkfjrk dh 'kfDr dks lgu djus dks fn, tkus okys tksj]LorUËrk ;k ckè;dkfjrk dh 'kfDr dks lgu djus dks fn, tkus okys egÙo vkSj O;fDr;ksa osQ lEiw.kZ jk"Vª ;kNksVs&NksVs lewgksa bR;kfn osQ izfr fu"Bk dh ekËk ij fuHkZj djus osQ dkj.k] gj jktuhfrd lekt esa ekËkRedvUrjksa osQ ;qDr gksrh gSA fdUrq fofHkUu jktuhfrd lektksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa izdkj osQ vUrj ugha gksrsgSaA pkgs dSlh gh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gks mlosQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa vkSj nwljh] mlosQ fHkUu izdkj dh jktuhfrdO;oLFkk dh laLÑfr esa] ekËk osQ xgjs vUrj gks ldrs gSa fdUrq muesa izdkj osQ vUrj ugha gksrs gSaA mnkgj.kosQ fy,] LosPNkpkjh 'kklu O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr] yksdrkfU=kd O;oLFkkvksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQlokZfèkd ekËkRed vUrj j[krh gSA ,d gh jktuhfrd lekt esa vusd mi&laLÑfr Hkh ekStwn gks ldrh gS

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tks ,d nwljs osQ lkeatL; ;k fojksèk j[kus dh fLFkfr esa gks ldrh gSA bl lcosQ ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd jktuhfrdlaLÑfr osQ dqN y{k.k ,sosQ gksrs gSa ftuosQ gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh laLÑfr esa fHkUurk ikbZ tkrh gSA ijUrqvoèkkj.kk dh n`f"V osQ gj ns'k dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa dqN fo'ks"krk,¡ vo'; ns[kus dks feysaxhA buesa osQ rhufo'ks"krkvksa dks izeq[k ekuk tkrk gSA ;g fo'ks"krk,¡ (d) vkuqHkfod vkLFkkvksa ;k fo'oklksa] ([k) ewY;vfHk#fp;ksa] vkSj (x) izHkkoh vuqfØ;kvksa dh gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk f=k&Lrjh; ewY;k¡du (Three levels mapping of Political Culture)

vkeaM vèkhuLFk&lgHkkfx;ksa osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa vkSj lkFk gh fofHkUu jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa osQvkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dk oxhZdj.k izLrqr djrs gSaA jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa cqfu;knh dlkSVhvèkhuLFkksa vkSj lgHkkfx;ksa dh Hkwfedk ij cy nsuk gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ izfr vfHkfoU;Lr gS vkSj vius thouij buosQ vkxrksa vkSj fuxZrksa osQ izHkko tSosQ dY;k.k lEcUèkh fgr ykHk] dkuwu vkfn osQ ifjfpr gSa] ysfdu mUgsavkxr lajpukvksa esa Hkkxhnkj gksus osQ fy, vfHkeq[k ugha fd;k tkrk gS gks ldrk gS vFkok lgHkkxh ;k Hkkxhnkj(os O;fDr ftUgsa vkxr lajpukvksa vkSj izfØ;kvksa osQ izfr vfHkfoU;Lr fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ftUgsa fu.kZ; vkSj ekaxksadh vfHkO;fDr esa yxk;k tkrk gS] ;k tks vius ckjs esa ;g le>rs gSa fd os bu dk;ks± esa yxs gq, gSa)] gks ldrsgSaA vkeaM vkxs dgrs gSa fd jktuhfr osQ izfr vfHkfoU;kl esa O;fDr osQ jktuhfrd vfHkusrk osQ :i esa mlosQ viusckjs esa fopkj 'kkfey gSA

lgHkkxh

v/huLFk lgHkkxh lgHkkxh

O;oLFkk,¡O;oLFkk,¡O;oLFkk,¡O;oLFkk,¡

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bl n`f"Vdks.k osQ vkeaM jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk fËi{kh foHkktu izLrqr djrs gSa ftosQ la{ksi esa bl izdkj O;Drfd;k tk ldrk gS %

1- ladh.kZ jktuhfrd laLÑfr (Parochial Political Culture): ;g lhèks lkns ijEijkxr lektksa esafo|eku gksrh gS tgk¡ cgqr gh de fo'ks"khdj.k gksrk gS vkSj tgk¡ vfHkusrkvksa dh jktuhfrd] vkfFkZdvkSj èkkfeZd Hkwfedkvksa dk ,d lkFk fuokZg djuk iM+rk gSA ;gk¡ ge fdlh dchys osQ ljnkj osQ :iesa vfofHkUu Hkwfedk lajpuk dk izfreku ns[krs gSa tks ,d lkFk iz'kkld] iknjh ;k iqjksfgr osQ dk;ks± osQvykok vkfFkZd dk;ks± dks laiUu djrk gS fdUrq mlosQ vèkhu jgus okys yksx jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ ckjsesa dksbZ ,slh tkx:drk iznf'kZr ugha djrs ;|fi iwjs leqnk; osQ ckjs esa muesa tkx:drk gks ldrh gSAgks ldrk gS fd fodkl osQ dkj.k dqN O;fDr;ksa dks osQUæh; jktuhfrd izkfèkdj.k osQ vfLrRo osQ ckjsesa vo'; irk py tk, ysfdu liQy O;oLFkk osQ ckjs esa mudh Hkkoukvksa ^^dk ewY;k¡du Li"V :i esamuosQ lkeus ugha vk;k gS] ftlosQ muosQ fy, ekudksa dh LFkkiuk dh tk losQ rFkk ftlesa O;oLFkk osQlkFk muosQ lEcUèkksa dk fofu;eu fd;k tk losQA

2- vèkhuLFk&jktuhfrd laLÑfr (Subject-Political Culture): ;g ogk¡ fo|eku gksrh gS tgk¡ lEiw.kZO;oLFkk osQ izfr vkSj fof'k"V :i esa blosQ fuxZr igyqvksa osQ ckjs esa vfHkfoU;kl dh cgqr Å¡ph vko`fÙkgksrh gSA ;g vèkhuLFk ;k vkfJr mifuos'kksa esa ns[kh tk ldrh gS tgk¡ yksx viuh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkosQ izfr ;k rks xoZ eglwl djrs gS vFkok 'kËqrkA vFkkZr~ os vius 'kkldksa osQ fu.kZ;ksa dks vkSfpR;iw.kZ ekudj mUgsa Lohdkj dj ysrs gSa ;k vius vkRe&fu.kZ; osQ vfèkdkj osQ uke ij muosQ f[kykiQ la?k"kZ djrsgSaA ;g nwljh ckr gS fd vkeaM yksxksa dks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vUèk vLohÑfr dks vkSfpR;iw.kZ le>usij dqN vfèkd cy nsrs gSa vkSj og mudh 'k=kqrk lEcUèkh Hkkx dh vogsyuk dj nsrs gSa ftuosQifj.kkeLo:i ,sosQ vkUnksyu gksrs gSa tks fu.kZ;&fuekZrkvksa osQ cuk, dkuwuksa dks dkys dkuwu* dgdj muosQizkfèkdkj dk [k.Mu djrs gSa vkSj iw.kZ LojkT; dh ekax djrs gSaA

3- lgHkkxh&jktuhfrd laLÑfr (Participant-Political Culture): ;g mu vR;fèkd fodflr lektksa esagksrh gS tgk¡ yksx vius vkidks ny osQ lfØ; lnL; ekudj jktuhfrd {ksË esa lfØ; <ax osQ Hkkx ysrsgSaA os vfèkdkjksa vkSj drZO;ksa osQ ckjs esa vPNh rjg osQ ifjfpr gksrs gSaA ^^gj Krj ij O;oLFkk dkewY;k¡du vkSj mldh vkykspuk dh tkrh gS vkSj vke rkSj ij bosQ foosdiw.kZ le>dj Lohdkj fd;ktkrk gS fd jktuhfrd fØ;kdyki dks lekt osQ Hkhrj O;fDr;ksa vkSj oxks± dh ?kfu"B laoh{kk osQ vèkhugksuk pkfg,A cgjgky] vkeaM bl ckr dks Li"V dj nsuk pkgrs gSa fd D;ksafd jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡jktuhfrd n`f"V osQ vfèkd ltkrh; gksrh gS] blfy, O;fDr;ksa osQ ckjs esa ;g ugha le>uk pkfg, fdos jktuhfrd dk;ks± osQ izfr leku <ax osQ vfHkeq[k gSaA

blosQ vykok] vkeaM nks vkSj pjksa dh vksj laosQr djrs gSa ftuosQ ckjs esa è;ku j[kk tkuk pkfg,A ,d] vfefJrjktuhfrd laLÑfr dh lHkh fdLeksa osQ vykok] vkeaM O;ofLFkr :i esa fefJr fdLe dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dhvksj Hkh funsZ'k djrs gaSA ;gk¡ og mu fLFkfr;ksa dk fu:i.k djrs gSa tgk¡ vfHkfoU;klksa osQ ,d osQ vfèkd izfrekuksadk mYys[kuh; vuqikr miyCèk gSA bl izdkj] og rhu fdLeksa dk fuèkkZj.k djrs gSa% (1) ladh.kZ&vèkhuLFk&lgHkkxhjktuhfrd laLÑfr (parochial-subject-political culture), (2) izèkhuLFk&lgHkkxh&jktuhfrd laLÑfr (subject-

participant-political culture), (3) ladh.kZ&lgHkkxh&jktuhfrd laLÑfr (parochial-participant-political

culture) vkSj ukxfjd laLÑfr (civic culture)A nwljs] jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ vkSj jktuhfrd lajpuk,¡ dHkh LFkk;h;k LFkSfrd ugha gksrh gSa rFkk rhoz oSKkfud o izkS|ksfxd ifjorZuksa osQ dkj.k loZlerk ,oa loZ&vlerk dh izfØ;kle; osQ lkFk pyrh jgrh gSA vius vidks iw.kZ djus osQ fy, loZlerk dh vksj ;k blosQ nwj lapyu dh izo`fÙkvifjgk;Z ugha gSA lEHko gS fd loZlerk osQ FkksM+k igys laLÑfr osQ izfreku fdlh LFkku ij fLFkj gks tk,] vFkkZr~ ,sosQLFkku ij tgk¡ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ ckjs esa O;fDr;ksa dh Bhd tkudkjh gksrh gS mosQ os cnkZ'kr Hkh djuk pkgrs gSa ysfdu

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mlosQ lacfUèkr gksus dh muesa dksbZ bPNk ugha gksrh] vkSj mlosQ ckjs esa mudh dksbZ ldkjkRed vkSj vuqowQy HkkoukHkh ugha gksrhA blosQ fodYi osQ :i esa] ,d ,sosQ fodkl izfreku dh LFkkiuk dh tk ldrh gS tks muesa loZlerkyk ugha ldrk vfirq] bl n'kk osQ cgqr gh fudV igq¡pk nsrk gSA fodkl osQ bl izfreku osQ] fo'ks"k :i esa] ,sosQlektksa esa izdV gksus dh laHkkouk gksrh gS ftuesa O;fDr;ksa dk vkxr izfØ;k osQ fy, ldkjkRed :i esa vfHkfoU;klgksrk gS] vFkkZr~ ,slh fLFkfr;ksa esa] ftlesa yksxksa dh bPNk vius vkidks vuqHko djk ldrh gS] ;k tgk¡] de osQde yksxksa dh jk; jktuhfrd n`f"V osQ dkiQh izHkko'kkyh gks tkrh gS tc izfrLièkhZ usrkvksa }kjk ,slk vkokgu fd;ktkrk gSA

4-2 ledkyhu jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dh izofÙk (Trends in contemporary PoliticalCulture)

vkeaM jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dk izk:ikRed fpË.k izLrqr djrs gSa ftosQ bl izdkj] la{ksi esa] of.kZr fd;k tkldrk gS%

,¡Xyks&vejhdh O;oLFkk,¡μ mUur if'peh ns'kksa tSosQ fczVsu vkSj vejhdk esa ekStwn ;g igyh fdLe gS ftlosQeq[; y{k.kksa dk bl izdkj o.kZu fd;k tk ldrk gS %

(d) bu O;oLFkkvksa dh fo'ks"krk cgqewY;èkkjh jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ gSa tks ltkrh; vFkZ esa ltkrh; vkSjlkrRoiw.kZ gS fd mUgsa izkIr djus osQ ckjs esa jktuhfrd lkè;ksa vkSj lkèkuksa osQ ckjs esa vke lgefr ikbZtkrh gSA

([k) jktuhfr ,d [ksy dh rjg gS ftlesa dbZ f[kykM+h Hkkx ysrs gSa] ;|fi os ,d nwljs osQ izfrLièkhZ gksrsgSa] os viuh Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSa] ysfdu os vius vUrjksa dks bruk vfèkd ugha c<+k ysrs ftlosQ [ksydk ekgkSy gh yM+kbZ osQ eSnku dk ekgkSy gks tk,A

(x) jktuhfr cktkj dh rjg yxrh gS ftl txg ij fu.kZ;&fuekZrk er izkIr djus ,oa vius fy, yksxksa dkleFkZu izkIr djus osQ fy, fu;eksa osQ :i esa viuk earO; izLrqr djrs gSaA bl izdkj] 'kkldksa o 'kkflrksa]fuokZpdksa o fuokZfprksa vkSj usrkvksa o muosQ vuq;kf;vksa osQ chp lkSnsckth dh izfØ;k vkjEHk gks tkrhgSA

(?k) lekt dh cgqyoknh LoI; gksrk gS ftlesa dbZ n{k vkSj fgrc¼ lewg blfy, dk;Zjr jgrs gSa fdvius&vius fgrksa dh vuqfØ;k esa fu.kZ;&fuekZ.k çfØ;k dks çHkkfor dj losQaA

(Ä) ;gk¡ lÙkk vkSj çHkko dk fooj.k gksrk gSA blfy, ogk¡ fu;aË.k vkSj lUrqyu dk iw.kZ vkSj lqpk: <axosQ dk;Z djus okyh O;oLFkk ikbZ tkrh gSA fofèk laLFkkvksa ij tu&lapkj vkSj lkoZtfud f'k{kk osQ ekè;eksaosQ fu;UË.k j[kk tkrk gS ftlosQ lÙkkoknh 'kklu dh lEHkkouk,¡ de ;k lekIr dj nh tkrh gSa_ vkSj

(p) vUr esa] ;gk¡ fofHkUu Hkwfedkvksa dk LFkkf;Ro gksrk gSA vyx&vyx laLFkk,¡ vius vyx&vyx dk;Z djrhgSaa os vU; laLFkkvksa osQ dk;Z Hkh dj ldrh gSa ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i ç'kkld ,d fLFkfr esa foèkk;d vkSjnwljh esa U;k;&fu.kkZ;d cu tkrs gSa_ vFkok ukSdj'kkg ,d fygkt osQ foèkk;d vkSj nwljs fygkt osQU;k;&fu.kkZ;d gks tkrs gSa] vkSj blh rjg budh Hkwfedkvksa essa ifjorZu gksrk jgrk gSA

;wjksih; egk}hi dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡ % ;g nwljh fdLe gS tks Úkal] bVyh] LohMu] ukosZ vkfn ;wjksi osQ defodflr if'peh yksdrkafËd ns'kksa esa dk;Zjr gSA blosQ eq[; y{k.kksa dk mYys[k bl çdkj fd;k tk ldrk gSA

(d) tgk¡ lekt osQ fofHkUu oxZ lkaLÑfrd fodkl osQ fofHkUu çfrekuksa dh LFkkiuk djrs gSa] ogk¡ jktuhfrdlaLÑfrd [kafMr gks tkrh gS] D;ksafd dbZ oxZ vU; oxks± dh vis{kk vfèkd fodflr gksrs gSaA blh dkj.k]jktuhfr laLÑfr osQ lkFk dbZ jktuhfrd milaLÑfr;ksa dk ,d flyflyk cu tkrk gS tks ;k rks oSKkfud

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vkSj çkS|ksfxd uoksUes'kksa osQ çHkkfor gksrk gS tks vc rd ,d vkfJr ns'k osQ yksx FksA ,slh laLÑfr dkvfèkdka'k vrhr lkearoknh ;qx osQ gksrk gS vkSj og mi;qZDr oxZ osQ ns'kksa osQ mPprj ewY;ksa dk vuqlj.kdjus dk ç;kl djrk gSA

([k) gjsd jktuhfrd milaLÑfr Hkwfedkvksa dh vyx miO;oLFkk dk fodkl dj ysrh gS ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:ifofHkUu laLÑfr;k¡ lEiw.kZ O;oLFkk dk osQUæ fcUnq cu tkrh gSA vr% fofèk&laLFkkuxr <k¡ps dk vè;;udjus osQ i'pkr~ ;g Hkh vko';d gS fd bldh volajpuk ij ,d utj Mkyh tk,A

(x) jktuhfrd lkSnsckth dh çfØ;k okLro esa fo|eku ugha gksrhA blosQ ,slh fLFkfr iSnk gks tkrh gS ftlesajktuhfr ,d f[kyokM+ cu tkrh gSA bldk ifj.kke ;g gksrk gS fd dbZ milaLÑfr;k¡ vkil esa ;q¼jrgks tkrh gSa vFkok ,d nwljs dh vis{kk vius dks ofj"B le>rh gS vkSj bl çdkj vius ekudksa dksvU; mi&laLÑfr;ksa osQ ekudksa ij vkjksfir djus dk ç;kl djrh gSA bl çdkj] lkSnsckth dh ctk,;gk¡ 'kfDr osQ fy, fofHkUu çfr;ksxh xqVksa esa ;q¼ gksus yxrk gSA

vkS|ksxhdj.k osQ iwoZ dh ;k vkaf'kd :i esa vkS|ksxhÑr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡ % bl oxZ esa mu ns'kksa dhcgqr cM+h la[;k vkrh gS tks yEcs vjosQ rd mi&fuos'kh vkfèkiR; esa jgus osQ ckn vc LorUË :i esa lkeus vk,gSaA ,slh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa 'kkld dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks 'kkflrksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr ij vkjksfir djfn;k tkrk gSA bldh eq[; fo'ks"krk,¡ bl çdkj gSaA

(d) Lokfe;ksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks vèkhuLFk (çtk) dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr ij vkjksfir dj fn;k tkrkgSA blosQ ifj.kkeLo:i] 'kkflr yksxksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr lekIr gks tkrh gS vkSj 'kkldksa dh jktuhfrdlaLÑfr] ftosQ gj gkyr esa ofj"B le>k tkrk gS] dks mlosQ LFkku ij vkjksfir dj fn;k tkrk gSA

([k) usrkx.k iqjkus vkSj u, osQ chp lkeatL; LFkkfir djus dh dksf'k'k dj ldrs gSa vkSj bl çdkj mlesa,slh fo'ks"krkvksa dk fodkl dj ldrs gSa fd bl O;oLFkk dks vkSfpR;iw.kZrk dk u;k Ïksr fey losQAcgjgky] bl ckr dh lEHkkouk gksrh gS fd fgalk HkM+d mBs vkSj vxj peRdkjh usrkvksa dk dPpk fpêòk[kksy fn;k tk, ;k muosQ LFkku ij mlh çdkj osQ vkSj usrkx.k vk tk,¡ rks mlosQ lkjh O;oLFkk gh vLFkk;hgks tkrh gSA

(x) Hkwfedkvksa dh ,d gh lajpuk osQ Hkhrj ;gk¡ nks ;k blosQ Hkh vfèkd jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ dk;Zjr gks ldrhgSaA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] fo'ks"k ijEijkvksa dk lEeku ,oa if'peh yksdraË osQ rjhdksa dk vuqlj.k djrsgq, ,d fo'ks"k ifjokj vFkok fo'ks"k tkfr lÙkk:<+ jg ldrh gSA

lokZfèkdkjoknh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡ % vUr esa] vkeaM lksfo;r la?k vFkok phu tSosQ lokZfèkdkjoknh ns'k dhfLFkfr ij fopkj djrs gSaA bu O;oLFkkvksa dh fuEufyf[kr fo'ks"krk,¡ gks ldrh gSaA

(d) budh vkSfpR;iw.kZrk dh Lohdk;Zrk dks ÑfËe rjhosQ osQ rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA çkfèkdkj osQ çfr fof'k"VvFkZfoU;kl vuq:irk vkSj mnklhurk dk feJ.k gksrk gS ftosQ osQUæh; fu;UË.k ;k lapkj lkèkuksa vkSjfgalkRed vfHkdj.kksa }kjk mRiUu fd;k tkrk gSA

([k) tksjtcjnLrh çkfèkdkj osQ mi;ksx dk lcosQ cM+k lkèku gks tkrk gSA lHkh laxBuksa osQ pkjksa vksjtksjtcjnLrh dk okrkoj.k Nk;k gksrk gS ftosQ ,d loZ'kfDreku jkT; rS;kj djrk gS_ vkSj

(x) 'kfDr dk loZosQUæ.k gksrk gS tks çkfèkdkj osQ fooj.k osQ fl¼kar dks udkjrk gSA lÙkk:<+ O;fDrukSdj'kkgh] iqfyl vkSj osQuk osQ leFkZu ij fuHkZj jgrs gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa ¶u osQoy jktuhfr osQ çfr vko`fÙk;k¡] jktuhfrd ewY;] fopkjèkkjk,¡] jk"Vªh; pfjË vkSjlkaLÑfrd vkpkjrRo 'kkfey gSa] cfYd mlesa jktuhfr dh 'kSyh] fofèk;k¡ vkSj lkjoku :i Hkh vkrs gSaA¸ blh dkj.k]jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh vyx&vyx fdLeksa dh [kkst dh tk ldrh gSA ns'k osQ jktuhfrd thou esa osQuk dh Hkwfedkdh vksj fo'ks"k è;ku nsrs gq, çks- iQkbuj us jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ rhu pjksa dk lq>ko fn;k gSA

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1- ifjiDo jktuhfrd laLÑfr % ftl :i esa ;g fczVsu] vkLVªsfy;k vkSj uhnjySaM~l esa miyCèk gS] mlosQirk pyrk gS fd jktuhfrd loZlEefr vkSj blosQ laxBu dh ekËk cgqr Åaph gS_ bl ckr dhvko';drk cgqr de gksrh gS fd ljdkj l'kL=k osQukvksa osQ leFkZu ij fuHkZj jgs_ vkSj bl ifjfLFkfrosQ cgqr nsj rd vH;Lr gksus osQ dkj.k u osQoy turk us] cfYd l'kLË osQukvksa us Hkh vlSfud lÙkkdh loksZPprk osQ fl¼kar esa iw.kZ fo'okl djuk vkjEHk dj fn;k gSA

2- fodflr jktuhfrd laLÑfr % ;g ,sosQ lekt dh vksj funsZ'k djrh gS tgk¡ turk lqlaxfBr gS] ysfdule;≤ ij ;g ;k rks bldh laLFkkvksa vkSj çfØ;kvksa dh vkSfpR;iw.kZrk ij ;k tks buosQ dkj.k inksaij vklhu O;fDr gksrs gSa] fopkjkRed n`f"V osQ caV tkrs gSaA ge ns[krs gSa fd lSfud nckoksa osQ dkj.kvlSfud ljdkjksa dks ;k rks [krjk cuk jgrk gS ;k dbZ ckj mUgsa uqdlku Hkh igq¡pk;k tkrk gS vkSjtulkèkj.k dks ;k rks 'kLËksa dh rkdr osQ [kkeks'k dj fn;k tkrk gS ;k os jktuhfrd n`f"V osQ cfg"Ñrle>s tkus esa lq[k le>rs gSaA feÏ] vythfj;k vkSj D;wck tSosQ ns'kksa dks bl oxZ esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA

3- fuEu jktuhfrd laLÑfr % ;g mu ns'kksa esa ikbZ tkrh gS tgk¡ dh turk ladh.kZeuk vkSj vYixfBr gksrhgS vkSj 'kklu vFkok lÙkk:<+ O;fDr;ksa osQ vkSfpR; ij foHkDr gksrh gSA ,sosQ ns'kksa esa tuer burk vfèkddetksj vkSj caVk gqvk gksrk gS fd turk çkfèkdkjokfn;ksa osQ fu;eksa osQ çfr dksbZ fojksèk çnf'kZr ugha djldrhA bl oxZ esa nf{k.k fo;ruke] lhfj;k] cekZ vkSj bUMksusf'k;k tSosQ ns'k j[ks tk ldrs gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk Lo:i vkSj mi&laLÑfr (The Nature of Political culture and Sub-cultures)

lkekU;r;k ;g èkkj.kk çpfyr gS fd fLFkj vkSj fodflr lkektksa esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr le:i gksrh gSA okLroesa ;g èkkj.kk Hkzkafriw.kZ gSA ,sosQ ns'kksa esa Hkh fofHkUu xqV ik, tkrs gSaA tgk¡ ,d xqV rFkk vU; xqVksa esa Hksn Li"V mHkjvkrs gSa] ogka jktuhfrd&mi&laLÑfr dk ekStwn gksuk ekuk tk ldrk gSA mi&laLÑfr iw.kZr;k i`Fkd vfHko`fÙk;ksa]fo'oklksa rFkk ewY;ksa dk lewg ugha gksrh gS cfYd ,sosQ n`f"Vdks.kksa dk lewg gksrh gS ftuosQ dqN rÙo nwljhmi&laLÑfr;ksa esa ekStwn jgrs gSaA bl rjg Hkkjr esa nf{k.k osQ jkT; fo'ks"kdj rfeyukMq esa rfey yksxksa dh ;g ekU;rkgS fd mudh viuh iFkd laLÑfr gSA bl laLÑfr dks mi&laLÑfr dgk tk ldrk gS vkSj ,d gh jktuhfrd laLÑfresa ,slh vusd mi&laLÑfr;k¡ gks ldrh gSaA vejhdk esa uhxzks yksx Hkh ,slh gh viuh i`Fkd laLÑfr ekurs gSaA fdlhns'k esa vusd mi&laLÑfr;ksa dk gksuk foHkktudkjh ço`fÙk;ksa dks çksRlkfgr djs ;g vko';d ugha gSA okLro esavfèkdka'k jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ fo"ke :i gh esa jgrh gSaA Y;wf'k;u ikbZ us Bhd dgk gS fd fdlh Hkh lekt esa,d lh jktuhfrd laLÑfr ugha ikbZ tkrh gSA

,slk gks ldrk gS fd fdlh jktuhfrd lekt esa dksbZ Hkh mi&laLÑfr ugha gksA vkèkqfud fo'o esa vusd cgqrNksVs&NksVs jkT; gSa] ftuesa mi&laLÑfr;ksa dh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ gh ugha gksrh gSaA fiQj Hkh gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa] pkgsog NksVh gks ;k cM+h 'kkldksa dh laLÑfr vkSj tulkèkkj.k dh laLÑfr esa ,d vkèkkjHkwr vUrj ik;k tkrk gSA ftuyksxksa osQ gkFk esa lÙkk ugha gksrh gSA bl vkèkkj ij nks çdkj dh mi&laLÑfr;k¡μ (d) vfHktuksa dh mi&laLÑfr(elite sub-culture) vkSj ([k) tu&lkèkkj.k dh mi&laLÑfr (mass sub-culture) osQ uke osQ tkuh tkrh gSaA

vfèkdka'k fopkjd bl foHkktu dks fdlh u fdlh :i esa Lohdkj djrs gSa] fdUrq lHkh bu nksuksa laLÑfr;ksa ijleku :i osQ cy ugha nsrs gSaA fodflr jkT;ksa esa vxj os yksdrkafËd çdkj osQ gSa rks bu nksuksa mi&laLÑfr;ksa esavUrjksa dh [kkbZ vfèkd xgjh ugha gksrh gSA ijUrq fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa ;s nksuksa mi&laLÑfr;k¡ foijhr fn'kk esa tkrhns[kh tk ldrh gSaA Hkkjr dk gh mnkgj.k ysa rks ;g Li"V ns[kus dks feysxk fd ogka vfHktu oxZ dh laLÑfr vketurk dh laLÑfr osQ cgqr fHkUurk j[kus yx xbZ FkhA lafoèkku dk 1976 dk 42oka la'kksèku bu nksuksa mi&laLÑfr;ksaosQ chp rsth osQ c<+rh gqbZ njkj dks ikVus dk ç;Ru dgk tk ldrk gSA fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa vusd jktuhfrdleL;k,¡ osQoy bl dkj.k gh mRiUu gks jgh gSa fd vfHktu viuh laLÑfr osQ vyxiu dks cuk, j[kuk pkgrsgSa] vFkkZr~ lÙkk osQ fpiosQ jguk pkgrs gSaA

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,ysu cky us jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ Lo:i dks Li"V djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ¶D;k lekt osQ lnL; jktuhfrd çfØ;kesa lfØ; Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSa vkSj ljdkjh lfØ;rk osQ ykHk çkIr djus dh vk'kk j[krs gSa vFkok D;k dksbZ ,slkewd ,oa fuf"Ø; lacUèk gS ftlosQ O;fDr ljdkj dh lfØ;rk osQ ckjs esa cgqr FkksM+k tkurs gSa vkSj fu.kZ;dkjh çfØ;kesa Hkkx ysus dh vk'kk ugha j[krs] blosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dk oxhZdj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkeUMrFkk ockZ us jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa osQ vius rqyukRed vè;;u esa bUgsa lgHkkxh jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ (participating

political culture) rFkk vkRe&lkis{k jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ (subject political culture) dgdj ifjHkkf"kr fd;kgSA oSosQ bUgksaus jktuhfrd laLÑfr dksμ (d) {ksËh; ([k) vkRe&lkis{k vkSj (x) lgHkkxh dgdj buosQ rhu'kq¼ çdkjksa dks Hkh ifjHkkf"kr fd;k gSA mudk er gS fd vfèkdka'k lektksa esa ;g fofoèk laLÑfr;k¡ fefJr :iesa gh ikbZ tkrh gSaA buosQ vuqlkj fdlh jktuhfrd lekt esa fof'k"V ewY;ksa rFkk vfHko`fÙk;ksa ij fdruk cy fn;kx;k gS blosQ vkèkkj ij lEiw.kZ lkaLÑfrd çfr:i osQ ckjs esa tkuk tk ldrk gSA

fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa vfèkdka'kr% ijEijkxr vkSj vkèkqfud laLÑfr;ksa dk feJ.k ik;k tkrk gSA fdUrq bu ns'kksa dhjktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dk ;g y{k.k bosQ fczVsu dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vuq:i ugha cuk ikrkA ogka laLÑfr esa,drk o lkeatL; gS tcfd fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa ijEijkxr laLÑfr dk lEcUèk tulkèkj.k osQ gS vkSj vkèkqfudlaLÑfr dk lEcUèk vfHktuksa 'kkldksa osQ gSA bu ns'kksa esa bu nksuksa esa la?k"kZ] fn'kk&fojksèk vkSj vlaxfr osQ dkj.k;g jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks rksM+us dh 'kfDr cu xbZ gSA

laLÑfr;ksa dks ijEijkxrrk vkSj vkèkqfudrk osQ :i esa Hkh ns[kk tkrk gSA fczfV'k jktuhfrd laLÑfr]ijEijk rFkk vkèkqfudrk dk feJ.k gSA

laLÑfr;ksa esa ckdh osQ vUrj fo'ks"k ugha ekus x;s gSaA buosQ vU; oxhZdj.k esa dksbZ rF;kRed vUrj ugha gSA fdUrqvfèkdrj ns'kksa esa vfHktuksa vkSj loZlkèkkj.k dh mi&laLÑfr;k¡ mÙkjksÙkj i`Fkd vkSj fof'k"V y{k.kksa osQ ;qDr gksrhtk jgh gSaA bl dkj.k] buosQ i`Fkd&i`Fkd vè;;uksa rd dh ckr dgh tkus yxh gSA Y;wf'k;u ikbZ us fy[kk gS]fd ¶nksuksa çdkj dh laLÑfr;ksa osQ vè;;u osQ rjhosQ Hkh fHkÂ gSaA vfHktuksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk leqfprvè;;u djus osQ fy, gesa fopkjèkkjkvksa dh O;k[;k djuh gksxh] dk;Z lapkyu lafgrkvksa dh fof'k"Vrkvksa dksvkaduk gksxk vkSj mPp&Lrjh; jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dk vè;;u tuer dks ekius osQ vkèkqfud rjhdksa vkSjlosZ{k.k'kksèk dh mUur rduhdksa dk fodkl djuk gksxkA bu nksuksa gh çdkj dh laLÑfr;ksa dk] tks jktuhfrd laLÑfrosQ Hkkxksa osQ :i esa lHkh lektksa esa ns[kus dks feyrh gS] dkiQh egÙo gS bu nksuksa esa osQ tks mi&laLÑfr vfèkdcyorh gS mlh ij jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh çÑfr fuHkZj djrh gSA T;ksa&T;ksa turk esa jktuhfrd psruk vkrh tkrhgS R;ksa&R;ksa tu mi&laLÑfr vfHktuh mi&laLÑfr osQ y{k.kksa osQ ;qDr gksus yxrh gS] tSlk fd ekbju ohuj us HkkjrosQ lanHkZ esa fy[kk gS fd ¶;gk¡ jktuhfrd çfØ;k esa cgqla[;d tu&leqnk; dh laLÑfr dh vkèkqfud fo'ks"krkvksadks og xzg.k dj ysxh vkSj bl çdkj og Hkkjr osQ fof'k"V oxZ dh laLÑfr Hkkjr esa iFkd cuh jgsxh] 'kk;n fudVHkfo"; esa O;kogkfjd ugha jgsxkA vxj Hkkjr vius jktuhfrd lajpukRed <kaps dks ik'pkR; txr dhewY;&O;oLFkk ij gh vkèkkfjr j[kus osQ ctk; lektoknh ewY;&O;oLFkk viukdj jktuhfrd fodkl osQ ekxZ ijvkxs c<+rk gS rks ;g nks çdkj dh mi&laLÑfr;k¡ vfèkd le; rd i`Fkd&i`Fkd ugha jg ik,¡xhA Hkkjr osQ lafoèkkuesa fd;k x;k 42oka la'kksèku bl ço`fÙk dk egÙoiw.kZ çsjd cu losQxk ,slh lEHkkouk,¡ gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh çÑfr vkSj mi&laLÑfr;ksa osQ foospu osQ ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa dbZmi&laLÑfr;k¡ gks ldrh gSaA bu mi&laLÑfr;ksa esa lkE; ;k fo"kerk gks ldrh gSA fdUrq] bl lUnHkZ esa dqN ckrsafo'ks"k :i osQ è;ku nsus dh gSa tks la{ksi esa bl çdkj gSaμ(d) jktuhfrd n`f"V osQ fodflr lektksa esa jktuhfrdle:irk gks ;g vko';d ugha gSA lekU;r;k lHkh lektksa esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr le:i ugha gksrh gSA vejhdk

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esa uhxzks vkSj vU; xksjs yksxksa dh mi&laLÑfr;k¡ fHkUu&fHkUu gSaA ([k) jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU;r;k vusdmi&jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dk feJ.k gh gksrh gSA (x) jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa esa mi&laLÑfr;ksa dk feJ.k lkE;rk;k fo"kerk ;k fojksèk nksuksa esa osQ fdlh Hkh çdkj dk :i j[k ldrk gSA (?k) mi&laLÑfr;ksa esa fojksèk jktuhfrdfodkl esa lgk;d vkSj mldk çsjd gksrk gSA vkSj (p) jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ nwljhjktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa rÙo dh n`f"V osQ fHkUurk ugha j[krh gSA ;g vUrj osQoy ekËkRed gh gksrs gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vkèkkj (The Foundations of Political Culture)

fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh fo'ks"k çÑfr fdl çdkj curh gS] bl ij è;ku nsuk vko';dgSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr dgha le:i ns[kus dks feyrk gS rks dgha ;g fofoèk :i okyh gksrh gSA blosQ ;g ç'uegÙoiw.kZ cu tkrk gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa osQ ,sosQ dksu osQ vkèkkj gSa ftuosQ mudh çÑfr dk fuèkkZj.k gksrkgSA pkgs jktuhfrd laLÑfr fofoèk :i okyh ;k le:i çÑfr osQ ;qDr gks] og dbZ ijLij lacfUèkr dkjdksa dkstUe nsrh gSA buesa osQ dqN çeq[k dkjdksa ;k vkèkkjksa dk ;gk¡ mYys[k djuk çkalfxd gksxkA

(d) ,sfrgkfld vkèkkj (Historical Foundations) μ jktuhfrd fodkl osQ foospu esa ge ;g ppkZ djpqosQ gSa fd fdlh Hkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ fy, vrhr osQ iw.kZr;k ukrk rksM+ ysuk lEHko ugha gSA lksfo;r :lrFkk phu tSosQ lkE;oknh jkT; viuh lEiw.kZ jkT; 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx osQ ckotwn vrhr osQ çHkkoksa osQ vius lektksadks mUeqDr ugha dj ik;s gSaaA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh çÑfr dks fo'ks"k jax çnku djus okyk çeq[k vkèkkj]lacfUèkr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk bfrgkl ;k vrhr dgk tk ldrk gSA fczVsu vkSj Úkal osQ mnkgj.k ysdj ,ysucky us bl rF; dks le>kus dk ç;kl fd;k gSA fczVsu esa jktuhfrd fujUrjrk] ogka iqjkus ewY;ksa dks u;s n`f"Vdks.kksaeas foy; gksus nsus dh lgt çfØ;k osQ gh cuh jgh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr fczVsu fgalkRed vkarfjd dyg ;k fons'kh'kfDr osQ çHkqRo osQ Hkh eqDr jgus osQ dkj.k jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh fujUrjrk cuk, j[kus esa liQy jgk gSA¶,sfrgkfld fodkl dh n`f"V osQ Úkal blosQ loZFkk fHkUu mnkgj.k çLrqr djrk gSA 1789 dh Økafr us ml le;ekStwn jktuhfrd lajpukvksa dks ,d >VosQ osQ m[kkM+ iQsadk vkSj ge dg ldrs gSa fd mUuhloha rFkk chloha 'krkfCn;ksaosQ jktuhfrd la?k"kZ ,oa çfr}anh vkanksyu vfèkdka'k esa ml Økafrdkjh mFky&iqFky osQ fufeZr vfHko`fÙk;ksa] ewY;ksarFkk fo'oklksa }kjk fuf'pr fd, x;sA¸ Úkal esa bl çdkj osQ fo'ks"k bfrgkl osQ dkj.k vkt Hkh jktuhfrd laLÑfresa mi&laLÑfr;k¡ la?k"kZ'khy :i èkkj.k fd;s gq, gSaA ogka 1789 osQ ckn lksyg ckj lafoèkku cuk, x,] fdUrqlkaLÑfrd lkE; vHkh Hkh LFkkfir ugha gks ik;k gSA bl ,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe us Úkal esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks ,slhfoy{k.krk çnku dj nh fd ljdkjksa osQ vLFkkf;Ro dh ykbykt chekjh osQ Úkal 1958 rd xzLr jgkA osQoy 1946osQ 1958 rd osQ vUrjky esa 245 ckj eafËe.My cnys vkSj ikaposa x.kraË osQ 1958 osQ lafoèkku esa dqN vijEijkxrO;oLFkkvksa osQ mijkUr Hkh jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ la?k"kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ eap ij tc rc çdV gksrs jgrs gSaA

¶vÚhdk vkSj ,f'k;k osQ dbZ u;s jkT;ksa ij ;wjksih; vkSifuosf'kd çHkqRo dk çHkko og egÙoiw.kZ dkjd gS tks gesabu jkT;ksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ dqN igyqvksa osQ ckjs esa Kku çnku djrk gSA bl vkSifuosf'kd çHkko osQ foLrkjosQ fo"k; esa fookn gS] fdUrq mnkgj.k osQ fy,] fczfV'k rFkk Úkalhlh fu;a=k.k osQ mRiUu fHkUu&fHkUu çHkkoksa dks igpkuktk ldrk gSA¸ Hkkjr rFkk vYthfj;k osQ vrhr osQ lanHkZ esa nksuksa ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dh fHkUurkvksa dksle>k tk ldrk gSA

osQoy vkSifuosf'kd vrhr gh osQ vjktuhfrd laLÑfr dks ugha le>k tk ldrkA Hkkjr vkSj Jhyadk nksuksa gh fczVsuosQ mifuos'k Fks] fdUrq Hkkjr esa yEck jk"Vªh; vkanksyu la?k"kZ osQ :i esa pyrk jgk rc mosQ LorUËrk feyh_ tcfdJhyadk esa ,d fnu vpkud gh (4 iQjojh 1948 dks) yksx LorUË dj fn, x,A ;gk¡ fdlh çdkj dk jk"Vªh;vkanksyu ugha pyk;k x;kA bl dkj.k] nksuksa ns'kksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ fHkUu&fHkUu çdkj dh cu xbZ gSaA blosQ;gh fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fd fdlh Hkh ns'k dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk egÙoiw.kZ vkèkkj mldk bfrgkl gksrk gSAfodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa lkaLÑfrd fofoèkrk,¡ blh vkèkkj ij le>h tk ldrh gSaA

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([k) HkkSxksfyd vkèkkj (Geographical foundations)μ ,sfrgkfld fodkl osQ vfrfjDr jktuhfrd

laLÑfr osQ fuekZ.k esa lgk;d nwljk egÙoiw.kZ dkjd Hkwxksy gSA ¶fczVsu }hi gS vkSj bl }hih; vyxko us fczVsu

dks fons'kh vkØe.kksa osQ lqjf{kr j[kk FkkA fodkl'khy la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ vlhe lhekUr osQ fo"k; esa dgk

tkrk gS fd mlus latkrh fHkUurkvksa osQ ckotwn LorUË lerkoknh jktuhfrd ewY;ksa dh jpuk dh] ijUrq mlosQ

ikl çkÑfrd lalkèkuksa dh çpqjrk Hkh Fkh vkSj 'kËq iM+ksfl;ksa osQ og lqjf{kr FkkA if'pe teZuh osQ fuokfl;ksa

osQ ckjs esa dgk tkrk gS fd os la?kh; x.krUË dh ekStwnk jktuhfrd lajpukvksa dks fy, Lohdkj djrs gSa] D;ksafd

HkkSxksfyd n`f"V osQ os :l rFkk vejhdk }kjk funsZf'kr vUrjkZ"Vªh; xBcUèkuksa osQ eè; fLFkr gSaA os tkurs gSa fd

if'pe teZuh dh jktuhfr esa fdlh Hkh çdkj dh vfLFkjrk dk ifj.kke vUrjkZ"Vªh; ruko dh o`f¼ gksxhA¸

Hkkjrh; mi&egk}hi dh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr osQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fuekZ.k esa HkkSxksfyd dkjd osQ çHkko dks

vfèkd vPNh rjg le>k tk ldrk gSA Hkkjr osQ foHkktu osQ ckn ikfdLrku osQ nks Hkkxksa dh HkkSxksfyd nwjh

budks vUrr% i`Fkd jkT; cukdj jgh] D;ksafd bu nksuksa Hkkxksa dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr bruh fojksèkh cu xbZ Fkh

fd fdlh çdkj dk Hkh ç;Ru ;gk¡ rd fd Hkkjr dk Hk; vkSj èkkfeZd ,drk&lwË Hkh budh jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa

dks lkE; dh voLFkk esa ugha yk ldkA usiky dh fo'ks"k HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr us ,slh jktuhfrd laLÑfr cuk nh

fd Hkkjr esa lEidks± o Hkkjr esa yksdrkafËd ço`fÙk;ksa dk dqN {kf.kd çHkko gh jgk gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk

laLÑfr osQ nckoksa osQ dkj.k iqu% mlh <jsZ ij py fudyhA vr% fdlh ns'k dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk Hkwxksy

Hkh egÙoiw.kZ fu;ked dkjd cu tkrk gSA

(x) lkekftd&vkfFkZd lajpuk dk vkèkkj (The foundation of socio-economic structures)μ

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh çÑfr esa] tks ,sfrgkfld vkSj HkkSxksfyd dkj.kksa osQ fo'ks"k çdkj dh cu tkrh gS] ifjorZu

ykus ;k mldks mlh :i esa cuk, j[kus osQ fy, lekt fo'ks"k dh lkekftd&vkfFkZd lajpuk gh vfèkd mÙkjnk;h

gksrh gSA eq[; :i osQ 'kgjh vkSj vkS|ksfxd lekt vfèkd lks'kfyLV ;k tfVy lekt gksrk gS tgk¡ rhoz lapkj

lkèkuksa dks c<+kok feyrk gSA ,sosQ lekt esa 'kSf{kd Lrj mPprj gksrs gSa] xqVksa vkSj lewgksa dh la[;k esa o`f¼

gks tkrh gS vkSj fu.kZ;dkjh çfØ;k esa Hkkx ysus okyksa dh la[;k vfuok;Zr% vfèkd O;kid gksrh gSA xzkeh.k lekt

ifjorZu rFkk vfHkuohdj.k osQ çfr mUeq[k ugha gksrs vkSj ftu jkT;ksa dh tula[;k dk vfèkdka'k fdlku oxZ

gksrk gS] os vfèkd vuqnkj gksrs gSa] rFkk bu y{k.kksa okys lekt dk yksxksa dh jktuhfrd vfHko`fÙk;ksa rFkk ewY;ksa

ij xgjk çHkko iM+rk gSA fdlh çns'k fo'ks"k osQ foijhr lEiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ çfr fu"Bk vkS|ksfxd lekt dk y{k.k

gS ;|fi ,slk ges'kk ugha gksrk gS fiQj Hkh ;g lkekU;r;k ns[kus esa vkrk gS fdUrq lkèkkj.kr;k ftu lektksa

esa tula[;k dk vfèkdka'k Hkkx Ñf"k djrk gS] ogk¡ yksxksa dh vuqnkj vfHko`fÙk;ksa osQ lkFk ljdkjh xfrfofèk;ksa

osQ çfr eueqVko rFkk mlosQ {ksË osQ ckjs esa vKku tqM+ tkrs gSaA ,sosQ lektksa esa osQUæh; ç'kklu tks dqN djrk

gS mlh dk egÙo gksrk gS vkSj 'kklu dh uhfr;k¡ dSosQ cnyh ;k çHkkoha dh tkrh gSa] mlosQ ckjs esa de tkudkjh

gksrh gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fuekZ.k esa vkfFkZd lajpuk osQ Hkh vfèkd egÙo lkekftd lajpuk dk gksrk gSA lekt

esa cgqyrk vkSj fofoèkrk okys oxks± dk gksuk jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa vusd mi&laLÑfr;k¡ LFkkfir dj nsrk gS]

ftuesa le:irk ;k fo"kerk osQ y{k.k lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd laLÑfr ij fu.kZ;dkjh <ax osQ çHkko Mkyrs gSaA vxj

lekt Hkk"kk] èkeZ] tkrh;rk] latkrh;rk vkSj vrhr osQ i`Fkd&i`Fkd vuqHkoksa osQ dkj.k i`Fkdrk dh ço`fÙk;k¡

j[krk gS rks jktuhfrd laLÑfr ij bu y{k.kksa osQ ncko iM+s fcuk ugha jg ldrs gSaaA 1947 osQ igys Hkkjr nks

çdkj dk FkkA ,d fczfV'k Hkkjr vkSj nwljk Hkkjrh; Hkkjr (tgk¡ jktk egkjktkvksa dk 'kklu Fkk) FkkA LorUËrk

osQ ckn 1956 osQ jkT;ksa osQ iquxZBu osQ ckotwn vHkh dqN ns'kh fj;klrksa okys çns'kksa esa ,slh mi&laLÑfr;ksa dks

lekIr djuk lEHko ugha gqvk gSA blosQ vykok Hkh Hkkjr esa vusd mi&laLÑfr;ksa dks lekIr djuk lEHko

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ugha gqvk gSA blosQ vykok Hkh Hkkjr esa vusd mi&laLÑfr;k¡ vkSj fo'ks"kdj nf{k.k osQ yksxksa dh mi&laLÑfr

ftosQ os mi&jk"Vªh;rk rd dgrs gSa] Hkkjr dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa vusd ckj ruko o ladV osQ {k.k ykus

esa liQy jgh gSA fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh mFky&iqFky] blh çdkj dh mi&laLÑfr;ksa

dh fo|ekurk osQ] ,d jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fodflr u gks ldus osQ dkj.k gksrh jgh gSA

(?k) lekt dh lkekU; laLÑfr dk vkèkkj (The foundations of general culture of society) μ

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk iks"k.k lkekU; laLÑfr osQ gh gksrk gSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr lekt dh laLÑfr osQ lEcfUèkr]

ml ij vkfJr vkSj dHkh&dHkh iw.kZr;k vkèkkfjr gks tkrh gSA bldk ;g vFkZ ugha gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk]

laLÑfr osQ dksbZ i`Fkdrk ;k mldh Lok;Ùkrk ugha gksrh gSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vFkZ esa ge ;g ns[k pqosQ gSa fd

jktuhfrd laLÑfr lekt dh laLÑfr dk Hkkx gksrs gq, Hkh mlosQ Lok;Ùkrk j[krh gSA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk

ekSfyd vkSj LFkk;h vkèkkj lekt dh lkekU; çÑfr gh dgh tk ldrh gSA

vfèkdka'k fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa jktuhfrd xM+cM+h dk çeq[k dkj.k ;gh gS fd muesa lkekU; laLÑfr osQ foijhr

vkèkqfud jktuhfrd laLÑfr Åij osQ ykn nh xbZ tks lekt osQ }kjk iks"k.k çkIr u dj ikus osQ dkj.k çHkkoh ugha

jg ldh gSA blosQ fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ lqfuf'pr çfreku fodflr ugha gks ik, vkSj bu

ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd vLFkkf;Ro vkSj Økafr;ksa dk cksyckyk jgus yxkA

(p) fopkjèkkjkvksa dk vkèkkj (The ideological fundation) μ orZeku 'krkCnh fopkjèkkjkvksa dh 'krkCnh

gSA 1848 osQ igys fofHkUu fopkjèkjk,¡ rks Fkha ij muesa ikjLifjd fojksèk dh fLFkfr ugha FkhA fdUrq lkE;oknh

?kks"k.kkiË osQ 1848 esa çdk'ku vkSj 1917 esa lksfo;r :i esa lkE;okn dh LFkkiuk] bVyh vkSj teZuh esa nks fo'o

;q¼ksa osQ chp osQ vUrjky esa iQkflTe vkSj ukftTe dk çHkqRo] vusd fojksèkh fopkjèkkjkvksa dks Vdjko dh fLFkfr

esa yk nsrk gSA xqV fujis{k jkT;ksa dk lektoknh ukjk vkSj iwathokn vkSj lkE;okn dk fo'o eap ij gj txg Vdjko]

ekvksokn dk phu esa çpkj jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa osQ l`tu dh ubZ 'kfÙkQ cu x;k gSA vkt vusd ns'kksa esa lSfud

cy osQ ç;ksx osQ iwjs lekt esa tcjnLrh ubZ jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ vkjksfir dh tk jgh gSa tks vxj ,d ih<+h rd

cuh jg ldh rks LFkkf;Ro çkIr dj ysxhA vr% fopkjèkkjk] jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vkèkqfudre dkjd cu xbZ gSA

fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa vc fopkjèkkjkvksa osQ LFkku ij fopkjèkkjkvksa osQ vuqdwy jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dk çR;kjksi.k

fd;k tkus yxk gSA bl rjg] fopkjèkkjk Hkh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vkèkkj cu xbZ gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh mRifÙk osQ dkjd ;k vkèkkj ,d ugha vusd gSA ftu dkjdksa dk geus Åij mYys[k fd;k

gS os gh blosQ vkèkkj gksa ,slk fu"d"kZ ugha fudkyuk gSA vkèkqfud le; osQ tfVy lektksa esa O;fÙkQ osQ jktuhfrd

fo'okl brus Ïksrksa osQ çHkkfor vkSj fufeZr gksrs gSa fd lcdh lwph cuk lduk lEHko gh ugha fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA mnkgj.k

osQ fy,] èkeZ vkt Hkh jktuhfrd fØ;k osQ ckjs esa yksxksa osQ fo'oklksa dks cukus esa vkèkkjHkwr gSaA Hkkjr osQ x.kraË

cuus osQ ckn osQ ikap jk"Vªifr;ksa esa osQ nks dk eqlyeku gksuk ekË Hkkjrh; eqlyekuksa dh jktuhfrd vkLFkkvksa esa

ifjorZu dk dkjd ekuk tk ldrk gSA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vusd vkèkkj o dkjd gSa ftuesa osQ mijksDr

dks geus çeq[k ekudj bl foospu esa lfEefyr fd;k gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr vkSj laLÑfr (Political Culture and Culture) μ

ockZ us fy[kk gS fd ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr vkSj lekt dh vis{kkÑr vfèkd lkekU; lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkk osQ chp

vUrj fo'ys"k.kkRed gSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; laLÑfr dk ,d vfHkUu igyw gSA¸ jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa O;fÙkQ

osQ jktuhfrd fo'oklksa dks çeq[krk çkIr jgrh gS] tcfd lkekU; laLÑfr esa ekuo osQ lHkh fo'oklksa dks lfEefyr

fd;k tkrk gSA ge Åij bl ckr dk o.kZu dj pqosQ gSa fd fdlh lekt dh lkekU; laLÑfr osQ }kjk jktuhfrd

laLÑfr dk fuèkkZj.k vkSj iks"k.k gksrk gSA laLÑfr osQ vkèkkjHkwr fo'okl vkSj ewY; vkn'kZ gh lkekU;r;k jktuhfrd

laLÑfr osQ fuekZ.k esa eq[; Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSaA gj O;fDr dh jktuhfr osQ ckjs esa vkLFkk,¡] ekU;k,¡ vkSj fo'okl

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mlosQ vU; fo'oklksa] vkLFkkvksa vkSj ekU;krkvksa }kjk gh fuèkkZfjr gksrs gSaA O;fDr osQ ,sosQ lkekU; fo'oklksa dks gh

lekt dh lkekU; laLÑfr dgk tkrk gSA

jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa o çfØ;kvksa osQ ckjs esa O;fDr] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k esa vius fo'okl cukrkgSA ;g lekthdj.k cgqr dqN lekt dh lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkk osQ }kjk çsfjr ;k lhfer gksrk gSA blosQ vkSj HkhvfHkdj.k gSa] fdUrq mlesa osQ çeq[k dk lEcUèk lekt dh lkekU; laLÑfr osQ gh gSA vr% jktuhfrd vkLFkk,¡]lkekU; laLÑfr esa ekU; ewY;ksa vkSj vkLFkkvksa osQ }kjk gh iszfjr vkSj fufeZr gksrh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] vius lkekU;thou esa ,d O;fDr dh izofÙk nwljksa ij vkfèkiR; tekus dh gS rks mldk jktuhfrd thou Hkh blh rjg dh çofÙkosQ lfØ; gksxkA blosQ mldh jktuhfrd vkLFkk,¡ Hkh blosQ vuq:i gks tk,¡xhA vr% lkekU; laLÑfr osQ ewY;ksa vkSjfo'oklksa osQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr vçHkkfor ugha jg ldrhA ekuo çÑfr osQ lEcUèk esa O;fDr osQ n`f"Vdks.k dkjktuhfrd vfHkusrkvksa osQ çfr mlosQ n`f"Vdks.k osQ fudV dk lEcUèk gksrk gSA

lkekU; laLÑfr vkSj jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ bl o.kZu osQ ;g ugha le>uk gS fd lkekU; laLÑfr ghjktuhfrd laLÑfr dks vkèkkj] iks"k.k vkSj :i çnku djrh gSA oSosQ bu nksuksa esa lEcUèk gh ugha ikjLifjdrkHkh jgrh gSA dbZ lekt esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk lekt dh lkekU; laLÑfr ij Hkh fu.kZ;dkjh çHkko ns[kkx;k gSA vusd LosPNkpkjh vkSj lokZfèkdkjh 'kklu O;oLFkkvksa esa LorUË :i osQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk l`tudjosQ mosQ lektksa ij çfrjksfir dj fn;k x;k gS ftlosQ u osQoy ;g uohu jktuhfrd laLÑfr] O;fDr dhewY; O;oLFkk cu xbZ] vfirq blosQ lEiw.kZ lekt esa ewY; O;oLFkk ,oa vkLFkkvksa dks cnyus dh çsj.kk yhxbZ] ftlosQ lkekU; laLÑfr dk bl ubZ jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vuq:i :ikUrj.k gks x;kA lksfo;r :l esa;gh fd;k x;k gSA vr% ;g ugha le>uk pkfg, fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; laLÑfr dh ,d ,slhmi&laLÑfr gS tks mlosQ Åij gh vkfJr jgrh gSA ;g rks yksdrkafËd O;oLFkkvksa esa Hkh ugha gksrk gSA lkekU;laLÑfr vxj ijEijkxroknh çÑfr j[krh gS rc blh jktuhfrd 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx osQ cyiwoZd vkèkqfud cukusosQ ç;kl fd;s tk ldrs gSaA bl çdkj osQ ç;Ruksa osQ jktuhfrd vkSj lkekftd nksuksa gh çdkj dh laLÑfr;ksaesa ifjorZu ykus osQ ç;kl fd;s tk ldrs gSaA fgVyj] eqlksfyuh] LVkfyu vkSj ekvks RosQ&rqax us ,sosQ gh ç;Rufd;s ftlls os ml dkykofèk esa vo'; liQy Hkh jgs FksA osQLVªks] D;wck esa 'kk;n ;gh ç;Ru dj jgk gSA

vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; laLÑfr dk vfHkUu Hkkx gksrs gq, Hkh mlosQ cgqr dqN Lok;Ùkrk j[krh gSA bunksuksa esa ?kfu"B lEcUèk gS vkSj nksuksa ,d nwljs dks de ;k vfèkd ekËk esa çHkkfor djrh jgrh gSaA lkekU;laLÑfr O;kid voèkkj.kk gS] tcfd jktuhfrd laLÑfr cgqr lhfer voèkkj.kk gSA çFke esa O;fDr dh lEiw.kZewY; O;oLFkk] vkLFkk;sa vkSj fo'okl lfEefyr gksrs gSa tcfd] nwljh esa] O;fDr osQ osQoy jktuhfrd fØ;k osQ;k jktuhfrd oLrqvksa osQ lEcfUèkr ewY;] vkLFkk;sa vkSj fo'okl vkrs gSaA ftl çdkj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk]lkekftd O;oLFkk dh ,d fo'ks"k mi&O;oLFkk gS Bhd mlh çdkj] jktuhfrd laLÑfr Hkh lkekU; laLÑfr dhmi&laLÑfr gSA bu nksuksa esa ikjLifjdrk gS] fdUrq bl ikjLifjdrk dk dksbZ fuf'pr çfreku ugha gksrk gSA ;gikjLifjdrk vusd ckrksa ij fuHkZj djrh gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh çÑfr osQ vykok lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZdO;oLFkkvksa osQ }kjk Hkh bldk fu'p; gksrk gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr vkSj laLÑfr esa D;k vUrj gS\

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk fodkl (Development of Politicial Culture)

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ ;g vFkZ ugha ysuk gS fd ;g LFkSfrd vkSj fLFkj jgrh gSA blesa cjkcj ifjorZugksrs jgrs gSaA jktuhfrd fodkl] jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ ifjorZuksa dk gh ifj.kke gks ldrk gSA ,ysu cky usjktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fodkl osQ lacUèk esa Bhd gh fy[kk gS fd ¶jktuhfrd laLÑfr vifjorZuh; ugha gksrh] fdUrq

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og jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ vUnj gh tUe ysus okys vFkok ckgj osQ ykns x;s (vfèkjksfir) ;k vk;kfrr fopkjksaosQ çfr ltx gksrh gSA¸ jktuhfrd laLÑfr] jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa vkus okys >a>kokrksa esa MkaokMksy gksrh laLFkkvksadks 'kfÙkQ çnku djosQ jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro dks cuk;s j[kus esa lgk;d gksrh gSA bl çdkj jktuhfrd laLÑfrjktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ ikao m[kM+us osQ cpko dh O;oLFkk djrh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] ¶tkiku dh 1945 esa gqbZijkt;] 1952 rd fonsf'k;ksa dk dCtk rFkk 1946 esa vejhfd;ksa }kjk mnkjoknh çtkraËh; lafoèkku osQ vfèkjksi.kus ml ij tcjnLr vlj Mkydj mosQ vkSj Hkh cnyus osQ fy, ckè; fd;kA ifj.kke ;g gqvk gS fd vkt ;gk¡ijEijkxr thou ewY; vkSj vkèkqfudhdj.k djus okys if'peh y{k.k ,d lkFk gh ekStwn gSA ;g iwjh rjgjktuhfrd fLFkjrk dk Ïksr çnku djrk gSA¸ blosQ Li"V gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa vkusokys cnykoksa dks laHko cukrs gq, Hkh O;oLFkk dks cuk;s j[kus dk ekè;e çLrqr djrh gSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr dklacUèk euq";ksa dh lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd vkLFkkvksa osQ gksrk gS vkSj blosQ }kjk gh lekt esa vkus okys rwiQkuksa osQ eqdkcykdjuk lEHko gksrk gSA

;g jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh 'kfDr vkSj mldh xR;kRedrk dk i{k dgk tk ldrk gSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr lektdks ckaèkus vkSj fodkl ekxZ ij c<+kus okyh 'kfDr osQ :i esa gh dke djrh gS ,slk ges'kk gh ugha gksrk gSA ;gdHkh&dHkh fodkl dks vojksfèkr Hkh djrh gSA lkekU;r;k blesa ifjorZu] vuqdwyu vkSj le; dh ekaxksa osQ vuqlkjfodkl Hkh gksrs jgrs gSaA ;g ns'k osQ vUnj vkSj ns'k osQ ckgj gksus okys lHkh ifjorZuksa osQ çfr lpsr vksj ltxgksrh gSA buesa vuko';d tM+rk ugha gksrhA blesa yphykiu vkSj mi;ksxh ifjorZuksa osQ vuqlkj <yus vkSj cnyusdh {kerk gksrh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] 1947 osQ igys Hkkjr esa ns'kh fj;klrksa vkSj fczfV'k Hkkjr esa vusd çdkj dhfofpË jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ rRdkyhu jktuhfrd bdkb;ksa osQ bnZ&fxnZ ikbZ tkrh Fkh] fdUrq LoraËrk osQ ckn bulcesa ifjorZu gh ugha vk;k] vfirq leUo; LFkkfir gksdj ,d jk"Vªh; jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh jpuk gksus yxh gSAblosQ Li"V gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa ifjorZu dh {kerk,¡ fo|eku jgrh gSA

ns'k esa gksus okys vkS|ksxhdj.k] ewY;ksa rFkk vfHko`fÙk;ksa osQ ifjorZu esa egÙoiw.kZ dkjd gksrs gSaA vçokfl;ksa dkHkkjh la[;k esa vkxeu] ;q¼ vkSj fo'ks"k :i esa cM+s ;q¼ esa ijkt;] Økafr bR;kfn lHkh dkjd jktuhfrd ewY;ksavkSj fo'oklksa esa ifjorZu yk nsrs gSa vkSj bu ifjorZuksa osQ dkj.k jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ij ncko iM+us yxrs gSaAekStwnk ewY;&lajpuk esa u;s ewY;ksa osQ foy; gksus dh lkis{k liQyrk vFkok vliQyrk ij jktuhfrd O;oLFkkdh fLFkjrk vkèkkfjr gksrh gS vkSj ;g cgqr dqN jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa ifjorZu ;k vfèkd Økafrdkjh ewY;ksa dksvkRelkr~ djus dh {kerk ij fuHkZj djrk gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks ,d ih<+h osQ nwljh ih<+h rd çHkkoksRiknd <ax osQ igqapkus osQ ekè;eksa esa lokZfèkdegÙoiw.kZ jktuhfrd lekthdj.k gSA blosQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr u osQoy ,d ih<+h osQ nwljh ih<+h dks gLrkarfjrgksrh gS] vfirq laLÑfr esa lthork cuh jgrh gSA vkeUM vkSj ockZ us jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh jktuhfrdlaLÑfr dks cnyus vkSj cuk, j[kus esa Hkwfedk dk mYys[k djrs gq, Bhd gh fy[kk gS fd ¶jktuhfrdlekthdj.k og çfØ;k gS ftlosQ }kjk jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dks cuk;s j[kk ;k ifjofrZr fd;k tkrk gSA¸ blçdkj ¶jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lEcUèk esa dqN èkkj.kkvksa dk gksuk vkSj mudk fodkl rFkk O;oLFkk osQ lEcfUèkrfo'okl gh jktuhfrd lekthdj.k gSA¸ tks lgh vFkks± esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fuekZ.k dh çsjd 'kfDr dgktk ldrk gSA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ fodkl esa jktuhfr lekthdj.k dh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk jgrh gSA ;gçfØ;k jk"Vª osQ çfr fu"Bk rFkk fof'k"V ewY;ksa dks iuikus esa lgk;rk nsrh gS vkSj ;g jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQfy, leFkZu ;k mlosQ nqjko esa o`f¼ dj ldrh gSA lewgksa rFkk O;fDr;ksa osQ fdl va'k dk jktuhfrd thouesa Hkkx ysus dh vk'kk dh tkrh gS] bl ij bl çfØ;k dk egÙoiw.kZ çHkko iM+rk gSA jktuhfrd lekthdj.kosQoy mu cpiu osQ o"kks± rd gh lhfer ugha gS] tc ckyd ij 'kh?kz çHkko iM+rs gSa vkSj mlosQ lh[kus dkdky gksrk gSA lgh vFkks± esa rks ;g çfØ;k thou Hkj pyrh jgrh gS] fdUrq cpiu osQ dky osQ o;Ldrk rdbldk çHkko iM+rs gSa vkSj mlosQ lh[kus dk dky gksrk gSA lgh vFkks± esa rks ;g çfØ;k thou Hkj pyrh jgrhgS] fdUrq cpiu osQ dky osQ o;Ldrk rd bldk çHkko xgjk jgrk gS vkSj ckn esa blesa f'kfFkyrk vk tkrhgSA jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ }kjk jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk fodkl gksrk gS vkSj blesa dbZ vfHkdj.k vyx&vyx

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le; esa viuh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA ifjokj] f'k{k.k laLFkk,¡] Lo;aosQod lewg] tu lEidZ ekè;e] ljdkj vkSjjktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ gksus okys lEidZ bR;kfn osQ }kjk O;fDr dk jktuhfrd lekthdj.k gksrk gS tks jktuhfrdlaLÑfr osQ fodkl esa lgk;d gksrk gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe dh rqyukRed jktuhfr esa mi;ksfxrk (The Utility of Political Culture

Approach in Comparative Politics)

rqyukRed jktuhfr esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk dh lkekU; mi;ksfxrk dks Li"V djrs gq, flMuh ockZus fy[kk gS fd ¶vkèkqfud 'krkCnh esa jktuhfrd txr vkSj jktuhfrd vè;;u {ksË nksuksa gh esa rhu ifjorZu gq,gSaA u;s jk"Vªksa dk mn; gqvk gS] iqjkus esa ifjorZu gq, gSa vkSj blls ,slh leL;k,¡ mB [kM+h gqbZ gSa tks jktuhfr 'kkLËosQ fo}kuksa rFkk orZeku laLFkkvksa dh {kerkvksa dks ,d pqukSrh gSA¸ ,slh pqukSrh dk lkeuk djus dh {kerkvksa dkKku jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ vkèkkj ij gh fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] u;s jk"Vªksa osQ mn;us ;g ç'u çeq[k cuk fn, gSa fd ,d LFkk;h jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk fuekZ.k dSosQ fd;k tk, rkfd og vius vUnjmBus okyh ekaxksa dk liQyrkiwoZd lkeuk djus dh lkeF;Z çkIr dj losQA jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks rsth osQcnyrh ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ vuqdwfyr dSosQ j[kk tk,\ dqN jk"Vª liQy rks dqN vliQy D;ksa gks tkrs gSa\ jk"Vª fdlçdkj cnyrs gSa\ fdl çdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks fdl fn'kk esa fodflr fd;k tk ldrk gS\ mnkgj.k osQfy,] ge ;g tkuuk pkgrs gSa fd Hkkjr vkSj ikfdLrku esa jktuhfrd fodkl dh fn'kk,¡ vyx&vyx D;ksa gksxb±\ caxykns'k esa yksdrUË teus osQ igys gh D;ksa m[kM+ x;k\ cekZ esa yksdrUË dks iqu% LFkkfir djus osQ fy,tujy us fcu (jk"Vªifr) }kjk ;w&uw dks fn;k x;k volj D;ksa liQy ugha gks ldk\ fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa jktuhfrdny] 'kklu lapkyu osQ çHkkoh vfHkdj.k D;ksa ugha cu x, gSa\ D;ksa Jhyadk esa gj vke pquko esa lÙkkèkkjh nyijkftr gks tkrk gS tcfd Hkkjr esa ,slk ugha gksrk gS\

,sosQ gh ç'uksa vkSj leL;kvksa osQ lekèkku ij fopkj djus osQ fy, jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe dk mi;ksx djosQ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr* osQ lEcfUèkr ifjorZuksa osQ vkèkkj ij Li"Vhdj.k çLrqr djus dk ç;Ru fd;k tkus yxkgSA ockZ dk vfHker gS fd ¶fdlh Hkh lekt dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa mlosQ vkuqHkfod fo'oklksa dh O;oLFkk]vfHkO;Dr gksus okys çrhd vkSj os ewY; tks fd ml fLFkfr dks ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa ftlesa jktuhfrd xfrfofèk;k¡gksrh gSa] lfUufgr gksrs gSaA¸ bl dkj.k] jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk ij cy nsus osQ vusd ç'uksa vkSjjktuhfrd eqíksa dks le>uk lEHko gSA ockZ us lkaLÑfrd igyw ij fo'ks"k è;ku nsus osQ nks dkj.k ekus gSaA igykrks ;g fd ;|fi jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡ fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ vkSipkfjd vkSj vukSipkfjd igyqvksa osQlkFk gh jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ tfVy rkus&ckus dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gS] rFkkfi vè;;udrkZ osQ ikl tks lhferlkèku miyCèk gSa muosQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh lEiw.kZrk dk ,dckjxh gh vè;;u ugha fd;k tkldrk gSA nwljs ;g fd fdlh Hkh lekt dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr ogka dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk ,d cgqr ghegÙoiw.kZ igyw gSA¸ bl dkj.k] jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ ekè;e osQ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lEcfUèkr,sosQ i{kksa dk vè;;u fd;k tk ldrk gS tks lEiw.kZ O;oLFkk osQ lapkyu esa ekSfyd çHkko j[krs gSaA bl rjg]bldh mi;ksfxrk dbZ rF;ksa osQ Li"V dh tk ldrh gSA

ihVj edZy us viuh iqLrd ekMuZ dEisjsfVo iksfyfVDl esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe dh vU; vè;;u mikxeksaosQ vfèkd ykHkçnrk ekuh gSA mlosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe ij vkèkkfjr jktuhfrd vè;;uksa esafuEufyf[kr xq.k vk tkrs gSa] vFkkZr~ vè;;u mikxe osQ dqN ,sosQ ykHk gSa tks rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vU; mikxeksaesa ugha ik, tkrsA ihVj edZy us bl mikxe osQ rhu ykHkksa dks ekSfyd ekuk gSA la{ksi esa ;g bl çdkj gSaμ

(1) jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vkuqHkfod lR;kiu ;k tkap lEHko gSA bldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfrosQ laosQrdksa (indicators) dks dHkh Hkh tkapk ;k ij[kk tk ldrk gSA edZy dh ekU;rk gS fd blvoèkkj.kk osQ lEcfUèkr vkLFkkvksa] fo'oklksa dk eki vkSj ml eki dk vkuqHkfod lR;kiu ;k ij[k djuklEHko gS tcfd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk] lajpukRed&çdk;kZRed] jktuhfrd fodkl ;k jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.kosQ laosQrdksa dks ekiuk ;k tkapuk bruk ljy ugha gSA

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(2) jktuhfrd laLÑfr ij vkèkkfjr 'kksèk osQ] yksdfç; o turk dh ^lÙkk* ^LorUËrk* ;k ^vfHkKku* dhèkkj.kkvksa esa ,d dkykofèk esa vkus okys ifjorZuksa dks Li"V :i osQ bafxr fd;k tk ldrk gSA edZyekurs gSa fd fdlh ns'k dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr vko';d :i osQ dksbZ fo'ks"k LFkkf;Ro okyh ugha gksrhgSA mlesa ifjorZu gksrs jgrs gSaA bldh Hkkoh fn'kk dk laosQr gksuk lEHko gSA blosQ laLÑfr;ksa vkSjmi&laLÑfr;ksa osQ vUrj Hkh Li"V gks tkrs gSaA

(3) blosQ çfr&jk"Vªh; rqyuk,¡ tks vc rd eq[;r;k çdkjkRed (inqualitative term) vkèkkj ij dh tkrhjgh Fkh os vc rVLFk (neutral) vkSj ifjek.kkRed (quantitative) vkèkkj ij dh tk ldrh gSA D;ksafdjktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ laosQrd ekiuh;rk (measurability) osQ ;ksX; gksrs gSaA

(4) jktuhfrd laLÑfr fofoèk o i`Fkd&i`Fkd çR;;ksa dks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh viuh voèkkj.kk esa ,dhÑrdjus dk volj çnku djrh gSA

bu dkj.kksa osQ ihVj edZy jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk ij vkèkkfjr vè;;uksa dks vfèkd Bhd ekurs gSaA

,l-ih- oekZ us viuh iqLrd ekWMuZ iksfyfVdy F;ksjh esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk dh vkèkqfudjktuhfrd fl¼kUr osQ fodkl esa vR;fèkd o egÙoiw.kZ nsu ekuh gSA muosQ vuqlkj jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ çR;;osQ vkèkkj ij fd, x, vè;;uksa esa vusd xq.k ifjyf{kr gksrs gSa] ftudk ge la{ksi esa mYys[k dj jgs gSaA

(d) xR;kRed lkaLÑfrd bdkbZ osQ :i esa lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ij è;ku osQfUær fd;k (Focussedattention on the total political system as a dynamic cultural entity) μ ,l-ih- oekZ dk vfHker gS fdjktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ çR;; osQ jktuhfrd leqnk; ;k lekt ij ,d xR;kRed lkewfgr lÙkk osQ :i esa vè;;udjus osQ fy, vkdf"kZr gqvk gSA blosQ O;fDr osQ LFkku ij lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk vè;;u dk osQUæ cuk gSAmudk dguk gS fd O;ogkjoknh Øakfr osQ lkFk gh jktuhfr foKku osQ fo}kuksa dk vè;;u vfèkdkfèkd oS;fDrdjktuhfrd O;ogkj ij osQfUær gksus yxk Fkk vkSj jktuhfr foKku rsth osQ euksfoKku osQ lkFk vfHkKkfur gksus yxkFkkA ;gk¡ rd fd O;oLFkk nf"Vdks.k osQ fodkl osQ ckn Hkh jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k ,d ?kVuk ;k ,d fu.kZ; dks bdkbZosQ :i esa è;ku o vè;;u dk osQUæ cuk jgk FkkA ;g bdkbZ fu.kZ;drkZ] usrk] ernkrk ;k er èkkjd osQ :i esajktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k dk osQUæ cu jgh FkhA fdUrq jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ çR;; osQ lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk]vè;;u fo'ys"k.k dh bdkbZ cu xbZA

([k) O;f"V vkSj lef"V mikxeksa dks la;qDr fd;k (combined Mirco and macro approches) μjktuhfrd laLÑfr n`f"Vdks.k osQ bl ckr ij cy nsus osQ] fd lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu o fujarjrkdh xR;kRedrkvksa dk vè;;u fd;k tk,] O;f"V vkSj lef"V vè;;uksa dks feykuk vko';d gks x;kA bl çdkj]jktuhfrd laLÑfr n`f"Vdks.k] O;f"V vkSj lef"V mikxeksa dks la;qDr djus ij tksj nsus osQ dkj.k jktuhfr&'kkLËdks vkSj vfèkd iw.kZ lkekftd foKku cukus esa lgk;d jgk gSA

(x) jktuhfr&'kkLË dk fo"k;&{ks=k foLr`r djus esa lgk;d (Helped the process of broadening thescope of political science) μ jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa] çeq[kr;k jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk vè;;u djuk gksrkgSA jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;kvksa esa u osQoy jktuhfrd rÙo gh lfEefyr jgrs gSa] vfirq thou esavjktuhfrd vk;ke] tSosQ lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd çkpy (parameter) ;k rÙo Hkh lfEefyr gksrs gSaA bl dkj.k]jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe us jktuhfr&'kkfLË;ksa dks mu lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd dkjdksa dk Hkh vè;;u djus osQfy, çsfjr fd;k] ftuosQ fdlh fn'kk dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk :i fuèkkZfjr gksrk gSA

(?k) O;ogkj osQ cqf¼laxr vkSj vfoosdh fu;kedksa osQ vè;;uksa dks la;qDr fd;k (combined the study

of rational and irrational determinants of behaviours)μ jktuhfrd laLÑfr n`f"Vdks.k us O;fDr;ksa dhfØ;kvksa osQ cqf¼laxr dkjdksa osQ vè;;u osQ lkFk gh lkFk O;ogkj osQ vfèkd xqIr vfoosdh fu;kedksa osQ vè;;udks Hkh çksRlkgu fn;k gSA vc jk"Vªh; pfjË dk çR;;] tks dqy feykdj vius esa LFkSfrd Fkk] vkSj u;s lektksaesa jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks le>us esa vfèkd lgk;d ugha jgk Fkk mlosQ LFkku ij jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk

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dk mi;ksx çpyu esa gks x;kA jktuhfrd laLÑfr n`f"Vdks.k ls bu lektksa esa jktuhfrd O;ogkj ij vfèkd vPNkçdk'k Mkyuk gh lEHko ugha gqvk] vfirq ;g vkuqHkfod 'kksèk osQ vkèkkj ij djuk lEHko cukA

(p) jktuhfrd fodkl dh fofHkUu fn'kkvksa osQ le>us esa lgk;d (Helped in understanding the

different directions of political development)μ jktuhfrd laLÑfr n`f"Vdks.k us ;g le>us esa Hkh lgk;rkdh fd D;ksa fofHkUu jktuhfrd lekt jktuhfrd fodkl dh fofHkUu fn'kkvksa esa tkus yxs gSa\ blosQ ;g Hkh Li"Vgqvk fd D;ksa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk,¡] lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd cUèkuksa osQ caèkh gksus ij Hkh jktuhfrd irudh vksj vxzlj gksus yxrh gSA

vr% Li"V gks tkrk gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr fdlh ns'k osQ jktuhfrd fodkl dks fu:fir djus esa] fd D;ksa dksbZlekt yksdrkfUËd laLFkkvksa dks vklkuh osQ viuk ysrk gS vkSj vU; lekt LosPNkpkjh fofèk;ksa ;k rjhdksa dksvfèkd lgwfy;r okys ekurk gS] egÙoiw.kZ fu;ked jgrh gSA blosQ ;g Li"V gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk mikxerqyukRed jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.kksa esa cgqr mi;ksxh gSA ;g jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ mikxe dh dfe;ksa dh iwfrZdjus okyk mikxe Hkh ekuk tk ldrk gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe_ ,d vkykspukRed ewY;k¡du (Political Culture Approach; A CriticalAppraisal)

rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe osQ mijksDr foospu osQ ;g ugha le> ysuk gS fd bln`f"Vdks.k osQ jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ ckjs esa lc çdkj osQ Li"Vhdj.k nsuk lEHko gS fdUrq blosQ jktuhfrdO;ogkj dh xR;kRed 'kfDr;ksa dks igpkuuk lEHko gqvk gSA bldk vè;;u gesa vfuok;Zr% jktuhfrdlekthdj.k osQ vè;;u dh vksj ys tkrk gSA blosQ }kjk ge mu vuqHkoksa dks tkuus dh vksj ço`Ùk gksrs gSaftuosQ }kjk jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,d ih<+h osQ nwljh ih<+h dks gLrkUrfjr gksrh gSA lkFk gh bl voèkkj.kk osQ gemu ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk Kku Hkh çkIr dj ikrs gSa ftuosQ varxZr jktuhfrd laLÑfr;k¡ ifjofrZr gksrh gSaA blosQvè;;u osQ gesa fdlh jk"Vª osQ jktuhfrd fodkl ij ,d u;k n`f"Vdks.k feyrk gSA

fdUrq ockZ us jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ cgqr vfèkd vis{kk,¡ j[kus osQ çfr lpsr djrs gq, fy[kkgS fd ¶jktuhfrd thou osQ ,d fof'k"V vkSj egÙoiw.kZ igyw ij è;ku nsuk ykHknk;d gS] fdUrq ;gjktuhfrd ?kVuk osQ fo'ys"k.k vkSj O;k[;k dk osQoy lHkkjEHk gh gS okLro esa egÙoiw.kZ ckr ;g ugha gSfd ge jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vè;;u djsa cfYd ;g gS fd ge bldk vè;;u dSosQ djrs gSa rFkk jktuhfrosQ Kku esa vfHko`f¼ osQ fy, bldk ç;ksx djrs gSa rks ;g jktuhfrd vUr% fØ;k vkSj jktuhfrd laLFkkvksaosQ çfr:iksa osQ ckjs esa fo'oklksa dh O;oLFkk dh vksj laosQr djrs gSa vkSj ;g crykrh gS fd jktuhfrd txresa gksus okyh ?kVukvksa rFkk mu ?kVukvksa dh çfrfØ;k esa yksxksa osQ O;ogkj osQ eè; ,d egÙoiw.kZ dM+h dkfuekZ.k djrh gSA ;g bl ckr dk laosQr Hkh nsrh gS fd yksx jktuhfr esa tks dqN ns[krs gSa mlosQ fo#¼D;k er çdV djrs gSa vkSj tks dqN ns[kk gS mldh os D;k O;k[;k djrs gSaA bl çdkj jktuhfrd laLÑfrbl ckr dks fu;fer djrh gS fd jktuhfrd txr esa dkSu D;k ns[krk gS vkSj mldh dSosQ O;k[;k djrkgS\¸ ockZ us jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh mi;ksfxrk osQ ckjs esa ;g çLFkkfir fd;k gS fd jktuhfrd laLÑfr vkSjjktuhfrd fo'oklksa dk ?kfu"Brk dk lEcUèk gSA ge ockZ osQ bl fu"d"kZ dks Lohdkj djrs gq, bldks blçdkj la'kksfèkr djuk vfèkd mi;qDr ekusaxs fd ¶jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh lfØ;rk dh fof'k"Vrk vkSjjktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vR;fèkd ?kfu"Brk dk lacUèk gSA¸

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ fodkl osQ gh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh okLrfod çÑfr] muosQ vUnj gksusokys fodklksa vkSj bu fodklksa dh lEHkkfor fn'kkvksa dks le>us esa lgk;rk feyus yxh gSA fdUrq jktuhfrdlaLÑfr osQ Hkh brus vk;ke vkSj fu;ked ;k ifjoR;Z gSa fd blosQ vkèkkj ij vè;;u o rqyukvksa esa fo'ks"klrdZrk vkSj lkoèkkuh cjrus dh vko';drk gS] vU;Fkk ;g voèkkj.kk Hkh jktuhfr dh xR;kRedrkvksa dksle>us esa fo'ks"k lgk;d ugha gksxhA jktuhfrd O;ogkj bruk tfVy gksrk gS vkSj brus vfèkd çHkkoksa osQ fu;fer

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gksrk gS fd bldks lkekU; <ax osQ gh le>k tk ldrk gSA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr mikxe osQ ;g vis{kk j[kukfd ;g jktuhfr dk dksbZ lkekU; fl¼kUr cukus dh voLFkk esa igqapk nsxk] ,d vkR;fUrd (Extreme) fu"d"kZgksxkA ,slk fu"d"kZ lgh ugha gks ldrkA jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk us jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ va'kksa olEiw.kZrk] nksuksa ij è;ku osQfUær djus osQ midj.k çnku djosQ] jktuhfrd le> o jktuhfrd fodklksa dksle>us esa i;kZIr lgk;rk dh gSA


fjDr LFkkuksa dh iwfrZ dhft, (Fill in the blanks)μ1- jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vkuqHkfod ----------------------------------------------- lEHko gSA

2- jktuhfrd laLÑfr ij vkèkkfjr 'kksèk osQ] yksdfç; o turk dh ^lÙkk Lora=krk* ;k ------------ dhèkkj.kkvksa esa ,d dkykofèk esa vkus okys ifjorZuksa dks Li"V :i osQ bafxr fd;k tk ldrkgSA

3- jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ laosQrd ------------------- osQ ;ksX; gksrs gSaA

4- jktuhfrd laLÑfr fofoèk-------------------- dks jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh viuh voèkkj.kk esa ,dhÑrdjus dk volj çnku djrh gSA

5- jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks ,d ih<+h osQ nwljh ih<+h rd igq¡pkus esa ------------------------- dk cgqewY;;ksxnku gksrk gSA


jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkk dk Hkkx gS] fdUrq ;g blosQ dqN Lok;Ùkrk Hkh j[krh gSAlkekU; laLÑfr dh rjg gh jktuhfrd laLÑfr Hkh jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ ekè;e osQ laizsf"kr ;kgLrkarfjr gksrh gSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dk vFkZ djrs gq, Y;wf'k;u ikbZ us vius ,d fucUèk îksfyfVdy dYpj ,.MiksfyfVdy MsosyiesUV* tks blosQ vkSj ockZ }kjk lEikfnr iqLrd ftldk uke Hkh iksfyfVdy dYpj ,.MiksfyfVdy MsosyiesUV gS] esa fy[kk gS fd ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk crykrh gS fd fdlh lektdh ijEijk,¡] mldh lkoZtfud laLFkkvksa dh vkRek] mlosQ ukxfjdksa dh vkdka{kk,¡ vkSj mudk lkewfgdfoosd vkSj mlosQ usrkvksa osQ rjhosQ vkSj dk;Z'khy gksus osQ lkèku o fu;e vkfn osQoy ,sfrgkfld vuqHkodh ÅViVkax mit ugha gS] cfYd ;s lc ,d vFkZiw.kZ O;oLFkk osQ vax gSa vkSj lEiw.kZ lEcUèkksa dk ,dcksèkxE; rFkk Li"V izfreku mifLFkr djrs gSaA O;fDr osQ fy, jktuhfrd laLÑfr izHkko'khy jktuhfrdO;ogkj dh fn'kk esa ekxZ&funsZ'ku djrh gS vkSj lekt osQ fy, ;g mu ewY;ksa rFkk foosdiw.kZ fopkjksa dhO;ofLFkr :i&jpuk iznku djrh gS tks fd laLFkkvksa vkSj laxBuksa dh xfrfofèk;ksa esa laxfr cSBkrs gSaA**

lkjka'k :i esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr] jktuhfrd {ks=k dks mlh izdkj lajpuk vkSj vFkZ iznku djrh gS ftlizdkj laLÑfr lkekftd thou dks esy vkSj ,dhdj.k iznku djrh gSA vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr ,dfuf'pr vkSj lhfer voèkkj.kk gS tks lkekU; laLÑfr osQ lEcfUèkr vkSj izHkkfor jgrs gq, Hkh mlosQ dqNLok;Ùkrk j[krh gSA la{ksi esa ;g jktuhfr osQ izfr yksxksa dh èkkj.kkvksa vkSj vfHkofÙk;ksa dk uke gSA

vkeaM vèkhuLFk&lgHkkfx;ksa osQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa vkSj lkFk gh fofHkUu jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksaosQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dk oxhZdj.k izLrqr djrs gSaA jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa osQ oxhZdj.k esacqfu;knh dlkSVh vèkhuLFkksa vkSj lgHkkfx;ksa dh Hkwfedk ij cy nsuk gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ izfr vfHkfoU;LrgS vkSj vius thou ij buosQ vkxrksa vkSj fuxZrksa osQ izHkko tSosQ dY;k.k lEcUèkh fgr ykHk] dkuwu vkfnosQ ifjfpr gS] ysfdu mUgsa vkxr lajpukvksa esa Hkkxhnkj gksus osQ fy, vfHkeq[k ugha fd;k tkrk gS vFkok

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lgHkkxh ;k Hkkxhnkj (os O;fDr ftUgsa vkxr lajpukvksa vkSj izfØ;kvksa osQ izfr vfHkfoU;Lr fd;k tkrkgS vkSj ftUgsa fu.kZ; vkSj ekaxksa dh vfHkO;fDr esa yxk;k tkrk gS] ;k tks vius ckjs esa ;g le>rs gSafd os bu dk;ks± esa yxs gq, gSa)] gks ldrs gSaA

blosQ vykok] vkeaM nks vkSj pjksa dh vksj laosQr djrs gS ftuosQ ckjs esa è;ku j[kk tkuk pkfg,A ,d]vfefJr jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh lHkh fdLeksa osQ vykok] vkeaM O;ofLFkr :i esa fefJr fdLe dhjktuhfrd laLÑfr dh vksj Hkh funsZ'k djrs gSaA ;gk¡ og mu fLFkfr;ksa dk fu:i.k djrs gSa tgk¡vfHkfoU;klksa osQ ,d osQ vfèkd izfrekuksa dk mYys[kuh; vuqikr miyCèk gSA bl izdkj] og rhu fdLeksadk fuèkkZj.k djrs gSa% (1) ladh.kZ&vèkhuLFk&lgHkkxh jktuhfrd laLÑfr (2) izèkhuLFk&lgHkkxh&jktuhfrdlaLÑfr (3) ladh.kZ&lgHkkxh&jktuhfrd laLÑfr vkSj ukxfjd laLÑfrA

mi&laLÑfr iw.kZr;k i`Fkd vfHko`fÙk;ksa] fo'oklksa rFkk ewY;ksa dk lewg ugha gksrh gS cfYd ,sosQ n`f"Vdks.kksadk lewg gksrh gS ftuosQ dqN rÙo nwljh mi&laLÑfr;ksa esa ekStwn jgrs gSaA bl rjg Hkkjr esa nf{k.k osQjkT; fo'ks"kdj rfeyukMq esa rfey yksxksa dh ;g ekU;rk gS fd mudh viuh iFkd laLÑfr gSA bl laLÑfrdks mi&laLÑfr dgk tk ldrk gS vkSj ,d gh jktuhfrd laLÑfr esa ,slh vusd mi&laLÑfr;k¡ gks ldrh gSaA

Hkkjr dk gh mnkgj.k ysa rks ;g Li"V ns[kus dks feysxk fd ogka vfHktu oxZ dh laLÑfr vke turkdh laLÑfr osQ cgqr fHkUurk j[kus yx xbZ FkhA lafoèkku dk 1976 dk 42oka la'kksèku bu nksuksami&laLÑfr;ksa osQ chp rsth osQ c<+rh gqbZ njkj dks ikVus dk ç;Ru dgk tk ldrk gSA fodkl'khy jkT;ksaesa vusd jktuhfrd leL;k,¡ osQoy bl dkj.k gh mRiUu gks jgh gS fd vfHktu viuh laLÑfr osQvyxiu dks cuk, j[kuk pkgrs gSa] vFkkZr~ lÙkk osQ fpiosQ jguk pkgrs gSaA

ockZ us fy[kk gS fd ^jktuhfrd laLÑfr vkSj lekt dh vis{kkÑfr vfèkd lkekU; lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkkosQ chp vUrj fo'ys"k.kkRed gSA jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; laLÑfr dk ,d vfHkUu igyw gSA¸

jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa o çfØ;kvksa osQ ckjs esa O;fDr] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k esa vius fo'oklcukrk gSA ;g lekthdj.k cgqr dqN lekt dh lkaLÑfrd O;oLFkk osQ }kjk çsfjr ;k lhfer gksrk gSAblosQ vkSj Hkh vfHkdj.k gSa] fdUrq muesa osQ çeq[k dk lEcUèk lekt dh lkekU; laLÑfr osQ gh gSA vr%jktuhfrd vkLFkk,¡] lkekU; laLÑfr esa ekU; ewY;ksa vkSj vkLFkkvksa osQ }kjk gh çsfjr vkSj fufeZr gksrh gSA

lkekU; laLÑfr vxj ijEijkxroknh çÑfr j[krh gS rc blh jktuhfrd 'kfDr osQ ç;ksx osQ cyiwoZdvkèkqfud cukus osQ ç;kl fd;s tk ldrs gSaA bl çdkj osQ ç;Ruksa osQ jktuhfrd vkSj lkekftd nksuksa ghçdkj dh laLÑfr;ksa esa ifjorZu ykus osQ ç;kl fd;s tk ldrs gSaA fgVyj] eqlksfyuh] LVkfyu vkSjekvks RosQ&rqax us ,sosQ gh ç;Ru fd;s ftlesa os ml dkykofèk esa vo'; liQy Hkh jgs FksA osQLVªks] D;wckesa 'kk;n ;gh ç;Ru dj jgk gSA

vr% jktuhfrd laLÑfr lkekU; laLÑfr dk vfHkUu Hkkx gksrs gq, Hkh mlosQ cgqr dqN Lok;Ùkrk j[krhgSA bu nksuksa esa ?kfu"B lEcUèk gS vkSj nksuksa ,d nwljs dks de ;k vfèkd ekËk esa çHkkfor djrh jgrhgSA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ ;g vFkZ ugha ysuk gS fd ;g LFkSfrd vkSj fLFkj jgrh gSA blesa cjkcjifjorZu gksrs jgrs gSaA jktuhfrd fodkl] jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ ifjorZuksa dk gh ifj.kke gks ldrk gSA

ns'k esa gksus okys vkS|ksxhdj.k] ewY;ksa rFkk vfHkofÙk;ksa osQ ifjorZu esa egÙoiw.kZ dkjd gksrs gSaA vçokfl;ksa dkHkkjh la[;k esa vkxeu] ;q¼ vkSj fo'ks"k :i esa cM+s ;q¼ esa ijkt;] Økafr bR;kfn lHkh dkjd jktuhfrd ewY;ksavkSj fo'oklksa esa ifjorZu yk nsrs gSa vkSj bu ifjorZuksa osQ dkj.k jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ij ncko iM+us yxrs gSaA

jktuhfrd laLÑfr dks ,d ih<+h osQ nwljh ih<+h rd çHkkoksRiknd <ax osQ igqapkus osQ ekè;eksa esa lokZfèkdegÙoiw.kZ jktuhfrd lekthdj.k gSA blosQ jktuhfrd laLÑfr u osQoy ,d ih<+h osQ nwljh ih<+h dksgLrkarfjr gksrh gS] vfirq laLÑfr esa lthork cuh jgrh gSA

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rqyukRed jktuhfr esa jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk dh lkekU; mi;ksfxrk dks Li"V djrs gq, flMuh ockZus fy[kk gS fd ¶vkèkqfud 'krkCnh esa jktuhfrd txr vkSj jktuhfrd vè;;u {ksË nksuksa gh esa rhu ifjorZugq, gSaA u;s jk"Vªksa dk mn; gqvk gS] iqjkuksa esa ifjorZu gq, gSa vkSj mudh ,slh leL;k,¡ mB [kM+h gqbZ gSa tks jktuhfr'kkLË osQ fo}kuksa rFkk orZeku laLFkkvksa dh {kerkvksa dks ,d pqukSrh gSA¸ ,slh pqukSrh dk lkeuk djus dh{kerkvksa dk Kku jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh voèkkj.kk osQ vkèkkj ij gh fd;k tk ldrk gSA

ockZ us lkaLÑfrd igyw ij fo'ks"k è;ku nsus osQ nks dkj.k ekus gSaA igyk rks ;g fd ;|fi jktuhfrdO;oLFkk,¡ fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ vkSipkfjd vkSj vukSipkfjd igyqvksa osQ lkFk gh jktuhfrdlaLÑfr osQ tfVy rkus&ckus dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gS] rFkkfi vè;;udrkZ osQ ikl tks lhfer lkèkumiyCèk gSa muosQ vkèkkj ij jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh lEiw.kZrk dk ,dckjxh gh vè;;u ugha fd;k tkldrk gSA nwljs ;g fd fdlh Hkh lekt dh jktuhfrd laLÑfr ogka dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk ,d cgqrgh egÙoiw.kZ igyw gSA¸


rVLFk % fdlh Hkh i{k dks leFkZu u nsukA

vkR;afrd fu"d"kZ % vafre fu"d"kZ


1- jktuhfrd laLÑfr osQ vki D;k le>rs gSa\ blosQ f=kLrjh; ewY;k¡du dh O;k[;k dhft,A

2- ledkyhu jktuhfrd laLÑfr;ksa dh izo`fÙk;ksa dk foospu dhft,A

3- jktuhfrd laLÑfr dh mi;ksfxdrk ij izdk'k Mkfy,A

mÙkj% Lo&ewY;k¡du (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- lR;kiu ;k tk¡p 2- vfHk;ku 3- ekiuh;rk (Measurability)

4- çR;;ksa 5- jktuhfrd lekthdj.k






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bdkbZμ5% jktuhfrd lekthdj.k


bdkbZμ5% jktuhfrd lekthdj.k (PoliticalSocialisation)


mís'; (Objectives)


5-1 jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk vFkZ (Meaning of Political Socialisation)

5-2 jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ vfHkdrkZ (Agents of Political Socialisation)





mís'; (Objectives)


jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ vFkZ vkSj vfHkdrkZvksa dh O;k[;k djus esaA


jktuhfrd fodkl dh ladYiuk osQ nks vk;ke gSaμlektoSKkfud vkSj euksoSKkfudA bu nksuksa fn'kkvksa esa vkxkehvè;;u osQ ifj.kkeLo:i nks ubZ ladYiukvksa dk vkfoZHkko gqvk gS tks jktuhfrd fodkl dh ladYiuk dhO;qRifÙk;k¡ (Political socialisation) gSA vxj vkèkqfudhdj.k ,d eu%fLFkfr gS vkSj vkuqHkfod jktuhfr osQ Nk=kdks ,slk yxrk gS fd fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks osQoy mUgha yksxksa }kjk çHkkoh <ax ls lapkfyr fd;k tk ldrkgS tks vkèkqfud n`f"Vdks.k osQ ltho vkSj rdZlaxr rRoksa osQ Hkkxhnkj gksrs gSa] rks jktuhfrd fodkl dk dk;Z bllhèkh lknh vko';drk esa ewfrZeku gks tkrk gS fd yksxksa dh vfHkofÙk;ksa vkSj Hkkoukvksa dks cnyk tk,A bl nf"Vdks.kosQ vuqlkj] ;g rdZ fd fodkl dh çfØ;k dks fdl çdkj lgt vkSj lqfoèkktud cuk;k tk,] vis{kkd`r ljygS % ¶vko';d lajpukvksa vkSj fu"iknu ifjorZuksa dks çLrkfor djksμ;fn laHko gks rks vuqu; fou; ls vkSj vxjvko';d gks rks LosPNk lsμrks yksx dkykarj esa vius vki viuh vfHko`fÙk;ksa esa ifjorZu dj ysaxsA ;g fn[kkusosQ fy, ,d lk{; dk mnkgj.k fn;k tk ldrk gS fd yksxksa dks ,d ckj tc fodflr lanHkZ esa fLFkr dj fn;ktk, rks os vius eu vkSj Hkkouk dks 'kh?kz rnuqlkj <ky ysrs gSa vkSj bl çdkj laØe.kdkyhu O;fDr;ksa dks ekufldoLrqfLFkfr tSls vLi"V ekeyksa ij vfèkd fpUrk djus dh vko';drk ugha gSA¸

5-1 jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk vFkZ (Meaning of Political Socialization)

,p- ,p- gkbeu] ftUgksaus jktuhfrd lekthdj.k (Political Socialisation) incUèk fn;k] us ihf<+;ksa rdjktuhfrd ewY;ksa osQ tkjh jgus ij cy fn;k gSA ,slh O;k[;k ls lw=k xzg.k djrs gq, ySlosy us dgk gS fd jktuhfrd

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lekthdj.k fcuk fdlh 'kadk osQ egRo dh dlkSVh ij bl vFkZ esa [kjk mrjrk gS fd ;g gj vrhr] orZeku vkSjHkkoh jktuhfrd fudk; dk egRoiw.kZ y{k.k cuk jgk gSA gj fLFkj mi&laLd`fr ,d lekukUrj çfØ;k esa O;Lrgksrh gSa] D;ksafd ;g ifjiDoksa vkSj vifjiDoksa }kjk Hkkx ysus osQ chp Hksn djrh gSA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ¶og çfØ;k gS ftlosQ }kjk jktuhfrd laLd`fr;ksa dk vuqj{k.k vkSj muesa ifjorZu fd;ktkrk gSA bl dk;Z osQ fu"iknu osQ ekè;e ls O;fDr;ksa dks jktuhfrd laLd`fr;ksa esa 'kkfey fd;k tkrk gS] rHkhjktuhfrd oLrqvksa osQ çfr muosQ vfHkfoU;kl dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk gSA¸ nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ;g ml f'k{k.k çfØ;kdh vksj funsZ'k djrk gS ftlosQ }kjk lqlapkfyr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ fy, Lohdk;Z ekudksa vkSj O;ogkjksa dks ,dih<+h ls vxyh ih<+h rd lEçsf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA bl çdkj] bl ladYiuk dk mís'; O;fDr;ksa dk bl rjhosQ lsçf'k{k.k vkSj fodkl djuk gS fd os jktuhfrd leqnk; osQ lqdk;Zdkjh lnL; cu losQA tkfgj gS fd blosQ vFkZesa fof'k"V :i esa euksoSKkfud vk;ke fufgr gS fd ¶;g lapyu'khy jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ Lohdk;Z ekudksa]vfHko`fÙk;ksa vkSj O;ogkj dks Øfed <ax ls lh[kuk gSA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k lkekU;r;k vkdfLed vFkok vn`'; :i esa dk;Z djrh gSA bldk vFkZ ;ggS fd ;g ,sls 'kkar vkSj lkSE; :i esa lapkfyr gksrh gS fd yksxksa dks blosQ lapkyu dh [kcj Hkh ugha gksrhA yksxbu ekudksa dks Lohdkj dj ysrs gSa vkSj os buosQ vkSfpR; osQ ckjs esa dksbZ vkifÙk ugha mBkrsA vr%] bl ladYiukdh fo"k;&oLrq og çfØ;k gS ftlosQ }kjk yksx lfØ; jktuhfrd ewY;ksa dks xzg.k djrs gSa tc og Li"V rjg lsjktuhfrd xfrfofèk;ksa esa Hkkx ysrs gSaA* bl çdkj fopkj djus ij jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ varxZr thou dhgjsd voLFkk esa lHkh] vkSipkfjd ,oa vukSipkfjd] jktuhfrd çf'k{k.k vk tk,¡xs] fiQj pkgs og tkucw>dj gksavFkok vk;ksftr] vkSj blesa u osQoy og Li"V jktuhfrd çf'k{k.k 'kkfey gksxk tks jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks çHkkfordjrk gS (tSls jktuhfrd n`f"V ls vlEc¼ lkekftd vfHko`fÙk;ksa dk xzg.k djuk) oju~ blesa jktuhfrd n`f"Vls lEc¼ O;fDrxr fo'ks"krkvksa dks xzg.k djuk Hkh 'kkfey gksxkA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh ladYiuk esa izèkku cy ,d ih<+h ls vxyh ih<+h rd

jktuhfrd ewY;ksa osQ lEizs"k.k ij fn;k tkrk gSA

fdlh lkekftd vFkok jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh fLFkjrk bl rF; osQ dkj.k blosQ lnL;ksa osQ jktuhfrdlekthdj.k ij fuHkZj djrh gS fd ,d vPNk dk;Zdkjh ukxfjd og O;fDr gksrk gS tks lekt osQ jktuhfrdekudksa dks vaxhdkj dj ys vkSj mUgsa Hkkoh ihf<+;ksa dks lEçsf"kr djsaA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] ,d fLFkj yksdrkaf=kdO;oLFkk] tSls fczVsu] vius lnL;ksa dks çf'kf{kr djosQ ,slk vH;Lr cuk nsrh gS fd os ifjorZu djus osQ fy,lkafoèkkfud mik;ksa dks Lohdkj dj ys] ctk; blosQ fd os bu ekeyksa dks lM+dksa ij ys tk,¡ ;k fgalkRedmFky&iqFky dh voLFkk,¡ iSnk djsaA bl çdkj] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ vUrxZr og lkjh çfØ;k vk tkrhgS ftlosQ }kjk dksbZ O;fDr ¶tks fo'kky O;ogkjkRed {kerkvksa osQ lkFk tUe ysrk gS] mls ,d ,sls O;ogkjdk fodkl djuk dfBu iM+rk gS tks dgh vfèkd ladh.kZ ijkl ls çfrcfUèkr dj fn;k tkrk gSμftldk {ks=klkekU; gksrk gS vkSj mls vius oxZ osQ Nk=kksa osQ vuq:i esa Lohdk;Z gksrk gSA¸

vxj bls lkekU; 'kCnksa esa dgk tk, rks jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ,d ,slk fopkj gS tks jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro osQ y{;dks çkIr djus dh vis{kk djrk gSA bldk vkèkkj ;g gS fd dksbZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk rc rd lqpk# <ax ls dk;Zugha dj ldrh tc rd mlosQ lkFk&lkFk jktuhfrd ekudksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks vaxhdkj djus dh çfØ;k dk;Zjr ugksA tSlk fd ,d tho (Organism) osQ lacaèk esa gksrk gS] mlh çdkj ls jktfudk; (politic body) esa Hkh] vuqj{k.kvkSj vfrthfork osQ vfrfjDr fdlh vU; oLrq dh vko';drk ugha gksrhA vkSj vfrthfork (survival) dk LFkkf;RoosQ vfrfjDr dksbZ vkSj vfHkçk; ugha gS tSlk jkcVkZ lkbxsy (Roberta Sigel) us dgk gS] ¶jktuhfrd lekthdj.k

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dk mís'; ,sls O;fDr;ksa dk çf'k{k.k vkSj fodkl djuk gS ftlls os jktuhfrd lekt osQ vPNs dk;Zdkjh lnL;cu losaQ] D;ksafd ,d jktfudk; osQ fcuk] tks lapkfyr jktuhfrd ewY;ksa vkSj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lkFk lkeatL;esa gS] lqpk# :i esa dk;Z ugha gks ldrk vkSj vfUre :i esa vfrthfork jktuhfrd laxBu dk mlh çdkj ls ,dy{; gS ftl çdkj ls ,d tho dkA

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k O;fDr;ksa osQ eu esa ewY;ksa] ekudksa vkSj vfHkfoU;klksa dk fodkl djrk gS ftlls mlesajktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ çfr fo'okl dh Hkkouk iSnk gks losQ vkSj os vius vkidks vPNs dk;Zdkjh ukxfjd osQ :iesa cuk, j[ksa rFkk vius mÙkjkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ eu ij vfeV Nki NksM+ losQaA bl çdkj] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dhifjHkk"kk ml ¶çfØ;k osQ :i esa dh tkrh gS ftlls dksbZ O;fDr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ls ifjfpr gksrk gS vkSj tksjktuhfrd ?kVukvksa osQ çfr mldh çfrfØ;k dk fuèkkZj.k djrk gSA blosQ fy, vko';drk bl ckr dh gS fd O;fDrij lekt osQ vkSj lekt ij O;fDr osQ lkekftd] vkfFkZd ;k lkaLd`frd i;kZoj.k osQ çHkko dk ijh{k.k fd;ktk,A lkekftd vkSj jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ chp jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ,d vR;Ur egRoiw.kZ dM+h gS] ysfduvyx&vyx O;oLFkkvksa osQ vuqlkj blesa ifjorZu vk ldrk gSA jktuhfrd n`f"Vdks.k ls ,d çfØ;k osQ :i esajktuhfrd lekthdj.k vR;Ur egRoiw.kZ gS ftlls O;kid jktuhfrd O;oLFkkμjktuhfrd lgHkkfxrkμesa fofHkÂek=kkvksa esa yksx fyIr gks ldrs gSaA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk fodkl % [kqys cuke can lektksa dk fo"k;% tks lekt vius vkidks cuk, j[kukpkgrk gS ;k viuh vfrthfork osQ fy, vius LFkkf;Ro ij cy nsrk gS] mldk vius ;qodksa osQ lekthdj.k esa,d vko';d fgr fufgr gksrk gS rkfd os bl ;ksX; cuk, tk,¡ fd os LosPNkiwoZd vius lkekftd thou osQ ewY;ksa]vfHkfoU;klksa vkSj ekudksa dks tkjh j[k losQaA ,d uotkr f'k'kq tUetkr lkekthd`r tho ugha gksrk gS_ çf'k{k.ki¼fr ls gh mls lkekftd cuk;k tkrk gSA lkFk gh] bl çdkj dk ¶çf'k{k.k lekt osQ ekudksa osQ ckjs esa mi;qDrKku çkIr djus rd gh lfefr ugha gS] cfYd blosQ fy, bl ckr dh Hkh vis{kk gksrh gS fd O;fDr mu ekudksadks bl çdkj vaxhdkj dj ysa fd os mls lgh] U;k;iw.kZ vkSj uSfrd çrhr gksaA ,d ckj lekt osQ ekudksa dk vaxhdkjdj ysus osQ ckn 'kk;n ml O;fDr osQ fy, ,slk dksbZ dfBu dk;Z ugha gksxk fd og muosQ vuqdwy dk;Z djsaA¸lkFk gh] fd'kksjkoLFkk osQ lkFk&lkFk ekudksa osQ vaxhdkj djus dh çfØ;k lekIr ugha gks tkrh] blosQ varxZr ;qokHkh vkrs gSa vkSj blh dkj.k blls ge bl fu"d"kZ ij igq¡prs gSa fd jktuhfrd n`f"V ls laxfBr lekt dh vuqj{k.klacaèkh oSls gh vko';drk,¡ gSa ftlesa ;qodksa dks dkiQh mÙkjnk;h Hkwfedk dk fuokZg djuk gSA blfy,] ge nksvoLFkkvksa ij ekudksa osQ vaxhdj.k dh çfØ;k dk voyksdu djsaxsμcPpksa o fd'kksjksa dk lekthdj.k vkSj ;qokvksadk lekthdj.kA

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k ml dky ls vkjEHk gksrh gS tcfd cPpk pkjksa vksj osQ O;kid i;kZoj.k osQckjs esa ltx gksrk gS] fo'ks"k fLFkfr;ksa osQ çfr vuqfØ;k esa vfèkd çkR;kf{kd (perceptive) vuqHko djrk gS vkSjvius fy, ,d ,sls n`f"Vdks.k dk fodkl dj ysrk gS tks vfèkdkfèkd laxr vkSj lEiw.kZ gks tkrk gS tcfd bllsiwoZ ;g [kafMr vkSj lhfer gksrk gSA blh voLFkk ij cPpksa esa lkekU; vfHkfoU;kl dk çkfèkdkj] vkKkdkfjrk]çfrjksèk] lg;ksx] vk?kkr vkfn osQ çfr vkfoHkkZo gksrk gSA cPpk ifjokj ls tks dqN xzg.k djrk gS mlesa LdwyosQ ekè;e ls o`f¼ gks tkrh gS vkSj og jktuhfrd ewY;ksa osQ çfr viuh çkjafHkd ekU;rkvksa dks iq"V djrk gSA bZLVuvkSj Msful ckY;koLFkk esa jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k esa fuEu voLFkkvksa dk fuèkkZj.k djrs gSaμ(1) fo'ks"k O;fDr;ksa osQ ekè;e ls çkfèkdkj dks Lohdkj djuk tSls ekrk&firk] iqfyleSu vkSj ns'k osQ jk"Vªifr_(2) ljdkjh vkSj xSj&ljdkjh çkfèkdj.k osQ chp vUrj_ (3) jk"Vªh; foèkkf;dk] U;k;ikfydk vkSj ernku O;ogkjtSlh voS;fDrd jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa ls lEc¼ xfrfofèk;ksa esa O;Lr yksxksa osQ chp Hksn ftlls jk"Vªifr vFkok dkaxzsl(vejhdh laln) osQ lnL; osQ :i esa fo'ks"k O;fDr;ksa osQ vkn'khZd`r fcEcksa dk jk"Vªifr in vkSj dkaxzsl lsLFkkukUrj.k gks tk,A

bl çdkj] lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k fd'kksjkoLFkk osQ ckn Hkh pyrh jgrh gSA Hkkoh jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh eq[;:i&js[kk,¡ ¶vPNh çdkj ls çkjfEHkd voLFkk esa fuèkkZfjr dh tkrh gS] ysfdu blls ,slh voLFkk dh vfèkd lEHkkouk

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gksrh gS ftlesa çkjfEHkd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k vkSj ckn osQ thou osQ i;kZoj.kh; vkSj vkuqHkfod çHkkoksa osQ chpvUr%fØ;k gksrh gS tks ckY;koLFkk ij lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k osQ ekxZ esa ckèkk igq¡pkrh gSA¸ mnkgj.k osQ fy,] ernkuO;ogkj osQ vè;;u ls irk pyrk gS fd erksa osQ ;q¼* osQ nkSjku foèkku e.My osQ lnL;ksa dks lekthdj.k dk Kkugksrk gS vkSj mlosQ okn osQ foèkk;h O;ogkj dk fuèkkZj.k vkaf'kd :i esa muosQ Kku] ewY;ksa vkSj vfHkofÙk;ksa ls gksrkgS tks fuokZpuksa ls iwoZ muesa fo|eku Fkha vkSj ;g vkaf'kd :i esa foèkkf;dk esa fo|eku u, i;kZoj.k esa muosQ viusvuqHkoksa ls vFkok muosQ çfr mudh çfrfØ;kvksa ls çHkkfor gksrkA¸ fuokZpu vè;;uksa us nyh; çkFkfedrkvksa vkSjernkrkvksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa osQ chp lglacaèk fn[kk;k gS tks i;kZoj.k vkSj vuqHko ls lEc¼ gSaA

;fn ckY;koLFkk vkSj fd'kksjkoLFkk esa i;kZoj.k vkSj vkuqHkfod nckoksa dk fuf'pr çHkko fdlh O;fDrosQ thou ij iM+rk gS] rks ;g le>uk furkUr rdZlaxr gksxk fd O;Ldrk dh voLFkk esa bu çHkkoksadk viuk gh egÙo gSA

;|fi ;g lp gS fd çkjfEHkd lekthdj.k osQ ckn gh lekthdj.k dk f'kykU;kl djrk gS] bldk fufgrkFkZ

;gh gS fd ckn osQ lekthdj.k dk çfreku çkjfEHkd lekthdj.k osQ çfreku osQ vuq:i gksA ckn osQ vkuqHkfod

çek.kksa dk çHkko thou dh çkS<+koLFkk esa yksxksa dh vfHko`fÙk;ksa vkSj vfHkfoU;klksa esa ifjorZu yk nsrk gSA

¶ckY;koLFkk vkSj fd'kksjkoLFkk esa tks Kku] ewY; vkSj vfHko`fÙk;ka xzg.k dh tkrh gSa mUgsa o;Ld thou osQ

vuqHkoksa dh i`"BHkwfe esa ekik tk,xk % vU;Fkk ,slk lq>ko nsuk LFkSfrd jktuhfrd O;ogkj dk lq>ko nsuk gksxkA

;fn o;Ld lekthdj.k dh çfd;k ckY;koLFkk vkSj fd'kksjkoLFkk dh lekthdj.k dh çfd;k dks çcfyr djrh

gS rks ifjorZu dh ek=kk vk;q esa o`f¼ osQ dkj.k :f<+okn (conservatism) esa o`f¼ osQ lkFk lhfer gksrh tkrh

gS] ysfdu ogk¡ jktuhfrd O;ogkj esa Økafrdkjh ifjorZu gks ldrs gS_ bl çdkj osQ fojks|ksa dh tM+sa çkjfEHkd

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k esa gksrh gSa] ysfdu ;g ckn osQ lekthdj.k osQ vuqHkoksa osQ dkj.k Hkh gks ldrk gSA*

blls irk pyrk gS fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k osQ vUrxZr O;fDr dk lkjk thou vk tkrk gSA

bldh uhao O;fDr osQ thou dh çkjfEHkd voLFkkvksa esa gksrh gS] fdUgha u, vuqHkoksa osQ dkj.k ckn dh voLFkk

esa bldh vfèk&lajpuk (super-structure) esa rCnhyh vk ldrh gSA bl voLFkk ij lcls mYys[kuh; ckr ;g

gS fd ;qok lk{;ksa dk jktuhfrd lekthdj.k] vkeaM vkSj ockZ osQ 'kCnksa esa] cgqfnf'kd çHkkoksa dks çokfgr djrk

gSA bldk ifj.kke ;g gS fd çkS<+koLFkk esa O;fDr tks dqN lh[krs gSa] mls vius cPpksa dks çkjfEHkd voLFkk

esa gh fl[kkus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA vejhdk dk mnkgj.k is'k djrs gq, vkeaM vkSj ockZ bl ckr dh vksj

laosQr djrs gSa fd ns'k esa jktuhfrd yksdrU=k dh çFkk osQ dkj.k yksx ¶ckn esa Ldwyksa] cktkjksa vksj fxjtk?kjksa

esa Hkh yksdra=k dh ek¡x djus yxrs gSaA D;ksafd vke rkSj ij bl ek¡x dks Lohdkj dj fy;k tkrk gS] blosQ

ifj.kkeLo:i Ldwyh cPps] etnwj vkSj vU; yksx ppkZvksa] okn&fooknksa vkSj fu.kZ;&fuekZ.k çfØ;kvksa esa Hkkx

ysuk 'kq: dj nsrs gSaA bu vuqHkoksa osQ vkèkkj ij O;fDr ,slh dq'kyrkvksa esa Hkkx ysuk 'kq: dj nsrs gSaA bu

vuqHkoksa osQ vkèkkj ij O;fDr ,slh dq'kykvksa dk fodkl dj ysrk gS ftlls og jktuhfrd thou esa Hkkx ys

ldrk gS vkSj blls og ;k rks jktuhfrd ifjorZu yk ldrk gS vFkok mls Lohdkj dj ldrk gSA bl çdkj]

;g lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k u osQoy lekt dh jktuhfrd fLFkjrk esa cfYd ifjorZuksa esa Hkh ;ksxnku nsrh gS

vkSj mu nckoksa dks 'kkUr djrh gS ftulsa ifjorZu lEHko gksrs gSaA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k esa Lor% gh iqu% lekthdj.k dk ekeyk vk tkrk gS tks rc O;fDr;ksa dks

u, oxZ vkSj fLFkfr esa 'kkfey fd;k tkrk gS ftlosQ fy, HkwriwoZ lekt esa dksbZ Hkwfedk çfreku ugha FksA

vfèkdk¡'k vkS|ksfxdiw.kZ jktuhfrd ç.kkfy;ksa] tgk¡ rsth ls lkekftd ifjorZu gks jgs gSa] dks iqu% lekthdj.k

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osQ Hkkjh Hkjde dk;ks± ls tw>uk iM+rk gSA lokZfèkdkjoknh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa (;Fkk iQkflLV bVyh] ukt+h teZuh

vkSj dE;wfuLV lksfo;r la?k) osQ lkfgR; esa bl fo"k; ij dkiQh vfèkd è;ku fn;k x;k gSA ,d vkSj çdkj dk

iqu% lekthdj.k rc gksrk gS tc dksbZ lewg ,d ,sls O;fDr dks ,slh gSfl;r esa 'kkfey dj ysrk gS ftlosQ fy,

;g vius igys osQ çf'k{k.k osQ dkj.k rRij ugha FkkA bl fn'kk esa lkekftd lapkyuh;rk (social mobility) dk

ftØ fd;k tk ldrk gSA osQoy bu xkS.k vkSj chp dh laLFkkvksa dh Hkwfedk dks tc le> fy;k tkrk gS rc gh

ge vfèkd fo'okl osQ lkFk bl ckr dh O;k[;k dj ldrs gSa fd ,d lqf'kf{kr vkSj lqçf'kf{kr ih<+h ,d LFkkfir

O;k[;k osQ fo:¼ D;ksa Økafr djrh gS ;k Øk¡kfrdkjh tkikuh fd'kksj ,d vuqnkj O;Ld D;ksa curk gSA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k osQ nks pj.k gSaμ (1) ltkrh; (homogeneous) ;k lrr ftldk vfHkçk;

;g gS fd viuh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ çfr ikjLifjd fo'okl osQ okrkoj.k esa O;fDr ,d nwljs osQ lkFk lg;ksx

djsa] vkSj (2) fotkrh; (heterogeneous) vFkok vlrr~ ftldk vfHkçk; ;g gS fd O;fDr ,d nwljs osQ

çfr ikjLifjd vfo'okl] lUnsg vkSj ?k`.kk dh Hkkouk j[krs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k os viuh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ

çfr foeq[k vFkok mnklhu gks tkrs gSaA bl çdkj] ltkrh; vFkok lrr jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k esa

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk bl ckr dh vk'kk dj ldrh gS fd mls O;fDr;ksa dk fo'oluh; lg;ksx feysxk] blls

leLr jktuhfrd thou osQ ¶foÊy vkSj fo{kqCèk gksus dh laHkkouk gksrh gS] ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i fujk'kk gksxh

vkSj Øk¡frdkjh lkekftd ifjorZu dh ekax dh tk,xhA¸ tkfgj gS] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh fLFkjrk osQ fgr esa

;g vko';d gS fd yksx viuh thou'kfDr ltkrh; i;kZoj.k ls xzg.k djsaA¸

bl voLFkk ij bl ckr dh vksj laosQr fd;k tkuk pkfg, fd] ;|fi okLro esa jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQfy, jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro dh vis{kk tkrh gS] bls fdlh lwjr esa ifjorZu&fojksèkh ladYiuk ugha le>k tkukpkfg,A fuf'prr% bls bl vFkZ esa ,d vuqnkj ladYiuk le>k tk ldrk gS fd ;g ,sls ifjorZu dk leFkZudjrh gS tks u Økafrdkjh gS u rhozA blesa bl fo"k; ij cy fn;k x;k gS fd tc ifjorZu gksuk çd`fr dkfu;e gS rks mls Øfed vkSj 'kk¡friw.kZ gksuk pkfg,A bl çdkj] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k esa bl ckr ij cyfn;k tkrk gS fd vxj dkykUrj esa yksxksa dh vfHko`fÙk;ksa] vfHkfoU;klksa vkSj ewY;ksa esa ifjorZu vkrk gS] rks lkFkgh jktuhfrd laLd`fr esa ,d ifjorZu vo'; vkuk pkfg, rkfd ml vkdfLed ifjorZu osQ [krjs ls cpk tklosQ ftlls jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk fouk'k vFkok {k; gks ldrk gSA bldk vfHkçk; ;g gS fd jktuhfrd ewY;ksadks vkdkj çnku djus dh çfØ;k vkSj ifjorZu dh çfØ;k ,d nwljs osQ vuqdwy gksuh pkfg,A blosQ fy, ;gvko';d gS fd 'kkldksa dks eqæk&LiQhfr vkSj ;q¼ tSlh fdlh çeq[k ?kVuk dks jksdus osQ fy, lrdZ jguk pkfg,ftlls yksxksa vkSj mudh vfHko`fÙk;ksa esa fdlh çdkj osQ Økafrdkjh ifjorZu u vkus ik,¡A vr% lÙkk:<+ O;fDr;ksadk ;g ije dÙkZO; gks tkrk gS fd og ns[ksa fd bu ?kVukvksa dk ncko ,sls fcUnq ij u igq¡ps ftlls oiQknkjO;fDr foæksgh cu tk,¡] lg;ksxh yksx vkØked cu tk,¡ vkSj nksLr nq'eu cu tk,¡ bl ,sfrgkfld rF; osQdkj.k fd vxj lekthdj.k dh çfd;k lgt vkSj ftl jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk ns'k dh jktuhfrd laLd`frosQ lkFk lek;kstu vPNh çdkj ls gks x;k gS] og çHkkoh vkSj lqpk# rjhosQ ls dk;Z dj losQxkA blosQ foijhr];fn jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k vfrrhoz gks xbZ gS rks blosQ dkj.k lc dqN vLrO;Lr gks tk,xkA¸

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfd;k dky vkSj ml i;kZoj.k osQ vuqlkj vyx&vyx gksrh gS ftldk ;g vaxgksrh gS vkSj ftlesa bldk ;ksxnku gksrk gSA vr% bldk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh çÑfr vkSj ifjorZu dh ek=kk,oa LoHkko ls xgjk lacaèk gSA ¶jkT; O;oLFkk ftruh LFkk;h gksxh] mruh gh jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ eq[;vfHkdrkZvks fof'k"V gksaxhA blosQ foijhr] vlokZfèkdkjoknh jkT; O;LFkk esa eq[; vfHkdrkZvksa dh of¼ gksaxhA jkT;O;oLFkk esa Økafr dh ek=kk ftruh vfèkd cqfu;knh gksxh] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh vfHkdrkZ,a mruh gh vfèkdf'kf{kr gksaxhA¸ cgjgky] gesa bl ijeksRd"kZ rF; dh vogsyuk ugha djuh pkfg, fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.kdh vfHkdrkZ,a mruh gh vfèkd fof'k"V gksaxhA¸ fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ vuqj{k.k vkSj iqu% vkofÙk ls blosQ

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iw.kZ :ikarj ;k iw.kZ {k; rd jktuhfrd vfHkfoU;kl vkSj O;ogkj çfrekuksa dh vko';drk gS] oLrqr% ;g blckr ij cy nsus dh dksf'k'k djrk gS fd LFkk;h jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ fy, ijh{k.k dk fo"k; ;g gS fdlekthdj.k dh vfHkdrkZ,a¡ bruh vfèkd yphyh vkSj vU;ksU;kfJr gksa fd muls fgalkRed fo{kksHk osQ fcukifjorZu gks losQaA¸

jktuhfrd vfHkfoU;klksa vkSj O;ogkj çfrekuksa osQ vtZu djus osQ :i esa jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh cqfu;knhçfØ;k vyksdrkaf=kd lektksa ij mruh gh ykxw dh tk ldrh gS] ftruh yksdrkaf=kd lektksa ij] ;|fi blckr ls bUdkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk fd vfHkdrkZvksa dh Hkwfedk ;k ra=k dh i¼fr ij tks cy fn;k x;k gSog viuh fdLe vkSj çHkko'khyrk esa vyx&vyx gks ldrk gSA [kqyk lekt vlgefr O;Dr djus vkSj fojksèkçdV djus dh vkKk nsrk gS] mldk cgqyoknh Lo:i gksrk gS ftlesa cgqi{kh jktuhfrd ekudksa vkSj ewY;ksadh fdLeksa dks fl[kkus osQ fy, fofoèk fgrc¼ lewg dk;Zjr gksrs gSaA lokZfèkdkjoknh lekt dh fLFkfr blosQfoijhr gksrh gS tgk¡ lÙkk:<+ O;fDr viuh fopkjèkkjk vkSj jktuhfrd ewY;ksa dks lkjh turk ij vkjksfir djusdk ç;kl djrs gSa rkfd iqjkuh ih<+h dks Hkh f'kf{kr vkSj ubZ ih<+h dks iqu% f'kf{kr fd;k tk losQA lokZfèkdkjoknhlekt ¶vkèkqfud yksdrU=kksa ls bl vFkZ esa fHkÂ gS fd nksuksa esa lnL;ksa osQ jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ mi;ksxij fu;U=k.k dh ek=kk esa vUrj gksrk gSA çR;{k ;k ijks{k :i esa lHkh ljdkjsa lwpuk osQ ekè;eksa ij fu;U=k.kdjosQ fofHkUu ek=kkvksa esa vius lekt osQ lnL;ksa dk lekthdj.k djuk pkgrh gSa] ysfdu lokZfèkdkjoknh lektesa ;g fu;U=k.k loZO;kid gksrk gSA¸

lokZfèkdkjoknh lekt og gS tks lekt osQ lHkh igyqvksa ij viuk fu;a=k.k j[krk gS vkSj lekthdj.k ijlkekU;r;k fdUrq jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ij fo'ks"k <ax ls cy nsrk gSA jkT; dh fopkjèkkjk ¶lHkh dk;ks± dkljdkjh vkèkkj cu tkrh gS vkSj lHkh dk;Zdyki mlosQ vUrxZr vk tkrs gSaA jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dks viuslw=kksa dks pquus osQ fy, u rks NksM+k tkrk gS_ u gh ,sls vfu;af=kr Kku] ewY;ksa vkSj vfHko`fÙk;ksa dks iuius fn;ktkrk gS tks ml fopkjèkkjk dk fojksèk djsa ;k mls uqdlku igqapk;saA yksxksa osQ euksa ij vfèkdkj djus dk ç;klfd;k tkrk gS vkSj jkT; dh fopkjèkkjk osQ ekè;e ls mls ekxZ n'kZu dj jkT; dh vko';drkvksa osQ fy,bLrseky fd;k tkrk gSA¸ ;g ,MksYiQ fgVyj tSls egku lokZfèkdkjoknh usrkvksa osQ oDrO;ksa ls Li"V gS% ¶geusegt NksVh voLFkk ls gh ;qodksa esa bl yksd lekt dh Hkkouk dk vkjaHk djus dk mís'; j[kk gqvk gS--- vkSj;g u;k jkT; vius vfrfjDr vius ;qodksa dks fdlh vU; dks ugha nsxk] ;qodksa dks ysxk vkSj mUgsa viuh f'k{kkvkSj ykyu iks"k.k nsxkA¸ blh çdkj] ohñ vkbZñ ysfuu us dgk gS% ¶f'k{k.k laLFkkvksa vkSj ;qodksa osQ çf'k{k.kdks Økafrdkjh <ax ls u, fljs ls <kyus ij gh ge ;g lqfuf'pr dj ik,axs fd ;qok ih<+h osQ ç;klksa osQifj.kkeLo:i lekt dh jpuk gksxh tks iqjkus lekt vFkkZr lkE;oknh lekt ls fHkÂ gksxhA¸

vxj ge bl fo"k; dh xgu ijh{k.k djsa rks gekjh ;g vk'p;Ztud èkkj.kk curh gS fd yksdrkaf=kd vkSj

lokZfèkdkjoknh lektksa dk è;ku fd, fcuk jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k vko';d :i esa ,d vuqnkj

ladYiuk gS] D;ksafd bldk okLrfod lacaèk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vfrthfork vuqj{k.k ls gS pkgs og fczVsu

;k vejhdk dh rjg ls LorU=k vkSj [kqyk lekt gks] pkgs lksfo;r la?k ;k phu ljh[kh bldh foijhr fLFkfr

gks] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk dqy feykdj çHkko ¶;FkkfLFkfr (status quo) dks leFkZu çnku djus dh fn'kk

esa gS] vFkok] de ls de] ekStwnk jktuhfrd 'kkluksa osQ eq[; i{kksa dk leFkZu djus dh fn'kk esa gSA¸ tSlk

xzhULVhu (Greenstein) us dgk gS % ¶LFkk;h vkSj vLFkkbZ nksuksa çdkj osQ lektksa esa jktuhfrd lekthdj.k }kjk

fo|eku çfrekuksa dks cuk, j[ks tkus dh laHkkouk gSA¸

lokZfèkdkjh lekt ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\

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5-2 jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ vfHkdrkZ (Agents of Political Socialisation)

;fn jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk lacaèk y{;ksa dh fn'kk esa O;fDr;ksa osQ vfHkfoU;kl ls gS] rks vc ge mu

vfHkdrkZvksa (agents) dh Hkwfedk dk voyksdu djsaxs tks ekudksa osQ vaxhdj.k (Norn-internalization) esa

viuh Hkwfedk dk fuokZg djrs gSaA ,slh [kkst djus esa mu dkjdksa dh Hkwfedk Hkh vk tkrh gS ftudk O;fDr

osQ eu ij çR;{k ,oa ijks{k çHkko iM+rk gS vkSj bl çdkj os mlosQ O;fDrRo osQ fu[kkj esa ;ksxnku djrs gSaA

;fn lhèks lkns 'kCnksa esa dgk tk, rks bldk ;g vFkZ gS fd ge mu dkjdksa dk] la{ksi esa] vè;;u djsa tks

jktuhfrd ekudksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks vaxhdkj djrs gSa ftUgsa igys osQ ;qxksa osQ yksx ukxfjd f'k{kk esa ikB] ukxfjdrk

osQ fy, çf'k{k.k] lÙkk:<+ yksxksa osQ O;ogkj vkSj lkekftd o jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh Hkwfedk dgk djrs FksA

bl çdkj] bl oDrO; osQ ;FkkFkZ dk irk yxkus osQ fy, ifjokj] Ldwy] ppks±] leku yksxksa osQ lewgksa] tu&laidZ

lkèkuksa vkSj tu lacaèkksa dh Hkwfedk dk voyksdu fd;k tkuk pkfg,% D;ksafd O;fDr dh jktuhfrd vfHko`fÙk;ka]

vfHkfoU;klksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks vknku çnku djus esa lnSo O;fDr dks çHkkfor fd;k tkrk gS] blfy, ;g

lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k mez Hkj pyrh jgrh gSA¸ ;k tSlk fd ckWy us dgk gS% ¶jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ,slh

çfØ;k ugha gS tks ckY;dky osQ çHkkoxzg ;ksX; o"kks± rd lhfer gks] cfYd ;g rks lkjs o;Ld thou osQ nkSjku

pyrh jgrh gSA¸

lcls igys ifjokj dk LFkku vkrk gS ftls cPps osQ fy, ¶ckgj dh nqfu;k ij [kqyus okyh igyh f[kM+dh dguk

pkfg,_ ;g cPps dk çkfèkdkj osQ lkFk igyk lEidZ gSA¸ O;fDr osQ jktuhfrd O;fDrRo osQ fuekZ.k esa ifjokj

dk çeq[k ;ksxnku ml Hkwfedk ls mRiÂ gksrk gS ftls mldh cqfu;knh vkSj varHkwZr vko';drkvksa dh iwfrZ osQ

fy, eq[; lkèku vkSj {ks=k le>k tk ldrk gSA bl çdkj] cPpk vius ekrk&firk osQ lkFk viuk rknkRe;

djuk pkgrk gS vkSj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ çfr muosQ n`f"Vdks.k dks viukuk pkgrk gSA firk vkfn& :ih;

çkfèkdkj osQ çfr cPps osQ fopkjksa dk fuekZ.k djuk pkgrk gSA tSlk osQ Msot us dgk gS% ¶ifjokj ekufld

:i esa uXu f'k'kq dks iwjh rjg ls vkHkwf"kr O;fDrRo osQ :i esa :ikarfjr djus osQ eq[; lkèku çnku djrk

gSA O;fDr dk vfèkdka'k jktuhfrd O;fDrÙoμ,d lkekU; o;Ld ukxfjd vkSj çeq[k jktuhfrd dk;ZdrkZ osQ

:i esa dk;Z djus lsμ?kj ij gh fuèkkZfjr gksrk gS vkSj ,d lkèkkj.k o;Ld ukxfjd ,oa ,d jktuhfrd

drkZ&èkrkZ osQ :i esa mHkjus ls dbZ o"kZ iwoZ gh ,slk fuèkkZj.k gks tkrk gSA¸ jkcVZ ysu us lq>ko fn;k gS fd

ifjokj osQ ekè;e ls rhu jktuhfrd fo'oklksa dh uhao dk U;kl fd;k tk ldrk gS% (1) çR;{k ;k ijks{k :i

esa erkjksi.k (indoctrination)] (2) ,d fo'ks"k lkekftd lanHkZ esa cPps dks j[kdj] vkSj (3) cPps oQk

O;fDrRo <ky djA

blosQ ckn] çkFkfed f'k{kk osQ osQUæ osQ :i esa Ldwy dk LFkku vkrk gSA jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh O;k[;k esa

f'k{kk dks cgqr le; ls ,d egRoiw.kZ pj le>k tkrk jgk gS vkSj bl ckr dk çek.k fn;k tk ldrk

gS fd og jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk ,d vR;Ur egRoiw.kZ lkèku gSA vkeaM vkSj ockZ us bl ckr dh vksj

laosQr fd;k gS fd fdlh O;fDr dh f'k{kk ftruh O;kid gksxh mruk gh og ljdkj osQ çHkko osQ çfr ltx

gksxk] jktuhfr dk vuqlj.k dj ik,xk] vfèkd ls vfèkd jktuhfrd tkudkjh çkIr dj losQxk] mlosQ

jktuhfrd ekeyksa ij O;kid er gksaxs] vfèkd ls vfèkd jktuhfrd n`f"V ls tkx:d yksxksa ls vfèkd ls

vfèkd jktuhfrd ppkZ,a djsxk] og jktuhfrd ekeyksa dks çHkkfor djus dh vfèkd ;ksX;rk vuqHko djsxk]

og LoSfPNd laxBuksa esa lnL;rk xzg.k djsxk vkSj buesa lfØ; :i esa Hkkx ysxk] vius lkekftd i;kZoj.k

esa fo'okl O;Dr djsxk vkSj fo'okl dh Hkkoukvksa dks çnf'kZr djsxkA bl dkj.k ikB~;Øeksa osQ p;u dk

viuk gh egRo gks x;k gSA jktuhfrd n`f"V ls tkx:d yksx vius fgrksa osQ vuqdwy ikB~;Øeksa esa la'kksèku

osQ fy, [kwc la?k"kZ djrs gSaA blh dkj.k] osQjy esa eqfLye yhx osQ usrkvksa us Ldwyh ikB~;iqLrdksa esa ls mu

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va'kksa dks fudkyus osQ fy, la?k"kZ fd;k ftuesa Lora=krk ls iwoZ osQ ;qx esa tokgjyky usg: us yhx dh

lkEçnkf;d vkSj jk"Vªfojksèkh Hkwfedk osQ ckjs esa dgk FkkA bl ckjs esa mUgksaus bl ckr dh tksjnkj ekax dh

gS fd f'k{kk laLFkkvksa esa ¶dkys yksxksa osQ ckjs esa vè;;u¸ osQ dk;ZØeksa dks 'kkfey fd;k tk,A

bl fn'kk esa ftl ckr dk T;knk egRo gS] og ;g gS fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh leL;k ml le; mRiÂ

gksrh gS tc cPpk vius ifjokj vkSj çkFkfed Ldwy osQ çkjafHkd çHkkoksa ls mHkj dj vkxs vkrk gS vkSj mPprj

d{kkvksa osQ txr esa igq¡prk gS ftls ^leku O;fDr;ksa osQ xqV* ;k ^le&lewg (peer groups) Hkh dgk tkrk gS

vkSj bl çdkj og vU; çHkkoksa osQ vèkhu gks tkrk gS tks çkjafHkd jktuhfrdj.k dks ¶çpfyr vkSj bldks {kh.k

Hkh dj ldrs gSaA¸ ekfVZu ysfou us irk yxk;k gS fd O;fDr;ksa esa bl ckr dh ço`fÙk gksrh gS fd ^lelewg*

esa Hkh yksx cgqer çkIr lewg* dks viuk ysrs gSaA cM+s Nk=kksa dh vfHko`fÙk;ksa ij vè;;u ikB~;Øeksa] okn&fooknksa]

ppkZvksa vkSj vU; ikB~;srj dk;Zdykiksa dk fuf'pr lanHkZ esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gksrh gS vkSj os jktuhfrd çcksèk

(poltical enlightenment) osQ çHkkoh lkèku cu tkrs gSaA bl rjg ls f'k{kk 'kkL=k dk lkekftd foKkuksa ls lacaèk

gks tkrk gS D;ksafd] tSlk fd lhñ jkbV feYl us viuh jpuk n lks';kyksthdy besthus'ku* (The Sociological

Imagination) esa dgk] ¶nksuksa dk mís'; ,sls yksxksa vkSj O;fDr;ksa dks rS;kj djuk gS tks O;fDrxr vkSj

lkekftd lacaèkksa osQ lkFk jgus osQ ;ksX; gSa vksj mudh i;kZIr ifjHkk"kkvksa osQ vuqlkj jg ldrs gSA¸

eku&vaxhdj.k (norm-internalization) dh çfØ;k esa u osQoy ifjokjksa vkSj f'k{kk osQUæksa cfYd lkekftd vkSj

jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh Hkh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] èkkfeZd laLFkkvksa osQ egRo dks fdlh Hkh

rjg ls ghu ugha le>k tkuk pkfg,A èkkfeZd laLFkkvksa dk jktuhfrd vfHko`fÙk;ksa ij çHkko tkfgj rkSj ij de

gksrk gS tc ;g vU; lektdkjh laLFkkvksa dks çcfyr djrh gSa] ysfdu cgqr ls mnkj&yksdrkaf=kd vkSj

lokZfèkdkjoknh ;wjksih; ns'kksa ij jkseu dSFkksfyd èkeZ dh Hkwfedk gesa blosQ jkT; vkSj f'k{kk nksuksa osQ lkFk fojksèk

osQ mnkgj.k çLrqr djrh gSa 'kk;n ;g dbZ ns'kksa esa vkSjrks osQ jktuhfrd O;ogkj dk fnXn'kZu djkus esa ,d

egRoiw.kZ dkjd gSA¸ jk"Vªh; ,dhdj.k osQ gsrq fo'ks"kdj fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa ;qok vkanksyuksa dh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk

gksrh gSA gesa jktuhfrd nyksa dh Hkwfedk dk Hkh voyksdu djuk pkfg, tks vfèkd foLr`r gksrh gS D;ksafd

mUgsa (nyksa dks) O;kid leFkZu çkIr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ljdkj dh dqy feykdj Hkwfedk dks]

fo'ks"kr;k lksfo;r la?k vkSj if'peh teZuh esa] vo'; vPNh çdkj ls ns[kk tkuk pkfg, tgka jktuhfrd f'k{kk

dks çksRlkfgr djus osQ fy, LoSfPNd ;qok oxks± vkSj laxBuksa dks foÙkh; lgk;rk çnku dh tkrh gSA

gesa O;fDr osQ vuqHkoksa dk Hkh ijh{k.k djuk pkfg, ftls og vius jkstxkj osQ nkSjku xzg.k djrk gSA ftl

çdkj ,d fu;kstd vius deZpkfj;ksa osQ çfr O;ogkj djrk gS mlls ekuo çd`fr osQ ckjs esa xgu varn`f"ZV

xzg.k dh tk ldrh gSA ,d cPps osQ :i esa ,d ,sls ifjokj esa ijofj'k ikdj] ftldk lapkyu yksdrkaf=kd

vkèkkj ij fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ftlesa ,d nwljs osQ çfr lg;ksx dh Hkkouk gksrh gS] dksbZ O;fDr vkØks'k]

;gka rd fd fgalk] dh Hkkouk O;Dr dj ldrk gS vxj og ns[krk gS fd mldk fu;kstd uhp O;ogkj

djrk gSA ;gha ij vius vèkhuLFk deZpkfj;ksa ij çHkqRo dh vfHko`fÙk dk vèkhuLFk deZpkfj;ksa dh vius

ofj"B lg;ksfx;ksa osQ çfr vknj vkSj fufeZr vkSipkfjd laxBu] ;Fkk Dyc vkSj ;wfu;u] os ekè;e cu tkrs

gSa ftuosQ tfj;s jktuhfrd lwpuk vkSj fo'oklksa dk lapkj gksrk gS vkSj lkewfgd lkSnsckth dh çfØ;k esa

fdlh çdkj ls Hkkx ysuk ,oa fdlh gM+rky ls lEc¼ gksuk fu;kstdksa vkSj etnwjksa osQ fy, leku <ax ls

'kfDr'kkyh lektdkjh vuqHko gks ldrk gSA gM+rkyh etnwj u osQoy ;g lh[krk gS fd og vius HkkX;

osQ ckjs esa çkfèkÑr fu.kZ;ksa dks vkdkj çnku dj ldrk gS] cfYd mls fof'k"V dk;Zdq'kyrkvksa osQ ckjs esa

Hkh tkudkjh çkIr gksrh gS tSls çn'kZu vkSj u'kkcUnh djuk] ftls ckn esa jktuhfrd vkanksyuksa esa Hkkx ysus

gsrq bLrseky fd;k tk ldrk gSA

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ySloSy dk oxks± dk leku leqPp;

dkjd laLFkk,¡ çHkko

lÙkk ljdkj vkSj dkuwu egRoiw.kZ fu.kZ;ksa osQ lacaèk esa leFkZu çkIr djuk vkSjleFkZu nsuk (çkfèkÑr çfrc¼rk,a ykxw djus ;ksX; gksaxh];fn bUgsa pqukSrh nh xbZ rks ,slk djus okyksa dks dM+h ltknh tk;sxhA

Kku tu&laidZ osQ lkèku vkSj lekpkj ;k oSKkfud lwpuk nsuk ;k çkIr djuk] oSKkfudçdk'kuA

lEink m|ksx] èku vkSj lk[k lsokvksa ;k lalkèkuksa dks çkIr djukA

dY;k.k iks"k.k vkSj fpfdRlk lsok lqj{kk] LokLF; vkSj lq[k osQ volj çkIr djuk vkSj nsukA

dq'kyrk O;olk;] is'ks] dyk,a fufgr {kerkvksa dks [kksyus vkSj iw.kZ djus osQ fy,volj çkIr djuk vkSj nsukA

Lusg ifjokj] cM+h fLFkfr;k¡ çse vkSj fu"Bk osQ fy, volj çkIr djuk vkSj nsukA

lEeku oxZ] in vkSj tkfr;ka ekU;rk osQ fy, volj çkIr djuk vkSj nsukA

bZekunkjh èkkfeZd] vkpkj'kkL=kh; nkf;Roiw.kZ vkpj.k osQ fu;eksa dks lqfoèkktud cukus vkSjykxw djus osQ fy, volj çnku djuk ;k nsukA

O;fDr osQ O;fDrRo osQ laKkukRed ekufp=k ij tulapkj osQ ekè;eksa dk viuk gh izHkko gksrk gSA lekpkj i=kksals fjiksVks± dks i<+dj jsfM;ks okrkZvksa dks lqudj vkSj Vsyhfotu fiQYekssa dks ns[kdj yksx fdUgh ekudksa vkSj ewY;ksaosQ fy, viuh ilan vkSj ukilan dk fodkl dj ysrs gSaA bl izdkj eqDr tulapkj osQ lkèkuμlekpkj i=k] jsfM;ksvkSj Vsyhfotuμ O;fDr;ksa osQ eu esa fofHk=k izdkj osQ ewY;ksa dk fodkl djrs gSa_ tulapkj osQ lkèkuksa dh fu;af=krO;oLFkk muosQ fopkjksa dks ,d lw=k esa ckaèkus osQ fy, cgqr gh izHkko'khy Hkwfedk dk fodkl dj ldrh gSaA

blosQ vykok ge jktuhfrd vfHkfoU;klksa osQ ,d egRoiw.kZ ekè;e osQ :i esa izrhdksa* ((symbols) dh Hkwfedkdk Hkh mYys[k dj ldrs gSaA ebZ fnol ijsM] vke pquko] cktkjksa es izn'kZu] jkT;kfHk"ksd] jk"VªifrRo dk mn~?kkVu]ekDlZ] ysfuu vkSj xkaèkh dh t;fUr;ka] jk"Vªh; [kq'kh osQ fnuksa dks euk;k tkuk vkfn tSlh ?kVuk,a yksxks dh ,sfrgkfldfujUrjrk vkSj mudh ,drk ij cy nsrh gSA ,d NksVk cPpk u osQoy bu lHkh ?kVukvksa dks ns[krk gS og vius'kklu osQ izHkkoh vkSj ewY;kadudkjh vfHkfoU;kl dk Hkh fodkl dj ysrk gSA cPpksa esa okLrfod Kku ls igys buewY;kaduksa osQ èkkjdksa osQ ckjs esa ikVhZ lacaèkksa] vejhdh jk"Vªifr dh okLrfod 'kfDr;ksa vkSj fczfV'k ujs'k dh jktuhfrdrVLFkrk o ukeek=k dh vè;{krk osQ ckjs esa ldkjkRed tkudkjh vkrh gSA

var esa] ge jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lkFk çR;{k lEidZ osQ çHkko ij vkrs gSaA ;g dguk xyr ugha gksxk fd O;fDr;ksadh vfHko`fÙk;ksa vkSj vfHkfoU;klksa dks vkdkj çnku djus esa lcls çHkkoiw.kZ ekè;e ;g gks ldrk gS fd mUgsa mljktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lkFk lhèks lEidZ esa vkus fn;k tk, ftlosQ vèkhu os jgrs gSaA ¶ml jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQckjs esa] ftUgsa ifjokj vkSj Ldwy us 'kkfey fd;k gS] fopkj fdruk gh ldkjkRed D;ksa u gks] tc fdlh O;fDrdh mlosQ ny }kjk vogsyuk dh tkrh gS] iqfyl }kjk mls èkks[kk fn;k tkrk gS] jksVh osQ fy, yxh iafDr esa gksusij Hkh mls Hkw[kk ejus fn;k tkrk gS] vkSj] var esa] mls iQkSt esa tcju HkrhZ dj fy;k tkrk gS] rks bl ckr dhl¡Hkkouk gksrh gS fd viuh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ ckjs esa mlosQ fopkj cny tk,axsA fof'k"V lHkzkar O;fDr;ksa osQlkFk mlosQ çR;{kr% vkSipkfjd&vukSipkfjd lacaèk vko';d :i esa ,d 'kfDr'kkyh ;U=k gSa tks ml O;oLFkk osQçfr O;fDr;ksa osQ vfHkfoU;klksa dks vkdkj çnku djrs gSaA¸

vkykspukRed ewY;kadu% jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro vkSj fodkl dks le>kus osQ fy, jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ

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vè;;u dks vR;fèkd laHkkouk'khy mikxeksa esa ls ,d mikxe dgk tkrk gSA ftlus gkfy;k jktuhfrd oSKkfudksa]jktuhfrd lekt oSKkfudksa vkSj jktuhfrd oSKkfudksa_ fo'ks"kdj vejhdh] dks çsfjr fd;k gSA mudh bPNk ,slsdkjdksa dks ns[kus dh gS ftUgksaus jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks :ikarfjr dj fn;k gS vkSj tks fo'ks"kdj fo'o osQ fiNM+sgq, vkSj fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa viuh Hkwfedk dk fuokZg djrs jgs gSaA oLrqr% ftl ckr us fo}kuksa dks bl fn'kkesa viuk ;ksxnku çnku djus osQ fy, çsfjr fd;k gS og mudh ,sls midj.kksa dk fodkl djus dh mRlkgiw.kZ[kkst gS ftlls fo|eku jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks ,sls :i esa ifjofrZr gksus ls cpkus dk iz;Ru fd;k tks LorU=kvkSj [kqys lektksa osQ txr osQ foijhr gSaA bldk ifj.kke ;g gqvk gS fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh ladYiukij vuqnkj gksus dk vkjksi yxk;k tkrk gSA D;ksafd jktuhfrd fodkl dh leLr ladYiuk dk mís'; ;Fkk rF;(status quo) dh j{kk djus vkSj mls cuk, j[kuk gS] blfy, jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh ladYiuk ij Hkh oghvkjksi yxk, tk ldrs gSa D;ksafd og mlh dh O;qRifÙk gSA

bl çdkj] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ladYiuk u rks mu yksxksa osQ mís';ksa dks iwjk dj ldrh gS tks ekDlZokn&ysfuuoknosQ vuq;k;h gSa] u gh ;g mu yksxksa dks iw.kZ:i esa larq"V dj ldrh gS tks oSKkfud lektokn osQ fodYi dh [kkstesa yxs gq, gSaA ekDlZoknh bl ckr dk [kqysvke ,yku djrs gSa fd nk'kZfudksa us vc rd fo'o dh O;k[;k dh gS]leL;k ;g gS fd bls fdl çdkj cnyk tk,A blh dkj.k] os jktuhfrd lekthdj.k tSlh fdlh Hkh ladYiuk dksvLohdkj dj nsrs gSa D;ksafd og cqtqZvk eu dh prqj nsu gSA blesa fo'ks"k rjg ls mYys[kuh; ckr ;g gS fd jktuhfrdeuksoSKkfudksa dk iwjk mikxe gh LorU=k fo'o osQ fo}kuksa dks larq"V djus esa vleFkZ jgk gS D;ksafd mUgksaus vius mulkfFk;ksa dh rjg mls iw.kZ:i esa vLohdkj ugha fd;k gS tks ekDlZoknh&ysfuuoknh fopkjksa osQ vuq;k;h gSaA vejhdhjktuhfrd oSKkfudksa dh ubZ ih<+h us çfreku pjksa (pattern variables) vkSj mudh vkuqHkkfod fof'k"Vrkvksa(empirical specifications) esa dbZ nks"k <wa<+s gSa osQoy ;gh ugha fd rhljh nqfu;k osQ fodkl'khy ns'kksa ij cfYd muosQvius ns'kksa ij Hkh bUgsa fdl çdkj ykxw fd;k tk, tks eqækLiQhfr] csjkstxkjh vkSj ;q¼ tSlh fo"ke leL;kvksa esa tdM+sgq, gSa vkSj tks mudh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh vfrthfork osQ fy, xaHkhj [krjk cus gq, gSaA

rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa osQ jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vè;;u ls irk pyrk fd ftl çfreku dks egku vejhdhys[kdksa us çLrqr fd;k gS] ml jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ uewus dks cgqr vfèkd lsukvksa] cgqr vfèkdlsodra=kh; ijthfork] cgqr vfèkd vleku vkSj vi;kZIr mRiknu] ;kstukvksa osQ çn'kZu ij cgqr vfèkd cy]fofHkÂ lektksa osQ chp fojksèkksa dh vfèkd vfHkO;fDr djus] vkSj la{ksi esa] laHkzkartuksa osQ fy, cgqr vfèkdjktuhfrd o tulkèkkj.k dh ukdkiQh lgHkkfxrk esa mi;ksx esa ugha yk;k tk ldrkA 'kh?kz ugha cfYd cgqr ghyEcs vlsZ osQ ckn if'peh çfreku dks] fo'ks"kdj dbZ rhljs fo'o osQ usrkvksa osQ ewY;ksa y{;ksa osQ fujis{k Lo:iosQ lUnHkZ esa] vi;kZIr le>k tkus yxkA



1- vkeaM vkSj ockZ us bl ckr dh vksj laosQr fd;k gS fd fdlh O;fDr dh --------------------- ftruhO;kid gksxh og jktuhfrd :i esa mruk gh tkx:d gksxkA

2- tc cPpk vius ifjokj vkSj çkFkfed Ldwy osQ çHkkoksa ls mHkjdj vkxs vkrk gS vkSj---------- osQ txr esa igq¡prk gS mls ^leku O;fDr;ksa osQ xqV* ;k lelewg (peer groups)Hkh dgk tkrk gSA

3- ------------------------------ dh çfØ;k esa u osQoy ifjokjksa vkSj f'k{kk osQUæksa cfYd lkekftd vkSjjktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh Hkh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA

4- jk"Vªh; ,dhdj.k gsrq fo'ks"kdj fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa ---------------- dh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gksrh gSA

5- O;fDr osQ O;fDrRo osQ ------------------------ ij tulapkj osQ ekè;eksa dk viuk gh çHkko gksxkA

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jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ¶og çfØ;k gS ftlosQ }kjk jktuhfrd laLd`fr;ksa dk vuqj{k.k vkSj muesa ifjorZufd;k tkrk gSA bl dk;Z osQ fu"iknu osQ ekè;e ls O;fDr;ksa dks jktuhfrd laLd`fr;ksa esa 'kkfey fd;k tkrkgS] rHkh jktuhfrd oLrqvksa osQ çfr muosQ vfHkfoU;kl dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk gSA¸ nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ;g mlf'k{k.k çfØ;k dh vksj funsZ'k djrk gS ftlosQ }kjk lqlapkfyr jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ fy, Lohdk;Z ekudksavkSj O;ogkjksa dks ,d ih<+h ls vxyh ih<+h rd lEçsf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA bl çdkj] bl ladYiuk dk mís';O;fDr;ksa dk bl rjhosQ ls çf'k{k.k vkSj fodkl djuk gS fd os jktuhfrd leqnk; osQ lqdk;Zdkjh lnL; culosQA tkfgj gS fd blosQ vFkZ esa fof'k"V :i esa euksoSKkfud vk;ke fufgr gS fd ¶;g lapkyu'khyjktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ Lohdk;Z ekudksa] vfHko`fÙk;ksa vkSj O;ogkj dks Øfed <ax lslh[kuk gSA¸

bl çdkj fopkj djus ij jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ varxZr thou dh gjsd voLFkk esa lHkh] vkSipkfjd,oa vukSipkfjd] jktuhfrd çf'k{k.k vk tk,axs] fiQj pkgs og tkucw>dj vFkok vk;ksftr] vkSj blesa uosQoy og Li"V jktuhfrd çf'k{k.k 'kkfey gksxk tks jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks çHkkfor djrk gS (tSlsjktuhfrd n`f"V ls vlEc¼ lkekftd vfHko`fÙk;ksa dk xzg.k djuk) oju~ blesa jktuhfrd n`f"V ls lEc¼O;fDrxr fo'ks"krkvksa dks xzg.k djuk Hkh 'kkfey gksxkA¸

vxj bls lkekU; 'kCnksa esa dgk tk, rks jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ,d ,slk fopkj gS tks jktuhfrd LFkkf;RoosQ y{; dks çkIr djus dh vis{kk djrk gSA bldk vkèkkj ;g gS fd dksbZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk rc rd lqpk#<ax ls dk;Z ugha dj ldrh tc rd mlosQ lkFk&lkFk jktuhfrd ekudksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks vaxhdkj djus dhçfØ;k dk;Zjr u gksA tSlk fd ,d tho (organism) osQ lacaèk esa gksrk gS] mlh çdkj ls jktfudk; (politicsbody) esa Hkh] vuqj{k.k vkSj vfrthfork osQ vfrfjDr fdlh vU; oLrq dh vko';drk ugha gksrhA

tSlk jkcVkZ lkbxsy (Roberta Sigel) us dgk gS] ¶jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk mís'; ,sls O;fDr;ksa dkçf'k{k.k vkSj fodkl djuk gS ftlls os jktuhfrd lekt osQ vPNs dk;Zdkjh lnL; cu losaQ] D;ksafd ,djktfudk; osQ fcuk] tks lapkfyr jktuhfrd ewY;ksa vkSj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lkFk lkeatL; esa gS] lqpk#:i esa dk;Z ugha gks ldrkA vkSj vfUre :i esa vfrthfork jktuhfrd laxBu dk mlh çdkj ls ,d y{;gS ftl çdkj ls ,d tho dkA

bl çdkj] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh ifjHkk"kk ml ¶çfØ;k osQ :i esa dh tkrh gS ftlls dksbZ O;fDrjktuhfrd O;oLFkk ls ifjfpr gksrk gS vkSj tks jktuhfrd ?kVukvksa osQ çfr mldh çfrfØ;k dk fuèkkZj.kdjrk gSA blosQ fy, vko';drk bl ckr dh gS fd O;fDr ij lekt osQ vkSj lekt ij O;fDr osQ lkekftd]vkfFkZd ;k lkaLd`frd i;kZoj.k osQ çHkko dk ijh{k.k fd;k tk,A

,d uotkr f'k'kq tUetkr lkekthd`r tho ugha gksrk gS_ çf'k{k.k i¼fr ls gh mls lkekftd cuk;k tkrkgSA lkFk gh] bl çdkj dk ¶çf'k{k.k lekt osQ ekudksa osQ ckjs esa mi;qDr Kku çkIr djus rd gh lhferugha gS] cfYd blosQ fy, bl ckr dh Hkh vis{kk gksrh gS fd O;fDr mu ekudksa dks bl çdkj vaxhdkjdj ysa fd os mls lgh] U;k;iw.kZ vkSj uSfrd çrhr gksaA

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k ml dky ls vkjEHk gksrh gS tcfd cPpk pkjksa vksj osQ O;kid i;kZoj.kosQ ckjs esa ltx gksrk gS] fo'ks"k fLFkfr;ksa osQ çfr vuqfØ;k esa vfèkd (perceptive) vuqHko djrk gS vkSjvius fy, ,d ,sls n`f"Vdks.k dk fodkl dj ysrk gS tks vfèkdkfèkd laxr vkSj lEiw.kZ gks tkrk gS tcfdblls iwoZ ;g [kafMr vkSj lhfer gksrk gSA

blls irk pyrk gS fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k osQ vUrxZr O;fDr dk lkjk thou vk tkrk gSAbldh uhao O;fDr osQ thou dh çkjfEHkd voLFkkvksa esa gksrh gS] mUgha u, vuqHkoksa osQ dkj.k ckn dh voLFkkesa bldh vfèk&lajpuk (super-structure) esa rCnhyh vk ldrh gSA

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jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k osQ nks pj gSaμ (1) ltkrh; (homogeneous) ;k lrr ftldk vfHkçk;;g gS fd viuh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ çfr ikjLifjd fo'okl osQ okrkoj.k esa O;fDr ,d nwljs osQ lkFklg;ksx djsa] vkSj (2) fotkrh; (heterogeneous) vFkok vlrr~ ftldk vfHkçk; ;g gS fd O;fDr ,dnwljs osQ çfr ikjLifjd vfo'okl] lUnsg vkSj ?k`.kk dh Hkkouk j[krs gSa ftlosQ dkj.k os viuh jktuhfrdO;oLFkk osQ çfr foeq[k vFkok mnklhu gks tkrs gSaA

bl voLFkk ij bl ckr dh vksj laosQr fd;k tkuk pkfg, fd] ;|fi okLro esa jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQfy, jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro dh vis{kk dh tkrh gS] bls fdlh lwjr esa ifjorZu&fojksèkh ladYiuk ugha le>ktkuk pkfg,A fuf'prr% bls bl vFkZ esa ,d vuqnkj ladYiuk le>k tk ldrk gS fd ;g ,sls ifjorZudk leFkZu djrh gS tks u Økafrdkjh gS u rhozA blesa bl fo"k; ij cy fn;k x;k gS fd tc ifjorZu gksukçd`fr dk fu;e gS rks mls Øfed vkSj 'kk¡friw.kZ gksuk pkfg,A

jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh çfd;k dky vkSj ml i;kZoj.k osQ vuqlkj vyx&vyx gksrh gS ftldk ;gvax gksrh gS vkSj ftlesa bldk ;ksxnku gksrk gSA vr% bldk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh çd`fr vkSj ifjorZudh ek=kk ,oa LoHkko ls xgjk lacaèk gSA

lokZfèkdkjoknh lekt og gS tks lekt osQ lHkh igyqvksa ij viuk fu;a=k.k j[krk gS vkSj lekthdj.k ijlkekU;r;k fdUrq jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ij fo'ks"k <ax ls cy nsrk gSA

;fn lhèks lkns 'kCnksa esa dgk tk, rks bldk ;g vFkZ gS fd ge mu dkjdksa dk] la{ksi esa vè;;u djsa tksjktuhfrd ekudksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks vaxhdkj djrs gSa ftUgsa igys osQ ;qxksa osQ yksx ukxfjd f'k{kk esa ikB]ukxfjdrk osQ fy, çf'k{k.k] lÙkk:<+ yksxksa osQ O;ogkj vkSj lkekftd o jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh Hkwfedkdgk djrs FksA bl çdkj] bl oDrO; osQ ;FkkFkZ dk irk yxkus osQ fy, ifjokj] Ldwy] ppks±] leku yksxksaosQ lewgksa] tu&laidZ lkèkuksa vkSj tu lacaèkksa dh Hkwfedk dk voyksdu fd;k tkuk pkfg,% D;ksafd O;fDrdh jktuhfrd vfHko`fÙk;ka] vfHkfoU;klksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks vknku çnku djus esa lnSo O;fDr dks çHkkfor fd;ktkrk gS] blfy, ;g lekthdj.k dh çfØ;k mez Hkj pyrh jgrh gSA¸

blosQ ckn] çkFkfed f'k{kk osQ osQUæ osQ :i esa Ldwy dk LFkku vkrk gSA jktuhfrd O;ogkj dh O;k[;k esaf'k{kk dks cgqr le; ls ,d egRoiw.kZ pj le>k tkrk jgk gS vkSj bl ckr dk çek.k fn;k tk ldrk gSfd og jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dk ,d vR;Ur egRoiw.kZ lkèku gSA

bl fn'kk esa ftl ckr dk T;knk egRo gS og ;g gS fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh leL;k ml le; mRiÂgksrh gS tc cPpk vius ifjokj vkSj çkFkfed Ldwy osQ çkjafHkd çHkkoksa ls mHkj dj vkxs vkrk gS vkSj mPprjd{kkvksa osQ txr esa igq¡prk gS ftls leku O;fDr;ksa oQk xqV* ;k le lewg (peer groups) Hkh dgk tkrk gSA

tSlk fd lh- jkbV feYl us viuh jpuk n lks';kyksthdy besthus'ku* (The Sociological Imagination)esa dgk] ¶nksuksa dk mís'; ,sls yksxksa vkSj O;fDr;ksa dks rS;kj djuk gS tks O;fDrxr vkSj lkekftd lacaèkksaosQ lkFk jgus osQ ;ksX; gSa vkSj mudh i;kZIr ifjHkk"kkvksa osQ vuqlkj jg ldrs gSaA¸

gesa O;fDr osQ vuqHkoksa dk Hkh ijh{k.k djuk pkfg, ftls og vius jkstxkj osQ nkSjku xzg.k djrk gSA ftlçdkj ,d fu;kstd vius deZpkfj;ksa osQ çfr O;ogkj djrk gS mlls ekuo çd`fr osQ ckjs esa xgu varn`f"ZVxzg.k dh tk ldrh gSA

jktuhfrd LFkkf;Ro vkSj fodkl dks le>kus osQ fy, jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ vè;;u dks vR;fèkdlaHkkouk'khy mikxeksa esa ls ,d mikxe dgk tkrk gS] ftlus gkfy;k jktuhfrd oSKkfudksa] jktuhfrd lektoSKkfudksa vkSj jktuhfrd oSKkfudks_ fo'ks"kdj vejhfd;ksa] dks çsfjr fd;k gSA

oLrqr% ftl ckr us fo}kuksa dks bl fn'kk esa viuk ;ksxnku çnku djus osQ fy, çsfjr fd;k gS og mudh,sls midj.kksa dk fodkl djus dh mRlkgiw.kZ [kkst gS ftlls fo|eku jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks ,sls :iesa ifjofrZr gksus ls cpk;k tk losQ rks LorU=k vkSj [kqys lektksa osQ txr osQ foijhr gSaA bldk ifj.kke ;g

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gqvk gS fd jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh ladYiuk ij vuqnkj gksus dk vkjksi yxk;k tkrk gSA D;ksafdjktuhfrd fodkl dh leLr ldYiuk dk mís'; ;Fkk rF; (status quo) dh j{kk djus vkSj mls cuk, j[kukgS] blfy, jktuhfrd lekthdj.k dh ladYiuk ij Hkh ogh vkjksi yxk, tk ldrs gSa D;ksafd og mlh dhO;qRifÙk gSA

bl çdkj] jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ladYiuk u rks mu yksxksa osQ mís';ksa dks iwjk dj ldrh gS tksekDlZokn&ysfuuokn osQ vuq;k;h gSa] u gh ;g mu yksxksa dks iw.kZ:i esa larq"V dj ldrh gS tks oSKkfudlektokn osQ fodYi dh [kkst esa yxs gq, gSaA

rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa osQ jktuhfrd fodkl osQ vè;;u ls irk pyrk gS fd ftl çfreku dks egkuvejhdh ys[kdksa us çLrqr fd;k gS] ml jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ uewus dks cgqr vfèkd lsukvksa] cgqrvfèkd lsodrU=kh; ijthfork] cgqr vfèkd vleku vkSj vi;kZIr mRiknu] ;kstukvksa osQ çn'kZu ij cgqrvfèkd cy ij volajpuk dh vogsyuk] fofHkÂ lektksa osQ chp fojksèkksa dh vfèkd vfHkO;fDr djus]vkSj la{ksi esa] laHkzkartuksa osQ fy, cgqr vfèkd jktuhfrd o tulkèkkj.k dh ukdkiQh lgHkkfxrk esa mi;ksxesa ugha yk;k tk ldrkA


ijthfork % nwljksa ij fuHkZj gksdj thuk

laHkzkartu % oqQyhu yksx

rknkRE; % lkeatL; LFkkfir djuk


1- jktuhfrd lekthdj.k ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\ blosQ fufgrkFkks± dh O;k[;k dhft,A

2- jktuhfrd lekthdj.k osQ fofHkUu dkjdksa dh O;k[;k dhft,A

mÙkj & Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- f'k{kk 2- mPprj f'k{kk 3- eku&vaxhdj.k (Norm-Internalization)

4- ;qok vkanksyuksa 5- laKkukRed ekufp=k


iqLrosaQ 1- rqyukRed jktuhfr dh :ijs[kkμ vkse izdk'k xkck] e;wj isij cSDl] uks,MkA




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bdkbZμ6% lkekftd&vkfFkZd vkèkkj vkSj lafoèkku osQ eq[;

y{k.k (Socio-Economic Bases and SalientFeatures of the Constitution)


mís'; (Objectives)


6-1 ;w- osQ-] ;w-,l-,-] jfl;k] Úkal] phu ,oa fLoV~tjyS.M osQ lafoèkku dk fodkl (Constitutional

Development of U.K., U.S.A, Russia, France, China and Switzerland)

6-2 ;w-,l-,- vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa lafoèkku la'kksèku dh çfØ;k (Amendment process in the Constitution

of U.S.A and Switzerland)

6-3 ;w-,l-,- vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; O;oLFkk (Federal system of U.S.A. and Switzerland)





mís'; (Objectives)


;w-osQ-] ;w-,l-,-] jfl;k] Úkal] phu ,oa fLoV~tjyS.M osQ laoSèkkfud fodkl dh O;k[;k djus esaA

;w-,l-,- vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa laoSèkkfud la'kksèku çfØ;k dk foospu djus esaA

;w-,l-,- vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; O;oLFkk dks le>us esaA


rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ ijEijkxr vkSj vkèkqfud n`f"Vdks.kksa osQ vè;;u ls ;g tkudkjh çkIr gqbZ gS fd bldkijEijkxr vè;;u eq[;r% laLFkkxr] oS;fÙkQd vkSj o.kZukRed jgk gSA cnys gq, ekgkSy esa jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksadh okLrfodrk dks le>us esa rFkk lkekU; fl¼karksa osQ fuekZ.k esa bldh mi;ksfxrk ugha osQ cjkcj fl¼ gks pqdhFkhA f}rh; fo'o;q¼ osQ ckn dh isphnk jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dks le>us osQ fy, u;s mikxeksa ;k n`f"Vdks.kksa dh[kkst tkjh Fkh] tks oSKkfud rjhdksa dk ç;ksx djosQ jktuhfrd çfØ;k dh okLrfodrkvksa dks le>us esa lgk;dgksA fodkl'khy ns'kksa osQ mn; us Hkh rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u esa ,slh vko';drk dks t:jh cuk fn;kA blhosQ iQyLo:i rqyukRed jktuhfr esa u;s n`f"Vdks.kksa dk fodkl gqvk ftuesa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk egÙo lclsvfèkd ekuk tkrk gSA

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk lacaèkh nf"Vdks.k us rqyukRed jktuhfr dks u osQoy oSKkfud cuk;k cfYd jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ fo"k;esa fuekZ.k dk ekxZ Hkh ç'kLr fd;kA fo'o esa rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa osQ fodkl vkSj lkE;oknh 'kfDr;ksa osQ mn; us jktuhfrdfofp=krk dh xEHkhj fLFkfr yk nhA blh jktuhfrd okrkoj.k esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk nf"Vdks.k dk tUe gqvkA

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bdkbZμ6% lkekftd&vkfFkZd vkèkkj vkSj lafoèkku osQ eq[; y{k.k


jktuhfrd O;oLFkk jktuhfrd ?kVukvksa vkSj muls lEcfUèkr rF;ksa osQ pquko dk vkèkkj çLrqr djrh gS bl nf"Vdks.kdh mRifÙk ls ;g mEehn dh tkus yxh fd rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u vfèkd 'kq¼ vkSj oSKkfud gksxkA blçdkj] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk egÙo rqyukRed jktuhfrd fo'ys"k.k esa c<+ tkrk gSA

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk lacaèkh n`f"Vdks.k rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ubZ voèkkj.kk ij vkèkkfjr n`f"Vdks.k gSA MsfoM bZLVudk fopkj gS fd jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ fo"k; esa vkuqHkfod (empirical) fl¼kar dk fuekZ.k rHkh lEHko gS tclekt esa fu.kZ; ysus vkSj mUgsa ykxw djus esa 'kkfey çR;{k vkSj ijks{k çHkkoksa dks è;ku esa ugha yk;k tk;s cfYdvè;;u dh egÙoiw.kZ voèkkj.kkvksa esa bls 'kkfey fd;k tk;sA blesa dksbZ nks er ugha gS fd jktuhfrd nyksa osQfgr ;k nokc lewgksa] 'kklu lajpukvksa vkSj jktuhfrd çfØ;kvksa dk vyx&vyx vè;;u djosQ lEiw.kZ jktuhfrdO;oLFkk osQ fo"k; esa ;g lkekU;hdj.k dh fLFkfr rd ugha ys tk ldrk gSA blfy,] lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkkgh lajpuk dks le>us esa mi;ksxh ekuh tkus yxhA bl lanHkZ esa ;g tkuuk t:jh gS fd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk lacaèkhn`f"Vdks.k dh D;k vko';drk gS\

vkèkqfud ;qx esa rqyukRed jktuhfr dh vko';drk blfy, c<+ xbZ gS fd cnys gq, jktuhfrd ekgkSy esarqyukRed fo'ys"k.k dh iqjkuh voèkkj.kk,¡ fujFkZd vkSj vuqi;qÙkQ gks xbZ gSA osQoy jkT; ljdkj osQ vè;;uls gh jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks ugha le>k tk ldrkA blfy,] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk lacaèkh nf"Vdks.k dh vko';drkvkèkqfud fo}kuksa }kjk eglwl dh tkus yxhA iqu% osQoy dkuwuh&laLFkkid <k¡pksa ij gh rqyukRed vè;;uvkèkkfjr FksA vr% jktuhfr dh vjktuhfrd 'kfÙkQ;ksa dks 'kkfey djuk t:jh gks x;k ftuls jktdh; xfrfofèk;k¡lapkfyr vkSj fu;af=kr gksrh gSA bl çdkj rqyukRed jktuhfr esa ,slh voèkkj.kk dh vko';drk vuqHko dhtkus yxh tks vius vè;;u esa jktuhfrd] vjktuhfrd rÙoksa dks Hkh 'kkfey djsaA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ,slhgh t:jr dh iwfrZ djrh gSA

6-1 ;w-osQ-] ;w-,l-,-] jfl;k] Úkal] phu ,oa fLoV~tjyS.M osQ lafoèkku dk fodkl(Constitutional Development of UK, USA, Russia, France, China andSwitzerland)

fczfV'k laoSèkkfud fodkl dh çd`frμ fczfV'k lafoèkku Øfed fodkl dk ifj.kke gSA bldh tM+sa lfn;ksa iqjkusbfrgkl esa teh gqbZ gSaA oqMªks foYlu us bls gh O;ÙkQ djrs gq, dgk gS fd ¶fczfV'k laoSèkkfud bfrgkl dh ,dçeq[k fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd mldh jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡] mlosQ fodklØe] tks çkphure 'kklu&ç.kkyh osQ ifjorZurd ,d gS] ls lEc¼ gSA¸

(i) ,saXyks&lSDlu ;qx& baXySaM dk bfrgkl osQYV (Celts)] jkseu (Romans) vkSj lSDlu (Saxons) tkfr;ksa osQvkxeu osQ lkFk 'kq: gksrk gSA ;|fi budk 'kklu ik¡poh 'krkCnh osQ vkjaHk rd jgk fiQj Hkh lafoèkku osQ fodklesa bldk Hkh gkFk ugha jgkA blosQ ckn ,sXyks&lSDlu lH;rk dk çkjaHk gksrk gS ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i orZeku vaxszthlH;rk rFkk mlosQ lafoèkku dh uhao iM+hA de&ls&de nks laLFkk,¡ bl ;qx dh cgqr cM+h nsu gSaμjktra=k vkSjLok;Ùk&'kkluA ,saXyks&lSDlu Lok;Ùk laLFkkvksa dh çeq[k nsu v¡xzstks dks 'kklu dh dyk esa çoh.k cukuk FkkACySdLVksu (Blackstone) us lafoèkku esa çtkrkaf=kd rÙoksa dh ppkZ djrs gq, bu laLFkkvksa dks J¼katfy vfiZr dhgS vkSj dgk gS fd ¶baXySaM dh Lora=krk mldh Lora=k Lok;Ùk laLFkkvksa dh nsu gSA vius iwoZtksa] lSDluksa] osQ le;ls gh vaxzstks us ukxfjdksa osQ drZO;ksa vkSj mÙkjnkf;Roksa dks lh[kk gSA¸

(ii) ukeZu&,Utohu ;qx& fczfV'k lafoèkku osQ fodkl dk nwljk vkSj egÙoiw.kZ vè;k; 1066 bZ- osQ ukeZu fot;ls çkjaHk gksrk gSA oLrqr%] ;gh lafoèkku dk mn~xe&LFky gSA bl ;qx esa lkekftd vkSj ç'kklfud O;oLFkk dk ,slk:i fn;k x;k ftlosQ iQyLo:i jktk iwjs ns'k dk 'kkld cu x;kA dqy feykdj ukeZu ;qx esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkkdks dkiQh n`<+ cuk;k x;kA

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(iii) xzsV dkSafly vkSj D;wfj;k jsftl& jktk dh 'kfÙkQ bruh c<+ x;h fd 'kkludk;Z esa ckgjh lgk;rk vko';dgks x;hA 'kklulapkyu vkSj uhfr&fuèkkZj.k esa lgk;rk osQ fy, nks laLFkkvksa dk tUe gqvkμ cM+h ifj"kn~ (Great

Council or Magnum Concilium) vkSj NksVh ifj"kn~ (Little council or Curia Regis) A xzsV dkSafly lSDlu ;qxdh foVuktsewV mÙkjkfèkdkj lHkk FkhA D;wfj;k jsftl xzsV dkSafly dk NksVk :i FkkA bls xzsV dkSafly dk vkarfjdo`Ùk* (inner circle) dgk tkrk gSA xzsV dkSafly ls fczfV'k laln rFkk D;wfj;k jsftl ls fçoh dkSafly] ,Dlpsdj rFkkmPp U;k;ky;ksa dk mn; gqvkA bl çdkj] chloha 'krkCnh dk baXySaM ûkeZu ;qx* dk cgqr dqN ½.kh gSA

(iv) eSXukdkVkZ vkSj mldk egÙo& gsujh f}rh; us 'kklu dks liQyrkiwoZd pyk;k vkSj jktra=k dks n`<+ cuk;kAysfdu] mlls v;ksX; mÙkjkfèkdkfj;ksaμ fjpMZ çFke vkSj tkWu dh xyr uhfr;ksa us Økafr dh vkx HkM+dk nh_ leFkZdksaus mldk lkFk NksM+ fn;kA vUr esa] cSjksuh us tkWu dks viuh 'krks± dks ekuus osQ fy, ckè; fd;kA iQyr%] mlseSXukdkVkZ (Magna Carta) ftls êk¡x&jkti=k (The Great Charter) dgrs gSa] ij viuh eatwjh nsuk iM+hA ;gjkti=k fo'o dk ugha rks de&ls&de xzsV fczVsu dk lcls egÙoiw.kZ ys[k vo'; gSA mUuhloh 'krkCnh esa fc'kifcfy;e LVCl (Bishop Wiliam Stubbs) us dgk Fkk fd fczfV'k lafoèkku dk iwjk bfrgkl bl egku jkti=k dh,d O;k[;k gSA

laln dk mn; vkSj fuekZ.k

(i) laln dk çkjaHk& laln dk mRifÙk&dky ,d fooknkLin ç'u gSA vfèkdrj fo}ku bldh 'kq:vkr ukeZu ;qxdh ô`gr~ lHkk* (Magum Concilum) esa ikrs gSaA ;g orZeku ykMZ lHkk dh rjg iknfj;ksa rFkk dqyhuksa osQ lkFkFkh] ysfdu èkhjs&èkhjs cká vkSj vkarfjd fnDdrksa dk lkeuk djus osQ fy, rFkk dj&çkfIr osQ mís'; ls jktk turkosQ çfrfufèk;ksa dks Hkh vkeaf=kr djus yxsA 1295 bZ- esa ,MoMZ çFke us laln dh cSBd cqyk;hA ;g bfrgkl esa vkn'kZlaln* (Model Parliament) osQ uke ls fo[;kr gS] D;ksafd 400 O;fÙkQ;ksa dh bl lHkk esa çk;% lHkh çeq[koxks±&cSju] iknjh] ukbZV rFkk uxjksa bR;kfn dks çfrfufèkRo feykA blosQ i'pkr~ fczfV'k 'kklu O;oLFkk dk ;g ,dLFkk;h vkSj vfuok;Z vax cu x;hA ;g u rks fdlh fuf'pr ;kstuk] fuf'pr le; ;k turk dh ek¡x dk ifj.kkegS] cfYd ;g ,sfrgkfld fodkl dk iQy gSA

(ii) çfrfufèkRo dk fl¼kar& 'kq: ls gh laln dk :i va'kr% çfrfuè;kRed (representative) jgk gS] D;ksafduxjksa vkSj lkeUrksa osQ çfrfufèk fdlh&u&fdlh :i esa pqus gq, gksrs FksA baXySaM osQ fy, çfrfufèkRo dk fl¼kar dksbZu;k fl¼kar ugha FkkA vr% lPph çfrfuè;kRed ljdkj dh LFkkiuk orZeku dky esa gqbZA ysfdu bldh uhao o`gr~lHkk esa dkÅUVh vkSj ckSjksa dks çfrfufèkRo nsus osQ lkFk iM+ pqdh FkhA blosQ mn; dk dkj.k Lora=krk ;k Lo'kkluosQ çfr çse ugha cfYd jktkvksa dh dj çkIr djus dh 'kfÙkQ FkhA

(iii) f}lnukRed i¼fr& fo'o osQ vfèkdrj lafoèkkuksa esa f}lnukRed (bicameral) çFkk dks viuk;k x;k gSA;g i¼fr Hkh fczfV'k lafoèkku dh gh nsu gSA leku fgrksa osQ dkj.k ,d vksj mPp dksfV osQ lkeUr vkSj iknjh rFkknwljh vksj fuEudksfV osQ lkeUr vkSj ikStu ,d lkFk fey x;sA nksuksa lewgksa dh vyx&vyx cSBd gksus yxhA çFkeoxZ osQ yksxksa dh lHkk dk uke ykMZ lHkk (House of Lords) rFkk nwljs oxZ osQ yksxksa dh lHkk dk uke yksd&lHkk(House of Commons) iM+kA bl çdkj] f}lnuh; laln dk çknqHkkZo gqvk vkSj lkS o"kks± osQ varxZr gh ;g i¼frfczfV'k 'kklu&O;oLFkk dk vfHkUu vax cu x;hA

(iv) laln dh 'kfDr& laln lEcUèkh lcls egÙoiw.kZ fodkl mldh 'kfÙkQ FkhA èkhjs&èkhjs ;g çFkk cu x;h fdu;s djksa dks yxkus osQ fy, laln dh Lohd`fr yh tk;A vUrr% ;g fu;e cu x;k fd çfrfufèk;ksa dh Lohd`frosQ fcuk dksbZ dj ugha yxk;k tk ldrk&¶fcuk çfrfufèkRo osQ dj ughaA¸ 1407 bZ- esa bl fl¼kar us ,d u;k:i fy;k] bl çdkj vkfFkZd vkjaHk.k dk vfèkdkj turk osQ çfrfufèk;ksa osQ gkFk esa vk x;kA vkfFkZd vfèkdkjosQ lkFk&lkFk dkuwu&fuekZ.k dk vfèkdkj Hkh laln osQ gkFkksa esa vkus yxkA bl fodkl osQ ifj.kkeLo:i] vkWxosQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶,d le; dk fouhr vkosnd lnk osQ fy, foèkk;d cu x;kA¸

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laoSèkkfud }U} vkSj iqufuZekZ.k

(i) V~;wMj dky vkSj fujadq'kokn& iægoha lnh osQ vUr rd laln 'kfÙkQ'kkyh gks x;h Fkh vkSj jktk detksjAvkèkqfud lafoèkku dh fofHkÂ laLFkkvksa dh uhao iM+ pqdh FkhA vkusokyk fnu muosQ fodkl vkSj iquxZBu dkbfrgkl gSA V~;wMj jktkvksa us euekus <ax ls ns'k dk 'kklu fd;k iw.kZ fujadq'k jkT; dh LFkkiuk gks x;hA dq'ky'kklu vkSj jktLo ij vfèkdkj osQ dkj.k jktk osQ gkFk esa lkjk 'kklu&lw=k pyk vk;kA fiQj Hkh] laln dh 'kfDrvkSj çfr"Bk c<+rh x;hA

(ii) LVqvVZ dky vkSj Økafr;k¡& 1603 bZñ esa tsEl çFke] ftls lcls cqf¼eku csodwiQ* (wisest fool) dgk x;kgSa] jktxíh ij cSBkA og jktkvks osQ nSoh vfèkdkj* (Divine Rights of the Kings) osQ fl¼kar esa fo'okl djrkFkkA bl fl¼kar osQ vuqlkj jktk i`Foh ij bZ'oj dk ,d nwr Fkk ftls vlhfer vkSj fujadq'k 'kfÙkQ çkIr FkhA blçdkj] tsEl us ,sls fl¼kar dk leFkZu fd;k tks lfn;ksa iqjkuh fczfV'k laoSèkkfud fopkjèkkjk osQ foijhr Fkk] ysfduvlarks"k dh vkx mlosQ le; esa u HkM+d ldhA bl vkx dh yiVksa dk lkeuk mlosQ iq=k pkYlZ çFke dks djukiM+kA pkYlZ us llan~ dks Hkax fd;k] tcnZLrh dj olwyh dj vfèkdkj osQ vkosnu&i=k* (Petition of Rights) dkmYya?ku fd;kA iQyLo:i laln vkSj jktk esa vucu gqbZA vUrr% pkYlZ dks tku ls gkFk èkksuk iM+kA rnqijkar lalnus 1649 bZ- esa Økeosy osQ laj{k.k esa çtkra=k* (Republic of Commonwealth) dh LFkkiuk dh tks fliQZ X;kjgo"kks± rd jgkA 1660 bZñ esa jktra=k dh iqu% LFkkiuk gqbZA pkYlZ f}rh; xíh ij cSBkA fiQj jktk vkSj laln dklEcUèk fcxM+us yxkA pkYlZ osQ 'kklu dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ ?kVuk 1679 bZ- dk gSfc;l dkWjil ,sDV (Harbeas

Corpus Act, 1679) FkkA pkYlZ osQ ckn tsEl f}rh; jktxíh ij vk;kA ppZ osQ dkj.k laln ls mldh yM+kbZfNM+ x;hA iQyLo:i] 1688 bZñ esa ^xkSjoiw.kZ Økafr* (Glorious Revolution) gqbZ vkSj LVqvVZ ;qx dk var gksx;kA

(iii) laln dh loksZPprk] vfèkdkj&i=k vkSj O;oLFkk&i=k vfèkfu;e& jktk dh 'kfÙkQ dks lhfer djus osQmís'; ls laln us 1686 bZ- esa fo[;kr vfèkdkj&i=k (Bill of Rights) dks ikl fd;kA blosQ }kjk LVqvVZ dky esajktkvksa }kjk O;oâr xSj&dkuwuh vfèkdkjksa ij jksd yxk nh x;hA blesa fuEufyf[kr eq[; ckrsa Fkh& lezkV fdlhfo'ks"k U;k;ky; vFkok vk;ksx dh LFkkiuk ugha dj ldrk_ 'kakfr&dky esa llan dh vuqefr osQ fcuk dgha LFkk;hlsuk ugha j[kh tk ldrh_ turk dks lezkV osQ lkeus viuh f'kdk;rksa dks j[kus dk vfèkdkj gS_ laln osQ lnL;ksadks Hkk"k.k rFkk okn&fookn dh iw.kZ Lora=krk gS_ dksbZ dSFkksfyd ;k dSFkksfyd ls fookfgr O;fDr lezkV ugha culdrkA bl i=k dk fo'ks"k laoSèkkfud egÙo gS] D;ksafd blus ^xkSjoiw.kZ Økafr* rFkk lrjgoha 'krkCnh osQ mnkjvkUnksyu osQ ifj.kkeksa dk laxzg dj mUgsa laoSèkkfud :i fn;kA blosQ lkFk gh laln vkSj jktk dk >xM+k lekIrgks x;kA laln dh loksZPprk lnk osQ fy, LFkkfir gks x;h_ jktk mlosQ fu;a=k.k esa vk x;kA blh rF; dh iqf"VO;oLFkk&i=k vfèkfu;e] 1701 (Act of Settlement) }kjk gqbZA ,uh osQ ckn mÙkjkfèkdkj guksoj (hanover) ?kjkusdks ns fn;k x;kA iQyr% jktk laln }kjk fu;qDr gks x;kA Hkfo"; esa laln dh loksZPprk dks fdlh us yydkjus dklkgl ugha fd;kA ;g fpj lR; gks x;kA

1485 bZ- esa V~;wMj (Tudor) oa'k dk jkt izkjaHk gqvkA

laoSèkkfud fodkl dk vfUre pj.k% 1689 osQ ckn

vfèkdkj&i=k (1689 bZ-) rd fczfV'k laoSèkkfud bfrgkl osQ fodkl osQ chtkjksi.k dk ;qx FkkA ml le; rdlafoèkku osQ ekSfyd rÙoksa dh uhao iM+ pqdh FkhA blh uhao ij lafoèkku dk fo'kky Hkou [kM+k gqvkA 1689 bZ- osQckn dk ;qx blh Hkou&fuekZ.k dh dgkuh gSA

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(i) jktk dh 'kfÙkQ esa ßkl& lÙkjgoha lnh osQ vfUre n'kd esa cgqr&ls cUèkuksa osQ ckotwn jktk 'kfÙkQ'kkyh cukjgkA fl¼kar esa laln dh loksZPprk ekuh tk pqdh Fkh] ysfdu bls O;ogkfjd :i nsus esa dfBukbZ gks jgh FkhA fofy;evkSj esjh dh jktdh; uhfr;ksa vkSj dk;ks± ij dM+k fu;a=k.k jgkA ysfdu] vBkjgoha lnh osQ çkjEHk esa lgh le; usiyVk [kk;kA lHkh tktZ fons'kh gksus osQ dkj.k jkt&dk;ks± esa de fnypLih ysrs FksA vr% muosQ lkèkkj.k vfèkdkjèkhjs&èkhjs muosQ gkFk ls fudydj eaf=k;ksa vkSj laln osQ gkFk esa vkus yxsA jktk okLrfod 'kkld u jgk] og laoSèkkfudçèkku cu x;kA og fliQZ jkT; djus yxk 'kklu ughaA lHkh mÙkjkfèkdkfj;ksa us bl fu;e dk ikyu fd;kA

(ii) mÙkjnk;h eaf=kifj"kn& vBkjgoha lnh osQ eè; rd ,slh laLFkk dk tUe gqvk tks tura=k dk çeq[k vax cux;kA ;g laLFkk eaf=kifj"kn~ FkhA èkhjs&èkhjs okLrfod ç'kkldh; 'kfÙkQ laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h ,dnyh; eaf=kifj"knosQ gkFk esa vk x;hA vUr esa] turk dh çfrfufèk lHkk dkWeu lHkk* osQ gkFk esa ns'k dh vfUre 'kfÙkQ vk;h vkSjeaf=keaMy mlosQ çfr lkewfgd :i ls mÙkjnk;h gqvkA

(iii) çèkkuea=kh& eaf=keaMy osQ lkewfgd mÙkjnkf;Ro dh O;kogkfjd liQyrk osQ fy, usrk dh vko';drk Fkh]ysfdu cgqr fnuksa rd fdlh us bl LFkku dks xzg.k ugha fd;kA okyiksy us fl¼kar :i esa vius dks çFke ;kçèkkuea=kh dks dcwy ugha fd;k] fiQj Hkh laln vkSj eaf=keaMy esa mldh çèkkurk FkhA cgqr fnuksa rd bldh ;ghfLFkfr jghA 1937 bZ- ls cgqer ny dk usrk çèkkuea=kh gksus yxkA

(iv) eaf=keaMy vkSj eaf=keaMyh; i¼frμ eaf=keaMyh; O;oLFkk (Cabinet System) fczfV'k lafoèkku dh vkèkkjf'kykgSA LVqvVZ dky esa eaf=keaMy çkjfEHkd :i esa FkkA 1696 bZ- dh 'Whig Junto' ls eaf=keaMy dh okLrfod 'kq:vkrgksrh gSA

oLrqr%] okyiksy osQ usrRo dky esa eaf=keaMy dh lHkh fo'ks"krkvksa dk mn; gks pqdk FkkA eaf=keaMykRed mÙkjnkf;RoosQ fl¼kar dk fodkl Hkh mUgha fnuksa gqvkA vV~Bkjgoha lnh osQ var rd eaf=keaMyh; O;oLFkk dh lHkh :f<+;k¡ LFkkfirgks xb± vkSj mUgsa laoSèkkfud ekU;rk feyus yxhA

(v) yksdlHkk dk çtkra=khdj.k& laln osQ lEcUèk esa nks egÙoiw.kZ fodkl gq,& (1) yksdlHkk dk çtkra=khdj.kvkSj (2) laln esa 'kfÙkQ dk LFkku&ifjorZuA 1832 bZ- rd dkWeu lHkk ykMZ lHkk dh rjg dqyhurkaf=kd FkhA bldkçfrfuè;kRed :i ugha osQ cjkcj Fkk] ysfdu turk dh ek¡x osQ dkj.k èkhjs&èkhjs erkfèkdkj dk {ks=k c<+us yxkAernkrkvksa osQ chp jktuhfrd 'kfÙkQ dk vfèkd U;kf;d c¡Vokjs osQ fy, lalnh; {ks=kksa dk iqufoZrj.k gqvk]pquko&çpkj vkfn osQ fu;e fuf'pr fd;s x;sA 1918 bZ- osQ tu&çfrfufèkRo vfèkfu;e (Representation of the

People's Act. 1918) vkSj iwjd leku erkfèkdkj osQ dkuwu us bl Øe dks iwjk fd;kA vkt dkWeu lHkk fo'oosQ çtkrkfU=kd lnuksa esa ,d gSA

(vi) laln esa 'kfÙkQ dk LFkku&ifjorZu& laln&lEcUèkh nwljk fodkl dkWeu lHkk dh 'kfÙkQ dk c<+uk vkSj ykMZlHkk dh 'kfÙkQ esa ßkl FkkA 1911 bZ- osQ laln vfèkfu;e (Parliament Act, 1911) us budh cph&[kqph 'kfÙkQ dksNhu fy;kA vkt oLrqr% ;g nwljk lnu ugha cfYd ,d nwljs Øe dk lnu gks x;kA

(vii) jktuhfrd nyksa dk mn;& çfrfufèk ljdkj esa jktuhfrd ny dk mn; vo';EHkkoh gSA çFke çfrfufèkljdkj gksus osQ dkj.k loZçFke baXySaM esa gh jktuhfrd nyksa dk tUe gqvkA vV~Bkjgoha lnh rd fdlh ny dkmn; ugha gks ik;k FkkA Økeosy osQ le; esa dSosfy;lZ* (Cavaliars) vkSj jkm.MgsM~l* (Roundheads)] pkYlZf}rh; osQ jkT;&dky esa ^dksVZ* (Court) vkSj ^daVªh* (Country)] ^LVqvVZ* ;qx osQ vUr esa ^fifV'kulZ*(Petitioners) vkSj ^,HkksjlZ* (Abhorers) ijLij&fojksèkh xqV Fks] jktuhfrd ny ughaA fuf'pr fl¼kar] dk;ZØerFkk ikjLifjd lgu'khyrk jktuhfrd ny osQ fy, vko';d gS ftudh bu nyksa esa deh FkhA bu vkèkkjksa ij fàx(Whing) ^Vksjh* (Tory) nyksa dks jktuhfrd nyksa dk çkjafHkd :i ekuk tk ldrk gSA vBkjgoha vkSj mUuhloha'krkCnh esa efU=ke.My i¼fr osQ fodkl osQ lkFk nyksa dk Hkh fodkl gqvkA mnkj ny vkSj vuqnkjoknh ny jktuhfrdO;oLFkk osQ osQUæ cu x;sA vktdy etnwj ny vkSj vuqnkjoknh ny çeq[k jktuhfrd ny gSaA

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(viii) vU; laoSèkkfud fodkl& LVqvVZ oa'k osQ ckn vU; jktuhfrd fodkl gq,A 1707 bZ- esa baXySaM dk LdkWVySaMdk lalnkRed xBu gqvkA 1801 bZ- esa vk;jySaM Hkh ml laxBu osQ vUrxZr vk x;kA fczfV'k lkezkT; fo'o osQ ,dNksj ls nwljs Nksj rd iQSy x;kA LFkkuh; Lok;Ùk laLFkkvksa dk iquxZBu rFkk çtkrU=khdj.k gqvkA U;k;] O;oLFkkvkSj yksd lsokvksa esa lqèkkj gqvkA ljdkj osQ dk;ks± osQ c<+us osQ dkj.k ç'kkldh; vaxks esa o`f¼ gqbZA bl çdkj]fczfV'k lafoèkku esa vusd ifjorZu gq, vkSj vkt Hkh gks jgs gSa fodkl dk Øe :dk ugha gS] ;g xfr'khy gSA vkWxvkSj ftad osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶;qx&;qx ls mlesa fodkl gksrk vk jgk gS] ;gk¡ rd fd orZeku dky esa HkhA¸ ysfdu]lafoèkku dh vkRek esa dksbZ ifjorZu ugha gqvk gSA ;Fkkdky O;oLFkk fczfV'k lafoèkku dh çeq[k fo'ks"krk gSA

vesfjdh lafoèkku dk fodkl (Development of American Constitution)

çR;sd lafoèkku dh tM+ vrhr osQ xHkZ esa fNih gqbZ gSA vejhdh lafoèkku Hkh bldk viokn ugha gSA vr% orZekulafoèkku osQ leqfpr Kku osQ fy, mldk ,sfrgkfld Kku vko';d gSA vè;;u dh lqfoèkk osQ fy, lafoèkku osQfodkl dks pkj Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμ (1) mifuos'khdj.k (Colonization)] (2) LorU=krk (Independence)](3) jkT;eaMy (Confederation) vkSj (4) lafoèkku (Constituion)A

mifuos'khdj.k (Colonization)

ns'kkUrjokfl;ksa dk vkxeu (Arrival of Immigrants)μ lksgyoha vkSj lÙkjgoha 'krkCnh esa jkT;ksa }kjk fo'ks"kèkeks± osQ vuq;kf;;ksa ij vR;kpkj gksrk FkkA yksxksa osQ èkeZ vkSj jLe&fjokt ladV esa FksA vr%] mu yksxksa dks viukns'k NksM+dj u;h nqfu;k dh 'kj.k ysuh iM+hA

o.kZladj laLd`fr dk tUe (Birth of a hybrid culture)μfofHkUu ns'kokfl;ksa osQ vkxeu us vesfjdk esa ,do.kZladj laLd`fr dks tUe fn;kA fu"Øe.kdkfj;ksa esa vaxzstksa dk ckgqY; Fkk ftUgksusa viuh Hkk"kk] LorU=krk] Lo'kkludh ijEijkvksa vkfn dk chtkjksi.k bl ns'k esa fd;kA vU; ns'kokfl;ksa us Hkh vkaf'kd :i esa bl u;h lH;rk ijçHkko MkykA iQyr%] ,d fefJr laLd`fr dk tUe gqvk tks ewyr% vaxzsth Fkh] ij lkFk&lkFk vU; laLd`fr;ksa lsHkh çHkkfor FkhA

mifuos'kksa esa LFkkuh; 'kklu (Local Governments)μ vejhdh mifuos'kksa dh vU; çeq[k LFkk;h fo'ks"krkLFkkuh; laLFkk,¡ FkhaA vkèkqfud dky dh LFkkuh; laLFkkvksa dk ;gha ls çkjEHk gksrk gSA U;w baxySaM dh çeq[k nsu 'kgjksaesa çR;{k çtkrU=k FkkA nf{k.k esa dkmfUV;ksa dk fodkl gqvk tks LFkkuh; dh mi;qZÙkQ bdkb;k¡ fl¼ gqb±] eè;osQ mifuos'kksa esa LFkkuh; 'kklu] nsgkrh bdkb;ksa dh uhao iM+h vkSj nf{k.k esa cM+s&cM+s 'kgjksa osQ 'kklu&dkydh 'kq:vkr gqbZA

LorU=krk (Independence)— tsEl Vkmu dh LFkkiuk vkSj Lora=krk dh ?kks"k.kk* osQ chp 169 o"kZ chr x,] ysfdumifuos'kokfl;ksa us dHkh Lokèkhurk dh ek¡x ugha dhA bl chp fliQZ NksVs&NksVs LFkkuh; vkSj O;fDrxr >xM+s gksrsjgs] ysfdu èkhjs&èkhjs 'kklu osQ Hkz"Vkpkj rFkk 'kks"k.k osQ dkj.k vlUrks"k dh vkx HkM+dus yxhA LorU=krk&laxzkedk dkj.k vfèkdrj lS¼kafrd FkkA ;s mifuos'k fczfV'k lezkV~ dh lÙkk dks Lohdkj djrs Fks] ijUrq mlesa fczfV'k lalndk gLr{ksi ugha FkkA tc vFkkZHkko osQ dkj.k lHkh oxks± ij vfèkd dj yxk;k tkus yxk rFkk O;kikj vkSj ç'kklulEcUèkh dBksj fu;e cuk;s x;s rks mifuos'kksa esa rhoz jks"k O;kIr gks x;kA mifuos'kksa dk dguk Fkk fd ¶fcukçfrfufèkRo osQ dj ugha yxkuk pkfg,A¸ os fczfV'k ljdkj }kjk dj yxk;s tkus osQ fojksèkh FksA

egk}hih; dk¡xzsl ,oa LorU=krk dh ?kks"k.kk& eslkpqlsV~l osQ fuokfl;ksa us Økafr dk usr`Ro fd;kA muosQ ç;klosQ iQyLo:i 1774 bZñ esa ckjg mifuos'kksa osQ çfrfufèk;ksa dk lEesyu fiQykMsfYiQ;k uxj esa gqvk ftls ^çFkeegk}hih; dk¡xzsl* (The First Continental Congress) dgk tkrk gSA dk¡xszl us vfèkdkjksa dh ?kks"k.kk dh] d"Vksadks nwj djus dh çfrKk dh vkSj egk}hih; laxBu* (continental Association) dh LFkkiuk dh x;h ftlls foæksgdk laxBu gks losQA vxys o"kZ Hkh lEesyu vkeaf=kr djus dk fu'p; fd;k x;kA rnuq:i 1775bZñ esa f}rh;egk}hih; dk¡xzsl (The Second Continental congress) dh cSBd gqbZA tkWftZ;k osQ 'kkfey gksus ls bl ckj dqy

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jk"Vªksa dh la[;k rsjg gks x;h igys dk¡xzsl dh rjg blesa vçR;{k :i ls fuokZfpr turk osQ gh çfrfufèk FksA bl

dk¡xzsl dk fo'ks"k egÙo blfy, gS fd ekpZ 1781 bZ- rd ;g la;qÙkQ mifuos'kksa dh ljdkj osQ vkfèkdkfjd vax*

(Official Organ) osQ :i esa dk;Z djrh jghA bl çdkj ;g vesfjdk dh çFke jk"Vªh; ljdkj FkhA

bl jk"Vª dks vkSipkfjd :i ls tUe nsus vkSj dk¡xzsl dks vfèkdkj&lEiUu cukus osQ fy, twu] 1776 bZ- esa r`rh;

egk}hih; dk¡xzsl (Third Continental Congress) dh cSBd gqbZA VkWel tSiQlZu osQ usr`Ro esa LorU=krk dk

?kks"k.kk&i=k çLrqr djus osQ fy, ,d ik¡p&lnL;h lfefr fu;qÙkQ dh x;hA tSiQlZu }kjk çLrqr Lora=krk ?kks"k.kk&i=k

(Declaration of Independence) dks 4 tqykbZ] 1776 dks egk}hih; dk¡xzsl us Lohdkj dj fy;kA ml le; ls

mÙkQ frfFk dks vesfjdk dk jk"Vªh; fnol eku fy;k x;k gSA ;g ?kks"k.kk&i=k Lora=k ljdkj osQ leFkZu esa fy[kk

x;k Fkk vkSj thou] Lora=krk ,oa lekurk osQ ekuoh; vfèkdkjksa dks mtkxj djrk FkkA

;g ?kks"k.kk&i=k ykWd osQ fopkjksa ls dkiQh çHkkfor FkkA blus baXySaM osQ fujadq'k 'kklu osQ fo:¼ mifuos'kksa osQ ;q¼

dks U;k;ksfpr Bgjk;k vkSj lhfer rFkk LosPNkuqlkj laxfBr ljdkj (government by the consent of people)

osQ fl¼karks dks çfrikfnr fd;kA blus ekuo&LorU=krk osQ mu uohu fl¼karks dh uhao Mkyh tks vkxs pydj leLr

fo'o osQ fy, çsj.kk&'kfDr fl¼ gq,A bl ?kks"k.kk dk vkèkkj dksbZ fof'k"V f'kdk;rsa ugha cfYd ekuo&LorU=krk

osQ dfri; ewy rÙo FksA

xzsV fczVsu vkSj vejhdh mifuos'kksa esa N% o"kks± rd ;q¼ pykA fczfV'k ljdkj us mifuos'kksa }kjk foæksg dks dqpyus

dk ç;Ru fd;k] ysfdu vliQy jghA vUr esa] 19 vDVwcj] 1781 dks fczfV'k lsukifr dkuZokfyl dh ijkt; gqbZ

vkSj mifuos'kksa dh thrA fczfV'k yksdlHkk us ;q¼ lekIr djus osQ fy, ernku fd;k vkSj ykWMZ ukWFkZ dh ljdkj

us viuk R;kx&i=k ns fn;kA lezkV~ tkWtZ r`rh; us u;h ljdkj laxfBr dh ftlus vesfjdk dh Lora=krk dks ekU;rk

ns nhA 1783 bZ- esa fczVsu vkSj vesfjdk osQ chp lfUèk lEiUu gks x;hA

jkT;e.My (Confederation)— jkT;e.My dh fLFkfr vejhdh lafoèkku osQ fodkl esa ,d çeq[k dne FkkA

;|fi 1 ekpZ] 1781 esa ;g ;kstuk liQy gqbZ] fdUrq blosQ iwoZ Hkh blosQ fy, dbZ ckj ç;kl fd;s x;s FksA

jkT;eaMy dh LFkkiuk& bl çdkj] jkT;e.My lEcUèkh vusd ;kstuk,¡ fliQZ dkYifud cuh jghaa egk}hih;

dk¡xszl osQ dk;Z dk Hkh dksbZ dkuwuh vkèkkj ugha FkkA og osQoy vYidkyhu çcUèk FkkA vr% dk¡xzsl dh ,d lfefr

dks jkT;e.My dk çk:i rS;kj djus dk Hkkj lkSaik x;kA 17 uoEcj] 1777 bZ- esa dk¡xzsl us çk:i dks viuk;kA

fiQj mls fofHkUu jkT;ksa osQ ikl vuqleFkZu osQ fy, Hkstk x;k vkSj muosQ }kjk vuqlefFkZr gksus ij 1 ekpZ] 1781

bZ- ls mls çHkkoh ?kksf"kr fd;k x;kA jkT;e.My osQ vuqPNsn (Articles of Confederation) gh la;qÙkQ&jkT; vesfjdk

dk çFke lafoèkku FkkA

jkT;eaMy dh çdfrμ jkT;e.My 13 mifuos'kksa dk ,d LFkk;h la?k FkkA ,d rjiQ jkT;ksa us lHkh jkT;ksa dh lqj{kk]

LorU=krkvksa dh j{kk vkSj ikLifjd lkekU; fgr osQ mís';ksa ls vkil esa laxBu LFkkfir fd;k vkSj nwljh vksj viuh

lkoZHkkSfedrk] LorU=krk vkSj mu {ks=kksa rFkk vfèkdkjksa] tks la;qÙkQ jkT; dks ugha fn;k x;k Fkk] dks cpk;s j[kkA

'kklu&;a=k dk çèkku fxurh esa de Fks] dk¡xsl gh ljdkj dk ,dek=k vax FkhA dk;Zikfydk dh Hkh O;oLFkk ugha

FkhA ysfdu dk¡xszl deZpkfj;ksa dh fu;qfÙkQ dj ldrh Fkh] iFkd~ U;k;ikfydk Hkh ugha FkhA dk¡xzsl ,d lalnh; laLFkk

FkhA blesa vUrfuZfgr 'kfÙkQ ugha Fkh] cfYd bldh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ çnÙk FkhaA bls ;q¼ ?kksf"kr djus] lfUèk djus] oSnsf'kd

uhfr dk lapkyu djus] jkT;ksa osQ vuqikr esa dj vkSj lsok ysus] jkT;ksa osQ ikjLifjd >xM+ksa dk iQSlyk djus vkSj

ç'kklu osQ vfèkdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfÙkQ djus dk vfèkdkj FkkA la?k&'kklu osQ cnys jkT;ksa dk Hkh viuk dqN dÙkZO;

Fkk] tSlsμdk¡xzsl dh vkKk dks ekuuk] nwljs jkT; osQ ukxfjdksa dks iw.kZ vfèkdkj nsuk] dk¡xzsl }kjk vkilh >xM+ksa

dk fucVkjk djokuk vkfnA

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u;h nqfu;k dk bfrgkl vkèkqfud ;qx dk bfrgkl gSA 1499 bZ- esa dksyEcl us blosQ if'peh rVksa dkvUos"k.k fd;k vkSj dScV (Cabot) us iwohZ rV dkA blfy, ubZ Hkwfedk dh [kkst esa ;wjksih;ns'kkUrjokfl;ksa dh ck<+&lh vk x;hA

lafoèkku (Constitution): fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu esa osQUæh; ljdkj dh detksj fLFkfr osQ dkj.k jkT; mldhvogsyuk djus yxs rFkk lHkh dksus esa vlUrks"k dh Hkkouk rhoz gks x;hA vr% jkT;e.My osQ vuqPNsn nqgjkus osQfy, vkUnksyu 'kq: gqvkA vysDtsafMª;k (Alexandria) esa esjhySaM vkSj oftZfu;k us 1785 bZ- esa lEesyu cqyk;kftldk mís'; Fkk] nksuksa jkT;ksa osQ chp O;kikj lapkyu djukA nwljs o"kZ (1786 bZ-) esa oftZfu;k us vukiksfylesa lEiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ O;kikj osQ lapkyu osQ fy, nwljs lEesyu dk vk;kstu fd;k ftlesa fliQZ ik¡p jkT;ksa osQ çfrfufèk;ksaus Hkkx fy;kA bl lEesyu us ;g çLrkfor fd;k fd vxys o"kZ fiQykMsfYiQ;k esa lHkh jkT;ksa dk ,d lEesyu cqyk;ktk; ftlesa jkT;e.My osQ vuqPNsnksa esa vko';d la'kksèku fd;k tk;A rnuq:i lHkh jkT;ksa ls vuqjksèk fd;k x;kfd os viuk çfrfufèk HkstsaA jksM }hi (Rhode Island) dks NksM+dj lHkh jkT;ksa us vius&vius çfrfufèk;ksa dks HkstkAebZ] 1787 esa fo'ofo[;kr fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu (Philadelphia Convention) gqvk ftlus orZeku vejhdhlafoèkku dk fuekZ.k fd;kA

mís'; vkSj laxBuμ bl lEesyu dk ,dek=k vkSj Li"V mís'; Fkkμ ¶jkT;eaMy osQ vuqPNsnksa dks nqgjkuk vkSjdk¡xzsl rFkk vU; foèkkf;dk lHkkvksa dks ,sls ifjorZuksa vkSj çkoèkkuksa dk lq>ko nsuk tks ljdkj dks ladVe; fLFkfrdk lkeuk djus osQ fy, rFkk la?k osQ lqj{kk osQ fy, vko';d gksA¸ bl çdkj jk"Vªksa osQ laxBu dks n`<+ cukuk rFkkosQUæh; ljdkj dh 'kfÙkQ esa o`f¼ djuk bl lEesyu dk fo'ks"k mís'; FkkA bl lEesyu osQ çfrfufèk;ksa dk Lrjcgqr mPpdksfV dk FkkA foèkkueaMyksa osQ bfrgkl esa jktuhfrd vuqHko vkSj O;kogkfjd Kku ls ifjiw.kZ vFkokekuoh; O;ogkj rFkk ljdkj osQ vko';d lkj rÙo osQ mn~xeksa osQ vfèkd xgu ifjKku ls lEiUu euq";ksa dh ,slhlHkk dHkh u gqbZA lEesyu esa Hkkx ysus okys O;fÙkQ;ksa esa çeq[k Fksμ tkWtZ okf'kaxVu] tsEl esfMlu] vysDtsaMj],MeaM csatkfeu] jSMYiQ] tsEl fcYlu rFkk vU; çfrf"Br O;fÙkQA lEesyu osQ çfrfufèk;kss osQ lEcUèk esa ,dÚkalhlh nwr us Úkal dh ljdkj dks fy[kk Fkk fd ¶;fn fiQykMsfYiQ;k osQ lEesyu osQ lHkh çfrfufèk;ksa dks ns[kktk; rks eS dgw¡xk fd ,slh lHkk igys dHkh ugha gqbZ Fkhμ ;wjksi esa Hkh ugha D;ksafd u;s çfrfufèkx.k] ;ksX;rk] xq.k]fu%LokFkZrk] fu"i{krk] ,oa ns'k&çse osQ vkèkkj ges'kk iwtuh; gSaA¸ tSiQlZu us bls nso&iq=kksa dh lHkk (assembly

of semi-gods) dgk FkkA fo;MZ osQ vuqlkj çfrfufèkx.k èkfud] dqyhu rFkk ;ksX; (the rich, the well-born and

the able) oxZ osQ FksA

lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k rFkk çoÙkZuμ ;g lEesyu 24] ebZ 1787 osQ fnu Lora=krk Hkou esa vkjEHk gqvk vkSj 17fnlEcj] 1787 rd pyrk jgkA lEesyu osQ lkeus lcls cM+h dfBukbZ ;g Fkh fd blesa ns'k osQ fofHkUu vkSj vusdfojksèkh fgrksa dk çfrfufèkRo FkkA blfy, lEesyu osQ lkeus leL;k Fkh fd ,sls lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k fd;k tk; ftlesafofHkUu fgrksa dk le>kSrk gksA ,d vksj osQUæh; ljdkj dks lqn<+ cukuk vko';d Fkk rks nwljh vksj jkT;ksa dh Lora=krkdh j{kk djuk Hkh t:jh Fkk_ lkFk gh cM+s vkSj NksVs jkT;ksa osQ ijLij&fojksèkh nf"Vdks.k esa leUo; djuk Hkh egÙoiw.kZFkkA bl mís'; ls vusd ;kstuk,¡ çLrqr dh x;haμ othZfu;k ;kstuk (Virginia Plan)] U;wtlhZ ;kstuk (The New

Jeresy Plan)] dusfDVdV le>kSrk (Connecticut Compromise)] O;kikj vkSj nkl O;kikj le>kSrk (commerce

and Slave Trade Compromise)] vkfn ;kstuk,¡ çeq[k FkhaA vUr esa] u;s lafoèkku] ¶ftls le>kSrksa dk <sj¸(bundle of compromises) dgk x;k gS] osQ çk:i dks loZlEefr ls Lohdkj fd;k x;kA ysfdu] mls ykxw djusls iwoZ mldks 13 jkT;ksa esa ukS jkT;ksa osQ foèkkue.Myksa }kjk vuqlefFkZr gksuk vko';d FkkA lafoèkku osQ dqN fojksfèk;ksaus vfèkdkj&i=k osQ vHkko esa bldh rhoz vkykspuk dhA bl nks"k dks lafoèkku osQ çorZu osQ ckn la'kksèkuksa }kjk

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vfèkdkj&i=k tksM+dj nwj djus dk lq>ko fn;k x;kA 21 twu] 1788 osQ fnu lafoèkku ukS jkT;ksa osQ foèkkueaMyksa }kjkvuqlefFkZr gks x;kA dkaxzsl us lafoèkku ykxw djus dh mn~?kks"k.kk dhA 4 ekpZ] 1789 dks lafoèkku çHkko esa vk x;kAtkWtZ okf'kaxVu dks çFke jk"Vªifr pquk x;kA çFke dkaxzsl dk Hkh laxBu gqvkA bl çdkj] jkT;e.My dk vUrgks x;k vkSj mldh gh uhao ij u;s lafoèkku osQ HkO; vkSj n`<+ Hkou dks [kM+k fd;k x;kA

fLoV~tjyS.M osQ lafoèkku dk fodkl (Development of Switzerland's Constitution)

fLoV~tjySaM dk çkjfEHkd bfrgkl tkfr;ksa osQ vkokxeu dk bfrgkl gSA vxLr] 1291 dks rhu LorU=k rFkk laçHkqjkT;ksa us LFkk;h la?k* dh LFkkiuk dhA okLor esa] fLoV~tjySaM dk tUe gqvkA la?k dh LFkkiuk esa dbZ lkS o"kZ blosQfoLrkj rFkk n`<+rk osQ o"kZ FksA la?k esa Øe'k% vU; dS.Vuksa us ços'k fd;kA 1353 bZ- esa LFkk;h eS=kh la?k vkB dS.Vuksadk jkT;e.My (confederation) cu x;kA 1553 bZ- esa jkT;&e.My osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k rsjg gks x;hA ysfduèkeZ&lqèkkj vkUnksyuksa us jkT;&la?k dh ,drk dks iqu%Hkax dj fn;kA 1648 bZ- esa osLViQkfy;k dh lafU?k us ,d LorU=k,oa laçHkqrk&lEiUu jkT; osQ :i esa ekU;rk çnku dhA Úkal dh jkT;&Økafr (French Revolutions, 1789) osQ le;rd fLol jkT;e.My vfèkd nqcZy fLoV~tjySaM dks iqjkuk jkT;eaMy ns fn;kA jkT; iqu% n`<+ gks x;kA iqu% x`g&;q¼dh Tokyk HkM+dh] ysfdu vUr esa jk"Vªh; ,drk osQ leFkZdksa dh thr gqbZA

1848 bZ- dk lafoèkku (The constituion of 1848)μ 1848 bZ- osQ lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k vesfjdk osQ lafoèkku dksvkn'kZ ekudj fd;k x;k FkkA ;g dSaVuksa dh çHkqlÙkk la?k dh c<+rh gqbZ 'kfÙkQ osQ chp le>kSrs dk ifj.kke FkkAbl lafoèkku }kjk ;g ç;Ru fd;k x;k fd dSaVu ml lhek rd laçHkqjkT; cus jgsa tgk¡ rd fd la?kh; lafoèkkumUgsa çHkqlÙkk çnku dj losQA la?kh; 'kfÙkQ dfri; lkekU; fo"k;ksa rd jgh_ tSls& oSnsf'kd lEcUèk] Mkd O;oLFkkvkfnA la?k&'kklu dks pyus osQ fy, la?kh; laLFkkvksa dh O;oLFkk dh x;hA dk;Zikfydk&'kfÙkQ la?kh; ifj"kn~(Federal Council) esa fufgr dh x;h tks ,d cgqy dk;Zikfydk (Plural Executive) FkhA O;oLFkkfidk 'kfÙkQf}lnukRed la?kh; e.My (Federal Assembly) esa fufgr dh x;hμ,d lnu tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij vkSj nwljklnu dS.Vuksa dh lerk osQ vkèkkj ij laxfBr FkkA jk"Vª dh U;k;ikfydk la?kh; U;k;kfèkdj.k (Federal Tribunal)

esa fufgr dh x;hA lafoèkku esa dS.Vuksa dks vius çns'kksa esa iw.kZ çHkqrk osQ mi;ksx dk vfèkdkj fn;k] ysfdu v'kkfUr;k ;q¼ dh lEHkkouk ;k fLFkfr osQ le; osQUæh; ljdkj gLr{ksi dj ldrh FkhA

1874 bZ- dk lafoèkku& ;|fi 1848 bZ- osQ lafoèkku us fLoV~tjyS.M dks ,d ;qfÙkQlaxr rFkk vkèkqfud lafoèkkufn;k] fiQj Hkh ;g vfèkd fnuksa rd dk;Z'khy u jgkA jsfMdy yksx (Radicalists) bl lafoèkku osQ fo:¼ FksA ososQUæ dks vfèkd 'kfÙkQ'kkyh cukuk pkgrs FksA mUgsa turk dk i;kZIr leFkZu çkIr gqvkA iQyr% 1874 bZ- esa la?kh;laln us u;k lafoèkku rS;kj fd;k ftldk tuer&laxzg }kjk vuqeksnu gqvkA 29 ebZ] 1874 bZ- dks u;k lafoèkkuçHkkoh gqvkA ;gh lafoèkku vkt Hkh fLoV~tjyS.M esa fo|eku gSA bl lafoèkku }kjk dSUVuksa dh LorU=krk igys dhvis{kk de dj nh x;h vkSj U;k;ikfydk dh LorU=krk dh LFkkiuk osQ Hkh ç;kl fd;s x;sA tuer&laxzg dh O;oLFkkdks foLr`r fd;k x;kA 1874 bZ- ls ysdj vcrd lafoèkku esa vusd ckj la'kksèku gq, gSa ftuosQ ifj.kkeLo:iosQUæh;dj.k dh ço`fÙk dks çJ; feyk gS] ysfdu lafoèkku esa dksbZ ekSfyd ifjorZu ugha gqvk gSA

fLol lafoèkku dk fo'o dh çeq[k 'kklu&ç.kfy;ksa esa ,d vuwBk LFkku gSA blosQ vuwBsiu osQ vusd dkj.k gSaAçFke] fLol x.krU=k fo'o dk çkphukRed rFkk loZJs"B çtkrU=k gSA f}rh;] bldh dk;Zikfydk vuwBh gSA rrh;]blus jk"Vªh; Lofu.kZ; osQ fl¼kar dks xyr lkfcr dj fn;k gSA prqFkZ] fLoV~tjyS.M ,d rVLFk jk"Vª gSA

,d vU; çk:i Lohdkj fd;k x;kA ;g çtkrkaf=kd rFkk 'kakfroknh fl¼karksa ij vkèkkfjr FkkA ;g lafoèkku ;FkkFkZesa eSdkFkZj }kjk cuk;k x;k Fkk] tkikuh eaf=keaMy }kjk ughaA okf'kaxVu esa lqnwj iwohZ vk;ksx* us lafoèkku osQ fy,dfri; ewy fl¼karksa dh fliQkfj'k dh ftUgsa lafoèkku osQ çk:i esa LFkku fn;k x;kA blosQ ckn lafoèkku osQ çk:idks lezkV osQ uke ij turk dh lwpuk osQ fy, çlkfjr fd;k x;kA tujy ekSdkFkZj us [kqydj bldk leFkZu fd;kAeaf=keaMy us bl ij foLrkjiwoZd fopkj fd;kA rRi'pkr~ lafoèkku osQ çk:i dks Mk;V osQ le{k j[kk x;kA

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okn&fookn osQ i'pkr~ 7 vDrwcj] 1946 dks çfrfufèk lHkk us çk;% loZlEefr ls u;s lafoèkku dks viuh Lohd`frçnku dj nhA osQoy lkE;oknh lnL;ksa us bldk fojksèk fd;kA 3 uoEcj] 1946 dks ,d lkezkth; vkKkfIr osQ }kjkbl lafoèkku dks mn~?kksf"kr fd;k x;kA çèkkuea=kh ;ksf'knk f'kxs# (Yoshide Shigeru) }kjk lezkV fgjksghrks dhmifLFkfr esa bls 3 ebZ] 1947 bZ- dks bls ykxw fd;k x;kA bls lezkV fgjksfgrksa dh e`R;q osQ dkj.k 'kksok lafoèkku(Showa constitution) Hkh dgrs gSaA tkiku dh orZeku 'kklu&O;oLFkk blh lafoèkku osQ }kjk lapkfyr gks jgh gSA

phuh x.kjkT; osQ lafoèkku dk fodkl (Development of Chinese Republiconconstitution)

,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe&phuh lkE;okfn;ksa dk dguk gS fd mudk lafoèkku bfrgkl ls ?kfu"B :i ls lacaafèkr gS_og ,sfrgkfld vuqHko ij vkèkkfjr gSA yhÅ 'kkvks&ph us dgk Fkk fd phu dk orZeku lafoèkku ¶phuh turkosQ ,d 'krkCnh ls vfèkd Økafrdkjh la?k"kZ rFkk vkèkqfuddkyhu phuh lafoèkkuokn osQ ,sfrgkfld vuqHko dkfu"d"kZ gSA¸

phuh x.kjkT; osQ lafoèkku dh ,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe dks fuEufyf[kr Hkkxksa esa ckVk tk ldrk gS&

1- orZeku dky esa lafoèkku dk fodkl (Development of constitution in modern times) μ 1984 bZ-ls 1949 bZ- rdA

2- vLFkk;h lafoèkku (Provisional Constitution) μ 1949 bZ- ls 1954 bZ- rdA

3- 1954 bZ- dk lafoèkkuA



6- oÙkZeku lafoèkku (1982 bZñ)

lafoèkku dk fodkl (Development of Constitution): vkèkqfud phu osQ lafoèkku dk fodkl 1894 bZ- esatkiku }kjk mldh ijkt; osQ mijkar 'kq: gksrk gS bl fn'kk esa lqèkkj vkUnksyu (Reform Movement) igykmYys[kuh; dne gSA dkax ;w&ch osQ usrRo esa lqèkkjokfn;ksa us vkanksyu pyk;k ftldk mís'; ,sls lafoèkku dh LFkkiukdjus dh Fkh ftldk vkèkkj iwathokn rFkk lkearokn gksA ewyr% ;g vkUnksyu çxfroknh FkkA 1898 bZ- rd bls dqpyfn;k x;kA lqèkkjokfn;ksa osQ lkFk&lkFk phu esa ,d Økafrdkjh xqV dk mn; gqvkA bldk usrk MkW- lu;kr lsu FkkAØkafrdkjh xqV ,d cqtqZvk çtkrkaf=kd x.kjkT; (Bourgeois Democratic Republic) dh LFkkiuk djuk pkgrk FkkA

Økafrdkfj;ksa dh c<+rh 'kfÙkQ dks ns[kdj eapw 'kklu us lafoèkku&fuekZ.k dh ?kks"k.kk dh rFkk lafoèkku osQ fl¼karksadk mYys[k fd;kA bu laoSèkkfud fl¼karksa dk mís'; fujadq'k lkearoknh 'kklu dks n`<+ cukuk rFkk turk dks èkks[kknsuk FkkA Økafrdkfj;ksa us eapw lafoèkkuokn dks èkks[ks dh VV~Vh dgdj fojksèk fd;k] ysfdu lqèkkjokfn;ksa us mldkleFkZu fd;kA

1911 bZ- esa eapw oa'k dk vUr gks x;kA lfn;ksa iqjkus lkeUroknh jktrU=k osQ LFkku ij phuh x.krU=k dh uhao iM+hAMkW- lu;kr lsu osQ usr`Ro esa ^vLFkk;h lafoèkku (Provisional Constitution) dh uhao iM+hA ;g çxfroknh ijcqtqZvk x.kjkT; FkkA 1919 bZ- dh Økafr us phu esa çtkrkfU=kd x.kjkT; dk cht cks;kA

çfrfØ;kokfn;ksa osQ lkeus x.kjkT; u fVd ldkA ;w vku&'kh&dkbZ rFkk ih;kax ;q¼ lkeUrksa osQ vèkhu ¶phuhx.kjkT;¸ fliQZ uke osQ fy, jg x;kA vfUre ;q¼ esa lkeUrksa us 1923 bZ- esa fn[kkos osQ fy, ,d lafoèkku dh ?kks"k.kkdhA ysfdu Økafrdkfj;ksa us bldk fojksèk fd;kA

bl chp lkE;oknh ny dk mn; gqvkA MkWñ lu;kr lsu osQ usr`Ro esa gh mlus lkezkT;okn rFkk lkearokn osQ fo:¼

la?k"kZ 'kq: fd;kA ysfdu] MkWñ lsu dh e`R;q osQ ckn P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd lkE;okfn;ksa dk neu djus yxkA iQyr% ns'k

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esa x`g&;q¼ fNM+ x;kA lkE;okfn;ksa osQ usr`Ro esa turk us çfrfØ;koknh 'kklu osQ fo:¼ yM+kbZ 'kq: dj nh

P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd] tks lafoèkku osQ i{k esa ugha Fkk] us varr% 1946 bZñ esa ,d lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k fd;k] ftldk

phuh turk us tedj fojksèk fd;kA bl çdkj] vafre pj.k esa iwathoknh oqQvkfeUrkax rFkk lektoknh 'kfÙkQ;ksa esa

jkT;lÙkk dks viukus osQ fy, fodV la?k"kZ pykA vUr esa] 1949 bZñ esa lektoknh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dh fot; gqbZ rFkk etnwjksa

osQ usr`Ro esa tuoknh x.kjkT; (People's Republic) dh LFkkiuk gqbZA

la{ksi esa] lkE;oknh Økafr osQ iwoZ phu esa nks çdkj osQ lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k gqvk FkkA eapw oa'k] ih;kax ;q¼&lkeUr

rFkk P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd }kjk fufeZr çfrfØ;koknh rFkk fn[kkoVh lafoèkku vkSj nwljk] MkWñ lu;kr lsu }kjk fufeZr

cqtqZvk çtkrkaf=kd lafoèkkuA

vLFkk;h lafoèkku (Provisional Constitution)μ lkE;oknh 'kklu dh LFkkiuk osQ rqjUr ckn fdlh lafoèkku dk

fuekZ.k ugha fd;k x;kA 'kklu&O;oLFkk osQ lapkyu osQ fy, ,d lkekU; dk;ZØe (Common Programme) dks

viuk;k x;k ftlus ikap o"kks± rd vLFkk;h lafoèkku (Provisional Constitution) osQ :i esa dke fd;kA lkekU;

dk;ZØe dk fuekZ.k phuh tuoknh jktuhfrd ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu (Chinese People's Political Consultative

Conference) uked laLFkk }kjk gqvkA ;g ,d f[kpM+h laLFkk Fkh ftlesa lkE;oknh ny osQ lkFk fofHkUu jktuhfrd

nyksa] yksd laxBuksa] tu'kfÙkQ lsuk vkSj leqæikj phfu;ksa osQ çfrfufèk lfEefyr FksA lEesyu }kjk fuèkkZfjr lkekU;

dk;ZØe foxr o"kks± dh tuoknh Økafr;ksa osQ vuqHko dh nsu FkhA blus mu ekSfyd uhfr;ksa dks ikfjHkkf"kr fd;k ftudk

vuqikyu phuh x.kjkT; djsxkA tuoknh yksdra=kh; vfèkdkuk;d'kkgh fl¼kar bldk vkèkkj FkkA

ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu us rhu çys[kksa dk fuekZ.k fd;kμ(d) lkekU; dk;ZØe (A Common Programme)

([k) ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu dk lko;o fu;e (An Organic Law of the CPPCC) vkSj (x) osQUæh; ljdkj dk

lko;o fu;e (An Organic Law of the Central People's Government)A

rhuksa çys[kksa esa lkekU; dk;ZØe lokZfèkd egÙoiw.kZ FkkA blesa vUrfjd 'kkludky osQ fy, vFkkZr~ lektokn dh

çkfIr rd osQ fy,] ekSfyd mís';ksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k FkkA çLrkouk esa dgk x;k Fkk fd phu dk jktuhfrd

vkèkkj ûohu çtkrU=k* (new democracy) gS ftudk mi;skx ^turkaf=kd vfèkuk;dra=k* (people democratic

dictatorship) }kjk fd;k tk,xkA ûohu çtkra=k* dk vFkZ ml laØe.k dky ls Fkk ftlosQ }kjk phu dks

^v¼Z&lkeUrokn* (semi feudalism) vkSj ^v¼Z&mifuos'kokn* (semi-colonialism) ls xqtjdj ^loZgkjk

vfèkuk;dokn* (proletarian dictatorship) rd igqapuk FkkA turkaf=kd vfèkuk;dra=k* dk vFkZ gS fd çtkra=k*

^turk* osQ gkFk esa jgsxk vkSj vfèkuk;dra=k* vU; oxks±μcM+s cqtqZvk] lkearh tehankj vkSj turk osQ vU; nq'euksa

ij ykxw gksxkA lkekU; dk;ZØe esa vU; dbZ ekSfyd ckrksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k Fkk] tsls lkezkT;oknh fo'ks"kkfèkdkjksa

dh lekfIr] Hkwfe&lqèkkj] vkS|ksxhjd.k dh vko';drk] jk"Vªh; vYila[;dksa dks leku vfèkdkj vkSj lksfo;r :l

ls fe=krkA ljdkj osQ <k¡ps osQ ckjs esa dgk x;k Fkk fd laØe.k dky esa jk"Vªh; tu&ljdkj ifj"kn~ (Central

People's Government Council) dk fuokZpu gksxk tks dk;Zdkfj.kh osQ :i esa dk;Z djsxhA

lEesyu dk mís'; phu osQ leLr çtkrkaf=kd oxks± vkSj jk"Vªh;rkvksa dks ,drk osQ lw=k esa ck¡èkuk FkkA lEesyu

çtkrU=k osQ dk;ZØe dks ykxw djsxk rFkk lkezkT;okn] lkearokn] ukSdj'kkgh vkSj iwathokn dk fojksèk djsxk]

dqvkfeUrkax dks m[kkM+ iQsaosQxk vkSkj Økafrfojksfèk;ksa dk fouk'k djsxkA bldk vfUre y{; vFkZO;oLFkk dks etcwr

djuk vkSj ,d n`<+] LorU=k rFkk 'kkafrfç; tuoknh x.krkaf=kd phu dh LFkkiuk djuk gksxkA

osQUæh; tuoknh ljdkj ifj"kn~ esa 56 lnL; gksaxs ftuesa ,d vè;{k vkSj 6 mikè;{k gksaxsA ;g foèkkf;dk]

dk;Zdkfj.kh vkSj U;k;ikfydk rhuksa dk dk;Z djsxhA ifj"kn~ dbZ fudk;ksa dk laxBu djsxhA buesa lokZfèkd egÙoiw.kZ

ljdkj ç'kklu ifj"kn~ (Government Administration Council) Fkh tks ,d lqij&dSfcusV (super cabinet)

osQ :i esa dk;Z djrh FkhA blosQ lnL; Fks] çèkkuea=kh] ik¡p miçèkkuea=kh] ,d egklfpo vkSj 16 lnL;A ljdkj

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ç'kklu ifj"kn~ (GAC) dh pkj lfefr;ka FkhaA (d) jktuhfrd vkSj dkuwuh ekeyksa dh lfefr] ([k) foÙk vkSj

vFkZ&lfefr] (x) laLd`fr vkSj f'k{kk lfefr vkSj (?k) tu&fujh{k.k lfefrA buosQ vfrfjDr ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu

(CPOC) us ,d Økafrdkjh lSfud ifj"kn~ (Revolutionary Military Council)] ,d loksZPp U;k;ky; (supreme

Court) vkSj ,d loksZPp tu&çkWD;wjslh (Supre People's Procuracy) dh LFkkiuk dh FkhA

ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu esa loksZPp foèkkf;dk 'kfDr fufgr FkhA oLrqr% ljdkj ç'kklu ifj"kn~ vkSj osQUæh; tuoknh

ljdkj ifj"kn~ vfèkd 'kfÙkQ'kkyh fudk; FksA ysfdu ;s nksuksa fudk; Hkh lkE;oknh ny osQ b'kkjs ij pyrs Fks D;ksafd

ny dk ljdkj ij iw.kZ fu;a=k.k FkkA

1954 dk lafoèkku (The constitution of 1954)μ 13 tuojh] 1953 dks ekvksRls&rqax dh vè;{krk esa osQUæh;

ljdkj us ,d lfefr dk fuekZ.k fd;kA bldk mís'; tuoknh x.kjkT; osQ fy, lafoèkku dk çk:i rS;kj djuk

FkkA ekpZ] 1954 esa lfefr us lafoèkku osQ çFke çk:i dks Lohdkj fd;kA çk:i dks fopkj&foe'kZ rFkk lq>ko osQ

gsrq turk osQ le{k j[kk x;kA nks eghus rd bl ij fopkj&foe'kZ gksrk jgkA bl vkèkkj çk:i esa mfpr la'kksèkku

yk;s x;sA 14 twu] 1954 dks la'kksfèkr :i esa lafoèkku osQ çk:i dks çdkf'kr fd;k x;k rFkk loZlkèkkj.k dh ppkZ

osQ fy, mls turk esa ifjpkfyr fd;k x;kA nks eghus rd yksd&fookn gksrk jgkA lafoèkku dks turk dk leFkZu

çkIr gqvk rFkk la'kksèku osQ fy, vusd lq>ko fn;s x;sA bu lq>koksa osQ lanHkZ esa çk:i lfefr esa iqu% la'kksèku yk;k

x;kA lafoèkku osQ la'kksfèkr çk:i dks 9 flrEcj] 1954 dks osQUæh; tuoknh ljdkj ifj"kn~ us vkSipkfjd :i ls

Lohdkj fd;kA çFke jk"Vªh; tu&dk¡xzsl us 20 flrEcj] 1954 dks lafoèkku dks vafre :i ls Lohd`fr çnku dhA

phuh lkE;okfn;ksa osQ vuqlkj] mudk lafoèkku lektoknh lafoèkku (People's Democratic Republic) gSA ;g

cqtqZvk lafoèkkuksa osQ foijhr lektoknh lafoèkku gSA blosQ fuekZ.k esa phfu;ksa us vU; lafoèkkuksa] [kkldj lksfo;r

lafoèkku] osQ vuqHkoksa ls ykHk mBk;kA ns'k osQ foxr bfrgkl rFkk vkèkqfud fLFkfr dk Hkh bl ij O;kid çHkko iM+kA

bl lanHkZ esa yhÅ'kkvks&ph us cryk;k Fkk fd phuh x.kjkT; osQ lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k djrs le; dfri; rF;ksa

dks è;ku esa j[kk x;kA ;s rF; gSaμ

(i) phuh turk us yEcs la?k"kZ osQ ckn lkezkT;okn] lkearokn rFkk iwathokn ij fot; çkIr dj yh gSA

(ii) phu esa tuoknh çtkrkaf=kd jkT;] ftldk usr`Ro etnwj dj jgs gSa rFkk tks etnwjksa vkSj fdlkuksa osQ

xBcUèku ij vkèkkfjr gS] dh tM+ te pqdh gSA

(iii) phu dh vFkZO;oLFkk esa lektokn us usr`Ro xzg.k dj fy;kA

(iv) phu esa Øec¼ :i ls lektoknh ifjorZu çkjEHk gks x;k gS rFkk lektoknh lekt dh fn'kk esa ifjorZu

gksus yxk gSA

u, lafoèkku }kjk osQUæh; ljdkj osQ <k¡ps esa ifjorZu yk;k x;kA rhu çeq[k fudk;ksa dh LFkkiuk dh x;hμ (d)foèkkf;dk vFkkZr~ jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl (National People's Congress)] ([k) jkT; dk çèkku vFkkZr~ x.kra=k dkvè;{k (Chairman of the People's Republic) vkSj (x) eaf=ke.My vFkkZr~ jkT; ifj"kn~ (State Cauncil)AblosQ vfrfjDr loksZPp tuçkWD;wjslh (Supreme People's Prodcuaracy) vkSj loksZPp tu&U;k;ky; (Supreme

People's Court) osQUæ ljdkj osQ eq[; vax FksA

1975 dk lafoèkku (The Constitution of 1975)μ 1954 dk lafoèkku yxHkx 20 o"kks± rd ykxw jgkA vxyklafoèkku 17 tuojh] 1975 dks ikfjr gqvkA ;g lafoèkku iqjkus lafoèkku dk fodflr :i FkkA ysfdu] bls iw.kZr;ku, :i esa çLrqr fd;k x;k FkkA phuh 'kkldksa osQ vuqlkj nks n'kdksa dh yEch vofèk esa ubZ ifjfLFkfr;ka iSnk gqb±AvkfFkZd] lkekftd lkaLd`frd vkSj jktuhfrd {ks=kksa esa vusd ifjorZu gq, ftlosQ pyrs u, lafoèkku osQ fuekZ.kdh vko';drk iM+hA 1975 bZñ osQ lafoèkku dh fuEufyf[kr fo'ks"krk,a Fkha %μ

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(i) ;g lafoèkku dkiQh laf{kIr FkkA blesa osQoy 30 vuqPNsn FksA

(ii) 'kklu dh leLr 'kfÙkQ;ka ikVhZ esa osQUæhHkwr dj nh xbZA lafoèkku us dE;qfuLV ikVhZ dh osQUæh; lfefr dksgh losZlokZ ekuk ftlosQ usr`Ro esa jk"Vªh; tu dkaxzsl Hkh dk;Z djsxhA

(iii) jk"Vªifr osQ in dks lekIr dj fn;k x;kA mlosQ dqN vfèkdkjksa dks jk"Vªh; tu dkaxzsl dh LFkk;h lfefr(Standing Committtee) dks vkSj dqN vfèkdkjksa dks dE;qfu"V ikVhZ osQ ps;jeSu dks lkSai fn, x,A

(iv) 'kklu dk vfèkdka'k <kapk vc igys tSlk gh FkkA 1975 bZñ osQ lafoèkku esa Hkh osQaUæh; foèkku&lHkk dksjk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ uke ls gh tkuk x;kA ;g vius dk;ks± osQ laiknu osQ fy, ,d LFkk;h lfefr dkxBu djrh FkhA ;g ,d jkT; ifj"kn~ dk Hkh fuokZpu djrh Fkh tks eaf=kifj"kn~ dk dk;Z djrh FkhA

(v) 1975 bZñ osQ lafoèkku esa dqN u, ukxfjd vfèkdkj 'kkfey fd, x,A vfèkdka'k iqjkus vfèkdkjksa dks cuk,j[kk x;kA mlesa pkj u, vfèkdkjksa dks tksM+k x;kμ (i) gM+rky dk vfèkdkj (ii) tulsok laxfBr djusdk vfèkdkj (iii) ukxfjdrk osQ çpkj dk vfèkdkj vkSj (iv) lkoZtfud fo"k;ksa ij [kqys rkSj ls okn&fookndjus vkSj fp=k iksLVj fudkyus dk vfèkdkjA

(vi) lafoèkku lksfo;r :l osQ lkE;oknh dh fuank djrk gSA 1954 bZñ osQ lafoèkku esa lksfo;r :l dks^turkaf=kd yksdrkaf=kr ns'kksa* dh Js.kh esa j[kk x;k Fkk tcfd 1975 bZñ osQ lafoèkku esa mls ,d lkezkT;oknhns'k ?kksf"kr fd;k x;kA

1978 bZñ dk lafoèkku (The Constitution of 1978)μ bl lafoèkku dks jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl us 5 ekpZ] 1978 dksLohdr fd;kA

(i) bl lafoèkku esa 60 vuqPNsn FksA

(ii) bldh çLrkouk esa phu dh lektoknh Økafr dk mYys[k feyrk gSA ekvksRls&rqax osQ usr`Ro dh ç'kalkdh xbZ vkSj Jfedksa dh rkuk'kkgh esa fo'okl çdV fd;k x;kA

(iii) lafoèkku osQ çFke vè;k; esa lkekU; fl¼karksa dk o.kZu fd;k x;kA

(iv) nwljs vè;k; esa jkT; lajpuk ij çdk'k Mkyk x;k vkSj blosQ foèkk;h] dk;Zdkjh vkSj U;kf;d vaxks dko.kZu fd;k x;kA jk"Vªifr in dks lekIr dj fn;k x;kA phu osQ foèkkuea.My dk uke ^jk"Vªh; dkaxzsl*vkSj eaf=kifj"kn~ dk uke ^jkT; ifj"kn* gh cjdjkj jgkA

(v) rhljs vè;k; esa ukxfjd vfèkdkjksa vkSj drZO;ksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;kA

(vi) pkSFks vè;k; esa jk"Vªèot] jk"VªfpÞu vkSj jktèkkuh dk fooj.k fn;k x;kA

1982 bZñ dk lafoèkku (The Constitution of 1982) μ 1982 bZñ dk lafoèkku phu dk pkSFkk lafoèkku FkkA ;ghlafoèkku vHkh Hkh ykxw gSA jk"Vªh; tu dkaxzsl us bl lafoèkku dks 4 fnlacj] 1982 dks Lohdkj fd;kA bl lafoèkkuosQ fuekZ.k dk foLrr C;ksjk feyrk gSA vçSy] 1982 esa bldk elkSnk çdkf'kr fd;k x;kA ns'k Hkj esa bl ij O;kid:i ls fopkj&foe'kZ gqvkA tudkaxzsl us yxHkx 100 la'kksèkuksa ij fopkj fd;kA 30 la'kksèkuksa dks Lohdkj dj fy;kx;kA 6 twu] 1983 dks NBh tudkaxzsl dk çFke vfèkos'ku gqvkA bl vfèkos'ku esa 1982 bZ- osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZrns'k osQ jk"Vªifr o mijk"Vªifr dk pquko gqvk vkSj bl çdkj u;k lafoèkku iw.kZr% ykxw gks x;kA

phu dk pkSFkk lafoèkku dc Lohdkj fd;k x;k\

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Úkal esa laoSèkkfud fodkl (Constitutional Development in France)

Úkal osQ lafoèkku dk vè;;u egÙoiw.kZ rFkk jkspd gSA Úkal dks ¶jktuhfrd ç;ksx¸ dk ns'k dgk x;k gSAbl ns'k esa lnk u;s lafoèkku dh l`f"V rFkk u;s jktuhfrd ç;ksx gksrs jgs gSaA foxr nks 'krkfCn;ksa esa ;gns'k vusd jktuhfrd fopkjksa rFkk çfrfØ;kvksa dk Ïksr jgk gS ftUgsa osQoy çeq[k ;wjksih; jkT;ksa us gh ughacfYd fo'o osQ vU; jk"Vªksa us Hkh xzg.k fd;k gSA lalnh; 'kklu&ç.kkyh rFkk çtkrU=k dks çpkfjr djus esablus ,d nqHkkf"k, vkSj çpkjd dk dk;Z fd;k gSA Lora=krk] lekurk ,oa Hkzkr`Ro tks çtkrU=k osQ mPp vkn'kZgSa_ Úkal dh jkT;&Økafr dh gh nsu gSA 'kklu&O;oLFkk dh vusd laLFkk,¡ Úkal dh ekSfyd nsu gSA Úkaldh 'kklu&O;oLFkk dk vè;;u blfy, egÙoiw.kZ gS fd ;g ns'k dh egku~ 'kfÙkQ;ksa esa ls ,d gSA

r`rh; x.kra=k ls iwoZμ Úkal dk vkèkqfud jktuhfr ,oa laoSèkkfud bfrgkl 1789 bZñ dh egku~ Økafr lsçkjEHk gksrk gSA bl Økafr us cksjcu oa'k osQ fujadq'k rFkk LosPNkpkjh 'kklu dk vUr fd;k rFkk Úkal dh'kklu&O;oLFkk esa vfLFkjrk yk nhA blosQ i'pkr~ Úkal esa laoSèkkfud ç;ksxksa dh Jà[kyk&lh c¡èk x;hA ,dosQ ckn ,d dk vc rd 14 ckj Úkal dh 'kklu&O;oLFkk esa myV&iQsj gks pqdk gSA bl ij iQkbuj usdgk gS fd ¶çR;sd lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k mls dk;kZfUor djus osQ fy, ugha cfYd mls cny Mkyus osQ fy,fd;k x;kA¸

1761 bZñ esa çFke fyf[kr lafoèkku dk tUe gqvk ftlesa lhfer jktrU=k rFkk fuokZfpr laln dh O;oLFkkdh x;hA 1793 bZñ esa tSdksfcUl us blosQ LFkku ij çFke ckj x.krU=kh; O;oLFkk dh LFkkiuk dhA bllafoèkku esa çR;{k fuokZpu] çkS<+ erkfèkdkj vkSj 24 lnL;ksa dh eaMykRed dk;Zikfydk dh O;oLFkk dh x;hAblosQ ckn 1795 bZ-esa Mk;jsDVjh (Directory) dk lafoèkku cuk ftlesa foèkkf;dk lHkk rFkk 5 O;fÙkQ;ksa dhdk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr dh O;oLFkk dh x;hA 1799 bZñ esa usiksfy;u cksukikVZ us ,d u;s lafoèkku dk fuekZ.kfd;k ftls dkWUlqysV (Consulate) dgk x;k gSA ;g O;oLFkk Hkh vYidkyhu gh jghA 1804 bZñ esa usiksfy;uus lkezkT; dh LFkkiuk dh vkSj Lo;a lezkV cu cSBkA bl çdkj Úkal esa x.kra=k dk ;qx lekIr gks x;kvkSj iqu% jktrU=k çkjEHk gqvkA 1814 bZñ esa okVjyw osQ laxzke osQ ckn usiksfy;u osQ lkezkT; dk vUr gksx;k vkSj ckscu oa'k iqu% flagkluk:<+ gqvkA 1830 bZñ dh Øakfr osQ iQyLo:i vkfyZ;Ul oa'k osQ vèkhulaoSèkkfud jktrU=k dh LFkkiuk gqbZA ysfdu 1848 bZñ dh Økafr us bloQk Hkh vUr dj fn;k vkSj f}rh;x.krU=k (Second Republic) dh LFkkiuk gqbZA bl ckj Hkh x.krU=kh; O;oLFkk {k.kHkaxqj gh jghA 1852 bZ- esausiksfy;u r`rh; teZuh ls ijkftr gqvk vkSj f}rh; lkezkT; dk vUr gks x;kA rRi'pkr~ ,d var%dkyhuljdkj dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k ftlus ckn esa us'kuy vlsEcyh dk jkLrk ns fn;kA vUr esa] vlsEcyh us ,dlafoèkku dk fuekZ.k fd;k tks 1875 bZ- esa çorZu esa vk;kA ;g lafoèkku r`rh; x.krU=k (Third Republic)

osQ uke ls ç[;kr gqvkA

r`rh; x.krU=kμ r`rh; x.krU=k dh dfri; fo'ks"krk,¡ mYys[kuh; gSaA çFke] ;g ,d fyf[kr rFkk fufeZrlafoèkku FkkA ;g ,d çys[k (document) osQ :i esa ugha Fkk] cfYd vyx&vyx fufeZr flusV] yksd&'kfÙkQ;ksaosQ laxBu rFkk yksd&'kfÙkQ;ksa ls lEcfUèkr dkuwuksa rFkk le;≤ ij tkjh fd;s x;s vkns'kksa ,oa fu;eksaosQ laxzg ls cuk FkkA f}rh;] x.krU=kkRed 'kklu&i¼fr dh O;oLFkk dh x;h FkhA r`rh;] lalnh;'kklu&ç.kkyh dks viuk;k x;k ftlesa ,d laoSèkkfud jk"Vªifr rFkk mÙkjnk;h eaf=kifj"kn~ FkhA prqFkZ]foèkkulHkk f}lnukRed Fkhμ çfrfufèk lHkk (Chamber of Deputies) vkSj flusV (Senate)A iape] 'kkludk Lo:i ,dkRed Fkk] iqu% LFkk;h lafoèkku osQ fuekZ.k osQ fy, ,d lafoèkku lHkk dk fuekZ.k gqvk ftlosQ}kjk fufeZr lafoèkku vLohd`r gks x;kA vr%] 1946 bZñ esa f}rh; lafoèkku&lHkk dk fuokZpu gqvk ftlosQ}kjk fufeZr lafoèkku dks 27 vDVwcj] 1946 dks çofrZr fd;k x;kA bl lafoèkku osQ lkFk prqFkZ x.krU=k dk

mn; gqvkA

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prqFkZ x.krU=k (The Fourth Republic)μ prqFkZ x.krU=k }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k Økafrdkjh ifjorZu ugha gq,A blosQ

}kjk Úkal dh iqjkuh 'kklu&ç.kkyh esa u rks ewyHkwr ifjorZu fd;k x;k vkSu u Hkwrdky ls iw.kZ lEcUèk

foPNsn ghA 'kklu osQ cká vkoj.k esa dqN ifjorZu vo'; gq,] ijUrq ewy:i ls ughaA ;g lafoèkku Hkh

jktuhfrd n'kZu fo'ks"k dk ugha vfirq fofHkUu fojksèkh jktuhfrd erkoyfEc;ksa osQ le>kSrs dk ifj.kke Fkk

vkSj ¶bl le>kSrs dks rdZ us ugha ifjfLFkfr;k¡ us fufgr dh FkhA¸

prqFkZ x.krU=k dk lafoèkku 12 o"kks± rd çorZu esa jgkμ1946 bZñ ls 1958 bZñ rdA bl lafoèkku dk fuèku vkdfLed

ugha FkkA blesa vusd ekSfyd nqcZyrk,¡ Fkha rFkk ifjfLFkfr;k¡ Hkh çfrdwy gh jghaA ;g lafoèkku ijLij&fojksèkh rÙoksa

dk ,d le>kSrk Fkk vkSj bl le>kSrs ij fdlh rdZ dk ugha oju~ rRdkyhu ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk çHkko iM+k FkkA

dkykUrj esa ;s fojksèkh rÙo vkSj vfèkd çcy gks x;sA gcZVZ Y;wFkh osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶ftl fnu ls prqFkZ x.krU=k dk

tUe gqvk mlh fnu ls mlosQ 'ko ls nqxZUèk fudyus yxh Fkh vkSj ;g lqUnj eR;q ls ejus esa Hkh leFkZ ugha gks ldkA¸

lp iwNk tk; rks prqFkZ x.krU=k osQ :i esa r`rh; x.krU=k dh O;oLFkk Øe'k% thfor gks x;h FkhA MsfoM FkkEilu

osQ vuqlkj] ¶lafoèkku osQ ykxw gksus osQ dqN gh fnu ckn ,slk çrhr gksus yxk fd ;g vius iwoZorhZ lafoèkku ls

fHkUu ugha FkkA rrh; x.krU=k dh O;oLFkk iw.kZr% vKkr yksd ls èkhjs&èkhjs mrj dj Úkal esa Nk x;h vkSj ,slk vuqHko

gksus yxk fd prqFkZ x.krU=k dk vUr gks pqdk gS vkSj r`rh; x.krU=k iqu% vorfjr gqvkA¸

iape x.kra=k dk fuekZ.kμ oSèkkfud micUèkksa dh nqcZyrkvksa osQ vfrfjDr prqFkZ x.krU=k osQ vUr dk rkRdkfyd

dkj.k Úkal dh vkSifuosf'kd leL;k FkhA prqFkZ x.krU=k osQ thou&dky esa Úkal osQ mifuos'k mldh tfVy leL;k

cus jgsA ebZ] 1958 esa bl leL;k us fodjky :i èkkj.k dj fy;kA vYthfj;k esa Úkalhlh lSfudksa us Úkalhlh ljdkj

dh vYthfj;k osQ çfr <qy&eqy uhfr osQ fo:¼ foæksg dj fn;k vkSj n xkWy (De Gaulee) osQ gkFkksa esa ns'k osQ

'kklu dh ckxMksj lkSaius dh ek¡x dhA blh chp dksflZdk osQ lSfudksa us Hkh foæksg dj fn;k vkSj n xkWy dk i{k

fy;kA vr% foo'k gksdj n xkWy dks Úkal dk çèkkuea=kh fu;qÙkQ djuk iM+k vkSj 6 eghus rd osQ fy, 'kklu dh

leLr 'kfÙkQ mlosQ gkFkksa esa lkSai nh x;hA n xkWy ij u;s lafoèkku osQ fuekZ.k dk Hkkj lkSaik x;kA rhu eghus osQ

vUnj u;s lafoèkku dk çk:i çLrqr fd;k x;kA flrEcj] 1958 esa ml ij yksder&laxzg (Referendum) gqvkA

lafoèkku cgqer }kjk Lohd`r gks x;kA bl lafoèkku us ik¡pos x.krU=k dks tUe fn;kA 5 vDVwcj] 1958 dks iape

x.krU=k dk lafoèkku çofrZr gqvkA

jf'k;k dh laoSèkkfud O;oLFkk (Constitutional System of Russia)

fnlacj 1993 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr :l esa la?kh; x.kjkT; (Federal Republic) dh LFkkiuk dh xbZA vr% bl

ns'k dk vfèkdkfjd uke :lh la?k (Russian Federation) gSA bl la?k esa 21 x.kjkT; (Republics)] 49

ç'kklfud vapy (Administrative Regions)] 6 çkar (Provinces)] 10 Lok;Ùk tuin (Autonomous

Districts) vkSj nks la?kh; uxj (Federal Cities) μ ekLdks rFkk lsaV ihV~lZcxZ lfEefyr gSA bl rjg :lh la?k

dqy feykdj 89 ç'kklfud bdkb;ksa (Administrative Units) ls cuk gSA

'kklu&ç.kkyh osQ Lrj ij ;gka vè;{kh; ç.kkyh (Presidential System) vkSj lalnh; ç.kkyh (Parliamentary

System) dk feJ.k rS;kj djus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;k gSA vè;{k ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vªifr(President) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS] vkSj lalnh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh laln (Parliament) dh

O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS ftls la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr jkT; dk vè;{k (Head of

State) tks lhèks tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gS_ mls yxkrkj nks ckj ls vkxs ugha pquk tk ldrkA

;g lafoèkku dk laj{kd gS] vkSj l'kL=k lsukvksa dk loksZPp lsukifr (Supreme Commander of the armed

Forces) Hkh gSA og çèkku&ea=kh (Prime Minister) rFkk eaf=k&ifj"kn (Council of Minsiters) vFkok eaf=keaMy

(Cabinet) dh fu;qfDr osQ fy, laln (Parliament) dk vuqeksnu t:jh gksrk gSA jk"Vªifr ,d varjax eaf=keaMy

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(Kitchen Cabinet) dh lykg ls dk;Z djrk gS ftlesa mlosQ fo'oLr fe=k vkSj mPpkfèkdkjh lfEefyr gksrs gSaA

eaf=keaMy dks lÙkk esa jgus osQ fy, laln dk fo'okl çkIr gksuk pkfg,A

jk"Vªifr vkKfIr;ka (Decress) tkjh dj ldrk gS tks izpfyr dkuwu dh rjg ekU; gksrh gSA fiQj laln bUgsa fujLrHkh dj ldrh gSA nwljh vksj] jk"Vªifr Hkh laln&}kjk&ikfjr foèks;d (Bill) dks dkuwu cuus ls jksd ldrk gSA oglalnμvFkkZr~ la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) osQ çfr vius okf"kZd vfHkHkk"k.k (Annual Address) osQ varxZrljdkj dh jktuhfrd vkSj vkfFkZd uhfr dk fu:i.k dj ldrk gSA ns'k dh j{kk (Defence) dk nkf;Ro l¡HkkyusosQ fy, jk"Vªifr lqj{kk&ifj"kn (Security Council) fu;qDr djrk gSA ftldk vè;{k og Lo;a gksrk gSA ogosQUæh; cSad (Central Bank) osQ vè;{k (Chairperson)] egk&vfHk;kstd (Prosecutor General) rFkkU;k;ikfydk (Judiciary) osQ çeq[k lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr dk çLrko laln osQ ikl Hkstrk gSA tuojh] 1994 osQckn lqj{kk&lsok,a] x`g&ea=kky;] j{kk ea=kky; vkSj fons'k ea=kky; lhèks jk"Vªifr osQ vèkhu dj fn, x, gSaAjk"Vªifr&in dk mEehnokj de&ls&de nl yk[k ernkrkvksa osQ }kjk euksuhr gksuk pkfg,_ buesa fdlh ,dvapy (Region) ;k x.kjkT; (Republic) osQ ernkrkvksa dh la[;k dqy la[;k dh 7% ls T;knk ugha gksuh pkfg,A

:l esa foèkkf;dk (Legislature) osQ d`R; la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dks lkSais x, gSaA blesa nks lnu(Chambers) j[ks x, gSaA voj lnu (Lower House) dks LVsV M~;wek dgk tkrk gSA blesa 450 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkkdh xbZ gSA mPp lnu (Upper House) dks la?kh; ifj"kn (Federal Council) dgk tkrk gSA blesa 178 lnL;ksadh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA LVsV M~;wek osQ 225 lnL; lhèks ,dlnL;h; fuokZpu {ks=kksa (Single-Member Constituencies)

ls pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bl pquko esa cgqyer ç.kkyh (Plurality System) viukbZ tkrh gSμ vFkkZr~^tks lcls vkxs] thr mldh (First pas the post)A 'ks"k 225 lnL; jk"Vªh; ny&lwfp;ksa (Nationa Party Lists)

ls vkuqikfrd çfrfuèkRo (Proportional Representation) osQ vkèkkj ij pqus tkrs gSaA bl rjg çR;sd ernkrkosQ nks oksV gksrs gSa% ,d LFkk;h fuokZpu {ks=k osQ fy,_ nwljk jk"Vªh; ny&lwph osQ fy,A LVsV M~;wek osQ mEehnokj dhU;wure vk;q 21 o"kZ gksuh pkfg,A tc dksbZ mEehnokj pqu fy;k tkrk gS] rc og dksbZ oSrfud dk;Z (Paid Job)

Lohdkj ugha dj ldrk_ u og fdlh ljdkjh in (Government Post) ij jg ldrk gSA

cgqyer ç.kkyh (Plurality System) %& og fuokZpu&ç.kkyh ftlosQ varxZr ,dlnL;h; fuokZpu {ks=k esa ftlmEehnokj dks lcls T;knk oksV feyrs gSa] mls fot;h eku fy;k tkrk gSA

vkuqikfrd çfrfufèkRo (Proportional Representation) %& ,slh pquko ç.kkyh ftlesa ernkrk ,d ls vfèkdmEehnokjksa dks viuh&viuh ilan osQ Øe esa j[k ldrs gSa] rkfd cgqer (Majority) osQ lkFk&lkFk vYier(Minority) dks Hkh mfpr çfrfufèkRo fn;k tk losQA ;g ,d tfVy ç.kkyh gSA blosQ fy, dbZ rjhosQ viuk, tkldrs gSa tks çLrkfor pquko osQ fu;eksa osQ varxZr fufnZ"V dj fn, tkrs gSaA

la?kh; ifj"kn osQ varxZr :lh la?k dh 89 ç'kklfud bdkb;ksa esa ls çR;sd osQ nks&nks çfrfufèk lfEefyr gksrs gSaftlls bl ifj"kn osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k 178 gks tkrh gSA fdlh Hkh x.kjkT; ;k vapy osQ çfrfufèk Øe'k% ogka dhdk;Zikfydk (executive) vkSj foèkkf;dk osQ vè;{k gksus pkfg,A

lkèkkj.kr% dksbZ Hkh foèks;d 'kq:&'kq: esa LVsV M~;wek esa çLrqr gksuk pkfg, gkykafd dqN uhfr&lacèkh fo"k; la?kh;ifj"kn~ osQ vfèkdkj {ks=k esa j[ks x, gSaA LVsV M~;wek esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn çR;sd foèks;d dks la?kh; ifj"kn osQ iklHkstuk pkfg,A ;fn la?kh; ifj"kn fdlh foèks;d dks vLohdkj dj ns rks mls LVsV M~;wek osQ ikl okil Hkstk tk,xkAogk¡ ,d vk;ksx&ftlesa nksuksa lnuksa osQ lnL; lfEefyr gksaxs&buesa erHksnksa dks nwj djus dk ç;Ru djsxkA ;fn LVsVM~;wek mPp lnu osQ la'kksèkuksa dks vLohdkj dj ns rks og nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls ml foèks;d dks nqckjk ikfjr djosQmPp lnu dh bPNk dh vogsyuk dj ldrh gSA ,sls gky esa ml foèks;d dks laln&}kjk ikfjr ekuk tk,xkA

laln ls ikfjr gksus osQ ckn çR;sd foèks;d dks jk"Vªifr osQ gLrk{kj osQ fy, Hkstuk gksrk gS ;fn jk"Vªifr fdlhfoèks;d ij gLrk{kj djus ls budkj dj ns rks mls LVsV M~;wek osQ ikl okil Hkst fn;k tkrk gSA ;fn LVsV M~;wek

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jk"Vªifr osQ la'kksèkuksa ls lger gks rks og mls lkèkkj.k cgqer ls nqckjk ikfjr dj ldrh gSA ;fn LVsV M~;wek jk"Vªifr

ls vlger gks rks og mls nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls nqckjk ikfjr djosQ jk"Vªifr osQ fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Veto) dks fujLr dj

ldrh gSA ;gh çfØ;k la?kh; ifj"kn esa Hkh nksgjkuh gksxhμ vFkkZr~ ;fn la?kh; ifj"kn~ jk"Vªifr osQ la'kksèkuksa ls lger

gks rks og mls lkèkkj.k cgqer ls nqckjk ikfjr dj ldrh gS] vU;Fkk mls ;gka Hkh nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls ikfjr djuk

gksxkA ;fn ;s 'krs± iwjh gks tkrh gSa rks çLrqr foèks;d dks jk"Vªifr osQ }kjk ikfjr ekuk tk,xkA

foèkkf;dk dks foLr`r 'kfDr;ka çnku dh xbZ gS] fiQj Hkh muesa dbZ rjg ls dVkSrh dj nh xbZ gSA LVsV M~;wek iw.kZ

cgqer (Absolute Majority) osQ vkèkkj ij (vFkkZr~ 226 oksVksa osQ vkèkkj ij) vfo'okl&çLrko (Vote of No-

Confidence) ikfjr djosQ ljdkj dks fxjk ldrh gS ijarq bls rhu eghus osQ Hkhrj nks ckj ,slk çLrko ikfjr djuk

gksxk] rHkh jk"Vªifr ml dkjZokbZ djus dks foo'k gksxkA ,slh gkyr esa jk"Vªifr ;k rks ubZ ljdkj dk xBu djsxk]

fiQj LVsV M~;wek dks Hkax djosQ u;k pquko djkus dk vkns'k nsxkA u, çèkkuea=kh vkSj ubZ ljdkj dh fu;qfDr osQ

fy, LVsV M~;wek dk vuqleFkZu (Ratification) t:jh gksxkA ;fn jk"Vªifr&}kjk çLrkfor mEehnokj dks LVsV M~;wek

dks Hkax dj ldrk gS] vkSj u, pquko dk vkns'k ns ldrk gSA ijarq fuEu gkyrksa esa jk"Vªifr laln dks Hkax ugha

dj ldrk (d) ;fn ubZ laln osQ pquko osQ ckn ,d o"kZ ls de le; chrk gks_ ([k) ;fn laln jk"Vªifr osQ fo:¼

egkfHk;ksx (Impeachement) dh dkjZokbZ 'kq: dj pqdh gks_ (x) ;fn jk"Vªifr laiw.kZ :l esa vkikrdky

(Emergency) dh ?kks"k.kk dj pqdk gks_ ;k (?k) ;fn jk"Vªifr dk dk;Zdky lekIr gksus esa Ng eghus ls de

le; jgrk gksA mèkj la?kh; ifj"kn jk"Vªifr osQ fo#¼ rHkh egkfHk;ksx pyk ldrh gS tc la?kh; lHkk osQ nksuksa lnu

blosQ i{k esa oksV ns pqosQ gks] vkSj loksZPp U;k;ky; (Supreme Court) rFkk lafoèkkfud U;k;ky; (Constitutional

Court) nksuksa bl çLrko ls lger gksaA

egkfHk;ksx (Impeachement)%& og çfØ;k ftlosQ varxZr fdlh ns'k osQ jk"Vªifr] mijk"Vªifr] mPp ;k loksZPp

U;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'k ;k fdlh vU; mPpkfèkdkjh ij vR;ar xaHkhj vkjksi yxkdj mls in ls gVkus dh dkjZokbZ

dh tkrh gSA ;g vkjksi ns'kæksg] Hkz"Vkpkj ;k lafoèkku osQ mYya?ku dk gks ldrk gSA egkfHk;ksx mUgha mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa

ij pyk;k tkrk gS ftudh inkofèk foèkkueaMy osQ jktuhfrd leFkZu (Political Support) ij vkfJr ugha gksrhA

lkèkkj.kr% fdlh ns'k osQ mPpkfèkdkjh ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dh 'kfDr ogka osQ foèkkueaMy (Legislature) esa fufgr

jgrh gS] vkSj blosQ fy, visf{kr çfØ;k (Procedure) lafoèkku dh O;oLFkkvksa ;k muls tqM+h çFkkvksa (Conventions)

ls fuèkkZfjr gksrh gSA

:l osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dh dkjZokbZ pkj pj.kksa esa iwjh dh tk ldrh gS%

(d) LVsV M~;wek dks nks&frgkbZ cgqr ls egkfHk;ksx osQ i{k esa oksV nsuk gksxk_ ([k) loksZPp U;k;ky; dks bl ckr

dh iqf"V djuh gksxh fd jk"Vªifr dh dfFkr dkjZokbZ xaHkhj vijkèk ;k ns'kæksg (treason) dh dksfV esa vkrh gS_

(x) laoSèkkfud U;k;ky; dk ;g O;oLFkk nsuh gksxh fd LVsV M~;wek us egkfHk;ksx pykus osQ fu.kZ; dk tks vuqeksnu

fd;k gS] mlesa çfØ;k (procedure) dk dksbZ mYya?ku ugha gqvk gS_ vkSj (?k) jk"Vªifr dks gVkus dk çLrko la?kh;

ifj"kn osQ nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls ikfjr gksuk pkfg,A

laoSèkkfud U;k;ky; (Constitutional Court) %& :l osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj] og U;k;ky; ftls U;kf;d

iqujh{k.k (Judicial Review) dh 'kfDr çkIr gS] blesa 19 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA ;s lnL; jk"Vªifr osQ

}kjk euksuhr fd, tkrs gSa] ijarq budh fu;qfDr osQ fy, la?kh; ifj"kn dh iqf"V vko';d gSA bl U;k;ky; dks ;g

fu.kZ; nsus dk vfèkdkj gS fd jk"Vªifr] laln rFkk ljdkj dh dksbZ dkjZokbZ lafoèkkulEer gS ;k ugha\

U;kf;d iqujh{k.k (Judicial Review) %& fyf[kr lafoèkku osQ varxZr fd ;g 'kfDr fd og fdlh fu;e] dkuwu]

ç'kklfud vkns'k ;k dkjZokbZ dks lafoèkku dh O;oLFkkvksa ;k muesa fufgr fl¼karksa dh nf"V ls ij[k dj mls lafoèkku

;k mldh ewy psruk (spirit) osQ fo:¼ ?kksf"kr dj ldrk gS ftlls og jnn~ gks tkrh gSA

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1993 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr :l dh osQUæh; ljdkj dks fiQj ls foLr`r 'kfDr;ka nsus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;k gS] ijarq

:lh la?k osQ 21 x.kjkT;ksa rFkk 68 vapyksa] çkarks ,oa tuinksa dks Hkh lekurk osQ vkèkkj ij i;kZIr lÙkk çnku dh

xbZ gSA djkèkku] j{kk] fons'kh ekeys] ÅtkZ vkSj lkekftd&vkfFkZd uhfr ls tqM+s fo"k; osQUæh; vFkkZr~ la?kh; ljdkj

osQ fy, lqjf{kr j[ks x, gSa] ijarq f'k{kk] LokLF;] lkekftd lqj{kk] laLd`fr vkSj Hkwfe osQ mi;ksx ls tqM+s fo"k; osQUæ

vkSj LFkkuh; 'kklu osQ la;qDr çcaèk osQ vraxZr j[ks x, gSaA x.kjkT;ksa osQ vius&vius lafoèkku gSa_ mudh viuh&viuh

fuokZfpr ljdkjsa gSa_ vkSj os viuk&viuk ctV cukrs gSaA os vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd lqèkkjksa dh xfr vkSj fn'kk

fuèkkZfjr djus esa çHkko'kkyh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSa_ Hkwfe dk LokfeRo eq[;r% bUgha osQ fu;a=k.k esa vkrk gS_ vkSj jkT;

osQ dY;k.kdkjh dk;ZØeksa dk 80» [kpZ buosQ fgLls esa vkrk gSA

;g ckr egÙoiw.kZ gS fd :l dk lafoèkku vius ukxfjdksa dks cqfu;knh ekuo&vfèkdkj vkSj Lora=krk,a çnku djrk

gSA buesa vkokl (Housing)] fu%'kqYd fpfdRlk (Free Healthcare)] f'k{kk (Education) vkSj dqN gkyrksa esa

dkuwuh lgk;rk (Legal Assistance) dk vfèkdkj lfEefyr gSA

jktuhfrd nyksa dh fLFkfr (Status of Political Parties) %& :lh la?k osQ fuekZ.k ls igys lksfo;r lektoknh

x.kjkT; la?k ,d lkE;oknh ns'k Fkk tgka lkE;oknh ny (Communist Party) dk ,dkfèkdkj çpfyr FkkA 1990

osQ n'kd osQ vkjaHk ls ogka jktuhfrd cgqyokn (Political Pluralism) dks lgu djus dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA rc ls

ogka vusd jktuhfrd ny mHkj dj lkeus vk,] gkykafd muesa ls cgqr gh de ny tkunkj ;k fVdkÅ fl¼ gq,A

ny osQ caèku ;k ny osQ çfr fu"Bk dks ogka cgqr egÙo ugha fn;k tkrk gS] cgqr lkjs jktuhfrK Lokèkhu ;k funZyh;

(Independent) mEehnokjksa osQ :i esa pqus tkrs gSaA os LFkkuh; leFkZu osQ vkèkkj ij vkxs vkrs gSa] laln osQ Hkhrj

voljoknh xBcaèku cuk ysrs gSaA fdlh mEehnokj dks jktuhfrd ny dh vksj ls lalnh; pquko yM+us osQ fy,

de&ls&de 2]00]000 gLrk{kj çkIr djus iM+rs gSaA

jktuhfrd cgqyokn (Political Pluralism) %& og fl¼kar ftlosQ varxZr tulkèkkj.k dks vusd fopkjèkkjkvksa]

uhfr;ksa] dk;ZØeksa vkSj usrkvksa esa ls viuh&viuh ilan dk fodYi pquus dk volj vkSj Lora=krk nh tkrh gSA

fnlacj] 1995 osQ lalnh; pquko osQ le; djhc 250 jktuhfr ny viuk iathdj.k (Registration) djk pqosQ FksA

buesa ls osQoy 43 nyksa us pquko esa fgLlk fy;k] vkSj osQoy 23 nyksa us dqN LFkku thrsA buesa Hkh dqN fo'ks"k nyksa

dk opZLo jgkA LVsV M~;wek osQ 373 LFkkuksa] fofHkUu nyksa osQ fgLls esa vk, D;ksafd bUgsa funZyh; mEehnokj ugha thr

ik,A buesa 90» LFkkuksa ij i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ nyksa osQ fgLls esa vk,A ;s ny Fks % :lh la?k lkE;oknh ny (communist

Party of The Russian Federation)_ :l dk mnkj&yksdra=kh; ny (Liberal-Democratic Party of Russia)_

;kCyksdks_ ^:l gekjk ?kj gS* (Our Home is Russia) _ vkSj :l dk d`f"k&çèkku ny (Agrarian Party of

Russia)A tqykbZ] 1996 rd jk"VªO;kih jktuhfrd nyksa esa dkuwuh rkSj ij iathd`r nyksa dh la[;k fxjdj 86 jg

xbZA fopkjèkkjkRed nf"V ls :l osQ jktuhfrd nyksa dks eksVs rkSj ij rhu larqfyr Jsf.k;ksa esa j[k ldrs gSa % :f<+oknh

iwoZ&lkE;oknh (Conservative Ex-Communit)_ mRdV nf{k.kiaFkh jk"Vªoknh vkSj yksdoknh (Redical Righwing

Nationalist and Populist)_ vkSj mnkjoknh eè;ekxhZ (Liberal&Centrist) ny tks cktkj&O;oLFkk vkSj

cgqyokn dk leFkZd gSA buesa :f<+oknh iwoZ&lkE;oknh eq[;r%:lh la?k osQ lkE;oknh ny ls tqM+s gSa ftls vDrwcj]

1993 esa fiQj ls dkuwuh rkSj ij ekU;rk fey xbZ FkhA ;g ny lksfo;r la?k osQ lkE;oknh ny (Communit Party

of the Soview Union : CPSU) dk vYila'kksfèkr mÙkjkfèkdkjh gS tks fd vFkZO;oLFkk ij jkT; osQ fu;a=k.k dk

leFkZu djrk gSA buosQ vykok] ^:l dh fL=k;ka* (Women of Russia) ,slk ny gS tks :lh fL=k;ksa esa iQSyh gqbZ

csjkstxkjh dh leL;k vkSj muosQ çfr gksus okys nqO;Zgogkj ij è;ku oasQfær djrk gSA

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1- lgh fodYi pqfu, (Choose the correct option)—

1- eSXukdkVkZ ftls ek¡x jkti=k (The Great Charter) dgrs gSa dks eatwjh nhμ(d) gsujh f}rh; ([k) fjpMZ çFke (x) tkWu (?k) V~;wMj

2- fczfV'k laln 'kfDr'kkyh gks x;h Fkhμ(d) iaægoha 'krkCnh esa ([k) pkSngoha 'krkCnh esas

(x) lksygoha 'krkCnh esaa (?k) ckjgoha 'krkCnh esa

3- fczVsu esa ftls ^lcls cqf¼eku csodwiQ* dgk x;k gS 1603 bZ- esa xn~nh ij cSBk] og dkSu gS\(d) fjpMZ çFke ([k) tsEl çFke (x) gsujh f}rh; (?k) tku

4- xzsV fczVsu vkSj vejhdh mifuos'kksa osQ chp ;q¼ pyk&(d) 10 o"kks± rd ([k) 8 o"kks± rd (x) 6 o"kks± rd (?k) 5 o"kks± rd

5- orZeku esa fLoV~tjyS.M dk lafoèkku tks çHkkoh gS dc ykxw gqvk μ(d) 29 ebZ 1874 ([k) 29 ebZ 1875 (x) 29 ebZ 1878 (?k) 29 ebZ 1880

6-2 ;w-,l-, vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa lafoèkku la'kksèku dh çfØ;k (AmendmentProcess in the Constituion of U.S.A. and Switzerland)

laoSèkkfud la'kksèku dk vFkZ (Meaning of Constitutional Amendment) %& lafoèkku fodkl'khy gksrs gSaAblh çlax esa gsujh esu (Henry Maine) us dgk Fkk fd lafoèkku fufeZr ugha vfirq fodflr gksrs gSaA bl mfDresa lR;rk dh ek=kk tks Hkh gks bruk rks lokZekU; gh gS fd dksbZ Hkh lafoèkku vius vfUre] :i dks çkIr ugha djik;k gS rFkk fodkl osQ ;ksX; gSA ykMZ czkxge us dgk Fkk % ;fn lafoèkku dk dksbZ ewY; gS rks mUgsa fodflr gksukpkfg,] mudh tM+sa Hkh gksrh gSa] os idrs gSa] n`<+ gksrs gSaA¸ rkRi;Z ;g gS fd ekuo lekt fodkl'khy gS] le;osQ lkFk euq"; dh vko';drk,¡ rFkk ifjfLFkfr;k¡ cnyrh jgrh gSaA pw¡fd mÙke lafoèkku dk ;g xq.k gS fd ogle; dh ek¡x dks ifjyf{kr djs] vr% vko';drkvksa esa ifjorZu osQ lkFk lafoèkku esa vuqdwy ifjorZu vko';dgSA foYlu osQ 'kCnksa esa ¶lafoèkku dks fuf'pr :i ls thou çsjd gksuk pkfg,_ blosQ rÙo gSa jk"Vªh; fopkj vkSjLoHkkoA vr% jk"Vªh; thou esa ifjorZu osQ lkFk bldk fodkl vko';d gSA

vesfjdk esa laoSèkkfud la'kksèku (Constitutional Amendment in U.S.A.)

laoSèkkfud la'kksèku dh jhfr;k¡ (Procedures of Constituional Amendment): vkèkqfud fyf[kr lafoèkku esavejhdh lafoèkku lcls vfèkd iqjkuk lafoèkku gSA bldk fuekZ.k yxHkx nks lkS o"kZ iwoZ gqvk Fkk ysfdu vkt Hkh;fn esfMlu vkSj gSfeYVu i`Foh ij vkos rks bls igpkuus esa mUgsa Hkh dfBukbZ gksxhA vkt dk lafoèkku fliQZ 1787bZñ dk fyf[kr çys[k ugha gS] ;g rks <k¡pkek=k gS] xxupqEch vV~Vkfydk dk vkèkkj ek=k gSA le; vkSj ifjfLFkfrdh ek¡x osQ vuqlkj blesa la'kksèku gq,] fofèk osÙkk] çdk'kdh; vkèkkj] foèkkf;uh laLFkkvksa] ukxfjdksa vkSj jktuhfrdnyksa us bldh O;k[;k dhA lafoèkku osQ 'kCnksa dks mUgksaus fofHkÂ vFkZ] fl¼kar] fu;e] ç.kkfy;ksa vkfn ls foHkwf"kr fd;kAbUgsa lafoèkku esa fyfic¼ ugha fd;k x;k] ysfdu çFkk vkSj ijEijk osQ :i esa lafoèkku osQ O;kogkfjd vkSj vfHkÂ vaxcu x;sA vk¡x vkSj js us blfy, dgk gS fd ¶orZeku lafoèkku fliQZ çys[khu vuqPNsn ugha gS cfYd leLr O;k[;k,¡]fu.kZ;] vH;kl vkSj ç.kkfy;k¡ tks ekSfyd vuqPNsnksa vkSj èkkjkvksa osQ bnZ&fxnZ fodflr gq, gSa bldk ldayu gS] ftUgsade&ls&de ,d gtkj i"Bksa esa eqfær fd;k tk ldrk gSA¸

lkaoSèkkfud o`f¼ osQ çlax esa equjks us dgk gSμ ;g lafoèkku 1787 dh frfFk fpUg j[krs gq, Hkh xqtjs gq, o"kks±esa fujarj ifjofrZr] fodflr] foLrr vkSj uohu ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ vuqdwy gksrk jgk gSA¸ czkbl osQ 'kCnksa esa ¶vejhdh

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lafoèkku vfuok;Zr% mruk gh cnyk gS ftruk fd jk"Vª cnyk gS vkSj tgk¡ rd yksxksa osQ fopkj bl lafoèkku osQckjs esa cnys gSa ogha rd bl lafoèkku dh vkRek ,oa vFkZ esa ifjorZu gqvk gSA¸

lafoèkku osQ fodkl osQ lkèku

la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk osQ lafoèkku dk fodkl fofHkÂ jhfr;ksa ls gqvk gS ftuesa fuEufyf[kr çeq[k gS%&

(d) lafofèk }kjk fodkl (Development by Statuts) A

([k) ç'kkldh; fu.kZ;ksa }kjk fodkl (Development by Administrative Decision) A

(x) U;kf;d O;k[;kvksa }kjk fodkl (Development by Judicial Interpretations) A

(?k) jktuhfrd vkSj ukxfjd O;k[;kvksa }kjk fodkl (Development by Interpretation by Politicians

and Citizens) A

(M+) çFkkvksa vksj ijEijkvksa }kjk fodkl (Development by Usages and Conventions)A

(p) la'kksèku }kjk fodkl (Development Amendment)A

(d) lafofèk (Statute) :- lafoèkku&fuekZrk bl rjg ls voxr Fks fd Hkfo"; dks Hkwr dh dM+h esa ck¡èkk tk ldrkgSA vr% mUgksaus osQoy 'kklu dk <k¡pk rS;kj fd;k vkSj vkèkkjHkwr fl¼karksa dk çfriknu fd;kA 'kklu&lEcUèkh foLrkjdh ckrksa dks iwjk djus dk Hkkj mUgksaus Hkkoh tu&çfrfufèk;ksa ij NksM+ fn;kA mldk fopkj Fkk fd dkaxzsl lafoèkku dhU;wurkvksa rFkk dfe;ksa dks iwjk djsxh vkSj 'kklu dk iw.kZ <k¡pk rS;kj djsxhA dk¡xzsl us bl dk;Z dks liQyrkiwoZd fd;kA

mnkgj.kkFkZ % (i) la'kksèku esa osQoy loksZPp U;k;ky; dh LFkkiuk dk mYys[k gS vkSj mudh jpuk rFkk vèkhuLFkU;k;ky;ksa dh LFkkiuk vkSj laxBu dk Hkkj dk¡xzsl ij NksM+ fn;k gSA dk¡xzsl us 1789 bZñ esa U;k;ikfydk vfèkfu;e(Judiciary Act of 1789) osQ }kjk U;k;&O;oLFkk dh uhao MkyhA

(ii) la?kh; foèkkf;dk osQ ckjs esa lafoèkku fliQZ dk¡xzsl osQ nks dFkuksa dh ppkZ djrk gS] ijUrq lnL;ksa dh fuokZpu&fofèk]fuokZpu dk le;] LFkku vkfn dks ckn esa fofèk;ksa }kjk fuf'pr fd;k x;k gSA

([k) ç'kkldh; fu.kZ; %& foèkkf;dk dh rjg dk;Zikfydk dk Hkh vejhdh lafoèkku osQ fodkl esa i;kZIr gkFkjgk gSA jk"Vªifr;ksa dh jktkKkvksa] vkKkvksa rFkk vU; dk;Zokfg;ksa us lafoèkku esa o`f¼ dh gSA tSDlu] fyadu]:tosYV vkfn jk"Vªifr;ksa dk lafoèkku ij Li"V Nki gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] lafoèkku esa eaf=keaMy dh O;oLFkk ugha gS]ysfdu jk"Vªifr okf'kaxVu us eaf=keaMy }kjk ijke'kZ rFkk 'kklu&lapkyu dh rFkk çkjEHk dh tks vc lafoèkku dkvfHkUu vax cu x;k gSA bl çdkj ;|fi ;q¼&?kks"k.kk dk vfèkdkj dk¡xzsl dks gS] ysfdu jk"Vªifr us bls vçR;{krjhosQ ls vius gkFk esa fy;k gSA

(x) U;kf;d O;k[;k,¡ %& laoSèkkfud o`f¼ dh vfèkdre egÙoiw.kZ lkèkuk U;kf;d fuokZpu gSA dk¡xzsl ;k jkT;foèkkf;dk,¡ dksbZ fofèk cukrh gSa] jk"Vªirh; ;k jkfT;d ç'kklu vfèkdkjh dksbZ dk;Z djrs gSaA mu fofèk;ksa vkSj dk;ks±vkfn dks ;fn dksbZ voSèkkfud le>rk gS rks U;k;ky; osQ le{k mUgsa mudh oSèkkfudrk osQ ijh{k.k osQ fy, is'kdjrk gSA U;k;ky; fu.kZ; nsrs le; lafoèkku ls lacafèkr èkkjk dk vFkZ yxkrs gSa tks mUgsa lafoèkku dks iwoZ ls i;kZIrfHkÂ vFkZ nsus dk lqvolj çnku djrk gSA bl çdkj lafoèkku dks u;h fn'kk feyrh gSA fdlh okD;ka'k dk foospudjrs le; U;k;ky; mUgsa u;k {ks=k rFkk fo"k; çnku djrs gSaA ;g çfØ;k fujarj pyrh jgrh gS vkSj ¶fodkl dhfn'kk ,d fu.kZ; osQ ckn nwljs fu.kZ; }kjk fuèkkZfjr gksrh jgrh gS tcrd fd vfUre fu.kZ; osQ cgqr nwj vFkZ ughayxk nsA¸ mnkgj.kkFkZ] loksZPp U;k;ky; us fufgr 'kfÙkQ osQ fl¼kar (Implied Power) lgt 'kfÙkQ osQ fl¼kar çFkkvU; fu.kZ;ksa osQ }kjk 'kklu dk ekxZ gh cny fn;k gSA vkWx vkSj js osQ er esa U;k;ky; ¶fujarj vfèkos'ku esajgusokyk laoSèkkfud lEesyu¸ (A King of Continuous Constitutional Convention) gS tks lafoèkku ogh gSftls U;k;kèkh'k dgs fd ;g lafoèkku gSA¸ equjks osQ 'kCnksa esa ¶çR;sd lkseokj dks loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ fu.kZ; dh?kks"k.kk osQ lkFk lafoèkku esa ifjorZu gksrk jgrk gSA¸

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(3) çFkk,¡ vkSj vfHkle;% okf'kaxVu us dgk Fkk] ¶le; vkSj vknr ljdkj rFkk ekuoh; laLFkkvksa dk lp

Lo:i fuf'pr djus osQ fy, vko';d gSA¸ vejhdh lafoèkku osQ fodkl esa Hkh çFkkvksa rFkk vfHkle;ksa (costoms

and convention) dk egÙoiw.kZ ;ksx jgk gSA ;s 'kklu osQ vkèkkjHkwr rFkk ekSfyd fu;e cu x;s gsa] buesa

fuEufyf[kr mYys[kuh; gSaaμ (i) lafoèkku esa jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu dh vçR;{k i¼fr viuk;h x;h gS ysfdu çFkkvksa

us mls çR;{k fuokZpu dk :i ns fn;k gSA (ii) lafoèkku esa eaf=keaMy dh O;k[;k ugha gS] ysfdu ç'kkldh; foHkkxksa

osQ ijke'kZ&nkr` laLFkk osQ :i esa eaf=keaMy dks tUe fn;k gSA (iii) ¶lafèk;ksa osQ LFkku ij dk;Zdkjh le>kSrk¸

(Executive agreements) çFkk dh gh nsu gSA (iv) dkaxzsl esa ^dkmdl* (Caucus) vkSj lfefr ç.kkfy;ksa dk

fodklA (v) lHkh èku&foèks;d dk çfrfufèk&lHkk esa iqu% LFkkfir gksukA (vi) jktuhfrd nyksa rFkk mlosQ lHkh vaxks

dk fodklμdkmdl (Caucas) lEesyu] lfefr;k¡] IysViQkeZ] fufèk bR;kfn çFkkvksa dh nsu gSaA (vii) okf'kaxVu osQ

le; ;g çFkk vkjEHk gqbZ fd fdlh O;fÙkQ dks nks ckj ls vfèkd jk"Vªifr ugha gksuk pkfg,A 1940 bZñ rd bl

çFkk dk ikyu gqvkA var esa] 1961 bZñ ls bls oSèkkfud :i çnku fd;k x;kA (viii) fu;qfÙkQ&lEcUèkh flusVksfj;y

dVZlh (Senatorial courtesy) dh çFkk egÙoiw.kZ gSA

(4) jktuhfrKksa rFkk ukxfjdksa }kjk O;k[;k,¡ % lafoèkku dh O;k[;k esa jktuhfrK (Politicians) vkSj lkèkkj.k

ukxfjd Hkh Hkkx ysrs gSa] ;|fi ;s 'kklu esa inkfèkdkjh ugha gksrsA buesa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ usrkvksa dk dk;Z

mYys[kuh; gSA fo;MZ us mnkgj.k nsrs gq, dgk fd lafoèkku dh èkkjk 2 esa ;g O;oLFkk dh x;h gS fd jkT;ksa }kjk

fu;qDr ¶fuokZph¸ (Electorates) ,d=k gksdj jk"Vªifr dks pqusaxsA lafoèkku fuekZrkvksa dk mís'; Fkk fd nycUnh ;k

fufgr LFkkuksa ls ijs ;ksX;re O;fÙkQ jk"Vªifr dks pqusaxs] ysfdu vkt O;ogkj esa fuokZph jktuhfrd nyksa rFkk

ernkrkvksa dh bPNk dks dk;Z :i nsus osQ fy, jcj LVkEi (Rubber-Stamp) dk dke djrs gSa bl çdkj yk[kksa

vejhdh ernkrkvksa us jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu dks ,dne cny fn;k gSA

la'kksèku dh çfØ;k (Procedure For Amendment)%& vejhdh lafoèkku osQ tudksa osQ nks mís'; Fksμ

(1) lafoèkku dh fofèk;ksa dks loksZifjrk çnku djuk rFkk (2) lafoèkku esa vuE;rk rFkk uE;rk dk leUo; djukA

lafoèkku ,d ifo=k çys[k gS] mldh fofèk;k¡ ns'k dh loksZPp fofèk;k¡ gSa muosQ fuekZ.k vkSj ifjorZu dh ç.kkyh

lkèkkj.k fofèk ls fHkUu gksuh pkfg,A fiQj LFkk;hiu lafoèkku dk ,d xq.k gS] ysfdu bl fLFkjrk osQ fy, ;Fkkdky

O;oLFkk vko';d gSA lafoèkku lfn;ksa rd rHkh thfor jg ldrk gS tc fofHkUu le;ksa vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ vuqdwy

vius esa ifjorZu yk losQ_ ysfdu og ifjorZu ,slk ugha gksuk pkfg, fd lafoèkku dh vkRek ;k Lo:i gh lekIr

gks tk;A phiQ tfLVl ek'kZy us dgk Fkk fd ¶ge ;g dHkh ugha Hkwysa fd ;g lafoèkku lfn;ksa rd LFkk;h jgsxk

vkSj iQyr% mls euq"; thou osQ fofHkUu laosQrksa osQ vuqdwy O;ofLFkr gksuk iM+sxkA¸ vejhdh lafoèkku osQ fuekZrk

bl rF; ls iw.kZr% voxr FksA bUgha mís';ksa us la'kksèku dh ,d fof'k"V ç.kkyh dks LFkku fn;kA

çfØ;k dh èkkjk& vejhdh lafoèkku osQ ik¡posa vuqPNsn esa lafoèkku osQ la'kksèku dh çfØ;k dk mYys[k gSμ¶dk¡xzsl]

tc dHkh blosQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls vko';d le>s] lafoèkku esa la'kksèku çLrqr dj losQxh ;k

nks&frgkbZ jkT;ksa osQ foèkku e.Myksa dh çkFkZuk ij la'kksèku djus osQ fy, ,d&dUosa'kuksa }kjk nksuksa esa ls ftl fdlh

<ax dks dk¡xszl Lohdkj djsa] larq"V dj fn;k tk;xk rks og bl lafoèkku dk oSèk vax cu tk;xkA¸

(d) çLrkouk%& la'kksèku dk çLrko ykus osQ fy, nks i¼fr;ksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k gSA çFke dk¡xzsl osQ nksuksa

lnu vius nks frgkbZ cgqer ls la'kksèku dk çLrko çLrkfor dj ldrs gSaA loksZPp U;k;ky; }kjk ;g Li"V dj

fn;k x;k gS ;g nks frgkbZ cgqer la'kksèku ij er nsusokys lnL;ksa dk gksuk pkfg,] u fd leLr lnL;ksa dkA f}rh;]

vejhdh la?k dh de&ls&de nks&frgkbZ jkT;ksa dh foèkku lHkk,¡ dkaxzsl ls la'kksèku dh çkFkZuk djs ,slh çkFkZuk osQ

iQyLo:i dk¡xzsl lafoèkku esa la'kksèku djus osQ fy, ,d lEesyu (Convention) vkeaf=kr djrh gS vkSj bl

lEesyu }kjk la'kksèku çLrkfor fd;k tk ldrk gSA

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([k) vuqleFkZu (Retification): la'kksèku dks çHkkoh gksus osQ fy, mldk vuqleFkZu vko';d gSA çLrkforla'kksèku dh laiqf"V osQ fy;s Hkh nks rjhosQ viuk;s tk ldrs gSaA (i) la?k osQ rhu&pkSFkkbZ jkT;ksa osQ foèkkue.My mldhiqf"V dj nsa] ;k (ii) bl dk;Z osQ fy, jkT;ksa esa vkeaf=kr fd;s x;s lEesyuksa esa rhu&pkSFkkbZ jkT;ksa osQ lEesyuksa }kjkla'kksèku dh iqf"V dh tk;A la'kksèku dh iqf"V osQ fy, mi;qZDr nks fofèk;ksa esa ls dkSu&lh fofèk ç;ksx esa yk;h tk;bldk fu.kZ; dk¡xzsl djrh gSA

fujksèkμ ;s çfØ;k,¡ e;kZfnr Hkh gSA lafoèkku esa fliQZ ,d e;kZnk dks Li"Vr% fy[kk x;k gS dksbZ Hkh jkT; fcuklgefr osQ flusV esa erkfèkdkj dh lekurk ls oafpr ugha fd;k tk;xkA nkl O;kikj (Slave Trade) ij HkhvYidkyhu fujksèk (restriction) FkkA vBkjgosa la'kksèku osQ le; mu fo"k;ksa dks Hkh la'kksèku&'kfÙkQ ls ckgj j[kusdh ps"Vk dh x;h tks lafoèkku esa vUrfufgZr (Germane) ugha gS ysfdu ;g ç;kl vliQy jgkA

lafoèkku&çfØ;k dk dk;Z:iμ ;|fi çLrkouk vkSj vuqleFkZu dh nks fofèk;k¡ lafoèkku esa O;ofLFkr gSa] vHkhrd la'kksèku osQ lHkh çLrko dk¡xzsl osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ nks&frgkbZ cgqer }kjk ikfjr gq, gSa vkSj fliQZ bDdhlosa la'kksèkudks NksM+dj lHkh çLrko jkT; dh foèkkf;dk lHkkvksa }kjk vuqlfefFkZr gq, gSa ysfdu bldk vFkZ ;g ugha fddUosU'ku dh çfØ;k osQ fy, dHkh ç;Ru gh ugha fd;kA dbZ ckj nks&frgkbZ jkT;ksa ls dUosU'ku cqykus dh çkFkZukdh gS] ysfdu dk¡xszl lnk blosQ fo:¼ jgh gSA lEesyu osQ vkea=k.k ls Hk; gS fd ,d ckj lEesyu gksus ij ogeuekus rjhosQ ls çLrko ikfjr djrk pyk tk;xk] ;gk¡ rd fd lafoèkku dk ,dne u;k :i gks tk;xkA vuqleFkZuosQ lEcUèk esa foèkkf;dk lHkkvksa ls lEesyu dk mi;ksx fd;k tk;μbldk fu'p; dk¡xzsl gh djsxhA çFke ç.kkyhde [kphZyh gS] ;|fi lEesyu ls rqjar rFkk vfèkd çfrfufèk&ewyd ifj.kke feysxkA dk¡xzsl vuqleFkZu dk le;fuèkkZfjr dj ldrh gS] tSls vBkjgosa] chlosa] rFkk bDdhlosa la'kksèku osQ fy, lkr o"kZ dk le; fuf'pr fd;kx;k FkkA cgqr ls la'kksèkuksa osQ rks vHkh rd vuqleFkZu gh ugha gks losQ] vusd dk vuqleFkZu dbZ o"kks± osQ ckniwjk gqvk vkSj vusd la'kksèku ftUgas vuqleFkZu osQ fy, iPphlksa o"kZ iwoZ çLrkfor fd;k x;k Fkk vHkh rd thforgSA vUr esa ,d vU; mYys[kuh; ckr ;g gS fd la'kksèku dk çLrko ,d foèks;d ugha gSA vr% mls jk"Vªifr dhLohd`fr (Attent) dh vko';drk ugha rFkk u ml ij fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Veto) dk gh og ç;ksx dj ldrk gSA

vkykspuk,¡ (Criticisms) (i) vR;fèkd èkheh rFkk dfBu % vesfjdk esa la'kksèku dh çfØ;k dh dbZ fo}kuksa usdM+h vkykspuk dh gSA phiQ tfLVl ek'kZy us bls ^LFkwy vkSj d"Vdkj.k* (Unwieldy and Cumbrous) dgkgSA eq[;r% pkj :i esa blosQ foi{k esa rdZ fn;s tkrs gSaA igyh vkykspuk ;g gS fd la'kksèku dh ;g èkheh vkSjdfBu (Slow and difficult) çfØ;k gSA bldh dfBurk dk çeq[k dkj.k 2@3 dk¡xzsl lnL;ksa dh çLFkkiuk vkSj 2@4jkT;ksa }kjk vuqleFkZu dh vko';drk gSA blh dkj.k çR;sd la'kksèku esa o"kks± yx tkrs gSa vkSj vusd la'kksèku rksvko';d lnL;ksa dk vuqleFkZu u feyus osQ dkj.k vHkh rd iM+s gq, gSaA bl 'krkCnh osQ çkjEHk esa rks yksxksa dks;g fo'okl gks x;k fd vc vkxs la'kksèku gks ugha ldrs gSa] ysfdu lkr o"kks± (1913&20) osQ vUnj pkj vkSj,d gh o"kZ (1932) esa rks dbZ egÙoiw.kZ la'kksèkuksa us bl fo'okl dks xyr lkfcr dj fn;kA vr% la'kksèku&lEcUèkhbl vkykspuk dh vfèkd [khapkrkuh Bhd ugha gSA

(ii) vR;fèkd ljy % dqN vkykspdksa dk ;g dguk gS fd la'kksèku dh ;g çfØ;k cgqr ljy (Too Easy) gSvkSj blh çlax esa gSfeYVu us îQsMsjfyLV* esa fy[kk Fkk fd la'kksèku dh ljyrk dk ifj.kke gksxk] laoSèkkfudvfLFkjrkA 18osa la'kksèku dks ftruh rsth ls jkT; dh foèkkf;dk lHkkvksa us vuqlefFkZr fd;k] bl vkykspuk esa yksxksadk fo'okl vkSj n`<+ gks x;kA ysfdu bl èkkj.kk dks Hkkjh èkDdk rc yxk tcfd mlh ljyrk ls foèkkf;dk lHkkvksaus 18osa la'kksèku dks jí dj fn;kA èkhjs&èkhjs ;g f'kdk;r lekIr gks x;h D;ksafd vfèkdrj la'kksèkuksa dks vuqleFkZuugha fey ik;kA vkt rks ;g vkykspuk lquus esa Hkh ugha vkrhA

(iii) iw.kZ çtkrkaf=kd ugha %& rhljh vkykspuk ;g gS fd ;g çfØ;k i;kZIr çtkrkaf=kd ugha (Non & SufficientlyDemocractic) gS] D;ksafd çLFkkiuk ;k vuqleFkZu esa turk dks çR;{k :i ls Hkkx ysus dk volj ugha feyrkgSA flusVj ykiQksysV (Lafollete) us bl vkykspuk dks nwj djus osQ fy, ;kstuk nhA 21osa la'kksèku dks blh mís';ls pqus x;s lEesyu }kjk vuqlefFkZr djk dj turk dks djhc&djhc çR;{k :i ls Hkkx ysus dk volj fn;kx;k ysfdu fofèk dks vfèkd çksRlkgu ugha feyk gS fiQj Hkh bl vkykspuk osQ lEcUèk esa ;g dgk tk ldrk gSfd ns'k dh fo'kkyrk dh çR;{k jhfr ls çfrfufèkewyd jhfr gh lqfoèkktud rFkk vYiO;kih gSa

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(iv) vYila[;dksa }kjk fu;U=k.k % vfUre vkykspuk bl lEcUèk esa ;g dh tkrh gS fd la'kksèku ij vYila[;dksadk fu;U=k.k jgrk gSA bldh O;k[;k nks rjg ls dh tkrh gSμ(i) 37 jkT; ftudh tula[;k 'ks"k 13 jkT;ksa ls cgqrde gks ldrh gS] la'kksèku yk ldrs gSaA ;fn 37 de vkcknhokys jk"Vª laxfBr gks tk;¡ rks 13 cgqla[;d jk"Vª muosQle{k vleFkZ gks tk;saxs] ysfud O;ogkj esa ,slk ekSdk fojys gh vk ldrk gSA blosQ foijhr ;fn 13 de vkcknhokysjkT; laxfBr gks tk;¡ rks 'ks"k vfèkd vkcknhokys jkT; la'kksèku ugha yk ldrs gSaA

fLoV~tjySaM esa laoSèkkfud la'kksèku (Constitutional Amendment in Switzerland)laoSèkkfud fodkl osQ fy, vusd i¼fr;ksa ij fuHkZj fd;k tkrk gS_ tSls&çFkk,¡] jhfr&fjokt] ç'kkldh; vè;kns'k]U;k;ky;ksa osQ fu.kZ; vkSj oSKkfud vkS|ksfxd vuqlaèkku vkfnA bu i¼fr;ksa ls Hkh Li"V o çR;{k i¼fr laoSèkkfudla'kksèku gSa bldh tfVyrk rFkk lafoèkku dh çfr"Bk dk [;ky j[krs gq, bl i¼fr dk de ç;ksx gksrk gSA ijfLoV~tjySaM esa vU; fofèk;ksa osQ foijhr laoSèkkfud ifjoÙkZu ykus osQ fy, laoSèkkfud la'kksèku dh i¼fr ij gh vfèkdfuHkZj fd;k x;k gSA fLoV~tjySaM esa osQoy 77 o"kks± esa (1874&1975 bZñ) 50 la'kksèku fd;s x;s] tcfd vesfjdkesa 170 o"kks± esa (1789 bZñ ls vkt rd) osQoy 26 la'kksèku fd;s x;sA

fLol lafoèkku esa la'kksèku dh tks çfØ;k fuèkkZfjr dh x;h gS mlosQ nks çdkj gSμ

la'kksèku i¼fr;k¡ (1) laoSèkkfud tuer&laxzg (constitutional Referendum)

(2) laoSèkkfud vkjEHk.k (Constitutional Initiative)A

bu nksuksa i¼fr;ksa }kjk lafoèkku osQ vkaf'kd ;k iw.kZ la'kksèku (partial or Total Revision) gks ldrs gSA

(1) laoSèkkfud tuer&laxzg (constitutional Referendum) %& bldh nks 'krs± gSaA

(d) tc nksuksa lnu lger gksa % lafoèkku esa la'kksèku osQ fy, ;g vko';d gS fd la?kh; foèkkueaMy osQ nksuksalnu&jkT; lHkk vkSj jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~&la;qDr :i esa lafoèkku esa iw.kZ vFkok vkaf'kd la'kksèku dk fu'p; djsa vkSjrnuq:i la'kksèku dk çLrko djsaA rRii'pkr~ ml la'kksèku dk loZlkèkkj.k vkSj dSaVuksa osQ tuer&laxzg(Referendum) osQ fy, çLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn loZlkèkkj.k vkSj dSaVu mls cgqer ls Lohdkj dj ys rks la'kksèkuLohd`r le>k tkrk gSA bl çlax esa dSaVu dk ,d vkSj v¼Z dSaVu dk vkèkk er ekuk tk,xkA

([k) tc ,d lnu lger gks vkSj nwljk fojksèk djs %& ysfdu] ;fn la?kh; foèkkueaMy dk ,d gh lnuçLrkfor la'kksèku osQ fy, lger gks vkSj nwljk lnu mDr la'kksèku dk fojksèk djrk gks] rksμ

(i) loZçFke loZlkèkkj.k tuer laxzg }kjk ;g fu.kZ; fd;k tk;xk fd la'kksèku dh vko';drk gS ;k ughaA

(ii) loZlkèkkj.k dh Lohd`fr fey tkus ij la?kh; foèkku eaMy dk iqufuZokpu gksrk gSA

(iii) rRi'pkr~ foèkkueaMy osQ fuokZfpr lnu çLrkfor la'kksèku ij fopkj djrs gSaA

(iv) ;fn nksuksa mDr la'kksèku dks Lohdkj dj ysrs gSa] tks çLrkfor la'kksèku loZlkèkkj.k vkSj dSaVuksa osQ fy, çLrqrfd;k tkrk gSA

(v) ;fn loZlkèkkj.k vkSj dSaVu nksuksa cgqer ls lafoèkku dks Lohd`r dj ysrs gSa rks mDr la'kksèku fØ;kdkjh gkstkrk gSA

(2) laoSèkkfud vkjEHk.k (Constitutional Initiative) %& lafoèkku dk iw.kZ vFkok vkaf'kd la'kksèku (completeor partial revision) loZlkèkkj.k osQ fy, de&ls&de 50]000 fLol ukxfjdksa }kjk vkosnu&i=k vko';d gSa bllEcUèk esa Hkh nks çfØ;k,¡ gS&

(d) ;fn vkosnu&i=k iw.kZ la'kksèku (Complete Revision) osQ fy, gks rks mlh çfØ;k dk vuqlj.k fd;k tkrkgS ftl çfØ;k dk la?kh; foèkkueaMy osQ ,d lnu la'kksèku çLrko osQ ikl djus vkSj nwljs osQ }kjk fojksèk djusdh fLFkfr esa gksrk gSA

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([k) vkaf'kd la'kksèku (Partial Revision) osQ fy, nks :i esa ek¡x dh tk ldrh gSμ

(1) lkèkkj.k 'kCnksa esa ;k

(2) lw=k :i esa

;fn vkosnu&i=k lkèkkj.k 'kCnksa esa gks rks &

(i) la?kh; foèkkueaMy dh Lohd`fr osQ ckn mldk foèks;d rS;kj gksrk gSA ml foèks;d ij loZlkèkkj.k rFkkdSaVu dh LohÑfr (Ratification) yh tkrh gSA Lohd`fr feyus ij la'kksèku fØ;k }kjk gksrk gSA

(ii) ;fn la?kh; foèkku eaMy la'kksèku&çLrko osQ fojksèk esa gks rks ml ij loZlkèkk.k dk fu.kZ; fy;k tkrk gSA;gk¡ dSaVuksa dh Lohd`fr dh vko';drk ugha gSA ;fn la'kksèku&çLrko dks ernkrkvksa dh Lohd`fr feytkrh gS rks la?kh; foèkkueaMy çLrko osQ vuq:i foèks;d rS;kj djrk gSA rc ml foèks;d dk dSaVuksarFkk loZlkèkkj.k osQ tuer&laxzg osQ fy, çLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA

;fn la'kksèku&çLrko foèks;d ;k lw=k esa gks rks&

(i) la?kh; foèkkueaMy osQ i{k esa gksus dh fLFkfr esa foèks;d dks loZlkèkkj.k rFkk dSaVu osQ tuer&laxzg osQfy, çLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA

(ii) la?kh; foèkkueaMy osQ i{k esa gksus dh fLFkfr esa foèkkueaMy tuer laxzg osQ fy, fuEufyf[kr fliQkfj'ksadjrk gSμ

(d) çLrkfor la'kksèku vLohd`r dj fn;k tk;] vFkok

([k) la?kh; foèkkueaMy mDr la'kksèku osQ LFkku ij viuk futh çLrko rS;kj djosQ çkjfEHkd la'kksèkuçLrko osQ lkFk loZlkèkkj.k vkSj dSaVu osQ fu.kZ; osQ fy, Hkst ldrk gSA

6-3 ;w-,l-,- vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; O;oLFkk (Federal System of U.S.A.and Switzerland)

vejhdh la?kh; O;oLFkk (American Federal System): la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ foèkkueaMy dks dkaxzsl* dgktkrk gSA vejhdk esa la?kh; 'kklu iz.kkyh (Federal Government) izpfyr gSA ogka dh la?kh; ljdkj iwjs jk"Vªls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gS& ipkl jkT;ksa dh ljdkjsa vius&vius jkT; ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklupykrh gSaA la?kh; iz.kkyh dh vko';drk osQ vuq:i ogka la?k osQ foèkkueaMy&vFkkZr~ dkaxzsl esa nks lnu j[ks x,gSa% (1) izfrfufèk lHkk (House of Representatives) laiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ tulkèkkj.k dk izfrfufèkRo djrh gS vkSj(2) lhusV (Senate) i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ jkT;ksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrh gSA izfrfufèk lHkk dks fuEu lnu ;k voj lnu(Lower House) dgk tkrk gS lhusV dks mPp lnu] mijyk lnu (Upper HOuse) ;k nwljk lnu (Second

Chamber) dgk tkrk gSA izfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; dks dkaxzsl&lnL; (Congresssman) dgk tkrk gS lhusV osQlnL; dks lhusV lnL; ;k lhusVj (Senator) dgk tkrk gSA

izfrfufèk lHkk (House of Representatives): blesa 435 lnL; gksrs gSa tks fd iwjs ns'k dh turk osQ }kjk pqustkrs gSaA buoQk fuokZpu{ks=k (Constituencies) tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij cuk, tkrs gSaA vr% bl lnu esa fdlh jkT;ls vkus okys izfrfufèk;ksa dh la[;k ogka dh tula[;k ij fuHkZj gSA

izfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; nks o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bl vofèk dks fdlh Hkh rjg c<+k;k ;k ?kVk;k ugha tk ldrkAizpfyr izFkk (Convention) osQ vuqlkj izfrfufèk lHkk dk lnL; mlh fuokZpu{ks=k ls lac¼ gksuk pkfg, tgka lsog pquko yM+rk gSA blls jk"Vªh; izfrHkkvksa dk ;Fkksfpr mi;ksx rks ugha gks ikrk] ijarq yksdra=k dh Hkkouk(Democratic Spirit) dks vo'; cy feyrk gSA

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izfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL;ksa dks dqN fo'ks"kkfèkdkj (Privileges) izkIr gSaA mugsa lnu esa cksyus dh iw.kZ Lora=krk gSAogka dh xbZ fdlh Hkh ckr osQ fy, mu ij dksbZ dkuwuh dkjZokbZ ugha dh tk ldrhA vfèkos'ku osQ nkSjku mUgs nhokuhekeyksa (Civil Suits) esa canh ugha cuk;k tk ldrkA

izfrfufèk lHkk vius vè;{k ;k lHkkè;{k (Speaker) dk pquko Loa; djrh gSA mls nyxr vkèkkj ij pquk tkrkgS] vkSj lHkkè;{k cu tkus ij og vius ny dk lnL; cuk jgrk gSA

lhusV (Senate): la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ izR;sd jkT; dks lhusV esa vius nks&nks izfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkjgS] pkgs HkkSxksfyd ;k tula[;k dh n`f"V ls dksbZ jkT; fdruk Hkh NksVk ;k cM+k D;ksa u gks ! pwafd ogka jkT;ksadh orZeku la[;k 50 gS] blfy, lhusV esa 100 lnL; gksrs gSaA 'kq:&'qk: esa jkT;kas osQ foèkkueaMy vius&viusjkT; dk izfrfufèkRo djus osQ fy, lhusV&lnL;ksa dk pquko djrs FksA ijarq 1913 ls jkT;ksa dh turk budk izR;{kpquko djrh gSA

izR;sd lhusV&lnL; Ng o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gSA nks&nks o"kZ ckn lhusV osQ ,d&frgkbZ lnL; lsok&fuo`Ùk gks tkrsgSaA bl rjg iwjh lhusV dHkh Hkax ugha gksrhA ;g ,d LFkk;h lnu cuh jgrh gSA

la;qDr jkT; vejhdk dk mijk"Vªifr (Vice President) lhusV dk lHkkifr (Chairman) gksrk gSA vejhdkosQ jk"Vªifr dh rjg mijk"Vªifr dk pquko Hkh tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk&fuokZpd&xq.k osQ ekè;e ls] pkj o"kZ dh fu;rvofèk osQ fy, gksrk gSA lhusV esa mijk"Vªifr fu"i{k :i ls dk;Z djrk gSA og ernku (Voting) esa osQoy rHkhfgLlk ysrk gSA tc fdlh ekeys osQ i{k vkSj foi{k esa cjkcj er gks tkus osQ dkj.k iQSlyk u gks ik jgk gksA,sls gky esa og vius fu.kkZ;d er (Casting Vote) dk iz;ksx djrk gSA

dkaxzsl dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj dR; (Powers and Functions of the Congress): fofèk&fuekZ.k vkSj lafoèkku&la'kksèku(Legislation and Constitutional Amendment) vejhdk eas la?kh; iz.kkyh vkSj fyf[kr lafoèkku viuk;k x;kgSA blosQ varxZr fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ fo"k;ksa dh nks lwfp;ka (Lists) cukbZ xbZ gSa% la?kh; fo"k; (Federal Subject) vkSjjkT; fo"k; (State Subjects) tks fo"k; buesa ls fdlh lwph osQ fopkj{ks=k esa ugha vkrs] mUgsa vof'k"V fo"k;(Residual Subjects) dgk tkrk gSA bu fo"k;ksa ij dkuwu cukus dh 'kfDr;ka jkT;ksa osQ ikl jgrh gSaA bl n`f"V lsvejhdh la?k&O;oLFkk Hkkjrh; la?k O;oLFkk ls fHkUu gS] D;kafd Hkkjr esa vof'k"V fo"k; la?k ljdkj osQvfèkdkj&{ks=k esa vkrs gSaA nwljs] Hkkjr esa ,d leorhZ lwph (Concurrent List) dh O;oLFkk Hkh dh xbZ gS] ijarqvejhdk esa ,slh dksbZ O;oLFkk ugha dh xbZ gSA vejhdh dkaxzsl dks osQoy la?kh; fo"k;ksa ij dkuwu cukus dk iwjkvfèkdkj gSA

fufgr 'kfDr;ksa osQ fl¼kar (Doctrine of Implied Powers) osQ varxZr dkaxzsl rFkk jk"Vªifr us dbZ ,slh 'kfDr;kaizkIr dj yh gSa tks Lo;a lafoèkku osQ varxZr mUgsa O;fDrxr :i ls ugha lkSaih xbZ FkhA mnkgj.k osQ fy, lafoèkkuvarxZr dkaxzsl dks eqæk Nkius] dj yxkus] ½.k ysus vkSj [kpZ djus dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;k gSA blosQ vkèkkj ijmls ,d fufgr 'kfDr* osQ :i esa jk"Vªh; cSad* (National bank) dh LFkkiuk dk vfèkdkj fey x;k gSA la;qDrjkT; vejhdk dk loksZPp U;k;ky; 'kklu osQ fofHkUu vaxksa dh fufgr 'kfDr;ksa* dks ekU;rk nsrk gSA vkSj ogh budhlhek,a Hkh fuèkkZfjr djrk gSA

foÙk foèks;d (Finance Bill) osQoy izfrfufèk lHkk ls gh 'kq: fd, tk ldrs gSaA ijarq muosQ fy, lhusV dkvuqeksnu t:jh gksrk gSA bl n`f"V ls] foèkkueaMy osQ nwljs lnu osQ :i esa lhusV dh 'kfDr cstksM+ gSA ;gh dkj.kgS fd vejhdh lhusV dks fo'o dk lcls 'kfDr'kkyh nwljk lnu (Most Powerful Second Chamber of

the World) dgk tkrk gSA

vU; foèks;d fdlh Hkh lnu ls vkjaHk fd, tk ldrs gSaA dksbZ Hkh foèks;d nksuksa lnuksa esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn jk"Vªifrdh lekuqefr (Presidential Assent) osQ fy, Hkstk tkrk gSA lkèkkj.kr% jk"Vªifr ml ij gLrk{kj djosQ nldk;Z&fnolksa osQ Hkhrj ykSVk nsrk gSA ;g lekuqefr fey tkus osQ ckn og dkuwu cu tkrk gSA

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;fn jk"Vªifr vius fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Veto) dk iz;ksx djosQ fdlh foèks;d dks viuh vkifÙk;ksa osQ lkFk lnu osQikl okil Hkst ns rks dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnu nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls mls nqckjk ikfjr djosQ bl fu"ksèkkfèkdkj dks fu"iQydj ldrs gSaA

dkaxzsl dks lafoèkku osQ la'kksèku dk iw.kZ vfèkdkj gS blosQ fy, izR;sd lnu dk nks&frgkbZ cgqer visf{kr gSA ijarqdkaxzsl esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn blosQ fy, de ls de rhu&pkSFkkbZ jkT;ksa osQ foèkkueaMyksa dk vuqleFkZu(Ratification) t:jh gSA

loksZPp U;k;ky; lkèkkj.kr% dkuwu dks 'kfDr cká (Ultra Vires) Bgjkdj fujLr dj ldrk gS] vFkkZr~ og ;gfu.kZ; ns ldrk gS fd ,slk dkuwu cukuk dkaxzsl dh 'kfDr osQ ckgj FkkA ijarq laoSèkkfud la'kksèku osQ ekeys esa loksZPpU;k;ky; ,slk fu.kZ; ugha nsrkA

iz'kklfud 'kfDr;ka (Administrative Powers): vejhdh dkaxzsl fofHkUu iz'kklfud foHkkxksa osQ ckjs esa fooj.k(Reports) e¡xk ldrh gSA ;g viuh tkap lfefr;ka (Inquiry Committees) fu;qDr djosQ iz'kklfud foHkkxksadh vkykspuk dj ldrh gSA

blosQ vykok] jk"Vªifr mPp inksa osQ fy, (tSls fd eaf=k;ksa] jktnwrksa] U;k;kèkh'kksa] egkU;k;okfn;ksa osQ in ij) tksfu;qfDr;ka djrk gS] ;k fons'kksa osQ lkFk tks lafèk;ka djrk gS] muosQ fy, lhusV dk vuqleFkZu (Ratification) t:jhgksrk gSA ,d izFkk (Convention) osQ vuqlkj] ;fn jk"Vªifr dks ,sls jkT; esa dksbZ fu;qfDr djuh gks tgka dklhusV&lnL; jk"Vªifr osQ vius jktuhfrd ny ls gks rks jk"Vªifr ,slh fu;qfDr djus ls igys ml lhusV&lnL; lsijke'kZ dj ysrk gS ;fn og lnL; izLrkfor fu;qfDr dk vuqeksnu dj nsrk gS rks lhusV Hkh ml fu;qfDr dh iqf"Vugha djsxhA bl izFkk dks lhusV&lkStU; (Senatorial Courtesy) dh laKk nh tkrh gSA

U;kf;d 'kfDr;ka (Judicial Powers): ;fn ns'kæksg] Hkz"Vkpkj ;k lafoèkku osQ mYya?ku] bR;kfn dk vkjksi yxkdjjk"Vªifr] mijk"Vªifr] U;k;kèkh'kksa ;k iz'kklfud mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa ij egkfHk;ksx (Impeachment) pykuk gks rks blosQfy, izfrfufèk lHkk egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjk,a (Articles of Impeachment) rS;kj djrh gS] vkSj lhusV esa eqdnekpyk;k tkrk gSA izfrfufèk lHkk esa egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjkvksa dks lkèkkj.k cgqer (Simple Majority) ls ikfjr fd;ktkrk gSA nks"k&flf¼ osQ fy, egkfHk;ksx dh izR;sd èkkjk ij lhusV esa mifLFkr rFkk ernku esa Hkkx ysus okys lnL;ksadk nks&frgkbZ cgqer (Two-Third Majority) vko';d gksxkA nks"k fl¼ gks tkus ij vfHk;qDr dks in ls gVkfn;k tkrk gSA

fuokZpdh; 'kfDr;ka (Electoral Powers): pkj&pkj lky ckn tc jk"Vªifr vkSj mijk"Vªifr dk pquko gksrk gSrks bl pquko esa Mkys x, oksVksa dh fxurh osQ fy, dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnuksa dk la;qDr vfèkos'ku (Joint Session)gksrk gSA ;fn jk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, fdlh mEehnokj dks iw.kZ cgqer (Absolute Majority) ugha fey ikrk rks fturhu mEehnokjksa dks lcls vfèkd oksV feys gksa] muesa ls ,d dks izfrfufèk lHkk jk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, pqu ysrh gSA;fn mijk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, fdlh mEehnokj dks iw.kZ cgqer ugha fey ikrk rks ftu nks mEehnokjksa dks lcls vfèkdoksV feys gksa] muesa ls ,d dks lhusV mijk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, pqu ysrh gSA

lfefr iz.kkyh (The Committee System): vejhdh dkaxzsl osQ varxZr fofèk&fuekZ.k dk okLrfod dk;Z vusdlfefr;ksa vkSj milfefr;ksa (Sub-Committees) dh lgk;rk ls laiUu fd;k tkrk gSA dkaxzsl osQ izR;sd vfèkos'kuesa gtkjksa foèks;d izLrqr fd, tkrs gSaA dksbZ Hkh lnL; bu foèks;dksa ls tqM+s gq, lkjs eqn~nksa dk tkudkj ugha gksldrkA ns[kk tk, rks fofèk&fuekZ.k dk lkjk dk;Z fo'ks"kKrk (Specialization) dh ekax djrk gSA lfefr iz.kkyhdk è;s; ,sls izR;sd dk;Z dks mi;qDr fo'ks"kKksa dks lkSaiuk gSA fiQj] lfefr osQ lnL; ,d le; fdlh ,d fo"k;ij& tSls fd djkèkku (Taxation) ;k ÅtkZ (Energy) tSls fo"k; ij&viuk è;ku osQafær dj ldrs gSa rkfd mlosQfy, mi;qDr foèks;d dk izk:i rS;kj fd;k tk losQA

dkaxzsl dh lfefr dks vke rkSj ij ^y?kq foèkku&eaMy* (Little Legislature) dh laKk nh tkrh gSA fdlhHkh foèks;d dks vafre :i nsus dk vfèkdkj ,slh lfefr;ksa osQ gkFk esa jgrk gSA fl¼karr% fdlh lfefr osQ izLRkko

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dks izfrfufèk lHkk ;k lhusV esa vLohdkj fd;k tk ldrk gS] ijarq O;kogkjr% ,slk cgqr de gks ikrk gSA tc lfefrdk vè;{k ;k vU; dksbZ lnL; lfefr osQ fopkj ;k fu.kZ; osQ ckjs esa lnu osQ iVy ij cksyrk gS] rc lkèkkj.kr%foèkk;d mldh fo'ks"kKrk dk vknj djrs gSa] vkSj mldh ckr cM+s è;ku ls lqurs gSaA ;fn dksbZ LFkk;h lfefr fdlhfoèks;d ij viuk izfrosnu (Report) izLrqr djus esa cgqr nsj dj ns] vFkkZr~ rhl fnu ls T;knk yxk ns rks çfrfufèklHkk osQ cgqer (vFkkZr~ 218 lnL;ksa) osQ gLrk{kj bls bl foèks;d dks ml lfefr osQ fopkj{ks=k ls okil ysus dhdkjZokbZ dh tk ldrh gS] ijarq ,sls volj cgqr gh de vkrs gSaA

fiNyh nks 'krkfCn;ksa osQ nkSjku dkaxzsl esa dbZ rjg dh lfefr;k¡ cukbZ xbZ gSaA eq[; çdkj dh lfefr;ksa dk fooj.k%

LFkk;h lfefr (Standing Committee): dkaxzsl dk çR;sd lnu viuh&viuh vko';drk osQ vuqlkj] vius&viusfu;eksa osQ varxZr] LFkk;h egÙo osQ fo"k;ksa ij LFkk;h lfefr;ka cuk ldrk gSA ,slh lfefr;ka lnu osQ iwjs dk;Zdkyrd pyrh gSaA buosQ mnkgj.k gSa% fofu;kstu lfefr (Appropriation Commmittee)] ctV lfefr (BudgetCommittte)] vFkks±ik; lfefr (Ways and Means Committee)] bR;kfnA

çoj lfefr (Select Committe): ;g lfefr lkèkkj.kr% fdlh fof'k"V foèkk;h mís'; (Specific LegislativePurpose) dh iwfrZ osQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gS] tSls fd fdlh lkoZtfud leL;k osQ vè;;u vkSj fo'ys"k.k osQ fy,Abls fuf'pr le; rd viuk çfrosnu çLrqr djuk gksrk gSA blosQ ckn ;g Hkax dj nh tkrh gSA

la;qDr lfefr (Joint Committee): bldk xBu rc gksrk gS tc blosQ fy, nksuksa lnu ,d&tSlk fu.kZ; djrsgSaA blesa nksuksa lnuksa osQ lnL; j[ks tkrs gSaA ,slh lfefr LFkk;h ;k vLFkk;h nksuksa rjg dh gks ldrh gSA mnkgj.kosQ fy,] vFkZ&O;oLFkk] djkèkku] dkaxzsl iqLrdky;] NikbZ (Printing) dh O;oLFkk] bR;kfn osQ fy, ,slh lfefrcukbZ tk ldrh gSA

lEesyu lfefr (Conference Committee): ;g ,slh la;qDr lfefr gS tks fdlh fo"k; ij nksuksa lnuksa osQ fu.kZ;esa ,d:irk ykus osQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy, dksbZ Hkh foèks;d jk"Vªifr dh lekuqefr osQ fy, Hkstusls igys nksuksa lnuksa osQ }kjk ,d gh :i esa ikfjr gksuk pkfg,A ;fn nksuksa lnuksa osQ }kjk ,d gh :i esa ikfjr gksukpkfg,A ;fn nksuksa lnu ,d gh foèks;d ikfjr djuk pkgrs gksa] ijarq mudh vfHkO;fDr essa dksbZ varj gks rks blvarj dks nwj djus osQ fy, ;k muosQ erHksn dks lqy>kus osQ fy, bl lfefr dk lgkjk fy;k tkrk gSA ;gh dkj.kgS fd dHkh&dHkh lEesyu lfefr dks vejhdh dkaxzsl dk rhljk lnu (Third House) dgk tkrk gSA

lnu fu;ekoyh lfefr (House Rule Committe): çfrfufèk lHkk dh ;g lfefr ;g fu.kZ; djrh gS fd fdlhfoèks;d dks lnu esa fdl :i esa j[kk tk,\ ;g çfrfufèk lHkk esa fdlh foèks;d ij gksus okys okn&fookn dhle;&lhek Hkh fuèkkZfjr dj ldrh gSA

jk"Vªifr vkSj dkaxzslμijLij lacaèk (Relation Between the President and The Congress): la;qDr jkT;vejhdk dk jk"Vªifr 'kklu osQ dk;Zdkjh vax (Executive Organ) dk vè;{k gS_ dkaxzsl ogka dk loksZPp foèkk;hvax (Supreme Lesgislative Organ) gSA 'kfDr&ikFkZD; (separation of Powers) osQ fl¼kar osQ varxZr bunksuksa vaxksa dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj d`R; bl <ax ls fuèkkZfjr fd, x, gSa fd os vius&vius {ks=k esa ,d&nwljs ls Lokèkhugks_ 'kklu dk dksbZ Hkh vax viuh 'kfDr;ksa dk ç;ksx djrs le; fdlh nwljs vax ij vkfJr u gksA mnkgj.k osQfy,] ogka jk"Vªifr dk dk;Zdky pkj o"kZ dk gS_ dkaxzsl dh çfrfufèk lHkk dk dk;Zdky nks o"kZ dk gSA bl fu;evofèk ls igys u rks jk"Vªifr dkaxzsl dks Hkax dj ldrk gS_ u dkaxzsl gh jktuhfr leFkZu (Political Support)dh deh osQ dkj.k jk"Vªifr dks gSA

nwljh vksj] vojksèk ,oa larqyu (Checks and Balances) osQ fl¼kar osQ varxZr ;g O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS fd 'kkluosQ fofHkUu vax ,d&nwljs ij vadq'k j[k losQa rkfd 'kfDr osQ teko (concentration of Power) dks jksdk tklosQ] vkSj 'kklu dk dksbZ vax fujadq'k u gks tk,A jk"Vªifr vkSj dkaxzsl dk ijLij lacaèk bl fl¼kar dk mi;qDrmnkgj.k çLrqr djrk gSA blosQ eq[;&eq[; eqíksa dk fooj.k bl rjg dj ldrs gSa %

jk"Vªifr lans'k (Presidential Message): jk"Vªifr çfr o"kZ dkaxzsl dks viuk lans'k nsrk gSA blosQ varxZr og

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O;ogkjr% dkaxszl osQ pkyw vfèkos'ku (Current Session) osQ fy, iw.kZ dk;Zlwph (full Agenda) çLrqr dj nsrk gSAblesa og ;g O;Dr dj nsrk gS fd orZeku vfèkos'ku osQ nkSjku og foèkkueaMy ls D;k&D;k djus dh vk'kk vkSjvis{kk djrk gS\ jk"Vªifr osQ bl ÑR; dks è;ku esa j[krs gq, mls la;qDr jkT; vejhdk dk eq[; foèkk;d (ChiefLegislator) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr osQ lans'k dks lkjs vejhdk esa Vsyhfotu ij ns[kk tkrk gS_ mls cgqr egÙo fn;ktkrk gS_ ;g lkjh vejhdh turk vkSj iwjs fo'o osQ uke gksrk gSA yksder ij mldk tks çHkko iM+rk gS] mls è;kuesa j[kdj gh dkaxzsl jk"Vªifr osQ çLrkoksa ij mi;qDr dkjZokbZ djrh gSA vfèkos'ku osQ nkSjku Hkh ;fn jk"Vªifr ;g vuqHkodjrk gS fd dkaxzsl dk nf"Vdks.k mlosQ çLrkoksa osQ çfr vuqdwy ugha gS rks og fiQj] ftruh ckj pkgs] jk"Vª osQ ukelans'k tkjh dj ldrk gSA

ijarq dksbZ jk"Vªifr vius çLrkoksa dks dkaxzsl osQ ekè;e ls dgka rd dk;kZfUor djk ik,xkμ ;g mlosQ vius O;fDrRo]dkaxzsl esa mlosQ ny osQ cgqer vkSj yksder osQ leFkZu ij fuHkZj gSA vke rkSj ij jk"Vªifr osQ çLrkokssa esa ls vkèks lsT;knk dk;kZfUor ugha gks ikrsA mlosQ ctV&çLrkoksa esa Hkh dkaxzsl dbZ rjg osQ ifjorZu ;k dVkSrh dj nsrh gSA

jk"Vªifr dh lekuqefr vkSj fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Presidential Assent and Veto): dksbZ Hkh foèks;d dkaxzsl osQ nksuksalnuksa esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn jk"Vªifr osQ ikl ^lekuqifr* osQ fy, Hkstk tkrk gSa ;fn jk"Vªifr ml foèks;d osQçLrqrhdj.k (Submission) osQ fnu ls dkaxzsl osQ nl dk;Z&fnol (Working Days) chr tkus ij Hkh ml ij dksbZvkifÙk ugha djrk rks mls jk"Vªifr dh êkSu lEefr* eku fy;k tkrk gS_ vr% og foèks;d dkuwu cu tkrk gSAijarq ;fn jk"Vªifr bl vofèk ls igys ml foèks;d ij viuh vkifÙk;ka O;Dr djosQ mls dkaxzsl osQ ikl okilHkst nsrk gS rks dkaxzsl osQ ikl nks fodYi jg tkrs gSa % (d) og jk"Vªifr osQ lq>koksa osQ vuqlkj foèks;d esa la'kksèkudj ns] vkSj mls u, :i esa nqckjk ikfjr djosQ jk"Vªifr osQ ikl Hkst ns rkfd jk"Vªifr mldk vuqeksnu dj ns_;k fiQj ([k) dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnu ml foèks;d dk ewy :i esa nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls nksckjk ikfjr dj nsa ftllsjk"Vªifr dk fu"ksèkkfèkdkj fujLr gks tk,xkA ijarq bruk cgqer tqVkuk ljy ugha gksrkA bldk vFkZ ;g gqvk fdjk"Vªifr fdlh foèks;d dks dqN le; osQ fy, fuyafcr (Suspend) dj ldrk gSA jk"Vªifr osQ bl vfèkdkj dksfuycau&fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Suspensory Veto) dgk tkrk gSA

;fn jk"Vªifr ,sls fdlh foèks;d ij gLrk{kj djus ls budkj dj ns] vkSj bl dk;Z&fnol iwjs gksus ls igys dkaxzslLFkfxr (Adjourn) gks tk, rks og foèks;d viuh ekSr ej tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr osQ bl vfèkdkj dks tsc esa Mkyusdk fu"ksèkkfèkdkj* ;k vojksèku&fu"ksèkkfèkdkj* (Pocket Veto) dgk tkrk gSA ;fn dkaxzsl ml foèks;d ij iqufoZpkjpkgrh gks rks mls u, vfèkos'ku esa u, fljs ls ikfjr djosQ jk"Vªifr osQ ikl Hkstuk iM+sxkA

dk;Zdkjh vkns'k (Executive Order) dkaxzsl jk"Vªifr vkSj mlosQ ç'kklfud foHkkxksa (Executive Agencies) dksdk;Zdkjh vkns'k fudkyus dh vuqefr nsrh gSA ;s vkns'k dkuwu dh rjg ekU; vkSj çHkko'kkyh gksrs gSaA ;s vkns'k eq[;r%rhu mís';ksa dh iwfrZ osQ fy, tkjh fd, tkrs gSa % (d) lafoèkku ;k fdlh fo'ks"k dkuwu dh O;oLFkkvksa dks O;kogkfjd:i nsus osQ fy, ([k) fons'kksa osQ lkFk dh xbZ lafèk;ksa dks ykxw djus osQ fy,_ vkSj (x) u, ç'kklfud foHkkx LFkkfirdjus osQ fy, ;k bu foHkkxksa osQ dk;Z esa dksbZ ifjorZu djus osQ fy,A mnkgj.k osQ fy,] fL=k;ksa vkSj v'osrksa osQ fy,ldkjkRed dkjZokbZ (Affirmative Action) dh O;oLFkk osQ dk;kZUo;u] jk"Vªifr dk;kZy; osQ iquxZBu] vkikr fLFkfr(Emergency) osQ nkSjku miHkksDrk oLrqvksa dh jk'ku&O;oLFkk (Rationing) rFkk dherksa vkSj etnwjh dh njksa osQfu;a=k.k] bR;kfn osQ ekeys esa dk;Zdkjh vkns'kksa dk foLrr ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

lhusV dk vuqleFkZu (Senatorial Ratification): jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr;ksa dks dkaxzsl osQ vadq'k esa j[kus osQ fy, ,dO;oLFkk ;g dh xbZ gS fd jk"Vªifr mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa dh tks fu;qfDr djsxk] ;k fons'kksa osQ lkFk tks lafèk;ka djsxk] os rHkhekU; gksaxh tc lhusV dk lkèkkj.k cgqer (Simple Majority) izkIr gksrk gSA oSls fu;qfDr;ksa dh çfØ;k dks^lhusV&lkStU;* (Sentorial courtesty) dh çFkk osQ varxZr dqN gn rd ljy cuk fn;k x;k gSA varjkZ"Vªh; lafèk;ksaosQ vuqleFkZu osQ fy, lhusV esa mifLFkfr vkSj ernku esa Hkkx ysus okys lnL;ksa dk nks&frgkbZ cgqer t:jh gSA

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lhusV&lkStU; vejhdh lafoèkku dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ çFkk (convention) gSA bldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd ;fn jk"Vªifrdks fdlh jkT;&fo'ks"k ls tqM+s gq, la?kh; in (Federal Office) ijμ tSls fd ftyk U;k;oknh (district Attorney)

osQ in ij fu;qfDr djuh gks] vkSj ml jkT; dk ,d ;k nksuksa lhusV lnL; (Senators) jk"Vªifr osQ vius jktuhfrdny osQ gksa rks jk"Vªifr ,slh fu;qfDr djus ls igys ml ,d ;k nksuksa lhusV&lnL;ksa ls ijke'kZ dj ysrk gSA ;fn osçLrkfor fu;qfDr dk vuqeksnu dj nsa rks lhusV ml fu;qfDr dh iqf"V dj nsxhA blosQ foijhr] ;fn mUgsa bl ijvkifÙk gks rks lhusV Hkh mudh iqf"V ugha djsxhA

dk;Zdkjh foHkkxksa osQ fujh{k.k esa dkaxzsl&lfefr;ksa dh Hkwfedk (Role of the Congress Committe in the

Inspection of Executive Agencies): dkaxzsl dh fofHkUu lfefr;ka oSls rks fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ dk;Z esa lgk;rk nsusosQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gSa] ijarq vius fopkj {ks=k esa vkus okys fo"k;ksa osQ vUos"k.k vkSj fo'ys"k.k osQ fy, os ç'kklfud foHkkxksals dksbZ Hkh tkudkjh (Informations) ekax ldrh gSa] ;k fooj.k (Reports) e¡xk ldrh gSA ç'kklfud foHkkx bu lfefr;ksadh iwNrkN (Inquiries) dks cgqr xaHkhjrkiwoZd ysrs gSa] vkSj bUgsa mi;qDr tkudkjh nsus osQ fy, lnSo rS;kj jgrs gSaA blrjg bu lfefr;ksa osQ ekè;e ls dkaxzsl us ç'kklfud foHkkxksa osQ dke&dkt osQ fujh{k.k dh Hkwfedk laHkky yh gSA

foÙkh; fu;a=k.k (Financial Control): dkaxzsl fdlh Hkh ç'kklfud foHkkx (Agencey) ;k dk;ZØe (Programme)

osQ fy, èku dh Lohdfr nsus ls igys ;g irk yxkrh gS fd ml foHkkx ;k dk;ZØe osQ fy, fiNyh ckj tks fofu;ksx(Appropriations) fd, x, Fks] mudk mi;ksx (Utilization) fdl&fdl rjg fd;k x;k gS\ bl rjg og ;gtkap dj ysrh gS fd çLrkfor fofu;ksx dk mi;ksx fdl rjg fd;k tk,xk\ bl çFkk osQ dkj.k Hkh la;qDr jkT;vejhdk esa dk;Zdkjh 'kk[kk (Executive Branch) ij dkaxzsl dk fu;a=k.k LFkkfir gks x;k gSA bl çFkk dks foÙkh;fu;a=k.k dh laKk nh tkrh gSA

fofu;ksx ç'kklfud çfØ;k osQ varxZr] og èkujkf'k tks fdlh fo'ks"k mís';

(Purpose) dh iwfrZ ;k fdlh fo'ks"k ifj;kstuk (Project) osQ dk;kZUo;u osQ fy,

fuèkkZfjr dh tkrh gSA

jk"Vªifr ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dk vfèkdkj (Right to Impeachment of the President): vejhdk dhvè;{kh; ç.kkyh osQ varxZr jk"Vªifr vius vfLrRo osQ fy, foèkkueaMy (vFkkZr~ dkaxzsl) osQ jktuhfrd leFkZu(Political Support) ;k fo'okl (confidence) ij vkfJr ugha gSA vr% lkekU; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa dkaxzsl jk"Vªifrdks vius in ls ugha gVk ldrhA ijarq ;fn ml ij ns'kæksg] Hkkjh Hkz"Vkpkj] t?kU; vijkèk ;k nq"deZ dk vkjksigks rks ml ij egkfHk;ksx pyk;k tk ldrk gSA jk"Vªifr ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dk vfèkdkj osQoy dkaxzsl dks gSA;g dkjZokbZ çfrfufèk lHkk esa 'kq: gksuh pkfg, tgka egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjk,a (Articles of Impeachement) rS;kjdjosQ lhusV osQ ikl Hkst nsuh pkfg, rkfd muosQ vkèkkj ij lhusV esa eqdnek pyk;k tk losQA egkfHk;ksx dh fdlhHkh èkkjk dks ikfjr djus osQ fy, çfrfufèk lHkk dk lkèkkj.k cgqr (Simple Majority) i;kZIr gSA egkfHk;ksx osQfu.kZ; osQ fy, lhusV dk nks&frgkbZ cgqer (Two-Third Majority) t:jh gksxkA

fLoV~t+jySaM dh la?kh; O;oLFkk (Federal system of switzerland)fLoV~t+jySaM dk lekt iq:"k&izèkku lekt gSA ;gka 1971 rd fL=k;ksa dks la?kh; pquko esa oksV nsus dks vfèkdkj ughaFkkA ;gka 1984 esa igyh ckj eaf=keaMy esa dksbZ L=kh j[kh xbZ A mlus 1988 esa R;kxi=k ns fn;k] vkSj ogka nwljhL=kh 1993 esa j[kh xbZA 1999 esa la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly ) us igyh L=kh&vè;{k dk pquko fd;kA mlho"kZ ;wjksih; la?k osQ lkFk f}i{kh; O;kikj le>kSrs ij gLrk{kj fd, x,A 1999 dh ,d ifji`PNk osQ varxZr ghdkexkjksa osQ fy, gM+rky osQ vfèkdkj* (Right to Stirke) dks ekU;rk nsus osQ mís'; ls laoSèkkfud la'kksèku fd;k

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x;kA fLoV~t+jySaM vusd jktuhfrd izHkkxksa (Political Divisons) esa c¡Vk gS ftUgsa dSaVu* (Conton) dgk tkrk gSAfLol ifjla?k ,sls 20 dSaVuksa vkSj 6 vèkZ&dSaVuksa (Half-cantons) dk la?k (Federation) gSA fLoV~t+jySaM dk lafoèkku1874 ls pyk vk jgk gS A nl lafoèkku osQ varxZr la?kh; ljdkj (Federal Governmenet ) dks fof'k"V 'kfDr;kaiznku dh xbZ gSa] vkSj vof'k"V 'kfDr;ka (Residual Powers ) dSaVuksa osQ ikl jgus nh xbZ gSaA izR;sd dSaVu dkviuk&viuk lafoèkku] viuh&viuh foèkku lHkk (Assembly) vkSj viuh&viuh ljdkj gSA dSaaVuksa ls fupys Lrjij 3]000 ls T+;knk ^dE;wu* (Communes) gSaA budh tula[;k 20 lss ysdj 3]50]000 rd gSA dE;wu&lHkkvksavkSj ifji`PNk osQ ekè;e ls ogk¡ îzR;{k yksdra=k* (Direct Democracy) dks c<+kok fn;k tkrk gSAfLol lafoèkku osQ varxZr] la?k osQ Lrj ij la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ ftlesa nks lnugSaA fupys lnu dks jk"Vªh; ifj"kn (National Council) dgk tkrk gS_ mijys lnu dks jkT;&ifj"kn ;k jkT;lHkk (Council of States) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªh; ifj"kn esa 200 lnL; gkssrs gSa tks lkoZtfud o;Ld erkfèkdkj(Universal Adult Suffrege) osQ vkèkkj ij vkuqikfrd izfrfufèkRo (Proport-ional Representation) osQfl¼kar osQ vuqlkj nyh; lwph iz.kkyh (Part List System) ls pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA jkT;&ifj"kn esa 46lnL; gksrs gSaA buesa izR;sd dSaVu osQ nks&nks izfrfufèk vkSj izR;sd vèkZdaSVu dk ,d&,d izfrfufèk gksrk gSAjkT;&ifj"kn osQ lnL; rhu ;k pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA budk dk;Z&dky lac¼ dSaVu osQ vius lafoèkku lsfuèkkZfjr gksrk gSAfLoV~t+jySaM esa la?kh; ljdkj dh dk;Zdkjh 'kfDr (Executive Power) la?kh; ifj"kn (Federal Council) osQ gkFkksaesa jgrh gSA blesa lkr lnL; gksrs gSa ftUgs dHkh&dHkh ea=kh (Ministers) dgk tkrk gSA ;s lnL; la?kh; lHkk(Federal Assembly) osQ }kjk blosQ nksuksa lnuksa (jk"Vªh; ifj"kn vkSj jkT;&ifj"kn) osQ la;qDr vfèkos'ku esa pkjo"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bldk izR;sd lnL; fdlh ,d la?kh; foHkkx (Federal Department) dk vè;{k gksrkgSA la?kh; ifj"kn buesa ls ,d&,d lnL; dks ,d&,d o"kZ osQ fy, viuk vè;{k (President) vkSj mikè;{k(Vicepresident) pqurh gSA ,d izFkk (Convention) osQ vuqlkj] la?kh; ifj"kn osQ fdlh lnL; dks yxkrkj nksckj vè;{k ugha pquk tk ldrkA ,d vU; izFkk osQ vuqlkj] vè;{k dk dk;Z&dky iwjk gks tkus ij fiNys mikè;{kdks u;k vè;{k pqu fy;k tkrk gSA fiQj] ,d vU; izFkk osQ vuqlkj] tks O;fDr ,d ckj la?kh; ifj"kn dk lnL;pqu fy;k tkrk gS] og tc rd pkgs] mls bl in osQ fy, fiQj ls pqu fy;k tkrk gSA bl rjg bl ifj"kn osQlc lnL;ksa dks ckjh&ckjh ls mikè;{k vkSj vè;{k cuus dk volj feyrk gSA la?kh; ifj"kn osQ vè;{k dks gh fLolifjla?k dk vè;{k ;k jk"Vªifr (President) dgk tkrk gSAvius ,d o"kZ osQ dk;Z&dky esa la?kh; ifj"kn osQ vè;{k dks vius Ngksa lg;ksfx;ksa osQ led{k ekuk tkrk gSA mlsdqN vfrfjDr osru vkSj HkÙks rks feyrs gSa] ijarq og osQoy lkaosQfrd jkT;kè;{k (Nominal Head of State) dhHkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA mldh dk;Zdkjh 'kfDr;k¡ vius lg;ksfx;ksa osQ lerqY; gksrh gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd fLoldk;Zikfydk dks cgqy dk;Zikfydk (Plural Executive) ekuk tkrk gS_ ;g bldh foy{k.k fo'ks"krk gSAizR;{k yksdra=k dh laLFkk,a (Institutions of Direct Democracy): fLoV~t+jySaM dh jktuhfrd iz.kkyh osQvarxZr izR;{k yksdra=k* osQ fl¼kar dk lcls foLr`r iz;ksx ns[kus dks feyrk gSA ewyr% izR;{k yksdra=k ,slhO;oLFkk dk laosQr nsrk gS ftlesa fdlh NksVs leqnk; osQ lkjs ukxfjd (Citizens) le;≤ ij Lo;a ,d=k gksdjdkuwu cukrs gSa ;k lkoZtfud fu.kZ; (Public Decisions) djrs gSaA izkphu ;wuku osQ dqN uxj&jkT;ksa esa ;g izFkkizpfyr Fkh gkykafd ogka ukxfjd dk ntkZ bus&fxus yksxksa dks gh izkIr FkkA vkèkqfud ;qx osQ cM+s&cM+s leqnk;ksa esa&tgkaukxfjd dk ntkZ Hkh jkT; osQ lc (o;Ld) lnL;ksa osQ fy, lqyHk gS&,slh izFkk O;kogkfjd ugha gksXkhA vr% yksdra=kosQ orZeku :i osQ varxZr fdlh ns'k osQ ukxfjd vius izfrfufèk;ksa osQ ekè;e ls gh vius jktuhfrd vfèkdkjksa(Political Rights) dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA bl O;oLFkk dks izfrfufèk yksdra=k* (Representative Democracy) dgktkrk gSA fLoV~t+jySaM esa Hkh izfrfufèk yksdra=k* osQ ekè;e ls 'kklu pyk;k tkrk gSA ijarq ogka dh jktuhfrd izfØ;k(Political Process) osQ varxZr izfrfufèk yksdra=k esa izR;{k yksdra=k dk iqV gksus dk foLr`r iz;Ru fd;k x;k gSAoSls fo'o dh vU; yksdra=kh; iz.kkfy;ksa esa (tSls fd la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ dqN jkT;ksa] bVyh vSj Lyksokd

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x.kjkT; esa) Hkh ,sls iz;Ru gq, gSa] ijarq fLoV~t+jySM dh tula[;k vusd latkrh; (Ethnic) vkSj èkkfeZd(Religious) lewgksa esa c¡Vh gSA ogka eq[;r% vYikbu vkSj ukfMZd tkfr;ksa osQ yksx jgrs gSaA buesa eksVs rkSj ij 70%

yksx teZu Hkk"kk cksyrs gSa_ 20% Ikz+QSap cksyrs gSa_ vkSj 10% bVSfy;u cksyrs gSaA djhc 47% yksx jkseu dSFkksfyd èkeZdks ekurs gSa_ djhc 44% izksVsLVsaV gSa_ 'ks"k vU; èkeksZa esa vkLFkk j[krs gSaA bl rjg osQ lewgksa esa fHkUu&fHkUu fo"k;ksaaij lgefr gksuk eqf'dy gSA ijarq ;s yksx vius erHksnksa ij vR;fèkd cy ugha nsrs cfYd lgorZu&ewyd jktuhfr(Consociational Politics) esa fo'okl djrs gSaA

lgorZuewyd jktuhfr (Consociational Politics) ,slh jktuhfr ftlesa lkjs fu.kZ; osQoy cgqer(Majority) osQ vkèkkj ij ugha fd, tkrs cfYd fHkUu&fHkUu lewg fey&tqydj fu.kZ; djrs gSa] vkSjfey&ckaVdj lÙkk (Authority) dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA tks lekt tkrh;] èkkfeZd] Hkk"kkbZ] {ks=kh;]lkaLd`frd vkSj fopkjèkkjkRed vkèkkj ij fHkUu&fHkUu lewgksa esa c¡Vk gks] mlesa ijLij ln~Hkkouk dk;ej[kus osQ fy, ,slh jktuhfr loZFkk mi;qDr ekuh tkrh gSA

lgorZuewyd jktuhfr osQ fy, jktuhfrd fu.kZ; izfØ;k esa ukxfjdksa dh izR;{k lgHkkfxrk (Direct Participation)loZFkk mi;qDr fl¼ gksrh gSA blosQ fy, lkèkkj.kr% nks fofèk;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS% miØe (Initiative) vkSjifji`PNk (Referendum) A buesa ifji`PNk vfèkd yksdfiz; gSAmiØe (Initiative): miØe ,slh fofèk gS ftlesa fdlh jktuhfrd fu.kZ; osQ fy, cqfu;knh Lrj (Grass-rootLevel) ij 'kq:vkr dh tkrh gS] vFkkZr~ blesa dksbZ lkèkkj.k ukxfjd ;k ukxfjdksa dk lewg izLrkfor dkuwu ;klaoSèkkfud la'kksèku dk izk:i (Draft) rS;kj djrk gSA ;fn iathd`r ernkrkvksa osQ (Registered Voters) dhfuf'pr la[;k ml ij gLrk{kj dj nsrh gS rks ljdkj mlosQ i{k vkSj foi{k esa foèkkueaMy (Legislautre) ;kfuokZpdeaMy (Electorate) ls ernku djkus dks ckè; gksrh gSA bl izfØ;k osQ varxZr lkèkkj.k ernkrk eupkgkdkuwu cuokus osQ fy, foèkk;dksa ij vkfJr ugha jg tkrs cfYd Lo;a Hkh bl fn'kk esa igy dj ldrs gSaA fLoV~t+jySMesa ;fn 1]00]000 ernkrk laoSèkkfud la'kksèku (Consititutional Amendment) osQ izLrko ij gLrk{kj dj nsarks mls nks o"kZ osQ Hkhrj jk"VªO;kih ernku osQ fy, izLrqr djuk vfuok;Z gksxkA ;fn 50]000 ernkrk (vFkkZr~tula[;k dk 0.7% fgLlk) fdlh la?kh; dkuwu (Federal Law), vkKfIr (Decree) ;k nh?kZdkfyd lafèk (Long-Term Treaty) ij ifji`PNk dh ekax djsa rks mls Hkh nks o"kZ osQ Hkhrj jk"VªO;kih ernku osQ fy, izLrqr djuk t+:jhgksxkA fHkUu&fHkUu dSaVuksa us miØe osQ iz;ksx osQ fy, vius&vius fu;e cuk j[ks gSaAifji`PNk (Referendum): ifji`PNk ,slh fofèk gS ftlesa ljdkj ;k laln dh izkFkZuk ij fdlh egÙoiw.kZ eqn~nsij tulkèkkj.k ls ernku djk;k tkrk gSA bldk y{; dksbZ laoSèkkfud la'kksèku] uhfr&ifjorZu ;k ,slk fooknkLinfo"k; gks ldrk gS ftl ij foèkkueaMy viuk fu.kZ; ns pqdk gks] vkSj ml ij fuokZpdeaMy (Electorate) dkfu.kZ; visf{kr gksA ;g ewyr% oSèkrk (Legitimacy) izkIr djus dk mik; gSA dHkh&dHkh foi{k (Opposition)dh dVq vkykspuk ls cpus osQ fy, ljdkj viuh yksdfiz;rk ls ykHk mBkdj vius fu.kZ; ij yksder dh Lohdfrdh Nki yxokus osQ fy, bl fofèk dk iz;ksx dj ldrh gSA fLoV~t+jySaM esa igys&igys 'okbt+ uked dSaVsu esa1294 esa uhfr osQ ewn~ns ij ukxfjdksa ls izR;{k ernku djk;k x;k FkkA igyh&igyh jk"VªO;kih ifji`PNk 1802 esavk;ksftr dh xbZA og fLFkfr ftlesa tulkèkkj.k ljdkj dh fdlh uhfr] dkjZokbZ ;k dkuwu dks mi;qDr ekurs gq,eu ls mldk lEeku djus yxrs gSaA

oSèkrk (Legitimacy) ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\

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2- fjDr LFkkuksa dh iwfrZ dhft, (Fill in the Blanks)—

1- la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ foèkkueaMy dks ------------------------- dgk tkrk gSA

2- vejhdk vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa ------------------------ ç.kkyh çpfyr gSA

3- vejhdh lhusV dks fo'o dk lcls 'kfDr'kkyh --------------------------- dgk tkrk gSA

4- fLoV~tjyS.M vusd jktuhfrd çHkkxksa esa c¡Vk gS ftUgsa ------------------------ dgk tkrk gSA

5- fLoV~tjyS.M esa la?kh; ljdkj dh dk;Zdkjh 'kfDr ----------------- esa gksrh gSA


fczfV'k lafoèkku Øfed fodkl dk ifj.kke gSA bldh tM+sa lfn;ksa iqjkus bfrgkl esa teh gqbZ gSaA oqMªks foYluus bls gh O;ÙkQ djrs gq, dgk gS fd ¶fczfV'k laoSèkkfud bfrgkl dh ,d çeq[k fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd mldhjktuhfrd laLFkk,¡] mlosQ fodklØe] tks çkphure 'kklu&ç.kkyh osQ ifjorZu rd ,d gS] ls lEc¼ gSA¸

baxySaM dk bfrgkl osQYV (Celts)] jkseu (Romans) vkSj lSDlu (Saxons) tkfr;ksa osQ vkxeu osQ lkFk 'kq:gksrk gSA ;|fi budk 'kklu ik¡poh 'krkCnh osQ vkjaHk rd jgk fiQj Hkh lafoèkku osQ fodkl esa bldk HkhgkFk ugha jgkA blosQ ckn ,sXyks&lSDlu lH;rk dk çkjaHk gksrk gS ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i orZeku vaxszth lH;rkrFkk mlosQ lafoèkku dh uhao iM+hA

fczfV'k lafoèkku osQ fodkl dk nwljk vkSj egÙoiw.kZ vè;k; 1066 bZñ osQ ukeZu fot; ls çkjaHk gksrk gSA oLrqr%];gh lafoèkku dk mn~xe&LFky gSA bl ;qx esa lkekftd vkSj ç'kklfud O;oLFkk dk ,slk :i fn;k x;k ftlosQiQyLo:i jktk iwjs ns'k dk 'kkld cu x;kA dqN feykdj ukeZu ;qx esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks dkiQh n`<+cuk;k x;kA

gsujh f}rh; us 'kklu dks liQyrkiwoZd pyk;k vkSj jktra=k dks n`<+ cuk;kA ysfdu] mlls v;ksX;mÙkjkfèkdkfj;ksaμfjpMZ çFke vkSj tkWu dh xyr uhfr;ksa us Økafr dh vkx HkM+dk nh_ leFkZdksa us mldk lkFkNksM+ fn;kA vUr esa] cSjksuh us tkWu dks viuh 'krks± dks ekuus osQ fy, ckè; fd;kA iQyr%] mls eSXukdkVkZ(Magna Carta) ftls ek¡x&jkti=k (The Great Charter) dgrs gSa] ij viuh eatwjh nsuh iM+hA ;g jkti=kfo'o dk ugha rks de&ls&de xzsV fczVsu dk lcls egÙoiw.kZ ys[k vo'; gSA mUuhloha 'krkCnh esa fo'kifcfy;e LVCl (Bishop Wiliam Stubbs) us dgk Fkk fd fczfV'k lafoèkku dk iwjk bfrgkl bl egku jkti=kdh ,d O;k[;k gSA

1603 bZñ esa tsEl çFke] ftls ^lcls cqf¼eku csodwiQ* (wisest fool) dgk x;k gS] jktxíh ij cSBkA ogjktk osQ ^nSoh vfèkdkj* (Divine Rights of the Kings) osQ fl¼kar esa fo'okl djrk FkkA bl fl¼kar osQvuqlkj jktk i`Foh ij bZ'oj dk ,d nwr Fkk ftls vlhfer vkSj fujadq'k 'kfÙkQ çkIr FkhA

1660 bZñ esa jktra=k dh iqu% LFkkiuk gqbZA pkYlZ f}rh; xíh ij cSBkA fiQj jktk vkSj laln dk lEcUèk fcxM+usyxkA pkYlZ osQ 'kklu dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ ?kVuk 1679 bZñ dk gSfc;l dkWjil ,sDV (Harbeas Corpus

Act, 1679) FkkA pkYlZ osQ ckn tsEl f}rh; jktxíh ij vk;kA ppZ osQ dkj.k laln ls mldh yM+kbZ fNM+x;hA iQyLo:i] 1688 bZñ esa xkSjoiw.kZ Økafr* (Glorious Revolution) gqbZ vkSj LVqvVZ ;qx dk var gks x;kA

vfèkdkj&i=k (1689 bZñ) rd fczfV'k laoSèkkfud bfrgkl osQ fodkl osQ chtkjksi.k dk ;qx FkkA ml le;rd lafoèkku osQ ekSfyd rÙoksa dh uhao iM+ pqdh FkhA blh uhao ij lafoèkku dk fo'kky Hkou [kM+k gqvkA1689 bZñ osQ ckn dk ;qx blh Hkou&fuekZ.k dh dgkuh gSA

lÙkjgoha lnh osQ vfUre n'kd esa cgqr&ls cUèkuksa osQ ckotwn jktk 'kfÙkQ'kkyh cuk jgkA fl¼kar esa laln dh

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loksZPprk ekuh tk pqdh Fkh] ysfdu bls O;ogkfjd :i nsus esa dfBukbZ gks jgh FkhA fofy;e vkSj esjh dh jktdh;uhfr;ksa vkSj dk;ks± ij dM+k fu;a=k.k jgkA ysfdu] vV~Bkjgoha lnh osQ çkjEHk esa lgh le; us iyVk [kk;kA

jktk okLrfod 'kkld u jgk] og laoSèkkfud çèkku cu x;kA og fliQZ jkT; djus yxk 'kklu ughaA lHkhmÙkjkfèkdkfj;ksa us bl fu;e dk ikyu fd;kA

vV~Bkjgoha lnh osQ eè; rd ,slh laLFkk dk tUe gqvk tks tura=k dk çeq[k vax cu x;hA ;g laLFkkeaf=kifj"kn~ FkhA èkhjs&èkhjs okLrfod ç'kkldh; 'kfÙkQ laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h ,dnyh; eaf=kifj"kn osQ gkFk esavk x;hA vUr esa] turk dh çfrfufèk lHkk dkWeu lHkk* osQ gkFk esa ns'k dh vfUre 'kfÙkQ vk;h vkSj eaf=keaMymlosQ çfr lkewfgd :i ls mÙkjnk;h gqvkA

eaf=keaMy osQ lkewfgd mÙkjnkf;Ro dh O;kogkfjd liQyrk osQ fy, usrk dh vko';drk Fkh] ysfdu cgqrfnuksa rd fdlh us bl LFkku dks xzg.k ugha fd;kA

çR;sd lafoèkku dh tM+ vrhr osQ xHkZ esa fNih gqbZ gSA vejhdh lafoèkku Hkh bldk viokn ugha gSA vr%orZeku lafoèkku osQ leqfpr Kku osQ fy, mldk ,sfrgkfld Kku vko';d gSA vè;;u dh lqfoèkk osQ fy,lafoèkku osQ fodkl dks pkj Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμ (1) mifuos'khdj.k (Colonization)] (2)LorU=krk (Independence)] (3) jkT;eaMy (Confederation) vkSj (4) lafoèkku (Constituion)A

vejhdh mifuos'kksa dh vU; çeq[k LFkk;h fo'ks"krk LFkkuh; laLFkk,¡ FkhaA vkèkqfud dky dh LFkkuh; laLFkkvksadk ;gha ls çkjEHk gksrk gSA U;w baxySaM dh çeq[k nsu 'kgjksa esa çR;{k çtkrU=k FkkA

fLoV~tjySaM dk çkjfEHkd bfrgkl tkfr;ksa osQ vkokxeu dk bfrgkl gSA vxLr] 1291 dks rhu LorU=k rFkklaçHkq jkT;ksa us LFkk;h la?k* dh LFkkiuk dhA okLro esa] fLoV~tjySaM dk tUe gqvkA la?k dh LFkkiuk esa dbZlkS o"kZ blosQ foLrkj rFkk n`<+rk osQ o"kZ FksA

1848 bZñ osQ lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k ^vesfjdk osQ lafoèkku dks vkn'kZ ekudj fd;k x;k FkkA ;g dSaVuksa dhçHkqlÙkk la?k dh c<+rh gqbZ 'kfÙkQ osQ chp le>kSrk dk ifj.kke FkkA bl lafoèkku }kjk ;g ç;Ru fd;k x;kfd dSaVu ml lhek rd laizHkqjkT; cus jgsa tgk¡ rd fd la?kh; lafoèkku mUgsa çHkqlÙkk çnku dj losQA

;|fi 1848 bZñ osQ lafoèkku us fLoV~tjyS.M dks ,d ;qfÙkQlaxr rFkk vkèkqfud lafoèkku fn;k] fiQj Hkh ;gvfèkd fnuksa rd dk;Z'khy u jgkA jsfMdy yksx (Radicalists) bl lafoèkku osQ fo:¼ FksA os osQUæ dks vfèkd'kfÙkQ'kkyh cukuk pkgrs FksA mUgsa turk dk i;kZIr leFkZu çkIr gqvkA iQyr% 1874 bZñ esa la?kh; laln usu;k lafoèkku rS;kj fd;k ftldk tuer&laxzg }kjk vuqeksnu gqvkA 29 ebZ] 1874 bZñ dks u;k lafoèkku çHkkohgqvkA ;gh lafoèkku vkt Hkh fLoV~tjyS.M esa orZeku gSA

phuh lkE;okfn;ksa dk dguk gS fd mudk lafoèkku bfrgkl ls ?kfu"B :i ls lacaafèkr gS_ og ,sfrgkfldvuqHko ij vkèkkfjr gSA yhÅ 'kkvks&ph us dgk Fkk fd phu dk orZeku lafoèkku ¶phuh turk osQ ,d 'krkCnhls vfèkd Økafrdkjh la?k"kZ rFkk vkèkqfuddkyhu phuh lafoèkkuokn osQ ,sfrgkfld vuqHko dk fu"d"kZ gSA¸

lkE;oknh 'kklu dh LFkkiuk osQ rqjUr ckn fdlh lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k ugha fd;k x;kA 'kklu&O;oLFkk osQlapkyu osQ fy, ,d lkekU; dk;ZØe (Common Programme) dks viuk;k x;k ftlus ikap o"kks± rdvLFkk;h lafoèkku (Provisional Constitution) osQ :i esa dke fd;kA lkekU; dk;ZØe dk fuekZ.k phuhtuoknh jktuhfrd ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu (Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference)

uked laLFkk }kjk gqvkA ;g ,d f[kpM+h laLFkk Fkh ftlesa lkE;oknh ny osQ lkFk fofHkUu jktuhfrd nyksa]yksd laxBuksa] tu'kfÙkQ lsuk vkSj leqæikj phfu;ksa osQ çhfrfufèk lfEefyr FksA

ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu us rhu çys[kksa dk fuekZ.k fd;kμ(d) lkekU; dk;ZØe (A Common Programme)

([k) ijke'kZnkrk lEesyu dk lko;o fu;e (An Organic Law of the CPPCC) vkSj (x) osQUæh; ljdkj

uksV



dk lko;o fu;e (An Organic Law of the Central People's Government)A

rhuksa çys[kksa esa lkekU; dk;ZØe lokZfèkd egÙoiw.kZ FkkA blesa vUrfjd 'kkludky osQ fy, vFkkZr~ lektokndh çkfIr rd osQ fy,] ekSfyd mís';ksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k FkkA çLrkouk esa dgk x;k Fkk fd phu dkjktuhfrd vkèkkj ûohu çtkrU=k* (new democracy) gS ftudk mi;skx ^turkaf=kd vfèkuk;dra=k*(people democratic dictatorship) }kjk fd;k tk,xkA

fnlacj 1993 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr :l esa la?kh; x.kjkT; (Federal Republic) dh LFkkiuk dh xbZAvr% bl ns'k dk vkfèkdkfjd uke :lh la?k (Russian Federation) gSA bl la?k esa 21 x.kjkT;(Republics)] 49 ç'kklfud vapy (Administrative Regions)] 6 çkar (Provinces)] 10 Lok;Ùk tuin(Autonomous Districts) vkSj nks la?kh; uxj (Federal Cities) μ ekLdksa rFkk lsaV ihVlZcxZ lfEefyr gSAbl rjg :lh la?k dqy feykdj 89 ç'kklfud bdkb;ksa (Administrative Units) ls cuk gSA


System) dk feJ.k rS;kj djus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;k gSA vè;{kh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyhjk"Vªifr (President) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS] vkSj lalnh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh laln(Paliament) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS ftls la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA

:l esa foèkkf;dk (Legislature) osQ d`R; la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dks lkSais x, gSaA blesa nks lnu(Chambers) j[ks x, gSaA voj lnu (Lower House) dks LVsV M~;wek dgk tkrk gSA blesa 450 lnL;ksadh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA mPp lnu (Upper House) dks la?kh; ifj"kn (Federal Council) dgk tkrk gSAblesa 178 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA LVsV M~;wek osQ 225 lnL; lhèks ,dlnL;h; fuokZpu {ks=kksa (Single-

Member Constituencies) ls pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bl pquko esa cgqyer ç.kkyh (Plurality

System) viukbZ tkrh gSA

la?kh; ifj"kn osQ varxZr :lh la?k dh 89 ç'kklfud bdkb;ksa esa ls çR;sd osQ nks&nks çfrfufèk lfEefyr gksrsgSa ftlls bl ifj"kn osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k 178 gks tkrh gSA

lkèkkj.kr% dksbZ Hkh foèks;d 'kq:&'kq: esa LVsV M~;wek esa çLrqr gksuk pkfg, gkykafd dqN uhfr&lacèkh fo"k;la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ vfèkdkj {ks=k esa j[ks x, gSaA LVsV M~;wek esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn çR;sd foèks;d dks la?kh;ifj"kn osQ ikl Hkstuk pkfg,A ;fn la?kh; ifj"kn fdlh foèks;d dks vLohdkj dj ns rks mls LVsV M~;wek osQikl okil Hkstk tk,xkA ogka ,d vk;ksx&ftlesa nksuksa lnuksa osQ lnL; lfEefyr gksaxs&buesa erHksnksa dks nwjdjus dk ç;Ru djsxkA

lafoèkku fodkl'khy gksrs gSaA blh çlax esa gsunh esu (Henry Maine) us dgk Fkk fd lafoèkku fufeZr ughavfirq fodflr gksrs gSaA bl mfDr esa lR;rk dh ek=kk tks Hkh gks bruk rks loZekU; gh gS fd dksbZ Hkh lafoèkkuvius vfUre :i dks çkIr ugha dj ik;k gS rFkk fodkl osQ ;ksX; gSA ykMZ czkxge us dgk Fkk % ;fnlafoèkku dk dksbZ ewY; gS rks mUgsa fodflr gksuk pkfg,] mudh tM+sa Hkh gksrh gSa] os idrs gSa] n`<+ gksrsgSaA¸ rkRi;Z ;g gS fd ekuo lekt fodkl'khy gS] le; osQ lkFk euq"; dh vko';drk,¡ rFkk ifjfLFkfr;k¡cnyrh jgrh gSaA

vkèkqfud fyf[kr lafoèkku esa vejhdh lafoèkku lcls vfèkd iqjkuk lafoèkku gSA bldk fuekZ.k yxHkx nkslkS o"kZ iwoZ gqvk Fkk ysfdu vkt Hkh ;fn esfMlu vkSj gSfeYVu i`Foh ij vk;sa rks bls igpkuus esa mUgsa HkhdfBukbZ gksxhA vkt dk lafoèkku fliQZ 1787 bZñ dk fyf[kr çys[k ugha gS] ;g rks <k¡pkek=k gS] xxupqEchvV~Vkfydk dk vkèkkj ek=k gSA le; vkSj ifjfLFkfr dh ek¡x osQ vuqlkj blesa la'kksèku gq,] fofèk osÙkk]çdk'kdh; vkèkkj] foèkkf;uh laLFkkvksa] ukxfjdksa vkSj jktuhfrd nyksa us bldh O;k[;k dhA

uksV



vk¡x vkSj js us blfy, dgk gS fd ¶orZeku lafoèkku fliQZ çys[khu vuqPNsn ugha gS cfYd leLr O;k[;k,¡]fu.kZ;] vH;kl vkSj ç.kkfy;k¡ tks ekSfyd vuqPNsnksa vkSj èkkjkvksa osQ bnZ&fxnZ fodflr gq, gSa bldk ladyugS] ftUgsa de&ls&de ,d gtkj i`"Bksa esa eqfær fd;k tk ldrk gSA¸

laoSèkkfud fodkl osQ fy, vusd i¼fr;ksa ij fuHkZj fd;k tkrk gS_ tSls&çFkk,¡] jhfr&fjokt] ç'kkldh;vè;kns'k] U;k;ky;ksa osQ fu.kZ; vkSj oSKkfud vkS|ksfxd vuqlaèkku vkfnA bu i¼fr;ksa ls Hkh Li"V o çR;{ki¼fr laoSèkkfud la'kksèku gSa bldh tfVyrk rFkk lafoèkku dh çfr"Bk dk [;ky j[krs gq, bl i¼fr dkde ç;ksx gksrk gS% ij fLoV~tjySaM esa vU; fofèk;ksa osQ foijhr laoSèkkfud ifjoÙkZu ykus osQ fy, laoSèkkfudla'kksèku dh i¼fr ij gh vfèkd fuHkZj fd;k x;k gSA fLoV~tjySaM esa osQoy 77 o"kks± esa 50 la'kksèku fd;s x;s]tcfd vesfjdk esa 170 o"kks± esa (1789 bZñ ls vkt rd) osQoy 26 la'kksèku fd;s x;sA

la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ foèkkueaMy dks dkaxzsl* dgk tkrk gSA vejhdk esa la?kh; 'kklu iz.kkyh (Federal

Government) izpfyr gSA ogka dh la?kh; ljdkj iwjs jk"Vª ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gS& ipkljkT;ksa dh ljdkjsa vius&vius jkT; ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gSaA la?kh; iz.kkyh dh vko';drkosQ vuq:i ogka la?k osQ foèkkueaMy&vFkkZr~ dkaxzsl esa nks lnu j[ks x, gSa% (1) izfrfufèk lHkk (House of

Representatives) laiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ tulkèkkj.k dk izfrfufèkRo djrh gS vkSj (2) lhusV (Senate)

i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ jkT;ksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrh gSA izfrfufèk lHkk dks fuEu lnu ;k voj lnu (Lower House)

dgk tkrk gS lhusV dks mPp lnu] mijyk lnu (Upper House) ;k nwljk lnu (Second Chamber) dgktkrk gSA izfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; dks dkaxzsl&lnL; (Congresssman) dgk tkrk gS lhusV osQ lnL; dkslhusV lnL; ;k lhusVj (Senator) dgk tkrk gSA

la;qDr jkT; vejhdk dk mijk"Vªifr (Vice President) lhusV dk lHkkifr (Chairman) gksrk gSAvejhdk osQ jk"Vªifr dh rjg mijk"Vªifr dk pquko Hkh tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk&fuokZpd&xq.k osQ ekè;e ls]pkj o"kZ dh fu;r vofèk osQ fy, gksrk gSA

foÙk foèks;d (Finance Bills) osQoy izfrfufèk lHkk ls gh 'kq: fd, tk ldrs gSaA ijarq muosQ fy, lhusVdk vuqeksnu t:jh gksrk gSA bl n`f"V ls] foèkkueaMy osQ nwljs lnu osQ :i esa lhusV dh 'kfDr cstksM+ gSA;gh dkj.k gS fd vejhdh lhusV dks fo'o dk lcls 'kfDr'kkyh nwljk lnu (Most Powerful

Second Chamber of the World) dgk tkrk gSA

blosQ vykok] jk"Vªifr mPp inksa osQ fy, (tSls fd eaf=k;ksa] jktnwrksa] U;k;kèkh'kksa] egkU;k;okfn;ksa osQ in ij)tks fu;qfDr;ka djrk gS] ;k fons'kksa osQ lkFk tks lafèk;ka djrk gS] muosQ fy, lhusV dk vuqleFkZu(Ratification) t:jh gksrk gSA ,d izFkk (Convention) osQ vuqlkj] ;fn jk"Vªifr dks ,sls jkT; esa dksbZfu;qfDr djuh gks tgka dk lhusV&lnL; jk"Vªifr osQ vius jktuhfrd ny ls gks rks jk"Vªifr ,slh fu;qfDrdjus ls igys ml lhusV&lnL; ls ijke'kZ dj ysrk gS ;fn og lnL; izLrkfor fu;qfDr dk vuqeksnu djnsrk gS rks lhusV Hkh ml fu;qfDr dh iqf"V djsxhA bl izFkk dks lhusV&lkStU; (Senatorial Courtesy) dhlaKk nh tkrh gSA

fLoV~t+jySaM dk lekt iq:"k&izèkku lekt gSa ;gka 1971 rd fL=k;ksa dks la?kh; pquko esa oksV nsus dks vfèkdkjugha FkkA ;gka 1984 esa igyh ckj eaf=keaMy esa dksbZ L=kh j[kh xbZ A mlus 1988 es R;kxi=k ns fn;k] vkSj ogkanwljh L=kh 1993 esa j[kh xbZA 1999 esa la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly ) us igyh L=kh&vè;{k dk pquko fd;kA

fLoV~t+jySaM dk lafoèkku 1874 ls pyk vk jgk gS A nl lafoèkku osQ varxZr la?kh; ljdkj (Federal

Governmenet ) dks fof'k"V 'kfDr;ka iznku dh xbZ gSa] vkSj vfof'k"V 'kfDr;ka (Residual Powers )dSaVuksa osQ ikl jgus nh xbZ gSaA izR;sd dSaVu dk viuk&viuk lafoèkku] viuh&viuh foèkku lHkk(Assembly) vkSj viuh&viuh ljdkj gSA

uksV



fLol lafoèkku osQ varxZr] la?k osQ Lrj ij la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ ftlesanks lnu gSaA fupys lnu dks jk"Vªh; ifj"kn (National Council) dgk tkrk gS_ mijys lnu dksjkT;&ifj"kn ;k jkT; lHkk (Council of States) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªh; ifj"kn esa 200 lnL; gkssrs gSa tkslkoZtfud o;Ld erkfèkdkj (Universal Adult Suffrege) osQ vkèkkj ij vkuqikfrd izfrfufèkRo(Proportional Representation) osQ fl¼kar osQ vuqlkj nyh; lwph iz.kkyh (Part List System) ls pkjo"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA

fLoV~t+jySaM esa la?kh; ljdkj dh dk;Zdkjh 'kfDr (Executive Power) la?kh; ifj"kn (Federal Council)osQ gkFkksa esa jgrh gSA blesa lkr lnL; gksrs gSa ftUgs dHkh&dHkh ea=kh (Ministers) dgk tkrk gSA


ohVks (Veto) % fu"ksèkkfèkdkjA

vfHk;qDr % vfHk;ksftr O;fDr] vijk/hA


1. baXySaM (UK) vkSj vejhdh (USA) lafoèkku osQ fodkl ij çdk'k Mkfy,A

2. jfl;k] phu] fLoV~tjyS.M vkSj Úkal dh laoSèkkfud fo'ks"krkvksa dk o.kZu dhft,A

3. vesfjdk (USA) vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa lafoèkku la'kksèku dh çfØ;k dk foospu dhft,A

4. vesfjdk (USA) vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; O;oLFkk dh O;k[;k dhft,A

mÙkj %& Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- (1) x (2) d (3) [k (4) x

(5) d

2- (1) dkaxszl (2) la?kh; 'kklu (3) nwljk lnu (4) dSaVu

(5) la?kh; ifj"kn~


iqLrosaQ 1- rqyukRed jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk] fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjhjksM] fnYyhA




uksV



bdkbZμ7% laoSèkkfud lajpukμdk;Zikfydk

(Constitutional Structure-Executive)


mís'; (Objectives)


7-1 fczfV'k lezkV vkSj çèkkuea=kh (British King and Prime Minister)

7-2 ;w-,l-,-] Úkal] jfl;k] phu dk jk"Vªifr vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh cgqy dk;Zikfydk (The President of

U.S.A., France, Russia, China and Plural Executive of Switzerland)





mís'; (Objectives)


fczfV'k jktk vkSj çèkkuea=kh] ;w-,l-,-] Úkal] jfl;k vkSj phu osQ jk"Vªifr dh laoSèkkfud fLFkfr dh O;k[;kdjus esaA

fLoV~tjyS.M dh cgqy dk;Zikfydk dk foospu djus esaA


dk;Zikfydk ljdkj dk nwljk egÙoiw.kZ vax gSA bls foèkkue.My dk iwjd vkSj led{kh nksuksa dgk tkrk gSAdk;Zikfydk dk çeq[k dk;Z fufeZr dkuwuksa dks fØ;kfUor djrs gq, ns'k dk 'kklu djuk gSA fxyØkbLV osQ 'kCnksaesa] ¶dk;Zdkfj.kh ljdkj dk og vax gS tks dkuwu osQ :i esa vfHkO;ÙkQ turk dh bPNk dks dk;Z esa ifj.kr djrhgSA¸ ;g og èkqjh gS ftlosQ pkjksa vksj jkT; dk okLrfod ç'kklu&;U=k ?kqerk gSA¸ ns'k osQ ç'kklu esa fu;qÙkQ leLrinkfèkdkjh dk;Zikfydk osQ vUrxZr lfEefyr gSaA çksñ xkuZj dk dFku gS fd ¶O;kid vkSj lkewfgd vFkZ esadk;Zikfydk foHkkx vUrxZr lHkh vfèkdkjh] jkT; deZpkjh rFkk ,tsfUl;k¡ vk tkrh gSa ftudk dk;Z jkT; dh bPNk]ftls O;oLFkkfidk us fuèkkZfjr dj dkuwu osQ :i esa O;ÙkQ fd;k gS dks dk;Z:i esa ifj.kr djuk gSA¸

7-1 fczfV'k lezkV vkSj çèkkuea=kh (British King and Prime Minister)

Økmu dh ifjHkk"kkμØkmu dksbZ O;fÙkQ&fo'ks"k ugha gSA ;g ,d x<+h gqbZ ;kstuk] ,d vewÙkZ fopkj gSA çksñ equjksosQ vuqlkj ¶Økmu ,d d`f=ke gS rFkk fofèk&O;ÙkQ gSA ;g u 'kjhj èkkj.k djrk gS] u ejrk gSA¸ lj ekfjl ,ekSlosQ 'kCnksa esa ¶Økmu oSèkkfud :i esa lezkV dh çHkq&'kfÙkQ;ksa] vlkèkkj.k vfèkdkjksa ,oa lkekU; vfèkdkjksa dk HkaMkjgSA¸ lj flMuh yks bldks ¶lqfoèkktud dke pykÅ midYiuk¸ dgrs gSaA MkWñ iQkbuj osQ dFkkuqlkj ¶tc gejktuhfr esa dk;ks± dh foospuk djrs gSa rc gekjk eryc ml çsjd 'kfÙkQ ls gS ftldk fuekZ.k turk] laln rFkkefU=kifj"kn~~ us lfn;ksa osQ laoSèkkfud fodkl esa LFkkfir dqN vkSipkfjd çcUèkksa osQ vuqlkj fd;k gSA Økmu bu

uksV



jktuhfrd 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ vlyh osQUæksa osQ Åij ,d vyad`r mikfèk gS vkWx vkSj ftax osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶Økmu jktk]efU=kx.k rFkk laln osQ foy{k.k laxe ls fufeZr loksZPp dk;Zikfydk 'kfDr osQ ihNs ,d dYiuk gSA ge lÙkk osQblh dqN&dqN vfopkj.kh; lfEeJ.k dks Økmu dgrs gSA bl çdkj Økmu jktk] ea=kh rFkk laln rhuks dk la;ksxgSA jktk Økmu dk rkRi;Z ¶iwjh ljdkj¸ (The Government) ls gSA

lezkV vkSj Økmu esa nks çeq[k Hksnμfu"d"kZ :i esa jktk vkSj Økmu (King and Crown) esa nks çeq[k Hksn gSAigyk] jktk ,d O;fÙkQ gS_ ysfdu Økmu ,d laLFkk gSA jktk ejrk gS] ysfdu Økmu LFkk;h gSA jktk æ"VO; gS]Økmu vn`'; gSa nwljk Økmu dk ,d vax gSA mlosQ vfrfjDr eaf=kifj"kn~~ rFkk laln feydj Økmu dk fuekZ.kdjrs gSaμ vr% Økmu dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk mi;ksx jktk lkekU; tu lkèkkj.k osQ çfrfufèk;ksa }kjk djrk gSA

lakfoèkkfud nf"V ls Økmu dk vFkZ gSμ lezkV dk in ,d laLFkku osQ :i esaA bl çdkj

lezkV ,d O;fDr gS] ijUrq Økmu ,d laLFkk (Crown-an Instituion) gS] ftlesa 'kklu

dh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ ,oa ijEijk,¡ fufgr gSaA

Økmu dh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ (Power of Crown): lezkV dh vfHkfgr 'kfÙkQ;k¡] Økmu 'kfÙkQ;k¡ lezkV dh futh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ ughacfYd mldh vfHkfgr 'kfÙkQ;k¡ (Norminal Power) gSA bu 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk mi;ksx lezkV [kqn ugha djrk] eaf=kx.klezkV osQ uke ij djrs gSaA ea=kh] laln osQ çfr tokcnsg gksrs gSaA vr% laln us mUgsa vfèkdkj fn;k gS fd os bu'kfÙkQ;ksa dk mi;ksx djsaA

lezkVμ in vkSj mÙkjkfèkdkj osQ fu;e (Title and Succession to the throne)μbaxySaM esa lezkV&in vkSjmÙkjkfèkdkj osQ fu;e 1701 bZñ osQ le>kSrk vfèkfu;e (Act of Setteement, 1701) ij vkèkkfjr gSa bUgsa laln usikl fd;k FkkA buosQ }kjk ;g O;oLFkk gS fd jktin gsuksoj oa'kh; baxysDVªl lksfiQ;k osQ oa'ktksa esa ls vkuqoaf'kdØe ls pysxk tcrd fd jktk vFkok oa'k çksVsLVs.V èkekZoyEch cuk jgsxkA blosQ vfrfjDr L=kh dh rqyuk esa iq#"koa'kt dh Js"Brk çnku dh x;hA 1714 bZ- esa lkezkKh ,fytkcsFk f}rh; bl oa'k dh 11oha mÙkjkfèkdkj.kh] ftudhinoh 1931 bZñ osQ flagklu&R;tu vfèkfu;e (Abdiction Act of 1931) osQ vkèkkj ij gSA çFke egk;q¼ osQ ckngSuksoj oa'k dk uke cnydj fo.Mlj oa'k dj fn;k x;kA 1936 bZ- osQ LVsP;wV osLV fefuLVj (Statutes of

westminister; 1936) osQ vuqlkj lezkV osQ mÙkjkfèkdkj osQ fu;eksa ;k mikfèk;ksa esa ifjorZu djus okys dkuwu osQfy, fczVsu osQ LojkT; çkIr mifuos'kksa osQ foèkku&eaMy dh Lohd`fr vko';d gSA mÙkjkfèkdkj dk ,d vU; fu;e,tsalh ls lEcfUèkr gSA 1937 vkSj 1943 bZñ osQ jhtsalh vfèkfu;e (Regency Act) osQ vuqlkj ;fn lezkV ukckfyxgks ;k fdlh ekufld vFkok 'kkjhfjd jksx osQ dkj.k 'kklu djus ;ksX; u gks rks fjtsaV dh O;oLFkk dj nh tkrhgS vkSj ;fn lezkV vkSj laj{kd nksuksa gh dk;Z&lapkyu osQ fy, vuqi;qÙkQ gksa rks fuEufyf[kr i¼fr viuk;h tkrhgSA

(d) jkt&in vkuqoaf'kd Øe (Hereditary) ls pysxkA

([k) jkt&in t;s"BRo (Primogeniture) osQ fu;e ij feysxk]

(x) L=kh dh rqyuk esa iq#"k oa'k dh Js"Brk çnku dh x;h gS]

(?k) çksVsLVs.V èkekZoyEch gh] oSQFkksfyd ugha] jktxíh ij cSB ldrk gS]

(p) mÙkjkfèkdkjh osQ fu;eksa ;k mikfèk;ksa esa ifjorZu ykus osQ fy, LojkT;&çkIr mifuos'kksa dh Lohdfr vko';d gS]

(N) ukckfyd ;k çkd`frd v;ksX;rk dh n'kk esa fjtsaV ;k ijke'kZnkrkvksa dh O;oLFkk dh x;h gSA

oa'kkuqxr fl¼kar dk egÙo& jktin dk vkuqoaf'kd vkèkkj jktuhfrd :i ls cgqr gh liQy rFkk mi;ksxh gSAjktxíh osQ fy, dHkh&dHkh fookn ugha [kM+k gksrk rFkk pqukoksa ls nwj jgus osQ dkj.k bldh ifo=krk Hkh u"V ugha

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gksrh gSA ;|fi] oa'kkuqxr (Hereditary Principle) osQ fo#¼ cgqr ls foosdiw.kZ roZQ fn;s tk ldrs gS] fiQj Hkhvfèkdrj O;fÙkQ bls çlUurkiwoZd Lohd`fr nsrs gSa] D;ksafd HkkX; vkSj vn`'; esa fo'okl djuk ekuo LoHkko gSA

lezkV osQ fo'ks"kkfèkdkj vkSj mUeqfÙkQ;k¡ (Royal Privileges and Immunities): fczfV'k lezkV vusd fo'ks"kkfèkdkjvkSj mUeqfÙkQ;k¡ (Privileges and Immunities) dk miHkksx djrk gSaA mls fxjÝrkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk] mldkdksbZ eky dqdZ ugha gks ldrk] jktHkou esa mlosQ fo:¼ U;kf;d dk;Zokgh ugha dh tk ldrh rFkk dgk tkrkgS fd ;fn lezkV çèkkueU=kh dks xksyh ekj ns rks Hkh ml ij dkuwuh dk;Zokgh ugha gksxhA

vkfFkZd lgk;rk%lfofy fyLVμ fczfV'k lezkV dks jktdks"k ls okf"kZd vuqnku feyrk gSA igys jktk dh futhtkxhjnkfj;k¡ Fkha rFkk lEifÙk osQ vU; lkèku gksrs Fks ftldh vkenuh ls mldk [kpZ pyrk FkkA vkt Hkh laifÙkçkIr djus mldk çcUèk djus] mls ns[kus ;k csp Mkyus dk vfèkdkj gSA ysfdu [kpZ c<+us osQ dkj.k laln }kjkvuqnku nsus dh çFkk py iM+h gSA 1889 bZñ rd lezkV osQ O;fÙkQxr miHkksx rFkk lkoZtfud dk;ks± osQ fy, vuwfnrèku&jkf'k dks gh lkFk j[kk tkrk Fkk] ysfdu èkhjs&èkhjs nksuksa dks vyx fd;k tkus yxkA vktdy laln }kjk lezkVjkt?kjkus osQ lnL;ksa dks futh O;; osQ fy, jktdks"k ls okf"kZd vuqnku r; dj fn;k tkrk gSA bl vuqnku dks flfoyfyLV (Civil List) dgk tkrk gSA

lezkV dk LFkku (The Position of King): 1688bZñ osQ xkSjoiw.kZ Økafr rd lezkV dks vxkèk vkSj fujadq'k 'kfÙkQ;k¡çkIr FkhaA og fliQZ jk"Vª dk çèkku ugha Fkk] cfYd okLrfod 'kkld Hkh FkkA vkt jkT; dk iqjk 'kklu mlh osQuke ij gksrk gS] ysfdu O;ogkj esa 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk mi;ksx ugha djrkA vkt Hkh nwj ls ns[kus ij mldk in fo'kkyutj vkrk gSA fo'kky jktHkou rFkk nqxZ] lqnqj iQSys gq, mifuos'k] jk"Vªh; thou esa mldk LFkku vkfn muosQ indks vkSj HkO; cuk nsrs gSa] ysfdu okLrfodrk rks ;g gS fd O;fÙkQxr fLFkfr esa lezkV vkt ux.; gS] mldk LFkkufliQZ lS¼kfUrd rFkk ,sfrgkfld egÙkk dk jg x;k gS] O;kogkfjd ughaaA mldh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk mi;ksx mlosQ uke ijturk osQ çfrfufèk djrs gSaA lezkV dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk o.kZu djrs gq, iQkbuj dgrk gS] ¶;g fo'kky xxupqEch rFkkoSHkoiw.kZ vV~Vkfydk gS ftlosQ vUnj jktuhfrd 'kfÙkQ dk 'kwU; LFkku gSA¸ fczfV'k lafoèkku osQ vUrxZr lezkV dkLFkku fl¼kar vkSj O;kogkj osQ vUrj dk loksZre mnkgj.k gSA

¶lezkV jkT; djrk gS] 'kklu ugha¸μ bl çlax esa ;g dgk tkrk gS fd ¶lezkV jkT; djrk gS] 'kklu ughaA¸bldk lkèkkj.k vFkZ ;g gS fd lezkV lkoZtfud dk;ks± osQ fdlh çR;{k vkSj fØ;kRed fu;U=k.k dk mi;ksx ughadjrkA lezkV dh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ vkt Hkh vlhe gSa] ysfdu mudk ç;ksx og O;fÙkQxr :i esa ugha djrk gSA mlosQ ukeij mldh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk miHkksx] mldk ç;ksx eaf=keaMy rFkk laln djrh gSA lezkV jk"Vª dk çèkku gSA og jkT; dhleLr 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk Ïksr gS] fiQj Hkh ;g 'kfÙkQghu gS] ekVh dh ewjr gSA dkuwuh rkSj ij efU=k;ksa osQ ijke'kZ ls og'kklu djrk gS] ysfdu O;ogkj esa eaf=k;ksa osQ ijke'kZ ls og ckè; gS vkSj og ckè;rk bruh dBksj gS fd lezkVeaf=k;ksa osQ ijke'kZ dk mYya?ku ugha dj ldrkA iQyr% lezkV jkT; dk çèkku ek=k jg tkrk gS] 'kklu dk ughaAfoèkkur% og loZ'kfÙkQeku gS] ysfdu O;ogkj esa osQoy ,d vyadkjA fczfV'k 'kklu&i¼fr eq[;r% nks fl¼karksa ijvkèkkfjr gS] igyk] lezkV eaf=k;ksa osQ ijke'kZ ls ckgj dksbZ Hkh lkoZtfud dk;Z ugha dj ldrk gS ftudk oSfèkdegÙo gSA mldk gj dk;Z mlosQ eaf=k;ksa dk dk;Z gSA tc ge ;g dgrs gSa fd Økmu lkoZtfud inkfèkdkfj;ksa dhfu;qfÙkQ djrk gS rc gekjs dFku dk rkRi;Z ;g gksrk gS fd lezkV laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h eaf=k;ksa osQ ijke'kkZuqlkjlkoZtfud inkfèkdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfÙkQ djrk gS lezkV laln dk vfèkos'ku vkefU=kr djrk gS] mls folftZr ;k fo?kfVrdjrk gS] mlesa viuk Hkk"k.k i<+rk gS] ;q¼] 'kkafr ;k lfUèk dh ?kks"k.kk djrk gS_ ysfdu bu dk;ks± dk lEiknuoLrqr% efU=k;ksa }kjk gksrk gSA XysMLVksu us blh rF; dks bu 'kCnksa esa j[kk gSμ ¶jkT;kfHk"ksd ls e`R;qi;ZUr jktkosQ thou esa dksbZ {k.k ,slk ugh gksrk tcfd fdlh lkoZtfud dk;Z osQ fy, og fczfV'k laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;hu gks vkSj Økmu dh 'kfÙkQ dk ,slk dksbZ ç;ksx ugha gks ldrk ftlosQ fy, og fdlh ea=kh dks Lo;a mÙkjnk;h cukusosQ fy, rS;kj u ik losQaA¸

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fczfV'k lafoèkku dk nwljk fl¼kar ;g gS fd çR;sd lkoZtfud dk;Z osQ fy, eaf=kx.k laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h gksrs gSaA;g çdfr dk fu;e gS fd 'kfÙkQ vkSj mÙkjnkf;Ro lkFk&lkFk pyrs gSa] lezkV dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk gLrkarj.k eaf=k;ksa dksgks x;k gS vkSj os 'kklu osQ okLrfod vfèkdkjh gks x;s gSa rFkk lezkV ukeik=k osQ fy, jkT; dk çèkku jg x;k gSA

¶lezkV dksbZ xyrh ugha dj ldrk¸μ fczfV'k lezkV osQ lEcUèk esa ,d nwljk dFku gSμ ¶lezkV dksbZ xyrhugha dj ldrkA¸ bl dFku dk ç;ksx bl vFkZ esa fd;k tkrk gS fd lezkV dks fdlh dk;Z osQ fy, nks"kh ugha Bgjk;ktk ldrkA mlosQ uke ij fd, x, fdlh dk;Z osQ fy, dksbZ eU=kh ;k efU=kifj"kn~~ mÙkjnk;h gksrh gSA vfUre :iesa bldk eryc ;g gS fd lezkV Lofoosd ls] xyr ;k lgh] dksbZ Hkh dk;Z ugha dj ldrk gSA bl lw=k osQ vU;vFkZ Hkh gks ldrs gSaA bls fuEufyf[kr 'kh"kZdksa osQ vUrxZr le>k;k tk ldrk gSa%&

(i) dkuwuksa dh ek;kZnkvksa ls Åijμ mUeqfÙkQ;ksa osQ vUrxZr geus ns[kk gS fd lezkV fofèk osQ Åij (Above the

Restriction of Law) gS og lkekU; U;k;ky;ksa osQ {ks=k ls mUeqÙkQ gSA mls fdlh Hkh dk;Z osQ fy,] pkgs og gR;kgh D;ksa u gks] U;k;ky; osQ le{k nks"kh ugha Bgjk;k tk ldrkA

(ii) lezkV lkoZtfud dk;ks± osQ fy, nks"kh ugha gks ldrkμ lezkV ns'k dh dk;Zikfydk ugha gS vkSj u og fdlhdks vfèkd`r djus dh 'kfÙkQ j[krk gSA mls fdlh Hkh dk;Z osQ fy, nks"kh ugha Bgjk;k (not guilty for public acts)

tk ldrk gSA eaf=kx.k okLrfod 'kfÙkQ;k¡ rFkk vfèkdkj j[krs gSa vkSj osQoy ;s yksx gh mÙkjnk;h Bgjk;s tk ldrsgSaA ykMZ fiQ'kj osQ erkuqlkj] ¶jktk osQ cgqr ls ijekfèkdkj gSa ijUrq tc bldks dk;Z:i esa ifj.kr fd;k tkrkgS rc osQoy laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h eU=kh dh lykg ij mudk ç;ksx gks ldrk gSA¸ blh ys[kd osQ 'kCnksa esa¶efU=ke.Myh; mÙknkf;Ro jktrU=k dk laj{kd gSA blosQ vHkko esa jktrU=k jktuhfr >xM+ksa dh vkafèk;ksa rFkkjktuhfrd rwiQkuksa osQ chp vfèkd le; rd ugha Bgj ldrk gSA¸ ykMZ vlafdu osQ vuqlkj] ¶jktk ,slk dksbZvUr%dj.k ugha j[k ldrk tks mÙkjnk;h ukxfjdksa dh èkjksgj ugha gSμlHkh O;fÙkQ;ksa esa nks"k gks ldrs gsa] ijarq gekjs'kklu dh cqf¼eÙkk mu nks"kksa dks jktk ls nwj j[krh gSμog dksbZ Hkh dk;Z fcuk ijke'kZ osQ ugha dj ldrk vkSjtks dqN fd;k x;k gS mldh etnwjh ink:<+ O;fÙkQ nsrk gS] pkgs fdlh Hkh Ïksr ls vkjEHk gqvk gksA¸ dgk tkrkgS fd ,d ckj pkYlZ f}rh; osQ ,d njckjh us jkT; 'k;u&d{k ij fuEu iafÙkQ;k¡ fy[k nh Fkhaμ ¶;gk¡ ,d egku~,oa 'kfDr'kkyh jktk ysVk gqvk gS ftlosQ opuksa dk dksbZ Hkh fo'okl ugha djrk] tks dHkh xyr ckr ugha dgrkvkSj u dHkh cqf¼eÙkk dk dk;Z djrk gSA¸ pkYlZ f}rh; dk mÙkj Fkk fd ;g lc cgqr dqN lR; gS ¶mlosQ 'kCnmlosQ FksA ijUrq mlosQ dk;Z efU=k;ksa osQ dk;Z FksA¸ mi;qZÙkQ ys[kdksa osQ dFku osQ }kjk ;g crykus dh ps"Vk dh x;hgS fd lezkV Lofoosd osQ vUrxZr dksbZ dk;Z ugha dj ldrk gSA vUrrksxRok] mlosQ lHkh dk;Z mlosQ efU=k;ksa osQdk;Z gSa vksj fdlh Hkh =kqfV osQ fy, mUgsa gh nks"kh djkj fn;k tk;xk] lezkV dks ughaA

(iii) voSèkkfud dk;Z osQ fy, lezkV osQ uke fdlh dh mUeqfÙkQ ughaμ bl lw=k dk rhljk vFkZ ;g gks ldrkgS fd lezkV fdlh Hkh O;fÙkQ dks xyrh djus osQ fy, vfèkd`r ugha dj ldrk (No Legal immunity to any

body for unconstitutional acts in the name of the king)A dksbZ Hkh vfèkdkjh vius }kjk fd;s x;s fdlh voSèk;k voSèkkfud d`R; osQ fy, lezkV osQ vkns'k dh 'kj.k ugha ys ldrk gSA vyZ vkWiQ Msuoh dk.M (Denbey's

Case, 1678) esa bl fl¼kUr dk çfriknu fd;k x;kA ,d i=k fy[kus osQ vijkèk esa Msuoh ij vfHk;ksx yxk;krks mlus vius cpko esa ;g rdZ is'k fd;k fd mÙkQ i=k lezkV osQ vkns'k osQ vèkhu fy[kk x;k Fkk vkSj lezkVdksbZ xyrh ugha dj ldrkA vr% og nks"kh ugha gSaA ysfdu laln us bl nyhy dks vLohdkj djrs gq, ;g fl¼kUrçfrikfjr fd;k fd vius dk;ks± osQ fy, eU=kh gh mÙkjnk;h gSaA fu"d"kZ ;g gS fd O;fÙkQxr :i ls lezkV dqN ughadj ldrk] blfy, og dksbZ Hkh xyrh ugha djrkA

xyr fu"d"kZμ lezkV dh fLFkfr osQ mi;qZÙkQ fo'ys"k.k ls ;g fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fd og erçk; gS] ,d Lof.kZe'kwU;;k feV~Vh dh ewfrZ&ek=k gS] 'kklu osQ {ks=k esa ;g fu%'kÙkQ rFkk çHkkoghu gSA vr% mlosQ in dh dksbZ mi;ksfxrkughaA

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'kfÙkQ osQ LFkku ij çHkkoμ lezkV dk in egÙoiw.kZ rFkk çHkkoiw.kZ gSA lezkV O;fÙkQxr :i ls dqN dk;ks± dksdjrk gS ftls vU; dksbZ ugha dj ldrk gSA og fons'kh jktnwrksa dk Lokxr djrk] ih;j fu;qÙkQ djrk] mikfèk;k¡nsrk] flagklu&Hkk"k.k nsrkA bu NksVs&eksVs dk;ks± osQ vykok og nks çeq[k dk;Z djrk gSμ çèkkuea=kh dh fu;qfÙkQ djukrFkk yksdlHkk dks fo?kfVr djukA ;|fi bu dk;ks± osQ lacUèk esa lkèkkj.kr% mldh 'kfÙkQ ghu gks x;k] fiQj Hkh mldkçHkko c<+ x;k gSA XySMLVksu osQ fopkjkuqlkj] ¶l=kgoha 'krkCnh esa jkT; dh fLFkfr esa tks ifjorZu gq, gSa mlosQ}kjk 'kfÙkQ osQ LFkku ij ykHknk;d çHkko dh LFkkiuk gqbZ gSA¸cstgkWV osQ dFku ls bl çHkko dh xgjkbZ dk irkpyrk gSμ ¶ç'kklu rFkk uhfr&fuèkkZj.k osQ lEcUèk esa lezkV osQ rhu jktuhfrd vfèkdkj gSa ;Fkk ijke'kZ osQ fy,iwNs tkus dk vfèkdkj] çksRlkgu nsus dk vfèkdkj vkSj psrkouh nsus dk vfèkdkjA¸ ;|fi lezkV osQ ;s vfèkdkjeq[;r% lS¼kfUrd gS] fiQj Hkh mls çHkko'kkyh cukus esa budk cgqr gkFk gSA

fczfV'k çèkku ea=kh (The British Prime Minister)

vukSipkfjd vkèkkj (Informal Base): fczVsu dh vU; laLFkkvksa dh rjg fczfV'k çèkkueU=kh dk in Hkh vkdfLed?kVukvksa dk urhtk rFkk la;ksx dh ckr (a child of chance) gSA bl in dh mRifÙk çFkkvksa osQ }kjk gqbZA bldhfLFkfr osQ ckjs esa fdlh Hkh ifjfu;e ;k lafofèk esa dqN ftØ ugha gSA buksoj oa'k osQ 'kklu&dky esa okWyiksy dhvè;{krk rFkk lapkyu djus dk volj feykA bl çdkj okWyiksy çFke çèkkuea=kh cukA ysfdu mls vfèkdka'kyksx çFke eU=kh (First Minsiter) gh dgrs FksA çèkkueU=kh dh inoh yqbZ pkSngosa osQ 'kklu dky osQ 'Prime

Minister' dh udy }kjk viuk;h x;hA ysfdu 1878 bZñ osQ iwoZ bl 'kCn dk ç;ksx fdlh jk"Vªh; çys[k esa ughagqvk FkkA ml o"kZ igyh ckj cfyZu dh lfUèk esa mldk mYys[k fd;k x;kA lfUèk dh çFke èkkjk esa ykWMZchdUliQhYM (Lord Beaconsfield) dks lkezkKh ¶Vsªtjh dk çFke ykWMZ rFkk baxySaM dk çèkku ea=kh¸ (First

Lord of Majest's Treasury and Prime Minister of England) dg dj laosQr fd;k x;kA lj flMuh yks osQfopkj esa] ¶;g ukedj.k mu fonsf'k;ksa osQ vKku osQ çfr dqN fj;k;r ek=k Fkk tks fczVsu osQ iw.kZ 'kfÙkQ;qÙkQ egknwrdh okLrfod fLFkfr dks le> u ikrs FksA¸ blosQ ckn 1906 bZñ esa çèkkuea=kh dh fLFkfr dks jkT; osQ mRloksa lslEcfUèkr lkekftd çkFkfedrkvksa dh rkfydk esa ekU;rk çnku dh x;h vkSj jktdh; mn~?kks"k.kk }kjk mls jkT;osQ vknj dh n`f"V ls pkSFks uEcj dk çtktu ekuk tkus yxkA mls ;kdZ osQ vkdZ fo'ki ls fupyk ntkZ fn;k x;kA1917 bZ- osQ psdlZ LVsV ,sDV (Chequers Estate Act, 1917) esa çèkkueU=kh dk in xzg.k djusokys O;fÙkQ dh ppkZdh x;h gS vkSj ml in osQ èkkj.k djus okys O;fÙkQ dks psdlZ ç;ksx djus dh vuqefr nh x;h gSA psdlZ dk vFkZgksrk gS çèkkueU=kh dk vfèkdkjhA bl vfèkfu;e ls fliQZ çèkkuea=kh dks laoSèkkfud fLFkfr dh ekU;rk feyh gS] fdUrqml fLFkfr dks vHkh rd laoSèkkfud Lo:i çnku ugha fd;k x;k gSA çèkkueU=kh osQ ikl dkuwu }kjk çkIr okLrfod'kfÙkQ fcYdqy ugha gSA mldh reke 'kfÙkQ;k¡ ,oa vfèkdkj laoSèkkfud vfHkle;ksa ls gh çkIr gq, gSa vkSj os leLrvfèkdkj mUgha vfHkle;ksa ls e;kZfnr Hkh gSA rkRi;Z ;g gS fd mudh fLFkfr vkSj mlosQ vfèkdkj jktuhfrd gSa vkSjml mÙkjnk;h ljdkj dh t:jr osQ vuqlkj cu ik;s gSa] tgk¡ laln gS vkSj lkoZtfud erkfèkdkj ij vkèkkfjr gSAog efU=keaMy dh ijEijkxr vuq;k;h osQ dkj.k fu.kZ; djrk gS_ ysfdu mlosQ fu.kZ; dks dkuwuh :i efU=k;ksa]fçoh ifj"kn~~ ;k lezkV }kjk gh feyrk gSA bl çdkj vU; vfèkdkjh mldh vxqvkbZ dks blfy, ugha ekurs fd mldkvkèkkj lafoèkku gS_ cfYd blfy, fd og ,d ny dk usrk gSA XySMLVksu us Bhd gh dgk Fkk fd ¶dgha Hkh brusNksVs inkFkZ dh bruh cM+h Nk;k ughaA¸

1937 bZñ osQ Økmu osQ vfèkfu;e (The ministers of the Crown Act., 1937) esa çFke ckj çèkkueU=khdks dkuwuh ekU;rk nh x;h vkSj dgk x;k fd ¶ml O;fÙkQ dks tks çèkkueU=kh vkSj Økmu dk çFkeeU=kh (First Lord of the Treasurey) gksxk] nl gtkj ikSaM osru feysxkA¸ bl çdkj çèkkueU=kh dkin Vsªtjh osQ çFke ykWMZ osQ in dk gh :i gS vkSj vHkh Hkh nksuksa in ,d lkFk tqM+s gq, gSaA

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(i) çèkkuea=kh dk pquko (Choice of the Prime Minister) % cgqer ny dk usrk lkafoèkkur% çèkkuea=kh dhfu;qfÙkQ lezkV }kjk gksrk gSA ysfdu nyxr ljdkj osQ fodkl us ,d çFkk pyk nh gS] lezkV yksdlHkk esa fuokZfprcgqla[;d jktuhfr ny osQ ekU; usrk dks çèkkueU=kh dk in xzg.k djus rFkk efU=keaMy&fuekZ.k osQ fy, vkefU=krdjrk gSA 18oha 'krkCnh rd fczfV'k efU=keaMy dk vHkko&lk Fkk vkSj ml le; rd Økmu osQ çèkkueU=kh osQ fy,;g vko';d Fkk fd mlosQ Åij lezkV dh dìk gks rFkk lkFk&lkFk loZlkèkkj.k dk leFkZu çkIr gksaa ysfdu vktlezkV dk LosPNkfèkdkj ugha gS D;ksafd yksd&lHkk osQ lnL;ksa osQ vlaxfBr nyksa osQ fojksèkh usrkvksa osQ çfr vfuf'proiQknkjh dk vUr gks x;k gSA 19oha 'krkCnh esa Hkh mnkj ny vkSj vuqnkj ny esa uhfr erHksn] ny osQ vUrxZr erHksn]cq<+kik ;k chekjh vkfn osQ vkèkkj ij fdlh Hkh O;fÙkQ dks ny dk usrk gksuk lUnsgkRed gks tkrk FkkA ysfdu chloha'krkCnh esa ny osQ n`< laxBu osQ iQyLo:i fuf'pr rFkk fuLlansg :i esa dksbZ O;fÙkQ usrk pqu fy;k tkrk gS vkSjlezkV dks mls gh çèkkueU=kh in osQ fy, vkefU=kr djuk iM+rk gSA bl çdkj vfHkle; osQ vuqlkj yksdlHkk esacgqer ny (Majority Party) dk usrk çèkkueU=kh curk gSA vr% çèkkueU=kh osQ pquko esa lezkV dh 'kfÙkQ lhfer;k ugha osQ cjkcj gSA

(ii) lezkV dk LosPNkfèkdkj % dqN ,slh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ gSa tc lezkV futh fu.kZ; (Discretion) osQ vuqlkj dk;Zdj ldrh gSA loZçFke ,slh ifjfLFkfr rc mRiUu gksrh gS tc çèkkueU=kh bl ckr dk lcwr NksM+s fcuk fdny fdldks mÙkjkfèkdkjh cukuk pkgrk gS] R;kx&i=k ns nsrk gS ;k cgqer ny dk dksbZ Li"V rFkk fuf'pr usrkugha gSA lezkV }kjk uketn jktuhfrK 'kfÙkQ'kkyh ljdkj dk ogk¡ fuekZ.k dj ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] 1880 bZ-esa ykMZ gkfVZxu mnkjoknh ny dk yksd&lHkk esa usrk Fkk vkSj xzsuokby mlosQ ykMZ&lHkk esa usrk Fkk] ysfduny esa XySMLVksu Hkh 'kkfey Fkk vkSj mnkjoknh thr dk vuknj gksus osQ dkj.k Hkkoh çèkkueU=kh le>k tkrkFkk] ysfdu egkjkuh mUgsa ukilUn djrh FkhA vr% gkfVZxVu vkSj xzsuokby dks ckjh&ckjh ls vkeaf=kr fd;k x;k_ysfdu mUgksaus eaf=ke.My cukus ls bUdkj dj fn;k vkSj XySMLVksu osQ usr`Ro dks vo';EHkkoh cryk;kA 1832bZñ osQ i'pkr~ 11 vYila[;d ljdkjsa vkSj 3 la;qÙkQ ljdkjsa cu pqdh gSaA bl leLr ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa dbZ ,slsxqatkbZ'k jgrs gSa ftuosQ }kjk lezkV vius çHkko dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa ysfdu muosQ fy, ;g fopkj vko';dgS fd os lqfuf'pr ijEijkvksa osQ vUnj jgrs gq, Hkh dke djsaA ;fn ijkt; gksus ij ljdkj R;kx&i=k ns nsrhgS rks lezkV dks fojksèkh ny osQ usrk dks ljdkj cukus osQ fy, vkeaf=kr djuk pkfg,A tsfuUl us bldh O;k[;kdjrs gq, fy[kk gS] ¶lezkV dk dk;Z osQoy ljdkj fu.kZ; djuk gSA ml ljdkj dk ugha ftldk os vuqeksnudjrs gSaA ;fn os ,slk djsaxs rks nyxr jktuhfr esa iQ¡l tk;saxsAA ;g vko';d gS fd turk dk lezkV dh fu"i{krkesa fo'okl cuk jgsA blosQ fy, lezkV dks u osQoy fu"i{krk ls gh dk;Z djuk pkfg, cfYd mls fu"i{krkls dke djrs gq, çrhr Hkh gksuk pkfg,A bldks djus dk ,d ek=k mik; fojksèk ny osQ usrk dks ljdkj cukusosQ fy, rqjUr vkefU=kr djuk gSA¸ ;g gS fd 1839 bZ- osQ i'pkr~ çR;sd volj ij ;gh fd;k x;k gSA 1866bZñ esa tc ykMZ lSfylojh us R;kx&i=k fn;k Fkk rks egkjkuh foDVksfj;k dh XySMLVksu osQ çfr ?k`.kk us mUgsa ijEijkls gVus dh çsj.kk nhA ysfdu dkiQh le; rd "kM~;U=k tkjh j[kus osQ ckn Hkh os liQy u gqbZA lezkV dks fojksèkhny osQ usrk dks vkeaf=kr djrs le; vU; fdlh jktuhfrd ls lykg ugha ysuh pkfg, D;ksafd bl çdkj dhe'kfojk ;g lansg mRiUu dj ldrh gS fd lezkV fojksèkh ny osQ usrk dh ljdkj cukus osQ vfèkdkj dkvfrØe.k dj jgs gSaA tc dHkh lezkV us fdlh O;fÙkQ osQ lkFk lykg&e'kfojk fd;k gS] tks fojksèkh ny dkekU; usrk ugha gS] rks ,sls voljks ij lezkV osQ fopkj&foe'kZ osQ ckotwn ,d ,slk O;fDr çèkkuea=kh gqvk tks;k rks ny dk usrk ugha Fkk ;k de&ls&de ml le;&ny dk usrk ugha FkkA ;g fuf'pr gS fd 1916 bZñ esaijEijkvksa dk ikyu fd;k x;k FkkA ,sfLDoFk osQ R;kx&i=k osQ i'pkr~ lezkV us cksuj ykW dks vLohd`r dj fn;kA1931 bZñ esa eSdMksuYM dh cgkyh lezkV osQ futh bPNk dk iQy ekywe iM+rh gSA og vius ny osQ çfrfufèkgksus osQ vFkZ esa çèkkuea=kh osQ :i esa mldh mifLFkfr mlh çdkj dh ,d ¶çklkn Økafr¸ (Palace Revolution)

ekywe iM+rh gS tSlk fd 1968 bZñ osQ ykMZ C;wV osQ çèkkuea=kh cuus ij ekywe iM+h FkhA cso vkSj tsfuaXl lezkV

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osQ bl dk;Z dks oSKkfud crykrs gSa ysfdu ykWLdh dh jk; esa oSèkkfud 'kCn cgqr yphyk gSA 1957 bZñ esa bMsuR;kx&i=k osQ ckn eSdfeyu dh cgkyh esa lezkKh dk cgqr gkFk FkkA

(iii) ykMZ&lHkk dk lnL; çèkkuea=kh ugha % lj jkcVZ okWyiksy osQ le; ls ;g ,d lqfuf'pr fu;e&lk cux;k gS fd çèkkuea=kh yksd&lHkk] ykMZ&lHkk nksuksa esa ls fdlh ,d lnu dk lnL; jgsA ysfdu chloha 'krkCnh esa;g Hkh fuf'pr gks x;k gS fd çèkkuea=kh dks yksdlHkk dk lnL; t:j gh gksuk pkfg,] ykMZ&lHkk dk lnL; vFkkZr~ih;j çèkkuea=kh ugha cu ldrk gSA 1902 bZñ esa ykMZ lSfylcjh osQ R;kx&i=k nsus osQ ckn dksbZ Hkh ih;j çèkkuea=khugha cuk gSA 1923 bZñ esa ;g leL;k mRiÂ gqbZ fd D;k fdlh ih;j dks çèkkuea=kh cuk;k tk ldrk gSA cksuj ykWosQ R;kx&i=k nsus osQ ckn lezkV osQ lkeus ç'u mBkμ ykMZ dtZu] tks ,d ih;j Fkk vkSj LVstuh okYMfou] tksyksd&lHkk dk lnL; Fkk] nksuksa esa ls fdls çèkkuea=kh pquk tk;A vUr esa] okYMfou dks gh çèkkuea=kh cukuk iM+k];|fi mls dtZu dh rqyuk esa eaf=kRo dk ugha osQ cjkcj vuqHko FkkA bl ç'u ij fu"d"kZ ;gh fn;k tkrk gS fd;|fi ;g fu;e fd çèkkuea=kh dks yksd&lHkk dk lnL; vo'; gksuk pkfg,] vfuok;Z ugha gS] fiQj Hkh tSlk fddhFk dk dguk gS] fd ¶çèkkuea=kh in osQ fy, fdlh dqyhu iq#"k dk pqu fy;k tkuk ,d lkèkkj.k lh ckr gksx;h gSA¸ pw¡fd eaf=keaMy yksdlHkk osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h gS vkSj mldk thou&ej.k yksdlHkk osQ fo'okl ls lEcfUèkrgS blfy, mlosQ usrk dks vo'; gh yksd&lHkk dk lnL; gksuk pkfg,A

(iv) çèkkuea=kh osQ O;fÙkQxr xq.k % ;|fi fu;er% çèkkuea=kh in osQ fy, dksbZ fuf'pr ;ksX;rk ugha gS] fiQj HkhO;ogkj esa mlosQ fy, dqN futh xq.kksa dks gksuk vfuok;Z gSA fofHkÂ fo}kuksa us çèkkuea=kh osQ fy, fofHkÂ ;ksX;rkvksadk mYys[k fd;k gSA equjks osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶fczVsu esa çk;% çèkkuea=kh dqyhu] lqf'kf{kr rFkk èkuoku gksrs gSaA os NksVhvk;q esa gh jktuhfr esa ços'k djrs vkSj bls viuk O;olk; cuk ysrs gSaA¸ exj fiV us çèkkuea=kh osQ bl xq.kksa dkmYys[k fd;k gS % ¶igyk O;fDrRo 'kfÙkQ] nwljs Kku] rhljs ifjJe vkSj vUr esa] èkS;ZA¸ mls osQoy yksder dkvè;;u djus okyk fo|kFkhZ gh ugha gksuk pkfg,] cfYd mls çpkj&dyk dk iafMr Hkh gksuk pkfg,A iQkbuj dgrkgS fd ¶mlosQ xq.k gksus pkfg, lHkh [krjksa osQ çfr lnk ltxrk] muls Hkkxusokys ugha_ lHkh o`gr~ Kku vkSj ;ksX;rk]vfèkd fof'k"Vrk ;k vKku ugha rR{k.k vkSj fLFkj vkdqyrk rFkk mRlkg dh {kerk fu'pyrk ughaA¸ MkW- tsfuaXlosQ vuqlkj] muosQ O;fDrRo ,oa lEeku dk tuer dks çHkkfor djus esa fo'ks"k çHkko iM+rk gSA blfy, muesaflus&vfHkusrkvksa osQ leku turk osQ eu dks vkdf"kZr djus osQ fy, dqN fo'ks"k dkSrqd gksuk pkfg,] vkSj mlsvius O;fDrRo dks vkd"kZd djus osQ fy, ç;Ru djuk pkfg,] tSlsμ ikbiksa okys ckYMfou vkSj flxkjksa okyspfpZy! mls Hkk"k.ksa dk vPNk vkfo"dkjd rFkk dq'ky oÙkQk Hkh gksuk pkfg,A lEHkor% mlls Hkh vfèkd vko';dèofufoLrkjd ij cksyus dh fofèk gS-------------- vUr esa] ;g vko';d gS fd og vius jktuhfrd fe=kksa dh fu"Bkdks cuk;s j[ksAA¸ ykWLdh us Hkh çèkkuea=kh osQ xq.kksa dk o.kZu bu çdkj fd;k gS] ¶foosd] dkS'ky] euq";ksa ij 'kkludh 'kfÙkQ] fo'oluh; O;fDr;ksa dh igpku] çHkko'kkyh oÙkQO; nsus dh {kerk] ,slk f'k{kkRed fu.kZ; fd og cyrFkk yksder ls vkxs rks vo'; gks] ysfdu bruk u gks fd mldk lqxerkiwoZd ikyu u gks losQ] ,d ,slhegÙokdka{kk tks vkxs rks c<+k;s] ij lkFk vkdfLedrk osQ çn'kZu esa ltx gks] O;fÙkQ;ksa ;k dk;ks± osQ ckjs esa rRdkyhufu.kZ; osQ le; e;kZfnr O;xzrkμ ;s lc ,sls xq.k gSa ftuosQ fcuk fdlh çèkkuea=kh dk dke ugha py ldrkA¸

çèkkuea=kh osQ vfèkdkj vkSj dÙkZO; (Powers and functions of the Prime Minister) % lezkV ,d uke ek=kdk çèkku gSA O;ogkj esa mldh reke~ 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk ç;ksx efU=keaMy }kjk gksrk gS tks vUrrksxRok çèkkueU=kh osQgkFk esa pyk tkrk gSA oLrqr% çèkkueU=kh osQ gkFk esa gh 'kklu dk reke vfèkdkj jgrk gSA og fczfV'k lafoèkkudh dq¡th gSA MkWñ tsfuaXl mls ¶lafoèkku dh cqfu;kn dgrs gSA ;|fi mudh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ lafoèkku esa dgha fy[kh gqbZ ughagSa] fiQj Hkh os bruh vfèkd gSa fd fo'o osQ fdlh Hkh laoSèkkfud 'kklu dks mruh vfèkd 'kfÙkQ;k¡ çkIr ughaA xzhOtBhd dgrk gS fd ¶mldh vkSipkfjd 'kfÙkQ;k¡ ,d vfu;af=kr 'kkld&dh&lh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA¸

'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ Ïksr% mldh 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ eq[;r% nks Ïksr gSaμ fofèk vkSj foftr ny osQ usrk dh fLFkfrA fiNyh

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'krkfCn;ksa esa lezkV 'kklu dk okLrfod vfèkdkjh Fkk] ysfdu le; chrus osQ lkFk mldh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ Økmu dksgLrkUrfjr gks x;ha vkSj mUgksaus :f<+;ksa dk :i ys fy;kA Økmu osQ vUrxZr 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk okLrfod ç;ksxdÙkkZeaf=ke.My rFkk mldk çèkkuea=kh gSA bl çdkj çèkkueU=kh lezkV osQ LFkku ij ns'k dk okLrfod 'kkld cu x;kgSA mldh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk çeq[k vkèkkj nyxr jktuhfr dk fodkl gSA og cgqer ny osQ usrk osQ :i esa çèkkueU=khjgrk gSA tcrd yksd&lHkk esa mlosQ ny dk cgqer gS] og fcuk fdlh fu;U=k.k osQ 'kklu djrk gSA çèkkueU=khosQ lkFk iwjs ny dk HkkX; caèkk jgrk gS] blfy, ny osQ lnL;ksa dk iw.kZ leFkZu çkIr gksrk gSA mldh 'kfDr;ksa osQ,d vU; Ïksr dk Hkh mYys[k fd;k tk ldrk gSA vktdy vke turk laln dks 'kd dh utj ls ns[kus yxhgS fd og fo'ks"k fgrksa dk çfrfufèk gS tcfd çèkkuea=kh vke fgrksa dk j{kd gSA çèkkuea=kh dh fLFkfr ny&laxBuosQ iQyLo:i bruh n`<+ gksrh gS fd og O;fÙkQxr rFkk oxhZ; fgrksa ls de çHkkfor gksrk gS vkSj leLr turk osQfgrksa dks le>us vkSj lqy>kus dk ç;Ru djrk gSA vr% vke turk usr`Ro osQ fy, çèkkuea=kh dh vksj VdVdhyxk;s jgrh gSA turk dk leFkZu çèkkuea=kh dks cgqr 'kfÙkQ'kkyh cuk nsrh gSA

(i) eaf=keaMy dk fuekZ.k] thou rFkk ej.k dk osQUæ&LFky % çèkkuea=kh eaf=keaMy osQ fuekZ.k] thou rFkk e`R;qdk osQUæ (Centre of formation, life and death) gSA çèkkuea=kh in dh ckxMksj l¡Hkkyus osQ ckn mldk dÙkZO;gksrk gS efU=keaMy dk fuekZ.k djukA Vsdfudy :i ls vU; efU=k;ksa dh fu;qfÙkQ jkT; osQ çèkku vFkkZr~ lezkV }kjkgksrh gS] ysfdu vukSipkfjd :i ls çèkkueU=kh gh mUgsa fu;qÙkQ djrk gS] D;ksafd mlosQ ijke'kZ ij lezkV mUgsaefU=keaMy esa 'kkfey djrk gSA lkèkkj.kr;k lezkV çèkkueU=kh }kjk efU=k&ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ksa dh lwph fcuk fgpdLohd`r dj ysrk gSA rkRi;Z ;g gS fd çèkkuea=kh efU=keaMy osQ fuekZ.k esa cgqr dqN LorU=k gS] ysfdu çèkkueU=khosQ gkFk Hkh dqN O;kogkfjd çfrcUèkksa ls c¡èks gq, gaS] mls ;g ns[kuk iM+rk gS fd mlosQ ny osQ çeq[k lnL; muosQefU=keaMy esa vk tk,¡A dHkh&dHkh rks mls ,sls O;fÙkQ;ksa dks eaf=keaMy esa j[kuk iM+rk gS ftUgsa og ugha pkgrkvkSj ftUgsa ugha j[kus ls ladV esa iM+ ldrk gSA blosQ vfrfjDr mls fofHkÂ oxks±] fofHkUu èkeks±] fofHkÂ HkkSxksfyd{ks=kksa] uo;qod jktuhfrKksa vkfn osQ çfrfufèkRo dks è;ku esa j[kuk iM+rk gSA bruk gh ugha] ny ;k laln osQ ckgjosQ O;fÙkQ dks Hkh og efU=keaMy esa LFkku ns ldrk gS] ;fn mls fdlh [kkl dke osQ fy, ;ksX; le>sA mnkgj.kLo:i]1903 bZñ esa ckYiQj (Balfour) us mifuos'k efU=kRo ykMZ feyuj (Lord Milner) dks ml le; ns fn;k tcfd ognf{k.kh vÚhdk esa mPpk;qÙkQ Fkk vkSj tcfd mls fcYdqy lalnh; vuqHko ugha FkkA eSdMkWuYM (Macdonald) uslu~ 1942 bZ- esa fdlh Hkh ny ls vlEc¼ Hkkjr osQ vodk'k&çkIr ok;ljk; ykMZ psEliQksMZ (Lord Chelmstord)

dks ukSlSfud eU=kh dk in fn;kA 1924 bZñ esa vuqnkjokfj;ksa osQ fojksèk osQ ckotwn ckYMfou us pfpZy dks foÙk eU=khfu;qÙkQ fd;kA bl çdkj ;g çèkkueU=kh gh fu.kZ; djrk gS fd efU=keaMy esa fdrus ea=kh gksa vkSj mlesa dkSu&dkSuea=kh fy, tk;¡A okLro esa 'kklu osQ fuekZ.k esa çèkkuea=kh dks iwjh NwV jgrh gS\ ¶bl lacUèk esa rks laln u gh nyh;dk;Zikfydk us gh mlosQ Åij ncko Mkyk gSA¸

çèkkuea=kh osQoy eaf=keaMy dk fuekZ.k gh ugha djrk gS] cfYd mls thou nsrk gS rFkk xfr çnku djrk gSA efU=k;ksaosQ chp foHkkxksa dk forj.k çèkkueU=kh gh djrk gSa ;fn dksbZ vuqHkoh jktuhfrK pkgs rks fdlh foHkkx dks vLohdrHkh dj ldrk gS_ c'krsZ fd ml ny esa mldks bruk leFkZu ,oa vknj çkIr gks fd 'kklu dks mldh lsok,¡ vR;Urt#jh gks vkSj ny osQ fy, Hkh ,sls O;fDr ls oafpr gksuk cqf¼ekuh u gksA lkèkkj.kr% foHkkxksa osQ forj.k osQ lEcUèkesa çèkkuea=kh dk fu.kZ; vfUre gksrk gSA in dh vLohd`fr dk vFkZ gks ldrk gS] fliQZ ml laln dky osQ fy,gh ugha cfYd lnk osQ fy, 'kklu vfèkdkj ls oafpr jgukA lj jkcVZ gkWu tSls liQy foÙk ea=kh us tc ckYMfou}kjk fn;s x;s j{kk ea=kky; dk çèkku cuuk vLohdkj dj fn;k rks Hkfo"; esa fiQj dHkh fdlh in osQ fy, muosQuke ij fopkj gh ugha fd;k x;kA bruk gh ugha] çèkkuea=kh ;g Hkh ns[krk gS çR;sd eU=kh dh ns[k&js[k esa lc foHkkxBhd ls dk;Z dj jgs gSa] ;k ughaa leLr ç'kklu dk eqf[k;k gksus osQ ukrs og lHkh foHkkxksa dk fujh{k.k djrk gSAblosQ vykos çèkkueU=kh eaf=keaMy dh cSBdksa dk lHkkifrRo djrk gSA og eaf=keaMy dh lkjh dk;Zokfg;ksa dklapkyu djrk gSA eaf=keaMy dh dk;Zfofèk (Agenda) ij mldk fu;a=k.k gksrk gSA eaf=keaMy osQ fu.kZ; rFkk uhfr

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fuèkkZj.k esa çèkkuea=kh dk gh fu.kZ; gksrk gSA ;ksa rks efU=keaMy dk fu.kZ; rFkk uhfr fuèkkZj.k esa çèkkuea=kh dk ghlcls Åijh gkFk jgrk gSA ;ks rks eaf=ke.My dk fu.kZ; ernku }kjk gksrk gS ysfdu vrar% çèkkuea=kh dk ijke'kZgh fu.kkZ;d gksrk gSA can dejs esa eaf=k;ksa esa vkilh erHksn gks ldrs gS] fdUrq vUr esa lHkh dks ,d gksuk iM+rkgS] D;ksafd reke ny dh ijLij vèkhurk dks lqjf{kr j[kus osQ fy, vko';d gSA lp iwNk tk; rks vkilh vlgefrvkSj fojksèk dh lEHkkouk cgqr de gSA ;fn nks eaf=k;ksa vFkok nks foHkkxksa esa erHksn gks tk; rks og viuh ckrphr}kjk vFkok çèkkuea=kh osQ chp&cpko }kjk r; gks ldrk gSA ;fn eaf=keaMy osQ fopkj&foe'kZ esa erHksn mRiUu gkstk; rks eaf=keaMy dk çèkkuea=kh ,oa ny osQ usrk gksus osQ dkj.k çèkkueU=kh dh fLFkfr bruh lqn`<+ gksrh gS fd ogdqN&u&dqN fu.kZ; dj nsrk gSA eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; okn&fookn osQ fo"k; fopkjkFkZ çLrko dks çLrqr djus osQ iwoZçèkkueU=kh dh jk; vo'; ysrk gS vkSj mldh lgk;rk dh ek¡x djrk gSA FkksM+s esa çèkkueU=kh dk iFk&çnZ'kd gSAog çèkku gksus osQ ukrs lHkh eU=kky;ksa dh uhfr;ksa dk leUo; djrk gSA og 'kklu:ih laxBu dk çeq[k çcUèkdgSA og leLr 'kklu osQ dk;ks± dh ns[k&Hkky djrk gS rFkk 'kklu osQ fofoèk fØ;k&dykiksa dks ,d&nwljs ls lEc¼djkrk gSA bl çdkj çèkkueU=kh dk dÙkZO; gS fd og ns[ksa fd çR;sd foHkkx dh xkM+h xfr'khy jgsaA og efU=keaMydks fliZQ thou gh ugha nsrk] cfYd mls thfor j[kus dk Hkh ç;Ru djrk gS rFkk xfr'khy cukrk gSA

çèkkueU=kh dk fliQZ fuekZrk rFkk ikyudÙkkZ gh ugha] cfYd lagkjdÙkkZ (destroyer) Hkh gSA lHkh eaf=k;ksa dk Hkfo";mlh osQ lkFk c¡èkk gqvk gSA çèkkueU=kh osQ lkFk gh vU; eU=kh Hkh rSjrs ;k Mwcrs gSaA mlosQ R;kx&i=k osQ lkFk iwjhefU=kifj"kn~~ Hkax gks tkrh gSA blosQ vykok mlls vlger gksus okys vU; eU=kh dks R;kx&i=k }kjk in&R;kx djukiM+rk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] 1922 bZñ esa Hkkjr&eU=kh ekaVsX;w dks lg;ksfx;ksa osQ ijke'kZ osQ fcuk ,d vuko';d ?kks"k.kkdjus osQ dkj.k eaf=kRo R;kxuk iM+k FkkA mlh çdkj 1935 bZñ esa lSeq,y gksj dh LorU=k oSnsf'kd uhfr osQ dkj.kin&R;kx djuk iM+k FkkA blh rF; dks jkcVZiksy us bu 'kCnksa esa Li"V fd;k gS] ¶lkèkkj.kr% ;fn çèkkueU=kh rFkkmlosQ ,d ea=kh esa xgjk erHksn mRiUu gks tk; vkSj ;fn og erHksn eaf=k;ksa esa ckrphr r; u gks losQ rks mldkiQy ;g gksxk fd eU=kh dks gVkuk iM+sxk] çèkkueU=kh dks ughaA¸ ;fn çèkkuea=kh dks ;g fo'okl gks tk; fd fdlheU=kh fo'ks"k osQ eaf=keaMy esa jgus ls leLr eaf=keaMy dh dk;Z{kerk] ;ksX;rk] bZekunkjh rFkk 'kklu dh uhfr ijcqjk çHkko iM+us dh vk'kadk gS rks og leLr 'kklu osQ eqf[k;k gksus osQ ukrs vius lkFkh ls R;kx&i=k ek¡x ldrkgSA ;ksa rks fofèk vuqlkj efU=k;ksa dks cj[kkLr (Dismiss) djus dk vfèkdkj lezkV dk fo'ks"kkfèkdkj gS] ysfduO;ogkj esa ;g ijEijk cu x;h gS fd bl vfèkdkj dk ç;ksx og çèkkuea=kh dh lykg ls djsxkA vr% eaf=k;ksa dhfu;qfÙkQ dk vfèkdkj çèkkueU=kh dk vfèkdkj gSA ;gk¡ ,d mYys[kuh; çFkk ;g gS fd dksbZ Hkh eU=kh yksd fgr osQfy, gh eaf=k&in ij vklhu jg ldrk gSA blfy, ;fn fdlh ea=kh dks ;g ekywe gks tkrk gS fd mlosQ mnklhujgus ls vke yksxksa osQ vfgr dh lEHkkouk gS ;k tuer mlosQ fo#¼ gS rks mldk iquhr dÙkZO; gks tkrk gS fdR;kx&i=k ns nsaA¸ eaf=k;ksa us bl ijEijk dk ikyu Hkh fd;k gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ feñ ykSos (Mr. Lowe) rFkk feñ ,jhVu(Mr. Aryton) us lu~ 1873 bZñ esa R;kx&i=k fn;k] duZy lhyh (Colonel Seely) us 1914 bZñ esa R;kx&i=k fn;k]feñ ekW.VsX;w (Mr. Montague) rFkk feñ vkfLVu psEcjysu (Mr. Austin Chamberloin) us 1917 bZñ esa R;kx&i=kfn;k] vkSj ,UFkksuh bMsu (Anthony Eden) us 1956 bZñ esa in&R;kx fd;k rFkk çksÝ;weksa us 1963 esaA

bl çdkj çèkkuea=kh eaf=ke.My osQ fuekZ.k] thou rFkk ej.k osQ osQUæ&fcUnq gSA og eaf=keaMy dk fuekZ.kdÙkkZ]ikyudÙkkZ rFkk lagkjdÙkkZ] vFkkZr~ czãk] fo".kq vkSj egs'k gSA eaf=keaMy :ih esgjkc (arch) dh vkèkkjf'kyk gSAeaf=kifj"kn~~ dh og dq¡th gSA ysfdu vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr dh rjg eaf=keaMy dk ekfyd ugha gS] eaf=keaMy osQ vU;lnL; mlosQ ukSdj ugha cfYd lg;ksxh gSaA çèkkuea=kh rFkk lg;ksfx;ksa esa D;k lacaèk gS] bls fo}kuksa us fofHkUu :i esaO;ÙkQ fd;k gSA ykMZ ekysZ us led{kksa esa çFke* (Primus interpares) dgk FkkA mldk dguk Fkk fd ¶;|fi çèkkueU=khrFkk mlosQ lg;ksxh lkekU;r% ,d leku gksrs gSa] mlesa lHkh fu'p; ,der ls fd;s tkrs gSa vkSj os HkkbZpkjs ls feydjdke djrs gSa] rFkkfi çèkkueU=kh dh ,der esa fo'ks"k fLFkfr rFkk vkèkkj&lÙkk dk ç;ksx djrk gSA¸ ysfdu fczfV'kmnkjoknh ys[kd jkEts E;ksj ml fopkj ls lger ugha gSA mudh jk; esa çèkkeU=kh dks vke O;fÙkQ;ksa esa çFke dguk

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loZFkk Hkzeewyd gS_ D;ksafd og vius lg;ksfx;ksa dks fu;qÙkQ djrk rFkk inP;qr djrk gSA fofèk esa ugha] ysfduO;ogkj esa og jkT; dk dk;Zdkjh çèkku gS] ftldh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ bruh O;kid gS ftruk fd fo'o esa fdlh Hkh laoSèkkfud'kkld] ;gk¡ rd fd vesfjdu jk"Vªifr dks çkIr ugha ekysZ dh miek ls mÙke lj fofy;e gkjdksVZ (Sir William

Harcourt) dk ySfVu okD;ka'k u{k=kksa osQ chp pUæek¸ gSA fdUrq ;g okD;ka'k Hkh çèkkueU=kh rFkk eaf=k;ksa osQ chplgh&lgh fLFkfr dk ewY;kadu djus esa vLi"V gSA MkWñ tsfuXl dk dguk gS fd ¶çèkkueU=kh osQoy leku Js.khokyksa esa çFke gh ugha gS vkSj u osQoy gkjdkVZ osQ 'kCnksa esa flrkjksa osQ chp pUæek gh gSA og lw;Z osQ leku gSftlosQ pkjksa vksj xzg ?kwers gSaA¸ tsfuaXl dk dFku cgqr lgh gS okLro esa çèkkuea=kh lw;Z gS ftlosQ pkjks vkSj ea=kh:ihmixzg pDdj dkVrs gSA

ysfdu bldk eryc ;g ugha fd çèkkuea=kh rkuk'kkg gks ldrk gSA ;|fi og eaf=k;ksa dks fu;qÙkQ djrk rFkk 'kkluesa LFkku nsrk gS] fiQj Hkh mlosQ çfr ugha] os laln osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h gSA mlosQ lkFk vfèkuk;d dh rjg O;ogkj ughadj ldrk gS] cfYd og mUgsa vius lkFk ysdj pyrk gSA çèkkuea=kh mlosQ fopkjksa dh mis{kk ugha dj ldrk vkSju mlls Lokeh dh rjg ckrphr dj ldrk gSA iQkbuj dk dguk gS fd ¶;g ekuuk gh iM+sxk fd çèkkueU=kh dksbZlhtj ugha gS vkSj u mldk lkFkh ,slk gS ftls pqukSrh ugha nh tk losQA mldk fopkj Hkh vuqYy?kuh; gSA mldh lÙkkdk ,d ek=k vkèkkj ;g gS fd og jk"Vª dh fdruh lsok dj ldrk gSA fdlh Hkh le; mldk çfr}U}h mldk LFkkuxzg.k dj ldrk gSA¸ mldh çfr"Bk dk vkèkkj mlosQ ny dk leFkZu gSA ykWLdh us Bhd gh dgk gS fd ¶ny laxBuosQ çlax esa mldh 'kfÙkQ mlosQ çHkko ij vkèkkfjr gSA lkjka'k esa] çèkkuea=kh fdlh lg;ksxh dks foo'k dj ugha cfYdle>k&cq>kdj vius fopkjksa dks euok ldrk gSA mldh 'kfÙkQ vuq'kklfud (disciplined) osQ lkFk&lkFk uSfrd(ethical) Hkh gSA vr% mls lg;ksfx;ksa osQ çfr èk"V] dBksj] vdq'ky rFkk vU;k;iw.kZ ugha gksuk pkfg, vU;Fkk ny dh,drk dks èkDdk igq¡psxk vkSj iQyLo:i mldk Hkfo"; Hkh vUèkdkje; gks tk;sxkA

(ii) ny dk usrk % 'kklu dk çèkku gksus osQ vfrfjÙkQ çèkkuea=kh cgqer ny dk usrk (Party Leader) gksrk gSAns'k esa mldh loksZPp 'kfÙkQ dk cM+k jkt gS fd og fot;h ny dk usrk gksrk gSA ny usrk gksus osQ ukrs gh og'kklu dk çèkku gks ikrk gSA bl fLFkfr esa mldk O;fÙkQRo lkoZtfud :i ys ysrk gSA jsfM;ks] dkVwZu] çsl vkfn}kjk turk osQ le{k mlosQ fo:¼ m¡xyh mBkuk ny osQ lkFk fo'okl?kkr ekuk tkrk gSA og ny dh ,drk dkçeq[k LrEHk gSA çèkkuea=kh osQ Hkfo"; osQ lkFk ny dk Hkfo"; c¡èkk jgrk gSA vke pquko (General Election) mlhosQ O;fÙkQRo dks osQUæ cukdj yM+k tkrk gSA blfy, ;g dguk Bhd gh gS fd vke pquko gh çèkkueaf=k;ksa osQ chptuer laxzg (Plebiscite) gSA XySMLVksu us 1857 bZ- osQ vke fuokZpu osQ Åij çdk'k Mkyrs gq, dgk Fkk fd ;g1874 bZñ osQ tSlk vke fuokZpu ugha gS] tcfd fiV us ns'kkas ls vihy dh Fkh D;k Økmu dks vYier okys 'kkludk nkl jguk pkfg,\ ;g fuokZpu 1831 bZ- osQ fuokZpu dh rjg ugha gS tcfd lqèkkjksa osQ Åij tuer ek¡xk Fkk]u ;g fuokZpu 1882 bZñ tSlk gS tcfd fuokZpu&O;kikj laj{k.k osQ vkèkkj ij yM+k x;k FkkA ns'k dks bl (1857bZ-) vke pquko esa uhfr osQ ckjs esa r; djuk ugha Fkk] cfYd osQoy ;g r; djuk Fkk fd ns'k ikeLVZu dks çèkkuea=khpqusxk ;k ughaA 1880 bZñ osQ vke pquko esa ;g r; djuk ugha Fkk] cfYd osQoy ;g r; djuk Fkk fd ns'k ikeLVZudks çèkkuea=kh pqusxk ;k ughaA 1880 bZñ osQ vke pquko esa ;g r; djuk Fkk fd ns'k ykMZ csdUliQhYM dks çèkkuea=khcukuk pkgrk Fkk ;k XySMLVksu dksaA 1945 bZñ osQ vke pquko esa vuqnkj ny us ugha cfYd pfpZy us O;fÙkQxr :iesa ns'k ls vihy dhA çR;sd gky esa çèkkueU=kh dh rLohj Vk¡x nh xbZ Fkh ftlosQ uhps ;s 'kCn fy[ks Fks ¶ bldks;q¼ dk vèkwjk dke djus nksa vksj mlosQ uhps NksVs v{kjksa esa fuEufyf[kr vlaxr 'kCn tqM+s gq, Fks ¶;q¼tU; {kfrdks oksV nksA¸ vuqnkj ny us pquko ?kks"k.kk&i=k Hkh çdkf'kr ugha djk;k] fdUrq pfpZy us viuk pquko ?kks"k.èkk&i=kçdkf'kr djk;k] tks ¶eSa¸ 'kCn ls çkjEHk gksrk FkkA fuokZpu dk ukjk Fkk_ ¶pfpZy ;k ykWLdh¸ ftlesa ykWLdh dksfo'ks"k :i ls 'kSrku crk;k x;k FkkA 1983 osQ ,sfrgkfld vke pquko dk eq[; eqík ¶Fkspjokn cuke lektokn¸(Thateherism vs. Socialism) FkkA vuqnkj ny dh çR;kf'kr thr dk eq[; dkj.k FkSpj dk ¶ykSg efgyk¸ (Iron

Lady) dk O;fÙkQRo vkSj ¶fczfV'k lqj{kk osQ [krjs dk lkeuk djus dh bPNk vkSj rkdr (the will and the capacity

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to meet threats to British Security) FkhA¸ etnwj ny dh gkj dk ,d eq[; dkj.k ny osQ usrk ekbZosQy iQwVdk ¶uje¸ (moderate) O;fÙkQRo FkkA lHkh vke pquko nyksa osQ usrkvks osQ chp gksrs gSa u fd vuqnkj ny vkSjetnwj ny osQ chpA fuokZpu }kjk çèkkuea=kh jk"Vª dk çrhd cu tkrk gSA mlosQ O;fÙkQRo esa ny dh çfr"Bk rFkk'kfDr ik;h tkrh gSA bu dkj.kksa ls ny osQ vUrxZr dksbZ Hkh O;fDr mls inP;qr djus esa liQy ugha gks ldrkgSA ,d ckj çèkkuea=kh gks tkus osQ ckn mls usrk&in ls fudky iQsaduk eqf'dy gks tkrk gS] ftl çdkj osVu vkSjmls vuq;k;h ,Vyh dks rFkk pfpZy vkSj mlosQ vuq;k;h usfoyh psEcjysu dks inP;qr djus esa vliQy jgsAA oLrqr%çèkkuea=kh osQ O;fDrRo ij ny fVdk jgrk gSA vKku&ls&vKku O;fÙkQ Hkh 10] Mkufuax LVªhV dks tkurk gS] ysfduvU; efU=k;ksa ;k jktuhfrKksa osQ ckjs esa dksbZ fpUrk ugha djrkA fu"d"kZr% cgqer ny osQ usrk gksus osQ dkj.k çèkkuea=khdh fLFkfr cgqr gh 'kfÙkQ'kkyh gks tkrh gSA

(iii) yksd&lHkk dk usrkμ çèkkuea=kh laln dk vktdy eq[;r% yksd&lHkk dk usrk (Leader of theCommons) gksrk gSA ykMZ&lHkk esa og fdlh dks fu;qDr dj nsrk gS tks ml lnu esa mldk çfrfufèkro djrkgSA yksd&lHkk esa bl çdkj çfrfufèk dh fu;qfÙkQ dh çFkk gS ysfdu O;ogkj esa çèkkuea=kh gh tufç; lnu dk usrRodjrk gS eaf=keaMy dk vU; dksbZ lnL; çèkkuea=kh dh rjg yksd&lHkk esa leLr eaf=keaMy dk çfrfufèkRo ughadj ldrk gSA 'kklu dh uhfr ls lEcfUèkr vfUre rFkk vfèkd`r Hkk"k.k çèkkuea=kh dk gksrk gSA ljdkj dh uhfrrFkk dk;Z osQ ckjs esa çeq[k ?kks"k.kk,¡ çèkkuea=kh ls gh gksrh gSA yksdlHkk esa vfoHkkxh; rFkk vkykspukRed leL;kvksaij ç'u çèkkuea=kh ls gh iwNs tkrs gSa] rFkk fn,s x;s Hkk"k.k ls mRiÂ xyriQgeh dks rqjar nwj djus dk dk;Z mlhdk gSA vius lkfFk;ksa osQ Hkk"k.k esa bl çdkj lqèkkj ykus dk vfèkdkj fliQZ çèkkuea=kh dks gS vU; fdlh ea=kh dksughaA çèkkuea=kh gh yksd&lHkk esa egÙoiw.kZ fo"k;ksa ij vfUre lqoÙkQk (Ultimate Oracle) rFkk uhfr Ïksr(Fountain of Policy) gSA

yksd lHkk osQ lapkyu esa Hkh çèkkuea=kh usr`Ro çnku djrk gSA og O;oLFkkfidk dk çèkku gksrk gSA og O;oLFkkiudk uhfr fuèkkZj.k dj laln dk iFk&çnZ'ku djrk gSA lHkh ljdkjh foèks;d] mldh fuxjkuh esa rFkk mlosQ ijke'kZosQ vuqlkj rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSaA okf"kZd ctV dks rS;kj djus esa çèkkuea=kh dk cgqr cM+k gkFk jgrk gSA yksd&lHkkesa O;oLFkk j[kus osQ fy, og vè;{k gh lgk;rk djrk gSA nyh; lpsrd }kjk og ny osQ lnL;ksa dks vko';dvkns'k nsrk gSA og lnu dk le;&foHkktu rFkk dk;ZØe rS;kj djrk gS_ ljdkjh vkSj futh dk;Z dk le; fuèkkZfjrdjrk gS] fojksèkh ny osQ ijke'kZ ls çR;sd dk;Zokgh osQ fy, le; fuèkkZfjr djrk gSA

laln ls lEcfUèkr çèkkuea=kh dk vU; egÙoiw.kZ vfèkdkj yksd&lHkk dks fo?kfVr djus dk gSA çèkkuea=kh lezkVdks yksd&lHkk dks Hkax djus dk ijke'kZ ns ldrk gS vkSj lezkV lkèkkj.kr;k mls vLohdkj ugha dj ldrkA fiNys,d lkS o"kks± esa lezkV us ,slk dHkh ugha fd;k gSA çèkkuea=kh osQ gkFk esa ;g cgqr gh 'kfÙkQ'kkyh gfFk;kj gS ftlosQ}kjk og yksd&lHkk osQ lnL;ksa dks vuq'kkflr rFkk fu;fU=kr djrk gSA

(iv) lezkV vkSj eaf=keaMy osQ chp esa dM+h % çèkkuea=kh vke turk osQ egÙo dh ckrksa dks lezkV rd igq¡pkusdk ekè;e (link) gS_ og lezkV rFkk eaf=keaMy dks ,d&nwljs ls tksM+us okyh dM+h dk dke djrk gSA çkjEHk esa¶çèkkuea=kh dh mis{kk dj¸ vU; ea=kh lezkV ls lhèkk lEidZ LFkkfir dj ysrs Fks] ysfdu vktdy ;g ijEijkLFkfxr gks x;h gSA fliQZ çèkkuea=kh gh lezkV dks 'kklu&lEcUèkh lwpuk,¡ ns ldrk gS] ;gk¡ rd fd fo'kq¼ foHkkxh;ekeyks esa Hkh çèkkueU=kh gh ekè;e dk dke dj ldrk gSA eaf=keaMy lfpoky; eaf=keaMy osQ fu.kZ;ksa dks fy[krkgS vkSj og mldh udy lezkV dks Hkstrk gS blosQ vfrfjÙkQ eaf=keaMy osQ vU; fopkjksa rFkk fu.kZ;ksa dh lwpukçèkkuea=kh dks LosPNk ls lezkV dks nsrk gSA ,d ckj tgk¡ çèkkuea=kh us lezkV dks bl lEcUèk esa lwpuk ns nh fiQj]¶fdlh vU; ea=kh }kjk blosQ nqgjk;s tkus dh vko';drk ughaA¸ bl çdkj çèkkuea=kh lezkV dk çeq[k ijke'kZnkrkgSA vkikr~dky esa lezkV loZçFke çèkkuea=kh ls gh lykg ysrk gSA ;gk¡ rd çèkkuea=kh lezkV osQ O;fÙkQxr thouosQ ekeyksa dks Hkh fu;af=kr djrk gSA lezkV fdu&fdu ljdkjh dk;ks± esa Hkkx ysxk] lkezkT; ;k jk"VªeaMy osQ fdlek¡x dh ;k=kk djsxk vkfn ckrksa dk fu.kZ; çèkkuea=kh gh djrk gSA LVSuys ckYMfou bls viuk vfèkdkj rFkk dÙkZO;le>rs FksA blh vfèkdkj osQ vUrxZr mUgksaus ,MoMZ v"Ve dks Jherh flEilu ls fookg ugha djus dh lykg nh

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Fkh vkSj eaf=keaMy ls ckr dkiQh vkxs c<+ tkus ij ijke'kZ fd;k FkkA çèkkuea=kh bl vfèkdkj osQ }kjk lezkV dksfu;af=kr djrk gS rFkk 'kklu dk okLrfod çèkku cu tkrk gSA

(v) vUrjkZ"Vªh; çfrfufèk % vUrjkZ"Vªh; {ks=k esa fczfV'k çèkkuea=kh dk cgqr egÙoiw.kZ LFkku gSA og oSnsf'kd uhfrij iw.kZ fu;a=k.k j[krk gSaA ;|fi fons'k&foHkkx mlosQ gkFk esa ugh jgrk] fiQj Hkh oSnsf'kd uhfr dk ogh fuekZ.kdÙkkZgSA iQyr% fons'k ea=kh osQ dk;Zdykiksa ij dM+h fuxjkuh j[krk gS tSlsμpsEcjysu }kjk bMsu ij] pSEcjysu }kjk gkyhiQkWDl ij] eSDMksusyM }kjk gs.Mjlu ij vkSj pfpZy }kjk bMsu ijA oSnsf'kd uhfr&lacaèkh egÙoiw.kZ lEesyuksa]mRloksa] Mksfefu;uksa rFkk jk"VªeaMy osQ ns'kksa osQ lkFk vUrjkZ"Vªh; leL;kvksa ij fopkj&foe'kZ esa Hkkx ysrk gSA ykMZfodliQhYM us cfyZu dh lHkk esa Hkkx fy;k] yk;M tkWtZ us isfjl osQ 'kkafr lEesyu esa gkFk c¡Vk;k] vkSj usfoypSEcjysu osQ ç;kl osQ iQyLo:i E;wfu[k le>kSrk gqvk] pfpZy us rks f}rh; egk;q¼ dky esa N% ckj jk"Vªifr:tosYV ls vkSj nks ckj LVkfyu ls HksaV dh] çèkkuea=kh foYlu dks Hkh jksMsfl;k dh LorU=krk lEcUèkh leL;k dkslqy>kus osQ fy, fLeFk ls Lo;a feyuk iM+k FkkA çèkkuea=kh varjjk"Vªh; lEesyuksa] jk"VªeaMyh; lEesyu rFkk vU;lEesyuksa esa Hkkx ysrs gS rFkk vU; jkT;kè;{kksa ls fopkj&foe'kZ osQ gsrq feyrs gSaA bl çdkj çèkkuea=kh fczfV'k jk"Vªdk varjkjk"Vªh; çfrfufèk gSA

(vi) laj{k.k vkSj mikfèk;k¡ lacaèkh 'kfÙkQ % çèkkuea=kh osQ ikl laj{k.k rFkk dìk osQ vikj Ïksr gSA mikfèk;k¡çnku djuk lezkV dk fo'ks"k vfèkdkj gSA ysfdu çèkkuea=kh dh fliQkfj'k ij gh lezkV fdlh dks mikfèk ns ldrkgS ;k ih;j cuk ldrk gSA fdUrq bl lacaèk esa dqN ,sls Hkh viokn gS tSls vkWMZj vkWiQ lsaV ekbdy ,.M lsV tkWtZ(Order of St. Michael and St, George) vFkok ukSlsuk] LFkylsuk ,oa ok;qlsuk lacaèkh mikfèk;k¡ ftlesa lEcfUèkreU=kh lezkV dks rnFkZ lÙkk nsrs gSaA mikfèk;ksa osQ vfrfjÙkQ lHkh cM+s inksa ij fu;qfÙkQ;k¡ çèkkuea=kh osQ }kjk gh dh tkrhgSA fo'ki] jktnwr] U;k;kèkh'k] foHkkxh; çeq[kx.k] mifuos'kksa osQ xouZj] LFkk;h vk;ksxksa vkSj cksMks± osQ eq[; vfèkdkjh]çèkkuea=kh osQ gh dik&ik=k gSaA ;|fi fu;qfÙkQ;ksa osQ lEcUèk esa foHkkxh; eaf=k;ksa dh jk; yh tkrh gS] fiQj Hkh çèkkuea=khdk gh fu.kZ; vafre gksrk gSA vUr esa flfoy lfoZl ij foÙk ea=kky; dk fu;a=k.k gksrk gSA vkSj foÙk&ea=kky; osQÅij çèkkuea=kh dk çFke ykMZ gksus osQ ukrs fu;a=k.k jgrk gSA

(vii) vkikrdkyhu vfèkdkj % çèkkuea=kh dks vkikrdkyhu vfèkdkj Hkh çkIr gSA ;q¼] vFkZ&ladV ;k vU; blhçdkj osQ ladVksa osQ le; esa mudh 'kfÙkQ c<+ tkrh gSA ;|fi Hkkjrh; lafoèkku dh ;s fofèk&foghu ugha gS] fiQjHkh rqjUr dne mBkus osQ fy, iwjs jk"Vª dh 'kfÙkQ dks foifÙk ls yM+us osQ fy, ;g vko';d gks tkrk gS fddk;Zikfydk dkiQh 'kfÙkQ'kkyh cu tk;A nwljs fo'o&;q¼ osQ le; ,d çtkrkaf=kd jkT; esa pfpZy us rkuk'kkgh jkT;ksaosQ fgVyj vkSj eqlksfyuh ls de 'kfÙkQ dk ç;ksx ugha fd;kA vkikrdky esa oLrqrr% laoSèkkfud rkuk'kkgh dhLFkkiuk gks tkrh gS ftldk rkuk'kkg çèkkuea=kh gksrk gSA dHkh&dHkh rks tYnckth esa ;fn dk;Z djus ls igysfopkj&foe'kZ dk le; ugha feyrk gS rks ml dk;Z dks iwjk djus osQ ckn eaf=keaMy dh Lohd`fr yh tkrh gS]tSlsμfMtjSyh us Lost ugj esa fgLlk [kjhnus osQ ckn mls eaf=ke.My osQ fopkj&foe'kZ osQ fy, çLrqr fd;kAçèkkuea=kh dh ;q¼ dkyhu fLFkfr dh ppkZ djrs gq, dkVZu vkfn us fy[kk gS fd ;q¼&lapkyu osQ lacaèk esa çèkkuea=khD;k djrk gS_ ;g mldh viuh #fp vkSj ;ksX;rk ij fuHkjZ djrk gSA ijUrq ;g Li"V gS fd fiNyh 'krkCnh dhvis{kk mldk Hkkx vc vfèkd O;kid gks x;k gSA vius ije'kZnkrkvksa ij ;|fi og lc ,der Hkh gks] rc Hkhekeys ugha NksM+s tk ldrsA tc lSfud ekeys jktuhfrd mís';ksa vFkok ?kjsyw vko';drkvksa dks çHkkfor djrsgks] rks mls Lo;a fu.kZ; djuk vko';d gSA çèkkueU=kh gh osQoy bl fLFkfr esa gksrk gS fd ;q¼ lapkyu osQ lcnf"Vdks.ksa ij fopkj dj mudk fo'ys"k.k dj losQA dksbZ mldk LFkku ugha ys ldrkA dksbZ mldk mÙkjnkf;Ro xzg.kugha dj ldrkA vc lSfud fu.kZ; djus esa og Hkkx ugha ysrk ijUrq vfUre mís';ksa dks fuèkkZfjr djus esa og fu'p;gh Hkkx ysrk gSA ;q¼ dky esa 'kfDr vkSj mÙkjnkf;Ro osQ osQUæhdj.k dh vko';drk gSA ykMZ tktZ vkSj pfpZynksuksa us vius efU=keaMyksa dk ;q¼ osQ nkSjku iquxZBu fd;kA pfpZy rks lqj{kkeU=kh osQ in dk fuekZ.k dj Lo;a mlij vklhu gks x;kA og ;q¼ dh xfrfofèk;ksa ls cgqr fudV lEidZ j[krk Fkk ^phiQ vkWiQ dfeVh* dk Lo;a

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fu;U=k.k&funsZ'ku djrk Fkk vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd ukSlSfud ;kstukvksa] ;krk;kr] [kk| vkiwfrZ] jk"Vªh; foÙk vkfn ij Lo;afuxjkuh j[krk FkkA bl çdkj ;q¼ lapkyu dh 'kfDr muosQ gkFkksa esa osQfUær gks x;h FkhA ebZ] 1966 esa ukSlSfuddeZpkfj;ksa (Seaman) dh gM+rky osQ dkj.k çèkkuea=kh foYlu us ldaV&dky dh ?kks"k.kk dh Fkh ftlosQ vuqlkj[kk|kUu osQ vk;kr&fu;kZr rFkk vfuok;Z lsokvksa esa ckèkk igq¡pkus okyksa dks ltk dk Hkkxh gksuk iM+kA

7-2 ;w-,l-,-] Úkal] jfl;k] phu dk jk"Vªifr vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh cgqydk;Zikfydk (The President of U.S.A., France, Russia, China and PluralExecutive of Switzerland)

vesfjdh jk"Vªifr (American President)

fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu }kjk jk"Vªifr&in dk l`tuμ la;qÙkQ jkT; vesfjdk esa vè;{kkRed i¼fr dh ljdkjgSA 1787 esa fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu (Philadelphia Convention) us i;kZIr okn&fookn osQ i'pkr~ bl i¼fr dksviuk;k ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i lafoèkku esa jk"Vªifr in dk l`tu fd;k x;kA fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu osQ çfrfufèk,der Fks fd osQUæ esa ,d 'kfÙkQ'kkyh dk;Zikfydk dk fuekZ.k fd;k tk;_ D;ksafd jkT;e.My vuqPNsnks (Articales

of Confederation) esa ,d lqfuf'pr rFkk osQUæh; dk;Zikfydk osQ vHkko dk mUgsa dVq vuqHko gks pqdk FkkA fiQjHkh mUgsa è;ku j[kuk Fkk fd dk;Zikfydk mruh 'kfÙkQ'kkyh Hkh u gks tks fujadq'k cu tk;A vr% 'kfÙkQ'kkyh] ijfu;fU=kr] dk;Zikfydk osQ n`f"Vdks.k ls vusd fodYi çLrqr fd;s x;s] tSlsμoa'kkuqxr jktk] turk }kjk fuokZfprçèkku] O;oLFkkfidk osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h dk;Zikfydk] ,dy ;k cgqy la?kh; dk;Zikfydk vkfnA vUr esa]fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu esa fuf'pr dk;kZofèk osQ fy, fuokZfpr ,dy dk;Zikfydk osQ i{k esa le>kSrk gqvkA vr%lafoèkku esa ;g O;oLFkk dh x;h fd dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ jk"Vªifr esa fufgr gksxh tks pkj o"kZ osQ fy, vçR;{k :ils fuokZfpr gksaA

jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu (Election of the President)

(d) laoSèkkfud micUèk (Constitutional Provisions)

fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu dk fu.kZ; μ fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu esa jk"Vªifr dh fuokZpu i¼fr osQ ç'u ijçfrfufèk;ksa esa i;kZIr erHksn FkkA eq[;r% nks lq>ko çLrqr fd;s x;sA çFke] dqN çfrfufèk;ksa us turk }kjk çR;{kfuokZpu dk lq>ko j[kk ysfdu bls O;ogkjr% vlEHko le>k;kA bl i¼fr ls vO;oLFkk] gqYyM+ckth rFkkjktuhfrd vla;e dk Hkh Hk; FkkA vr% bl lq>ko dks ugha ekuk x;kA f}rh;] jk"Vªifr dk dk¡xzsl }kjk fuokZpudk lq>ko çLrqr fd;k x;k ftls lEesyu dk i;kZIr leFkZu gqvk] ysfdu ;g i¼fr 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ i`FkDdj.k osQfl¼kar dk mYya?ku djrh Fkh rFkk lafoèkku fuekZrk jk"Vªifr dks foèkku&ikfydk ls LorU=k fLFkfr nsuk pkgrs FksAiQyr% ;g lq>ko Hkh vLohd`r gh jgkA vUr esa] nksuksa lq>koksa osQ chp dk jkLrk viuk;k x;kA ,d ,slhfuokZpu&i¼fr dh [kkst dh x;h tks jk"Vªifr dks dk¡xzsl ls LorU=k fLFkfr çnku djrh rFkk vçR;{k :i ls turkdks fuokZpu esa Hkh Hkkx ysus dk volj çnku djrhA

fuokZpu&e.My (Electoral College) μ lafoèkku osQ f}rh; vuqPNsn esa jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu fofèk (Procedure

of Election) dk mYys[k fd;k x;k gSA jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu ,d fuokZpd&e.My (Electoral College) }kjk gksrkgSA fuokZpd&x.k jkT;ksa }kjk fu;qÙkQ lnL; (Electors) gksrs gSaA çR;sd jkT; ls fuokZpdksa dh la[;k dk¡xzsl osQ nksuksalnuksa esa jkT; osQ çfrfufèk;ksa osQ cjkcj gksrh gS] vFkkZr~ çR;sd jkT; ls fuokZpdksa dh la[;k dk¡xzsl osQ lnuksa esa feydjçfrfufèk gksrs gSaA fuokZpdksa dh fu;qfÙkQ çR;sd jkT; osQ foèkkue.My }kjk fuèkkZfjr jhfr ls gksrh gSA yxHkx lkS o"kks±ls çk;% lHkh jkT;ksa esa fuokZpdksa dk fuokZpu çR;{k :i ls turk }kjk O;Ld erkfèkdkj osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gSAbl çfØ;k dks mnkgj.k }kjk le>k;k tk ldrk gS] ;fn fdlh jkT; dh flusV esa nks lnL;ksa vkSj çfrfufèk lHkkesa N% lnL; gksa rks fuokZpd&x.k esa ml le; ls vkB (nks&N%) lnL; gksaxsA fuokZpdksa dh la[;k U;w;kZd esa 45]

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dSfyiQksfuZ;k esa 32 vkSj bfyuk;l esa 27 ls ysdj usokM] Mkykos;j] ojekSV çR;sd esa 3&3 gSaA fuokZpd&e.Mydk dk;Z jk"Vªifr vkSj mi&jk"Vªifr pquus osQ vfrfjDr vkSj dqN ugha gSaA

fuokZpdksa dh ;ksX;rkμdksbZ ,slk O;fÙkQ] tks dk¡xzsl osQ nksuksa lnuksa esa ls fdlh dk lnL; gks vFkok la;qÙkQ jkT;osQ vèkhu fdlh ykHk ;k mÙkjjnkf;Ro osQ in ij dk;Z dj jgk gks ;k VªLV osQ in gks] fuokZpd fu;qÙkQ ugha gks ldrkA

ernkrkμ fuokZpd dks çR;{k :i ls ernkrkvksa }kjk pquk tkrk gSA ernkrkvksa osQ lEcUèk esa 1970 bZ- esa ernkuvfèkdkj fu;e* esa la'kksèku fd;k x;kA blosQ iwoZ 21 o"kZ dh vk;q çkIr çR;sd uj&ukjh dks er nsus dk vfèkdkjçkIr Fkk] fdUrq vc 18 o"kZ dh vk;q çkIr çR;sd uj&ukjh dks erkfèkdkj çnku dj fn;k x;k gSA nwljk ifjorZuvkokl dh vofèk ls lacafèkr gSA 1970 osQ iwoZ vesfjdk esa de&ls&de 30 jkT; ,sls Fks] tgk¡ ogha O;fÙkQ ernkudj ldrk Fkk tks de&ls&de ,d o"kZ jkT; esa yxkrkj jgk gksA ;g vofèk vc 30 fnu dj nh x;h gSA rhljkifjorZu ;g gqvk fd 1970 osQ la'kksèku osQ iwoZ ernkrk dks viuk uke iathd`r djokus ls iwoZ ,d lk{kjrk dhijh{kk nsuh gksrh FkhA vc ;g çfrcUèk Hkh gVk fn;k x;k gSA ,slk ifjorZu uhxzks ukxfjdksa dks erkfèkdkj çkIr djkusosQ mís'; ls fd;k x;kA bu la'kksèkuksa osQ ifj.kkeLo:i 1972 osQ jk"Vªifr pquko esa 1 djksM+ 10 yk[k vfrfjDrO;fÙkQ;ksa dks er nsus dk vfèkdkj çkIr gqvkA

ernku vkSj x.kukμ çR;sd jkT; osQ fuokZpd ,d fuf'pr LFkku ij fnlEcj osQ f}rh; cqèkokj osQ i'pkr~ çFkelkseokj dks ,d=k gksdj jk"Vªifr osQ in osQ fy, nks çR;kf'k;ksa osQ i{k esa er nsaxsA ernku O;Ld erkfèkdkj osQvkèkkj ij rFkk xqIr ipks± (Secret Ballot) }kjk gksrk gSA buesa de&ls&de ,d O;fÙkQ ,slk gksuk pkfg, tks mljkT; dk fuoklh u gksaA fuokZpu osQ iQyLo:i rhu çek.k&i=k (Certificate) rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSa] ftlesa ,dfMfLVªDV dksVZ esa lqjf{kr jgrk gS] nwljk Mkd }kjk flusV osQ vè;{k osQ ikl Hkstk tkrk gS vkSj rhljk mlosQ ikl,d fo'ks"k lUns'k&okgd (Messenger) }kjk Hkst fn;k tkrk gSA 6 tuojh dks vè;{k] dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQlkeus mUgsa [kksysxk vksj mudh fxurh djsxkA jk"Vªifr vkSj mijk"Vªifr nksuksa Jsf.k;ksa osQ mEehnokjksa esa ftUgsa lokZfèkder çkIr gksxk] mUgsa] fuokZfpr ?kksf"kr fd;k tk;xk] ysfdu nksuksa fuokZpdksa dh oqQy la[;k dk cgqer çkIr gksukpkfg,A 20 tuojh dks jk"Vªifr 'kiFk xzg.k djrk gSA

tc fdlh mEehnokj dks Li"V cgqer ugha feyrkμ lafoèkku esa jk"Vªifr osQ pquko osQ lEcUèk esa dqN vU;micUèk Hkh gSA ;fn fdlh çR;k'kh dks Li"V cgqer çkIr u gks rks D;k gksxk\ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj bl fLFkfr esaçfrfufèk&lHkk mu ik¡p O;fÙkQ;ksa esa ls (1804 bZñ osQ la'kksèku osQ vuqlkj rhu O;fÙkQ;ksa esa ls) ftUgsa Øe'k% vfèkder çkIr gks] fdlh ,d dks jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr djsxhA ;gk¡ ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd çfrfufèk&lHkk osQ lnL; O;fÙkQxr:i ls ernku ugha djsaxs] cfYd ¶jkT; }kjk ernku¸ (Voting by States) gksxk_ vFkkZr~ lHkh çfrfufèk jkT;ksa osQvkèkkj ij viuh&viuh e.My cuk;saxs vkSj çR;sd e.My dks ,d&,d er nsus dk vfèkdkj gksxkA bl çdkj(1) jkT; osQ çfrfufèk vyx&vyx çR;kf'k;ksa dks er ugha ns ldrs] (2) çR;sd e.My ,d gh O;fÙkQ osQ i{kesa ernku djsxk rFkk (3) çR;sd jkT; dks ,d gh er çkIr gksxkA nwljh fLFkfr rc iSnk gksrh gS] tc nks O;fÙkQ;ksadks fuokZpdksa dk cgqer çkIr gks] ysfdu nksuksa çkIr erksa dh la[;k leku gksA bl n'kk esa Hkh çfrfufèk&lHkk gh¶jkT; }kjk ernku¸ (Voting by States) dh i¼fr ls fdlh ,d dks jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr djsxhA

blh çdkj ;fn fdlh Hkh mEehnokj dks mi&jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, Li"V cgqer çkIr ugha gks ikrk rks lokZfèkder&çkIr djus okys nks mEehnokjksa esa ls flusV fdlh ,d mEehnokj dks pqu ysrh gSA bl gsrq dksje dqy flusVjksadk nks&frgkbZ cgqer pkfg,A bl pquko esa çR;sd flusVj dk ,d er gksrk gS vkSj ftl mEehnokj dks fujis{kcgqr gks tk;] og mijk"Vªifr pquk tkrk gSA

ckjgok¡ la'kksèkuμ ewy lafoèkku }kjk O;ofLFkr jk"Vªifr dh fuokZpu&i¼fr nks"kiw.kZ FkhA ckjgosa la'kksèku (1804bZñ)}kjk blesa nks lqèkkj yk;s x;sA igyk] ;fn fdlh Hkh O;fÙkQ dks fuokZpdksa dk cgqer çkIr u gks rks çfrfufèk&lHkkmu rhuksa O;fÙkQ;ksa esa ls ftUgsa Øe'k% cgqer çkIr gqvk gks] fdlh ,d dks jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr djsxhA ewy lafoèkkuesa rhu O;fÙkQ;ksa osQ LFkku ik¡p O;fÙkQ;ksa esa ls pquus dk foèkku FkkA nwljk] fuokZpd nks O;fÙkQ;ksa osQ i{k esa ernku

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djrs le; vius eri=k ij ,d O;fÙkQ osQ uke osQ vkxs jk"Vªifr* vkSj nwljs O;fÙkQ osQ uke osQ vkxs mijk"Vªifr*fy[k nsaA ewy lafoèkku esa fliQZ nks çR;kf'k;ksa dks er nsus dh O;oLFkk Fkh] jk"Vªifr vkSj mijk"Vªifr osQ fy,vyx&vyx er nsus dk foèkku ugha Fkk] iQyLo:i 1900 bZñ osQ fuokZpu esa tsiQlZu vkSj cjZ dks cjkcj er çkIrgq,A vr% ;g fuf'pr djuk dfBu gks x;k fd dkSu jk"Vªifr gksxk vkSj dkSu mijk"Vªifr\ çfrfufèk&lHkk dks bldkfu.kZ; djuk iM+kA ysfdu la?k"kZ bruk rhoz Fkk fd 36 ckj ernku osQ mijkUr gh fu.kZ; gks ldkA blh fLFkfr lscpus osQ fy, ^jk"Vªifr& vkSj ^mijk"Vªifr* dk mYys[k vko';d dj fn;k x;k gSA

'kiFk&xzg.kμ 1933 osQ iwoZ rd fuokZpu gksus osQ yxHkx 4 ekl i'pkr~ 4 ekpZ dks uohu jk"Vªifr }kjk in&xzg.kfd;k tkrk FkkA chlosa la'kksèku (1933) }kjk blesa ifjorZu yk;k x;kA blosQ vuqlkj uo&fuokZfpr jk"Vªifr vc4 ekpZ dks ugha cfYd 20 tuojh dks viuk in&xzg.k djrk gSA bl la'kksèku osQ }kjk ;g Hkh r; fd;k x;k fd;fn u;s jk"Vªifr dh vius in ij vklhu gksus osQ iwoZ e`R;q gks tkrh gS rks mijk"Vªifr jk"Vªifr cu tk;xkA

in&xzg.k osQ le; loksZPp U;k;ky; dk eq[; U;k;kèkh'k jk"Vªifr dks 'kiFk&xzg.k fnykrk gSA 'kiFk bl çdkj gSμ¶eS xaHkhjrkiwoZ 'kiFk ysrk gw¡ fd vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr in ij fu"BkiwoZd dk;Z d:¡xk vkSj viuh ;ksX;rk ijvesfjdk osQ lafoèkku dk laj{k.k] lqj{kk vkSj çfrj{k.k d:¡xkA

([k) O;ogkj esa turk }kjk çR;{k fuokZpu (In practice direct election by the people): vejhdh lafoèkkuosQ fuekZrk jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu osQ fy, ,slh i¼fr dh [kkst esa Fks tks ^gqYyM+ vkSj vO;oLFkk* (Tumult and

dissorder) ls nwj gSA iQyr% mUgksusa fuokZpdx.k (Electoral College) dh i¼fr dks viukdj ijks{k fuokZpu(Indirect election) dh O;oLFkk dhA çFke nks fuokZpu laoSèkkfud micUèk osQ okLrfod vFkZ osQ vuqdwy lEiÂgq,] ysfdu rrh; fuokZpu (1976 bZñ) esa dqN vkSj prqFkZ fuokZpu (1800 bZñ) osQ le; rks fLFkfr esa Li"V ifjorZugks x;kA nyxr vkèkkj ij fuokZpdksa us tsiQlZu vkSj cjZ (Jefferson and Burr) ;k ,MEl vkSj fiaduh (Pinckney)

dks er fn;kA ml le; rd nks jktuhfrd nyksaμiQsMjfyLV vkSj fjifCydu dk vH;qn; gks pqdk FkkA bu nyksaus pquko osQ igys vius gh çR;kf'k;ksa dks pqu fy;k Fkk rFkk os mUgsa er nsus okys fuokZpdksa dk leFkZu dj jgsFksA bl çdkj cgqr igys gh jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu dks nyxr jktuhfr ls nwj j[kus dk lafoèkku&fuekZrkvksa dk mís';èkjk'kk;h gks x;kA ijks{k fuokZpu dh çfØ;k jktuhfrd nyksa osQ fodkl osQ dkj.k fNUu&fHkUu gks x;hA lafoèkkuesa vk;ksftr O;oLFkk ls fofHkUu :i blus ys fy;kA ,d vksj ;g nycUnh osQ tky esa iQ¡l x;k rFkk gqYyM+ckthçd`fr* (tumultuous Characteristic) dks viuk;k] nwljh vksj jk"Vªifr fuokZpd] e.My ûx.;* (Row

Ciphers) ;k ¶;U=kor~¸ (Recording Machine) cu x;kA bu nksuksa ifj.kkeksa dk dkj.k ;g gS fd jk"Vªirh;fuokZpdksa dk pquko turk ;g è;ku j[krs gq, djrh gS fd veqd fuokZpd fdl çR;k'kh dks er nsrkA vr% lpiwNk tk; rks turk çR;{kr% fuokZpdksa osQ ekè;e ls jk"Vªifr in osQ mEehnokjksa dks gh er nsrh gSA vkWx vkSj jsosQ 'kCnk esa] ¶fyf[kr ekSfyd fofèk dks fcuk gq, dk;Z :i esa lafoèkku esa fdl çdkj ifjorZu gks tkrk gS] bldkmnkgj.k blls mÙke dgh ugha fey ldrkA¸

ç'u mBrk gS] vkt jk"Vªirh; fuokZpu dk okLrfod :i D;k gS\ bldh tkudjh fuEufyf[kr pj.kksa osQ vUrxZrdh tk ldrh gSμ

(i) mEehnokjksa dk euksu;u (Nomination of the Candidates)μ u;s jk"Vªifr osQ in&xzg.k djrs gh vxyspkj o"kks± osQ ckn gksus okys jk"Vªifr osQ pquko dh ppkZ gksus yxrh gSA tSls&tSls le; utnhd vkrk tkrk gS]mEehnokj lkeus vkus yxrs gSaA ysfdu jk"Vªifr pquko dk okLrfod gaxkek fofoèk nyksa }kjk mEehnokjksa osQ p;uosQ lkFk 'kq: gksrk gSA 1840 osQ iwoZ jk"Vªifr in osQ mEehnokjksa dk euksu;u ny&fo'ks"k osQ flusVj vkSj çfrfufèklHkk osQ lnL; viuh vukSipkfjd cSBd (Caucus) esa djrs Fks] ijUrq bl i¼fr esa ny osQ lkekU; lnL;ksa dhjk; dk dksbZ egÙo ugha jgrk Fkk vkSj mu jkT;ksa dh bPNk,¡ Hkh ugha tkuh tk ldrh Fkha] tgk¡ ny vYier esagksrk FkkA 1840 esa dkWdl* }kjk yksdfç; mEehnokj ,UMª;w tSDlu dh mEehnokjh dks vLohdkj djus osQ dkj.knyksa }kjk jk"Vªifr osQ in osQ mEehnokjksa osQ euksu;u dh fofèk esa ifjorZu yk;k x;kA

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vc mEehnokjksa dk p;u MseksØsfVd vkSj fjifCydu nyksa osQ jk"Vªh; lEesyuksa (National convention) }kjk gksrkgSA bl gsrq lafoèkku esa dqN ugha dgk x;k gSA çR;sd ny dh jk"Vªh; lfefr vius&vius ny osQ fy, lEesyuosQ le; rFkk LFkku dk fu.kZ; djrh gS vkSj bl lecUèk esa çkjafHkd O;oLFkk djrh gSA çR;sd ny viuk lEesyutqykbZ ;k vxLr osQ eghus esa çk;% djrk gSA jk"Vªh; lEesyu osQ çfrfufèk (Delegates) osQ pquko osQ fy, ny fofHkUurjhosQ viukrs gSa] tSlsμçkjafHkd {ks=kksa }kjk] jkT;ksa ftyk lEesyuksa }kjk] osQUæh; lfefr;ksa }kjk vkSj dHkh&dHkh jkT;dh nyh; lfefr }kjk çfrfufèk pqus tkrs gSaA çfrfufèk;ksa dh la[;k lkekU;r% 1]500 ls 3]000 osQ chp gksrh gSAlEesyu esa çfrfufèk;ksa osQ vfrfjDr dqN oSdfYid çfrfufèk] (Atlernate Delegates) Hkh gksrs gSa tks fu;ferçfrfufèk;ksa (Regular Delegates) dh vuqifLFkfr ernku esa Hkkx ysrs gSA lEesyu ,d gkWy esa gksrk gS ftlesaçfrfufèk;ksa osQ vfrfjÙkQ jsfM;ks fjiksVZjksa] çsl laoknnkrkvksa vkSj Vhdkdkjksa dks Hkh vkeaf=kr fd;k tkrk gSA lEesyudk okrkoj.k cgqr gh mÙksftr jgrk gS] 'kksj&'kjkcs ls gkWy xw¡trk jgrk gS vkSj tks'kiw.kZ Hkk"k.k lquus dks feyrsgSaA mEehnokjksa dk p;u ,sls dksykgiw.kZ okrkoj.k esa ugha gks ldrk gSA blfy, ny osQ çeq[k usrk ijLij lkSnsckthdjrs gSa vkSj jk"Vªifr vkSj mi&jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, ,sls mEehnokjksa dks pquus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSa ftUgsa çfrfufèk;ksadk Li"V cgqer (Absolute majority) fey tk;A

vkSipkfjd :i ls çR;sd mEehnokj dk uke mlosQ fdlh leFkZd }kjk vkstLoh Hkk"k.k osQ lkFk çLrkfor fd;ktkrk gS vkSj fdlh nwljs çfrfufèk }kjk ml uke dk leFkZu fd;k tkrk gSA mEehnokjksa dk uke çLrkfor gks tkusosQ ckn ernku gksrk gSA mlh O;fÙkQ dks vUrr% ny dk mEehnokj ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gS ftls çfrfufèk;ksa dk Li"Vcgqer çkIr gksA ;fn fdlh mEehnokj dks Li"V cgqer çkIr u gks rks nqckjk ernku gksrk gS vkSj ftu mEehnokjksadks igys ernku esa FkksM+s er çkIr gq, Fks] mUgsa NksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA bl çdkj rcrd ernku pyrk jgrk gS tcrdfd fdlh mEehnokj dks Li"V cgqer çkIr u gks tk;A dbZ ckj ernku osQ vusd nkSj pyrs gSA mnkgj.kLo:i]1880 esa fjifCydu ny osQ jk"Vªh; lEesyu esa xkjiQhYM osQ euksu;u gsrq 36 ckj ernku gqvk vkSj 1904 esaMseksØsfVd ny osQ jk"Vªh; lEesyu esa tkWu MsfoM osQ euksu;u gsrq 103 ckj ernku djuk iM+kA

mi&jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, euksu;uμ mi&jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, mEehnokjksa dk euksu;u jk"Vªifr dh Hkk¡fr ghgksrk gSA bl lEcUèk esa ;g ijEijk cu x;h gS fd jk"Vªifr vkSj mi&jk"Vªifr in osQ mEehnokj osQoy ,d jkT;osQ ugha gksaxs cfYd ,d {ks=k osQ Hkh ugha gksaxsA bldk vFkZ ;g gS fd ;fn jk"Vªifr in dk mEehnokj mÙkjh jkT;ksals gS rks mijk"Vªifr in osQ fy, mEehnokj nf{k.kh jkT;ksa ls gksuk pkfg,A pw¡fd mi&jk"Vªifr osQ in dk egÙovejhdh jktuhfr esa ux.; gS] blfy, bl in osQ fy, çk;% dM+k la?k"kZ ugha gksrk gS vkSj 'kh?kz gh dksbZ mEehnokjLi"V cgqer çkIr dj ysrk gSA

(ii) pquko vfHk;kuμ jk"Vªifr vkSj mi&jk"Vªifr osQ inksa osQ fy, euksu;u lekIr gksrs gh mEehnokj vius nydh ,d jk"Vªh; lfefr dk xBu djrk gSA ;g lfefr viuk ,d çèkku vkSj dks"kkè;{k pqurh gSA jkT;ksa] ftyksa rFkkvU; LFkkuksa esa ny osQ dk;kZy; [kksys tkrs gSaA pquko&çpkj tksjksa ls 'kq: gksrk gSA yk[kksa MkWyj [kpZ fd, tkrsgSaA ;|fi pquko vfHk;ku ij dkuwur% 30 yk[k MkWyj rd [kpZ fd;k tk ldrk gS] ijUrq mEehnokj bl lhekls cgqr vfèkd [kpZ djrs gSA 1960 osQ pquko esa lHkh mEehnokjksa us dqy feykdj yxHkx 2750 yk[k MkWyj [kpZfd;k] 1964 osQ pquko esa 360 yk[k MkWyj vkSj 1972 osQ pquko esa 400 yk[k MkWyj mEehnokjksa us O;; fd;sAlkekpkj&i=kksa] jsfM;ks] Vsfyfotu ij mEehnokjksa osQ thou&pfj=k vkSj nyh; uhfr;ksa dk çdk'ku] lHkk,¡ O;fÙkQxrlEidZ vkfn fofHkUu rjhosQ pquko&çpkj osQ dk;Z esa yk;s ykrs gSaA

(iii) fuokZpu&e.My dk pqukoμ vxyk dne fuokZpd&e.My dk turk }kjk pquko gSaA nksuksa nyksa }kjkfuokZpd&e.My osQ fy, mEehnokj [kM+s fd;s tkrs gSa bu mEehnokjksa dks vius&vius nyksa osQ jk"Vªifr rFkkmi&jk"Vªifr inksa osQ fy, mEehnokjksa dks er nsus dh çfrKk ysuh iM+rh gSA fuokZpdksa dk pquko ernkrkvksa }kjkgksrk gSA çR;sd jkT; esa fuokZpd&e.My osQ lnL;ksa dk pquko lwph&ç.kkyh (list system) osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gSvFkkZr~ er fdlh mEehnokj osQ fy, ugha cfYd ny dh lwph osQ i{k esa Mkys tkrs gSaA ftl fnu ernku gksrk gS]mlls ,d fnu igys jk"Vªifr in osQ mEehnokj vius dk;kZy; ls jsfM;ks ;k Vsyhfotu }kjk vfUre Hkk"k.k nsrs gSavkSj ernkrkvksa ls vius i{k esa er nsus osQ fy, vihy djrs gSaA fuokZpu&e.My osQ lnL;ksa dk pquko&O;fÙkQxr

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u gksdj lkewfgd gksrk gS vFkkZr~ ;g ijEijk cu x;h gS fd ftl ny dks fdlh jkT; esa ernkrkvksa dk cgqerçkIr gks tkrk gS mlh ny osQ lHkh mEehnokj jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu&e.My osQ mEehnokj pqus tkrs gSaaA nwljs ny dks,d LFkku Hkh ugha feyrkA mnkgj.kLo:i] ;fn MseksØsfVd lwph dks 3]00]000 er çkIr gq,] fjifCydu dks2]99]00 rFkk lektokfn;ksa dks 10]000 rks MseksØsfVd lwph osQ lHkh mEehnokj fuokZfpr ekus tk;saxsA ;g laHko gSfd fdlh jkT; ls osQoy 51 çfr'kr er çkIr djosQ gh jk"Vªifr&in dks dksbZ çR;k'kh ml jkT; osQ leLr fuokZpderksa (tSlsμ U;w;kdZ 41 ;k vksfg;k 25) dks çkIr dj ysA ;fn fdlh vU; jkT; esa mls 49 çfr'kr er feysrks ,d Hkh fuokZpu er mls çkIr ugha gksxkA bl çdkj fdlh çR;k'kh }kjk çR;{k erksa vkSj mlosQ leFkZd fuokZpdksadh fuokZfpr la[;k esa dksbZ lhèkk lacaèk ugha gksrkA fuokZpd erksa dh la[;k dk oLrqr% çR;{k ls dksbZ lEcUèk ughagksrk oju~ ml lacaèk esa Hkze gh mRiUu djrh gS D;ksafd blosQ }kjk jkT; ij fuokZpd dk ifj.kke gh çdV gks ikrkgSA 1968 osQ pquko esa 538 fuokZpdksa esa ls 301 us fuDlu dks] 191 us gcZVZ gEÚs dks rFkk 46 us LorU=k nyh;çR;k'kh tkWtZ oSysl dks er fn;s FksA fuDlu] gEÚs rFkk oSysl dks çR;{kr% Øe'k% 31]77]023 er] 31]2]70]533er rFkk 9]96]141 er çkIr gq, FksA 1972 osQ pquko esa fuDlu dks 52 vkSj eSdxouZ dks 17 fuokZpd er çkIrgq, tcfd buosQ }kjk yksdfç; erksa dh la[;k Øe'k% 41]5]37]286 (61») vkSj 255]03]308 (38») FkhA fuDludks 49 jkT;ksa dk cgqer çkIr gqvk tcfd eSdxouZ dks osQoy ,d jkT; dkA ;gk¡ Hkh fuokZpd erksa ,oa çR;{kerksa esa dksbZ lhèkk lacaèk ugha tqM+rkA blh dkj.k dHkh&dHkh Li"V cgqer ls de er ikus okys mEehnokj Hkh jk"Vªifrpqu fy, tkrs gSa] ftUgsa vYila[;d jk"Vªifr* (Minority President) dh laKk nh tkrh gSA foYlu] Vªweu] osQusMhtSlh pksVh osQ jk"Vªifr blosQ mnkgj.k gSA jk"Vªifr in dk tks mEehnokj 538 fuokZpdksa esa ls 270 LFkku çkIr djysrk gS] mls fot;h ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA 1977 esa dkVZj dks 303 vkSj iQksMZ dks 235 er çkir gq,A ;fnfuokZpd&e.My osQ erksa esa fdlh Hkh çR;k'kh dks Li"V cgqer çkIr ugha gksrk gS rks çfrfufèk lnu jk"Vªifr dkvkSj flusV mijk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu djrk gSA

(iv) fuokZpd&e.My }kjk ernkuμ tSlk fd dgk tk pqdk gS] pqukoo"kZ esa fnlEcj ekl osQ nwljs cqèkokj dksfuokZpd&e.My osQ lnL; vius&vius jkT;ksa dh jktèkkfu;ksa esa ,d=k gksrs gSa vkSj jk"Vªifr rFkk mi&jk"Vªifr inosQ fy, fofHkÂ mEehnokjksa osQ i{k esa ernku djrs gSa] fuokZpdksa }kjk jk"Vªifr dk pquko ,d vkSipkfjdrk ek=kgSA iwoZ fu'p; osQ vuqlkj ;g r; jgrk gS fd fdl ny osQ mEehnokj dks mUgsa er nsuk gSA oLrqr% os vius dh^fjdkfM±x e'khu* osQ :i esa dke djrs gSaA vr% fuokZpd&e.My dk pquko gksrs gh ;g Li"V gks tkrk gS fdjk"Vªifr dkSu gksxk\

fuokZpu&ç.kkyh osQ nks"k (Defects of the system of election): lafoèkku&fuekZrkvksa us jk"Vªifr dh fuokZpu&i¼frdks fuèkkZfjr djrs le; bls tudksykgy rFkk vO;oLFkk ls cpkuk pkgk FkkA vr% fuokpZu&lEcUèkh ewy ;kstukdk ;g mís'; Fkk fd HkO; ukxfjd fuokZpd pqus tk;saxs vkSj fdlh mPp dksfV osQ vesfjdu dks jk"Vªifr pqusaxsAysfdu ny&çFkk osQ dkj.k bl mís'; dh iwfrZ u gks ldh vkSj fuokZpu esa vusd dk izos'k gqvkA fuokZpu&e.Mydk çkoèkku Hkh vusd nks"kksa osQ fy, mÙkjnk;h gSA

(i) vYier jk"Vªifrμ loZçFke] fuokZpu&i¼fr dk nks"k ;g gS fd dHkh&dHkh ,slk O;fÙkQ jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gkstkrk gS ftls fuokZpd&e.My osQ lnL;ksa dk cgqer rks çkIr gksrk gS ysfdu ns'k dh turk dk cgqer çkIr ughagksrkA bl nks"k dk dkj.k bdkbZ fu;e* (Unit rule) gS tks bl çdkj gS% çR;sd jkT; esa jktuhfrd ny iFkd&iFkdfuokZpdksa dh lwph turk osQ le{k j[krs gSaA ftl ny dks lcls vfèkd er feyrk gS] ml ny dh lwph turk}kjk Lohdr le>h tkrh gS_ vFkkZr~ fot;h ny dks ml jkT; osQ fuokZpdksa dh lHkh txgsa fey tkrh gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ];fn vksfg;ks (Ohio) esa fjifCydu fuokZpd&lwph dks 15]00]000 er feyrs gSa vkSj fMeksØsfVd fuokZpd&lwphdks fliQZ 1]500]411 rc vksfg;ksa jkT; osQ 35 fuokZpdksa osQ er fMeksØsfVd ny osQ gks tk;saxsA bl çdkj dfri;cM+s jkT;ksa esa cgqr de er vkus ij Hkh fuokZpd&x.k esa ml ny osQ fuokZpdksa dh la[;k cgqr vfèkd gks tk;xh];|fi nwljs ny dks iwjs jk"Vª esa dqy feykdj cgqr T;knk er D;ksa u çkIr gqvk gks\ vr% lEiw.kZ jk"Vª dh turkdk cgqer çkIr ugha gksus ij Hkh dksbZ O;fÙkQ jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gks ldrk gSA 1860 vkSj 1912 bZñ esa Øe'k% fyadu

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vkSj foYlu jk"Vªifr pqus x;s] D;ksafd fuokZpdksa dk cgqer mUgas çkIr Fkk] ysfdu ns'k esa turk dk cgqer ughaAbl çdkj 1876 bZñ esa gst (Hayse) dks fVyMu (Tilden) ls djhc 3 yk[k er de feyk Fkk] fiQj Hkh og fuokZfpr?kksf"kr gqvkA bl çdkj dHkh&dHkh vYier jk"Vªifr (Monority President) fuokZfpr gks tkrs gS ysfdulkSHkkX;o'k ,slk de gksrk gSA

(ii) mEehnokj dh vihyh; 'kfÙkQ ij tksjμ jk"Vªh; lEesyu (National Convention) dh i¼fr us fuokZpudks nks"kiw.kZ cuk;k gSA blosQ pyrs jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu ij tu&lewg dk çHkko vR;fèkd c<+ x;k gSA vr% jk"VªifrosQ euksu;u osQ fy, vH;FkhZ dh ;ksX;rk ij de è;ku fn;k tkrk gS_ cfYd ,sls O;fÙkQ dks mEehnokj pquk tkrkgS tks vfèkd ls vfèkd yksxksa dks vihy dj losQA tSls] èkeZ&fojksèkh] mxzoknh] vUrjkZ"Vªh; {ks=k esa vuqnkj rFkkjkseu dSFkksfyd gksA

(iii) fof'k"V O;fÙkQ;ksa dk fuokZpu ughaμ ;g dgk tkrk gS fd jk"Vªh; lEesyuksa osQ dkj.k gh çfrHkk'kkyh O;fÙkQjk"Vªifr in osQ fy, [kM+s ugh gks ldrs gSaA equjks us dgk Hkh gS fd la;qÙkQ jkT; vesfjdk cgqr ls O;fDr;ksa dksjk"Vªifr in ij lq'kksfHkr ugha dj ldk tks lpeqp fof'k"V jktuhfrK Fks] tSlsμgsfeYVu] ek'kZy] csClVj] dSyVu]gs:V vkfnA ykWMZ czkbl us Hkh ,d ç'u fd;k gS] ¶egku O;fDr jk"Vªifr D;ksa ugha pqus tkrs gSa\¸ bldk eq[;dkj.k ;g gS fd jk"Vªh; lEesyu osQ çfrfufèk vlaxr] vlS¼kafrd rFkk LokFkZiw.kZ gksrs gSa ftuosQ ifj.kkeLo:ile>kSrk }kjk gh fdlh mEehnokj dks pquk tkrk gS_ mlosQ xq.kksa ij de è;ku fn;k tkrk gSA blosQ vfrfjÙkQ çfrfufèkLorU=k ugha gksrs] muosQ fopkj fofoèk çHkkoksa osQ ifj.kke gS] muij vusdkusd çR;{k rFkk vçR;{k çHkko iM+rsgSa] tSlsμ èkuifr;ksa] fofHkUu jkT;ksa osQ çfrfufèk&e.My osQ chp ysu&nsu] çsl }kjk çpkj rFkk xyr&lgh viQokgksaosQ çHkkoA ysfdu bl vkykspuk dk ;g vFkZ ugha fd jk"Vªifr in ij dHkh fof'k"V O;fDr vklhu gh u gks losQokf'kaxVu] esfMlu] tsiQlZu] fyadu] foYlu] nksuksa :tosYV vkfn fof'k"V O;fÙkQRo osQ mnkgj.k gSaA ;fn dksbZ fof'k"VO;fÙkQ ijkftr Hkh gqvk gS rks fdlh&fdlh dkj.k ls ghA

(iv) çR;k'kh dks 'kklu dk iwoZ vuqHko ughaμ ykLdh osQ oDrO; ls vejhdh jk"Vªifr dh fuokZpu&i¼frnks"kiw.kZ nh[k iM+rh gSA mldk dguk gS fd vejhdh jk"Vªifr dks 'kklu dk iw.kZ vuqHko fojys gh jgrk gS tcfdfczfV'k çèkkuea=kh bl in ij vklhu gksus osQ igys i;kZIr vuqHko çkIr dj pqdk jgrk gS] og 'kklu osQ NksVs&eksVsinksa ij jg pqdk jgrk gSA vesfjdk esa 'kklu dk vuqHko] dk¡xzsl rFkk efU=ke.Myksa dh lnL;rk vkfn jk"VªifrosQ fy, fo'ks"k xq.k ugha le>k tkrk gSA tSlk fd ykLdh us dgk gS ¶ogk¡ odhy] lSfud] fdjk;s ls vk; çkIrdjusokyk O;fDr] jktuhfrK ;k jktuhfr ls thfodk pykusokyk O;fDrμ bUgha oxks± ls çR;k'kh fuokZfpr gksrs gSaA¸

izQkalhlh jk"Vªifr (French President)

prqFkZ x.krU=k dk lafoèkku fczfV'k lafoèkku dh rjg iw.kZr% lalnkRed (Parliamentary) FkkA okLrfod 'kklu&'kfDreaf=kifj"kn~ osQ gkFk esa FkhA jk"Vªifr uke&ek=k dk ;k laoSèkkfud (Nominal or constitutional ) dk;Zikfydk&izèkkuFkkA og 'kfDrghu FkkA vCcs ykWrs us bl in dk ,dek=k xq.k uiqaldrk cryk;k gS a ysfdu iape x.krU=k eas jk"Vªifrdh fLFkfr esa Økafrdkjh ifjorZu gqvk gS blesa jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr esa vikj o`f¼ gqbZ rFkk eaf=kifj"kn~ ,o laln dh'kfDr;ksa es ßklA izQkal osQ ,d HkwriwoZ izèkkueU=kh es.Mht osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr ,d voa'kkuqxr jktk cuk;k x;kgS vkSj ,slh 'kfDr;k¡ iznku dh x;h gS ftuesa og vius dks ,d oSèkkfud vf/uk;d cuk ldrk gSA eklsZy IystkWosQ 'kCnksa] ¶jk"Vªifr osQ ifjofrZr ijekfèkdkfj;ksa dks ns[kdj jktk dks jk"Vªifr dh vlq[kdj Lefr;k¡ tkx mBrh gSaA¸rkRi;Z ;g gS fd iape x.krU=k esa jk"Vªifr 'kklu dk lcls cM+k 'kfDr'kkyh rFkk osQUæh; vax cu x;k gSAjk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu (Election of the President): vgZrk,¡% 1946 bZ0 osQ lafoèkku es jk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, vgZrkvksa(Qualifications) dk mYys[k ugha Fkk A flIkQZ bruk dgk x;k Fkk fd izQkal osQ fdlh HkwriwoZ jktoa'k dk oa'kt blin osQ fy, mEehnokj ugha gks ldrk FkkA bl miCkUèk dk mís'; jktrU=k dh iqu% LFkkiuk dks jksduk FkkA vr% jkto'kosQ O;fÙkQ;ksa dks NksM+dj 18 o"kZ ls vfèkd mez okyk dksbZ Hkh O;fDr bl in osQ fy, [kM+k gks ldrk FkkA izk;%eè;e ;ksX;rk osQ O;fDr jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gksrs Fks] D;ksafd okLrfod 'kfDr osQ vHkko esa izHkko'kkyh O;fDr bl

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in dks iLkUn ugha djrs FksA iape x.krU=k dk lafoèkku Hkh jk"Vªifr dh vgZrkvksa osQ lEcUèk esa ekSu gS A ;g¡krd fd jktoa'k lEcUèkh izfrcUèk dh Hkh ppkZ ugha dh x;h gS A vr% u;s lafoèkku esa dksbZ Hkh o;Ld izQalhlh ukxfjdjk"Vªifr in osQ fy, [kM+k gks ldrk gSAfuokZpu&fofèk% prqFkZ x.krU=k esa jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ la;qDr vfèkos'ku esa xqIr ernku}kjk lEiq.kZ cgqer ls gksrk FkkA ysfdu iaPke x.krU=k esa fuokZpd&e.My dks foLrr dj fn;k x;k] D;ksfd jk"Vªifrdks okLrfod :i esa dk;Zikfydk&izèkku rFkk jk"Vªh; usrk cukuk FkkA mlosQ fuokZpu osQ fy, O;ofLFkrfuokZpd&e.My (Electoral College ) osQ fuEufyf[kr lnL; gksrs gSA(d) laln osQ lnL;([k) leqnz&ikj izns'kksa dh foèkkuikfydk tujy dkSfUly osQ lnL;] vkSj(x) uxjikfydkvksa osQ izfrfufèkAlafoèkku dh èkkjk 7 osQ vuqlkj nks i`Fkd&i`Fkd ernku gksrs FksA A izFke ernku esa vH;FkhZ dks Li"V cgqer izkIrgksuk vko';d FkkA ;fn fdlh Hkh vH;FkhZ dks Li"V cgqer izkIr gks rks nwljs ernku esa lkisf{kd cgqer (Relative

majority) osQ vkèkkj ij fuokZpu gksrk FkkAigyk 1968 bZ- osQ lafoèkku esa Hkh jk"Vªifr dks fofèk;ksa osQ lw=kikr dk vfèkdkj ugha gSA og laln dks osQoy lUns'kHkst ldrk gSA bl lacaèk esa nksuksa lafoèkkuksa esa cká :i ls Hkys gh lekurk gks] ysfdu okLrfodrk esa cgqr vUrjgSA prqFkZ x.krU=k esa jk"Vªh; lHkk dks gh jk"Vªifr lUns'k Hkstrk Fkk] mlosQ izR;sd lUns'k ij fdlh eU=kh dkizfrgLrk{kj vko';d Fkk rFkk efU=kx.k mlosQ izHkko esa ugha FksA blfy, mldk ;g vfèkdkj egÙoghu FkkA ysfduiape x.krU=k osQ jk"Vªifr iwjh laln&nksuksa lnuksa&oQks lans'k Hkstrk gS] vusd fo"k;ksa ls lEcfUèkr lUns'k ij eaf=k;ksaosQ izfrgLrk{kj dh vko';drk ugha jg x;h gS rFkk efU=k;ksa dh fLFkfr jk"Vªifr osQ vuqpj&lh gks x;h gSA vr%fofèk;ksa osQ lw=kikr esa jk"Vªifr dh 'kfÙkQ dkiQh izHkko'kkyh gks x;h gSAnwljk] 1946 bZ0 osQ lafoèkku esa laln }kjk ikfjr fdlh foèks;d dks dkuwu cukus osQ fy, jk"Vªifr dh Lohd`frvko';d Fkh A laln }kjk izsf"kr foèks;d dks 10 fnuksa ;k vko';d gksus ij 5 fnuksa osQ vUnj jk"Vªifr dks ykxw(Promulgate) djuk iM+rk FkkA ;fn vko';d le>s rks jk"Vªifr foèks;d dks laln osQ ikl iqufoZpkjkFkZ ykSVkldrk Fkk ftl ij iqufoZPkkj djuk gh iM+rkA 1958 bZ0 osQ lafoèkku esa osQoy ifjorZu ;g vk;k gS fd jk"VªifroQks foèks;d ij foPkkj djus osQ fy, 15 fnuksa dk le; fn;k x;kA og foèks;d dks laln osQ ikl iqufoZpkjkFkZ ykSVkldrk gS ftlij laln dks fopkj djuk gh iM+rk gSArhljk] u;s lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr izèkkuea=kh vkSj laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ vè;{kksa ls ijke'kZ dj jk"Vªh; lHkkdks Hkax dj ldrk gS ijUrq iqufuokZpu osQ ,d o"kZ osQ vUnj mls Hkax ugha fd;k tk ldrkA prqFkZ x.krU=k esaHkh jk"Vªh; lHkk dks Hkax djus dh O;oLFkk FkhA fdUrq mls lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; lHkk dks Hkax djus dk okLrfod fu.kkZ;defU=keaMy FkkA u;s lafoèkku esa bl ckr dk okLrfod fu.kkZ;d jk"Vªifr gks x;k gSA ;|fi u;s lfoèkku esa Hkh ;gvko';d gS fd ml gsrq jk"Vªifr] izèkkueU=kh vkSj laln osQ nksuks lnuksa osQ vè;{kksa] ls ijke'kZ dj ys] rFkkfi blosQfy, dksbZ vko';drk ugha fd izèkkueU=kh ,oa laln nksuksa lnuksa osQ lHkkifr;ksa dh Lohd`fr Hkh jk"Vªifr izkIr djasAvUr esa] u;s lafoèkku esa jk"Vªifr dks dqN ,sls vfèkdkj fn;s x;s gSa tks prqFkZ x.krU=k esa jk"Vªifr dks izkIr ughaFksa lafoèkku dh èkkjk 11 osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr dqN fo"k;ksa esa fdlh foèks;d dks efU=ke.My osQ izLrko ij vFkoklaln&lnuksa osQ la;qDr izLrko ij tuer&laxzg (Referendum) osQ fy, Hkst ldrk gSa yksder esa foèks;d osQ i{kesa er izkIr gksus ij og lkekU; fofèk;ksa dh rjg mldh ?kks"k.kk dj nsrk gSA efU=kifj"kn~ osQ lHkh vè;kns'kksa ijHkh bl lafoèkku esa jk"Vªifr dk izfrgLrk{kj vko';d gS A jk"Vªifr osQ ladVdkyhu 'kfDr;k¡ Hkh bl fn'kk esamYys[kuh; gSAU;kf;d 'kfDr;k¡ 1985 bZ0 osQ lafoèkku dh èkkjk 64 osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr U;kf;d LorU=krk dh izfrHkwr(Guarantor) gSa og U;k;ikfydk dh mPp ifj"kn~~ dk lHkkifrRo djrk gSA mls {kek&nku dh 'kfÙkQ izkIr gSA og

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laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~~ osQ ,d&frgkbZ lnL;ksa ,oa vè;{k dh fu;qfDr djrk gSA prqFkZ x.kra=k esa Hkh jk"Vªifr dks{kek&nku rFkk n.M izkfoyEcu dk vfèkdkj FkkA ysfdu lkekU;r% bl vfèkdkj dk iz;ksx og U;k;ky; dh lokZsPpifj"kn~~ dh fliQkfj'k ij djrk FkkAladVdkyhu 'kfDr;k¡% fo'o osQ bus&fxus lafoèkkuks esa gh fdlh vfèkdkj&fo'ks"k dks ladVdkyhu vfèkdkj(Emergency powers) fn;s x;s gSaA izQkal osQ 1946 bZ0 osQ lafoèkku esa bl rjg dk micaèk ugha FkkA ysfdu HkkjrosQ ln`'k iape x.krU=k esa èkkjk 16 osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr dks vkikr~dkyhu 'kfDr;k¡ nh x;h gSaA jk"Vª dh LorU=kx.krakf=kd laLFkk,¡] jkT; dh v[k.Mrk rFkk vUrjjk"Vªh; ckèkkvksa ij ?kksj vlqj{kk osQ Hk; mRiUu gksus ij vkSjlaoSèkkfud :i ls 'kklu&lapkyu esa fujUrj ckèkk iM+us ij jk"Vªifr vkikrdkyhu 'kfDr;ksa dk iz;ksx dj ldrkgSA og izèkkuea=kh] laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ vè;{k rFkk laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~~ ls eU=k.kk dj mlosQ fy, vko';d dnemBk;sxkA ,d lUns'k }kjk jk"Vª dks og bu fLFkfr;ksa ls voxr djk;sxkA ladVdky esa jk"Vªh; lHkk Hkax ugha gksxhrFkk laln dh cSBd ugha #osQxhA ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd ladVdkyhu 'kklu rFkk ladV dk lkeuk djus dk iw.kZmÙknkf;Ro jkVªifr ij gh gSA mlosQ lHkh fu.kZ; futh gksxs izèkkuea=kh osQ gLrk{kj dh vko';drk ughaA vkykspdksadk dguk gS fd bl vfèkdkj osQ iz;ksx ls jk"Vªifr rkuk'kkg cu ldrk gSA es.Mht izQkal us dgk gS fd ;g lafoèkkuns'k osQ fy, [krjukd] tu&'kfDr osQ fy, [krjukd rFkk turU=k osQ fy, [krjukd gSAfidYl dk dguk gS fd lafoèkku dh bl èkkjk (16) ij vkykspdks dh ewy vkifÙk ;g gS fd dksbZ jk"VªifrO;fDrxr vfèkdkj osQ fy, tkucw> dj bldk nq#i;ksx dj ldrk gS vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd ;g èkkjk ljdkj dks iyVusosQ fy, dkuwuh vkoj.k dk dke dk ldrh gSA fidYl dgrk gS fd bl lEcUèk esa jk"Vªifr] tt vkSj tqjh nksuksacu tkrk gS D;ksafd lafoèkkur% ogh fu'p; djsxk fd bl rjg dh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ dc iSnk gksrh gSa rFkk D;k dnemBkuk pkfg,\ ysfdu ,jksu dk dguk gS fd jk"Vªifr osQ ladVdkyhu vfèkdkj mls rkuk'kkg ugha cuk ldrs gSaD;ksafd oSèkkfud jgrs gq, og fcuk fdlh vkSfPkR; osQ bl 'kfÙkQ dks O;ogkj esa ugha yk ldrk gS] vxj oglaoSèkkfudrk dk ifjR;kx djrk gS rks bl ij egkfHk;ksx pyk;k tk ldrk gSAjk"Vªifr&in dk ewY;kadu (An estimate of the Presidency): prqFkZ x.krU=k esa iw.kZr% lalnh; O;oLFkk dksviuk;k x;k A vr% jk"Vªifr osQoy laoSèkkfud izèkku FkkA 'kklu dh okLrfod 'kfÙkQ;k¡ efU=ke.My osQ gkFkesa FkhaA mlosQ lHkh dk;ksZa ij izèkkueU=kh ;k fdlh vU; eU=kh dk izfrgLrk{kj vko';d FkkA vr% og eaf=ke.MyrFkk laln dk canh FkkA fo'o osQ vU; laoSèkkfud jkT;kè;{kksa ls Hkh mldh gkyr x;h xqtjh FkhA Hkkjrh; jk"Vªifrdh rjg u gks rks mls ladVdkyhu vfèkdkj izkIr Fks vkSj u fczfV'k lezkV dh Hkk¡fr xkSjo ,oa izfr"Bk ghA vejhdhjk"Vªifr ls rks mldh rqyuk gh fujFkZd gSA izQakl dk jk"Vªifr osQoy jkT; dk izèkku Fkk tcfd vesfjdk dkjk"Vªifr jkT; vkSj 'kklu nksuksa dkA lj gsujh esu us r`rh; x.krU=k osQ izkjfEHkd fnuksa esa dgk Fkk&lalkj esadksbZ Hkh ,slk O;fDr ugha gS tks izQkal osQ jk"Vªifr ls vfèkd n;uh; voLFkk esa gksA izQkal dk izkphu jktk 'kkludjrk Fkk] baXySaM dk izkPkhu jktk jkt djrk gS ijUrq 'kklu ugha djrkA vesfjdk dk jk"Vªifr 'kklu djrkgSA ijUrq jkt ugha djrk FkkA izQakl osQ jk"Vªifr osQ fy, ,slh O;oLFkk gS fd u rks og jkt djrk gS vkSj u'kklu ghsA bl izdkj prqFkZ x.krU=k osQ vrxZr jk"Vªifr osQoy uke ek=k dk;Zikfydk izèkku Fkk A vkWx us bls;wjksih; jktuhfr dh ,d foy{k.krk dgk FkkA equjks osQ vuqlkj ml ijkftr O;fÙkQ dks u rks dqN lkspuk vkSju dk;Z gh djuk pkfg, FkkA ;fn nksuksa esa og dqN Hkh djrk rks mls in&R;kx djuk iM+rkA izfl¼ jktuhfrKDysesU'kks us izQkalhlh jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gksus ;ksX; O;fÙkQ osQ lacaèk esa dgk Fkk fd eSa lokZfèkd eq<+ O;fDr osQfy, ernku djrk g¡wA ,d vU; vkyksPkd osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr dk in [kjxks'kksa dk f'kdkj djus osQ fy, gSu fd jkT; dk laPkkyu djus osQ fy, cuk;k x;k gSAysfdu prqFkZ x.krU=k osQ vUrxZr jk"Vªifr dh 'kfÙkQ dk ewY;kadu iw.kZr% lgh ugha gS A og Bhd gS fd og fu'kÙkQrFkk uiqlad Fkk ij mldk xkSjo&izfr"Bk rFkk mldh O;kogkfjd mi;ksfxrk Hkh FkhA mls 18 yk[k izQSad izfro"kZ osrufeyrk Fkk rFkk ;k=kk vkSj euksfouksn osQ fy, vyx HkÙkkA mls 100 rksiksa dh lykeh nh tkrh Fkh A jktra=k osQ vUrxZr

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lezkV oQks tks lEeku feyrs gSa os lHkh jk"Vªifr dks izkIr gksrs FksA og jk"Vª dh ,drk dk izrhd vkSj jktuhfrdnycanh ls Åij le>k tkrk FkkA ladVdkyhu voLFkkvksa esa og egÙoiww.kZ dk;ksaZ dk LkEiknu djrk Fkk vkSj jk"Vªdk usrk cu tkrk FkkA cgqnyh; O;oLFkk osQ dkj.k eaf=ke.My osQ fuekZ.k esa mls i;kZIr foosd RkFkk cqf¼ dk iz;ksxdjuk iM+rk FkkA vuqHko ,oa ;ksX;rk osQ vuqikr esa iz'kklu osQ dk;Z esa og i;kZIr uSfrd rFkk jktuhfrd izHkkoMkyrk Fkk eaf=ke.My dh fLFkjrk cuk;s j[kus esa mldk cgqr cM+k gkFk FkkA vr% U;wesu osQ 'kCnksa eas jk"Vªifr inesa izQkal osQ izkphu xkSjo dh >yd feyrh gSA blesa jkT; dh izfr"Bk feyrh gSA bl in dk vUr x.kra=k osQ HkwrvkSj orZeku xkSjo dk vUr gSA1958 bZ- osQ lafoèkku eas ;g fp=k iw.kZ ifjofrZr gks x;k bldh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ O;kid rks gks x;h gSa] lkFk&lkFk mudkokLrfod iz;ksx Hkh og djus yxk gSA fczfV'k lezkV dh Hkk¡fr og jkT; osQ xkSjoiw.kZ vax rks gS gh lkFk&lkFk vejhdhjk"Vªifr dh rjg 'kklu dh okLrfod ckxMksj Hkh mlosQ gkFkksa esa vk x;h gSA eaf=ke.My rFkk laln ij mldk iw.kZfu;a=k.k gks x;k gSA mlosQ ladVdkyhu vfèkdkj us mldh 'kfÙkQ dks vR;fèkd c<+k fn;k gSA og ns'k rFkk lafoèkkudk j{kd Hkh gks x;k gSA mlh vikj 'kfÙkQ;k¡ rFkk mlosQ okLrfod iz;ksx osQ vkèkkj ij izQalhlh lkE;oknh usrk ekWfjlFkksjst us ;g Hkh dgk gS fd jk"Vªifr dks u;s lafoèkku eas 19oha 'krkCnh osQ lezkVksa ls Hkh vfèkd 'kfÙkQ;k¡ izkIr gSaAizks0 ,jksu us izQkal osQ jk"Vªifr dh rqyuk vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr ls djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd dkxt ij izQkal dkjk"Vªifr vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr ls de 'kfÙkQ'kkyh gSA lHkh phtksa osQ ckotwn ik¡pok¡ x.krU=k ,d lalnh; ljdkj dhLFkkiuk djrk gSA bldk lcwr ;g gS fd ljdkj jk"Vªh; LkHkk osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h gS jk"Vªifr osQ izfr ughaA var esaizks0 ,jksu osQ 'kCnksa esa gh ^^jk"Vªifr&in dk fodkl nks izdkj ls gks ldrk gSA ;fn lkèkkj.k O;fÙkQ jk"Vªifr gksrks og ek=k ljdkj dk loZJs"B ijke'kZnkrk ;k loksZPp eè;LFk cudj jg ldrk gS] rc lafoèkku ljdkj dh vksjfodflr gksxk vFkok vxj og oLrqr% vius vfèkdkj dk iz;ksx djuk pkgrk gks rks la?k"kZ eksy ysxk&loZizFkevius izèkkueU=kh osQ lkFk vkSj ckn esa jk"Vªh; lÙkk osQ lkFkA

jf'k;k dk jk"Vªifr (President of Russia)

'kklu&iz.kkyh osQ Lrj ij vè;{kh; iz.kkyh (Presidential System) vkSj lalnh; iz.kkyh (parliamentary

System) dk feJ.k rS;kj djus dk iz;Ru fd;k x;k gSA vè;{kh; iz.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vªifr(President) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS] vkSj lalnh; iz.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh laln (Parliament) dhO;oLFkk dh xbZ gS ftls la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr jkT; dk vè;{k (Head of

state ) gS tks lhèks tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gS_ mls yxkrkj nks ckj ls vkxs ugha pquk tkldrkA og lafoèkku dk laj{kd gS] vkSj l'kL=k lsukvksa dk lokZsPp lsukifr (Supreme commander of the

Armed Forces) Hkh gSA og izèkku ea=kh (Prime Minister) rFkk eaf=k&ifj"kn~~ (Council of Ministers) vFkokeaf=keMay (Cabinet) dh fu;qfDr djrk gSA ftlesa yxHkx 30 lnL; j[ks tkrs gSaA budh fu;qfDr osQ fy, laln(Parliament) dk vuqeksnu t:jh gksrk gS A jk"Vªifr ,d varjax eaf=keaMy (Kitchen Cabinet) dh lykg ls dk;Zdjrk gS ftlesa mlosQ fo'oLr fe=k vkSj mPpkfèkdkjh lfEefyr gksrs gSA eaf=keaMy dks lÙkk esa jgus osQ fy, lalndk fo'okl izkIr gksuk pfg,Ajk"Vªifr vkKkfIr;ka (Decrees) tkjh dj ldrk gS tks dkuwu dh rjg ekU; gksrh gSA ijarq ;s vkKfIr;kaizpfyr dkuwu osQ fo#¼ ugha gksuh pkfg,A fiQj laln bUgsa fujLr Hkh dj ldrh gSA nwljh vksj] jk"VªifrHkh laln&}kjk& ikfjr foèks;d (Bill) dks dkuwu cuus ls jksd ldrk gSA og laln&vFkkZr~ la?kh; lHkk(Federal Assembly) osQ izfr vius okf"kZd vfHkHkk"k.k (Annual Address) osQ varxZr ljdkj dh jktuhfrdvkSj vkfFkZd uhfr dk fu:i.k dj ldrk gSA ns'k dh j{kk (Defence) dk nkf;Ro laHkkyus osQ fy, jk"Vªifrlqj{kk & ifj"kn~ (Security Council) fu;qDr djrk gS ftldk vè;{k og Lo;a gksrk gSA og osaQnzh; cSad(Central Bank) osQ vè;{k (Chairperson), egk&vfHk;kstd (prosecutor General) rFkk U;k;ikfydk(Judiciary) osQ izeq[k lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr dk izLrko laln osQ ikl Hkstrk gSA tuojh] 1994 osQ ckn

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lqj{kk&lsok,a] x`g&ea=kky;] j{kk ea=kky; vkSj fons'k ea=kky; lhèks jk"Vªifr osQ vèkhu dj fn, x, gSaA jk"Vªifrin dk mEehnokj de&ls&de nl yk[k ernkrkvksas osQ }kjk euksuhr gksuk pkfg,_ blesa fdlh ,d vaPky(Region) ;k x.kjkT; (Republic) osQ ernkrkvksa dh la[;k dqy la[;k dh 7% ls T;knk ugha gksuh pkfg,A:l esa foèkkf;dk (Legislature) osQ d`R; la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dks lkSais x, gSaA blesa nks lnu(Chambers) j[ks x, gSaA voj lnu (Lower House) dks LVsV M;wek dgh tkrh gS A blesa 4520 lnL;ksadh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA mPp lnu (upper House ) oQks la?kh; ifj"kn~ (Federal Council) dgk tkrk gSAblesa 178 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA

phu dk jk"Vªifr (President of China)

osQUæh; dk;Zikfydk% x.kra=k dk vè;{k (Central Executive: Chairman of the Republic): tuoknh

phu dk lafoèkku vkaf'kd :i ls lalnh; iz.kkyh dks viukrk gSA Hkkjr dh Hkk¡fr x.kra=k dk vè;{k gksrk

gS tks 'kklu osQ vè;{k ;kuh izèkkuea=kh ls vyx gksrk gSA 1954 osQ lafoèkku esa vè;{k in dh O;oLFkk

dh x;hA ekvksa &Rls rqax x.kra=k osQ vè;{k osQ lkFk&lkFk ny osQ egklfpo Hkh jgs ftl dkj.k os ns'k osQ

loZ'kfDr'kkyh inkfèkdkjh cus jgsA ysfdu fym&'kkvksa&ph dh ;g fLFkfr ugha FkhA 1975 osQ lafoèkku esa bl

in dks lekIr dj fn;k x;k vkSj LFkk;h lfefr rFkk mlosQ vè;{k dks x.kra=k osQ vè;{k dh 'kfDr;k¡ vkSj

dk;Z lkSais fn;s x;sA iqu% 1982 osQ u, lafoèkku }kjk bl in dks iquftZfor dj fn;k x;kA NBh jk"Vªh; dkaxzsl

(twu] 1983) us cqtZqx izfrf"Br usrk yh thvkfu;u (Li-Xianian) dks x.kra=k dk vè;{k pqukA 18 viSzy]

1988 dks tujy ;kax 'kkaxdqu (Yangshangkun) phu osQ u, vè;{k pqus x,A

vè;{k dk pquko (Election of the Chairman): phuh x.kjkT; osQ vè;{k dk pquko jk"Vªh; dk¡xzsl osQlnL;ksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA 1954 osQ lafoèkku }kjk mldk dk;Zdky 4 o"kZ fuèkkZfjr fd;k Fkk_ 1982 osQlafoèkku }kjk dk;Zdky 5 lky dk dj fn;k x;k gSA dksbZ Hkh O;fDr] ftls jktuhfrd vfèkdkj izkIr gksavkSj mldh vk;q 45 o"kZ gks] vè;{k pquk tk ldrk gS A oLrqr% ny osQ ofj"B vkSj izfrf"Br usrk gh blin osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSa tSls ekvks&Rlsrqax] fyÅ&'kkvks&ph vkSj yh thvkfu;uAvè;{k dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj dk;Z (Powers and Functions of the Chairman): phuh x.kjkT; osQ vè;{kdh 'kfDr;ksa vkSj dk;ksZa dk foLr`r o.kZu lafoèkku esa fd;k x;k gSA vè;;u dh lqfoèkk osQ gsrq mlosQ dk;ksZavkSj vfèkdkjkas dks pkj oxkZs esa foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;gk¡ budk o.kZu la{ksi esa fd;k tk jgk gSA(d) iz'kkldh; 'kfDr;k¡ ,oa dk;Z% x.kjkT; osQ vè;{k dks izèkkuea=kh vkSj mi&izèkkuea=kh dh fu;qfDrdk vfèkdkj iznku fd;k x;k gS A og mUgsa muosQ in ls gVk Hkh ldrk gSA vk;ksxksa osQ vè;{kksa vkSj eaf=k;ksaoQks fu;qDr djus vkSj mUgas inP;qr djus dk vfèkdkj Hkh x.kjkT; osQ vè;{k dk gksrk gSA ;g jkT; ifj"kn~osQ egklfpo dks fu;qDr ,oa inP;qr djus dk vfèkdkj Hkh j[krk gSA ysfdu fu;qfDr&lacaèkh ;as vfèkdkjoLrqr%ny osQ izsftfM;e dks izkIr gSA mlh dh bPNk osQ vuqlkj bu fu;qfDr;ksa dh ?kks"k.kk vè;{k djrkgSA jk"Vªh; tu&dk¡xzsl osQ dkuwuks a vkSj ?kks"k.kkvksa dks ykxw djus dk dk;Z Hkh vè;{k dk gh gS A ogns'k osQ fdlh {ks=k vFkok leLr ns'k esa lSfud 'kklu LFkkfir djus dk vfèkdkj j[krk gS A lsuk dkloksZPp vfèkdkjh ogh gS vkSj blfy, og lsuk dks tks Hkh pkgs vkKk ns ldrk gSA jk"Vªh; lqj{kk ifj"kn~~osQ mikè;{k vkSj vU; lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr djus dk vfèkdkj Hkh mls izkIr gSA og mUgsa muosQ inls gVk Hkh ldrk gS A mls ;q¼ dh ?kks"k.kk djus dk Hkh vfèkdkj gksrk gS vkSj og ns'k osQ fdlh HkhHkkx esa ek'kZy ykW ykxw dj ldrk gS A lp iwNk tk; rks og Hkkjr osQ jk"Vªifr dh Hkk¡fr ukeek=k dkizèkku gS blfy, mlosQ iz'kkldh; vfèkdkjksa dk okLrfod iz;ksx izèkkuea=kh rFkk mlosQ lg;ksxh ny ghdjrs gSaA([k) vkSipkfjd 'kfÙkQ;k¡ ,oa dk;Z % lafoèkku esa x.kjkT; osQ vè;{k dh vkSipkfjd 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk Hkh

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mYys[k gSA og fdlh Hkh O;fDr dks {keknku ns ldrk gSA mls jkT;kns'kksa] mikfèk;ksa ,oa info;ksa osQ forj.kdk Hkh vfèkdkj izkIr gSA lEekulwpd mikfèk;k¡ ogh iznku djrk gSA(x) dwVuhfrd 'kfÙkQ;k¡ ,oa dk;Z % vè;{k dks fons'kksa ls lacaèk LFkkfir djus dk vfèkdkj izkIr gS A phu osQjktnwrksa dks fons'kksa esa Hkstuk vkSj fons'kh jktnwrksa osQ izek.k&i=kksa dk fujh{k.k djuk vkfn mlh osQ dk;Z gSaA og fdlhHkh ns'k ls lafèk dj ldrk gS vkSj fdlh Hkh ns'k ls ;q¼ dh ?kks"k.kk dj ldrk gSA(?k) lSfud 'kfÙkQ;k¡ vkSj dk;Z % x.kjkT; dk vè;{k lsuk dk loksZPp vfèkdkjh gksrk gS vkSj blfy;s jkT;dh leLr lsukvkssa osQ lapkyu dk mls iw.kZ vfèkdkj izkIr gSA og jkT; dh lsuk dk gh vè;{k ugha gksrk cfYdjk"Vªh; lqj{kk ifj"kn~~ dk Hkh vè;{k gksrk gS A og vius fopkjksa dks lqj{kk ifj"kn~~ es j[kdj og vU; lnL;ksa dksizHkkfor djrk gSA(M+) fujh{k.kkRed 'kfÙkQ;k¡ vkSj dk;Z% lafoèkku esa vè;{k dh fujh{k.kkRed 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk Hkh mYys[k gSA ogloksZPp jkT; lEesyu dk vè;{k gksrk gS vkSj bl lEesyu esa og viuh bPNkuqlkj oqQN lnL;ksa dks fu;qÙkQ djusdk vfèkdkj j[krk gS lEesyu osQ egÙoiw.kZ fo"k;ksa esa og viuh jk; tkfgj djrk gS vkSj lEesyu }kjk fy;s x;sfu.kZ;ksa dks jk"Vªh; tu&dk¡xzsl osQ ikl Hkstrk gSA phu osQ x.kjkT; osQ mikè;{k osQ pqus tkus ls iwoZ mldh 'kfÙkQ;ksaosQ iz;ksx dk vfèkdkj Hkh vè;{k dks fn;k x;k gSA

fLol la?kh; dk;Zikfydk (The Swiss Federal Executive)

vrqY; rFkk vuks[kh dk;Zikfydk% fo'o dh izeq[k 'kklu&iz.kkfy;ksa dks nks Jsf.k;ksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gS&lalnkRed (Parliamentary) vkSj vè;{kkRed (Presidential)A lalnh; i¼fr dk;Zikfydk dk izèkku ,djk"Vªifr ;k lezkV gksrk gS tks uke&ek=k dk (Titular of Nomial) izèkku gksrk gS vkSj muosQ uke ij 'kklu 'kfÙkQdk okLrfod iz;ksx foèkku e.My osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h efU=ke.My djrk gS A vè;{kkRed iz.kkyh esa Hkh ,d jkT;dk izèkku jk"Vªifr gksrk gS tks dk;Zikfydk dk okLrfod izèkku (Real executive head) Hkh gksrk gSA bu nksukasvoLFkkvksa es dk;Zikfydk dk ,d gh izèkku (Singular Head) gksrk gSA ysfdu fLol 'kklu&i¼fr u rks lalnkRedgS] u vè;{kkRed ghA mldh dk;Zikfydk esa nksuksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa dk lfEeJ.k feyrk gS_ blesa nksuksa'kklu&i¼fr;ksa osQ xq.kksa dks viukus rFkk voxq.kksa ls cPkus dk iz;Ru fd;k x;k gS A fLoV~tjySaM esa dk;Zikfydk'kfÙkQ dks fczVsu rFkk vesfjdk osQ ln`'k fdlh ,d O;fDr esa fufgr u dj lkr lnL;ksa dh ,d ifj"kn~ esa fufgrfd;k x;k gS ftls la?kh; ifj"kn~~ (Federal Council) dgrs gSaA blh dkj.k fLol dk;Zikfydk dks cgqy dk;Zikfydk(Plural Executive) ;k e.MykRed dk;Zikfydk (Collegiate Ececutive) ;k fefJr dk;Zikfydk (Commis-

sion Type Executive) dgrs gSaA lalkj dh dk;Zikfydkvksa esa ;g vrqY; rFkk vuks[kh dk;Zikfydk (Unparallel

andpeculiar Executive) gSA dksfMax osQ 'kCnksa esa bl vuks[ks NksVs ns'k dh vuks[kh laLFkk fuLlansg la?kh; ifj"kn~~vFkkZr~ fLol la?kh; dk;Zikfydk gSA

la?kh; ifj"kn~~ (The Federal Council)lnL;&la[;k ,oa laxBu: lafoèkku dh èkkjk 92 osQ vuqlkj fLol jkT;e.My esa loksZPp funsZ'ku rFkk dk;Zikfydk'kfÙkQ 7 lnL;ksa dh ,d la?kh; ifj"kn~~ }kjk iz;qÙkQ dh tkrh gSA bl izdkj fLoV~tjySaM esa dk;Zdkfj.kh 'kfÙkQ fdlh ,dO;fÙkQ&jk"Vªifr ;k lezkV osQ gkFk esa ugha cfYd ,d ifj"kn~~ osQ gkFk esa lkSih x;h gSaA lafoèkku }kjk bldh lnL;&la[;k7 fuf'pr dh x;h gSA ;|fi uohu lkekftd] vkfFkZd rFkk jktuhfrd ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ ifj.kkeLo:i c<+rs gq,'kklu&dk;Z&Hkkj osQ nf"Vdks.k ls la[;k cgqr de gS] fiQj Hkh fLol turk us la[;k esa of¼ dk lnk fojksèk fd;k gSAbl lEcUèk esa turk us nks ckj 1900 vkSj 1942 bZ- esa la'kksèku izLrko dks jí dj fn;kA;gk¡ iz'u mBrk gS fdl dkj.k fLol&lafoèkku osQ fuekZrkvksa us ijEijkxr ,dy dk;Zikfydk i¼fr (SingularExecutive) dks u viukdj cgqy dk;Zikfydk i¼fr (Plural Executive) dks viuk;kA bl u;h laoSèkkfudO;oLFkkvksa osQ eq[;r% nks dkj.k gks ldrs gSaA izFke] ;g O;oLFkk ns'k dh ,sfrgkfld ijEijk osQ vuqdwy gSA 1848bZ- esa la?kh; lafoèkku osQ fuekZ.k ls iwoZ fofHkUu dS.Vuksa dh dk;Zikfydk,¡ eaMykRed gh FkhaA blosQ vfrfjÙkQ 1738

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ls 1803 bZ0 rd tc fLoV~tjySaM izQakl osQ vèkhu Fkk rks jk"Vªh; dk;Zdkfj.kh 'kfÙkQ 5 lnL; dh MkbZjsDVjh dks nhx;h FkhA ;g Hkh ,d eaMykRed dk;Zdkfj.kh dk iz;ksx FkkA f}rh;] fLol&turk fdlh O;fÙkQ fo'ks"k osQ gkFk esalÙkk dks osQfUnzr djus dh izo`fÙk dk LoHkkor% fojksèk djrh gS A bl izo`fr dks ;g tura=kh; fl¼kUrksa osQ izfrdwyekurh gSA blesa mls jktrU=k vFkok rkuk'kkgh dk vkHkkl feyrk gSA 1848 bZ0 es lafoèkku&izk:i fuekZ.k lfefrus crk;k Fkk fd lfefr fdlh ,sls in dk fuekZ.k izLrkfor djus dh ckr ugha lksPk ldrh tks fLol turk osQfoPkkjksa ,oa LoHkko osQ izfrdwy gks rFkk ftlls og jktrU=kkRed ;k rkuk'kkg izofÙk dk izek.k ns[k losQA fLoV~tjySaMesa ifj"kn~ksa dh i¼fr teh gqbZ gSA gekjh iztkrkaf=kd Hkkouk fdlh vU; O;fÙkQxr izèkkurk osQ izfr fojksèk djrh gSAfLol turk ,MeaM jSUMksYiQ osQ vuqlkj ,dy dk;Zikfydk jktrU=k dk xHkZLFk f'k'kq gSA okbej lafoèkku (WimarConstitution) osQ fuekZ.k osQ le; teZuh esa Hkh fLol&i¼fr dh udy djus dh ps"Vk dh ij liQyrk ugha feyhAla?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ laxBu dks O;kidre cukus dh dksf'k'k dh x;h gSA bl mís'; dh izkfIr osQ fy, dqN laoSèkkfudmicUèk rFkk O;kogkfjd ijEijk,¡ gSaA ,d laoSèkkfud izfrcUèk ;g yxk;k x;k gS fd ifj"kn~~ esa ,d dSaVu ls fliQZ,d O;fÙkQ gh fuokZfpr gks ldrk gS ,d ls vfèkd ughaA ,slh O;oLFkk blfy, fd x;h fd vfèkd&ls vfèkddSaVu izfrfufèkRo ik losQaA ijUrq ;g n<+ ijEijk cu x;h gS fd cuZ] T;qfjp rFkk okaM uked dSaVuksa esa ls ,d&,dlnL; vo'; gksaA dqN O;kogkfjd ijEijk,¡ Hkh gSa tks laxBu dks O;kid izfrfufèkRo Lo:i nsrh gS tSls&izeq[kèkekZoyfEc;ksa Hkk"kk&Hkkf"k;ksa RkFkk jktuhfrd nyksa dks leqfpr izfrfufèkRo nsdjA lkekU;r% la?kh; ifj"kn~ esa 3 teZuHkk"kk&Hkk"kh rFkk 1 bVkfy;u Hkk"kk&Hkk"kh dSaVu ls ik"kZn fy;as tkrs gSaa blosQ vfrfjDr ifj"kn~ jktuhfrKksa dk ,dcsesy vFkok fotkrh; (Heterogeneous) leqnk; Hkh gS A fczfV'k eaf=ke.My esa flIkQZ ,d ny osQ vuq;k;h jgrsgSaA ysfdu fLol la?kh; ifj"kn~ dh ,d fofp=krk ;g gS fd mlesa LkHkh izeq[k nyksa dks LFkku fn;k tkrk gSA 1929bZ- ls izk;% lHkh izeq[k nyksa& mnkjoknh] dSFkksfyd vuqnkjoknh] d`"kd ny rFkk lektoknh nyksa dks izfrfufèkRofeyrk vk jgk gSA

fLol dk;Zikfydk dks cgqy dk;Zikfydk D;ksa dgk tkrk gS\

fuokZpu&i¼fr% la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL;ksa dh fuokZpu&i¼fr (System of Election) 1848 bZ- osQ lafoèkku }kjkfuèkkZfjr dh x;h FkhA la?kh; lHkk osQ nksuksa lnu la;qÙkQ vfèkos'ku esa mudk fuokZpu djrs gSaA ik"kZnksa dk turk }kjkizR;{k fuokZpu dk izLrko dbZ ckj vk;k gS] ysfdu yksd fu.kZ; us vLohd`r dj fn;k gSAdk;Zdky% lafoèkku dh èkkjk 96 esa la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ dk;Zdky dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL;4 o"kks± osQ fy, fu;qÙkQ fd;s tkrs gSaA 1931 bZ- osQ igys bldh vofèk osQoy 3 o"kZ dh FkhA ysfdu 1931 bZ- esa jk"Vªh;ifj"kn~~ osQ lkFk blosQ dk;Z&dky dks Hkh izk;% c<+kdkj 4 o"kZ dj fn;kA lafoèkku esa ;g dgk x;k fd la?kh; lHkkosQ izR;sd uo&fuokZpu ij la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dk Hkh u;k fuokZpu gksxkA vr% izk;% la?kh; ifj"kn~ dk pquko la?kh; lHkk}kjk izR;sd pkSFks o"kZ jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ osQ fuokZpu osQ rqjUr ckn gksrk gSA nwljk izkoèkku ;g gS fd ;fn o"kZ dh vofèkosQ vUrxZr la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ fdlh lnL; dk LFkku fjÙkQ gks rks la?kh; lHkk viuh igyh CkSBd esa gh 'ks"k vofèkosQ fy, lnL; dk fuokZpu djsxhA èkkjk 120 osQ vUrxZr ;g leL;k iSnk gksrh gSA lafoèkku dk iqufuZjh{k.k djusdk izLrko foPkkjkèkhu gks rks la?kh; lHkk osQ lkFk&lkFk la?kh; ifj"kn~ dks Hkh fo?kVu dj fn;k tkrk gS vkSjuofuokZfpr foèkku&lHkk iqu la?kh; ifj"kn~ dk fuokZpu djrh gSA;|fi lnL;ksa dk oSèkkfud dky 4 o"kZ gS ijUrq mudk ckj&ckj iqufuZokZpu gksrk jgrk gSA iQyLo:i mudkvkSlr dk;Z&dky 10 o"kZ gks tkrk gSA vusd ,sls Hkh ik"kZn gq, gS ftUgksaus 30&30 o"kkZsa rd lnL;&in dk mi;ksxfd;k gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ MkW- thlV ekVk 21 o"kksa Z rd la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; cus jgsA vkèkqfud ik"kZnksa esa MkW-fiQfyi ,Vj 23 o"kksZa ls MkW- dkyZ ykScysV 14 o"kkZsa ls] MkW esDl isfVªV ihpj 10 o"kksaZ ls vkSj MW0 jkSMksYiQ :ckVy8 o"kks± ik"kZn&in ij jgsA

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;ksX;rk,¡% lafoèkku dh èkkjk 96 osQ vuqlkj la?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL; mu lHkh fLol ukxfjdksa osQ chp esa ls pqustkrs gS tks jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ dh lnL;rk dh ;ksX;rk j[krs gSA vr% dksbZ Hkh O;fÙkQ tks jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ osQ fy, pqustkus dh ;ksX;rk j[krk gS la?kh; ifj"kn~ dk lnL; fuokZfpr gks ldrk gS bldk vFkZ ;g gqvk fd èkekZfèkdkjh(Clergy) la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; ugha gks ldrs D;ksfd muosQ fy, jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ dh lnL;rk oftZr gSA 1914 bZ-esa ,d dkuwu }kjk ;g cUèku yxk fn;k x;k fd nks fudV lEcUèkh la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; ugha gks ldrs vkSj urks la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ fudV lEcUèkh fdlh ,sls in ij fu;qÙkQ fd;s tk ldrs gS tks fd la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ vèkhugksA lafoèkku dh èkkjk 97 osQ vuqlkj ;g izfrcUèk yxk fn;k x;k gS fd la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; jkT;&e.My vFkokfdlh dSaVu osQ vUrxZr vU; dksbZ in xzg.k ugha dj ldrs u rks os dksbZ vU; O;olk; gh dj ldrs gSaA ;|filafoèkku esa ,slk dksbZ izkoèkku ugha gS A fiQj Hkh la?kh; lHkk] la?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ fy, vfèkdrj vius lnl;ksa esa lsgh fuokZpu djrh gSA ysfdu èkkjk 97 }kjk yxk;s x;s izfrcUèk osQ vuqlkj la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; pqus tkus ijmudks la?kh; lHkk dh lnL;rk ls in&R;kx djuk iM+rk gSA ysfdu O;kogkjr% lnL;ksa dk ;ksX; 'kklu gksukvko';d gSA mUgsa vuqHkoh ;ksX; rFkk fuqi.k gksuk pkfg,A muesa ikjLifjd erHksnksa dks le>kSrs osQ }kjk lqy>kus dh{kerk gksuh pkfg,A muesa iz'kklfud ;ksX;rk Js"B ekufld 'kfÙkQ cqf¼ pSrU;] O;ogkj&dq'kyrk] 'kkar LoHkko vfnxq.kksa dk gksuk vko';d gS bUgha xq.kksa dh vko';drk osQ dkj.k vfèkdrj lnL; ,sls gksrs gSaA tks la?kh; lHkk RkFkk dSaVuosQ foèkku&e.My osQ lnL; vFkok dSaVu ;k jkT;e.My osQ dksbZ mPpkfèkdkjh jg pqosQ gS vkSj dkiQh nh?kZdky rdAdksfMax dk dguk gS fd fLoV~tjySM esa in&xzg.k djus osQ fy, fdlh O;fÙkQ esa fouezrk (Modesty) dk xq.k gksukvko';d gSaA O;fÙkQxr xq.kkas rFkk lsok osQ iQyLo:i gh la?kh; ifj"kn~~~ dh lnL;rk dks izkIr dj ldrk gSAla?kh; ifj"kn~ dh lnL;rk osQ fy, oSfèkd ;ksX;rkvksa osQ vfrfjÙkQ vusd ijEijkvksa dk fodkl gqvk gS ftldk ikyuik"kZn osQ fuokZpu osQ lEcUèk esa cgqr dM+kbZ ls fd;k tkrk gSA muesa fuEukafdr ijEijk,¡ mYys[kuh; gSa&(1) la?kh;ifj"kn~ dh lnL;rk la?k esa HkkSxksfyd 'kfÙkQ osQ osQUnzhdj.k dks vfHkO;ÙkQ djrh gS A ijEijk }kjk ;g iwoZ fuf'prgS fd lcls cM+s dSaVu cuZ vkSj T;qfjPk dks ifj"kn~ esa vo'; gh izfrfufèkRo izkIr gksxkA (2) Hkk"kkxr vYila[;dksadks izfrfufèkRo nsus osQ fopkj ls ;g ijEijk cu x;h gS fd ik¡p ls vfèkd ik"kZn teZu&Hkk"kh {ks=k ls ugha vk,axsA(3) dkuwu osQ vHkko esa Hkh la?kh; ifj"kn~ esa ns'k osQ lHkh izeq[k jktuhfrd nyksa dks mudh 'kfÙkQ osQ vuqikr esaizfrfufèkRo izkIr gksrk gSA (4) la?kh; ifj"kn~ esa og O;fÙkQ gh pqus tkrs gSa ftUgs lkoZtfud dk;ks± dk i;kZIr vuqHko gksAizk;% jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ksa osQ bPNkuqdwy iqufuZokZpu gksrk gSA vfèkdka'k ik"kZn nks&rhu vofèk;ksa rd lnL; cus jgrs gSaAosru% la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; dks la?kh; fufèk ls 48]000 izQSad okf"kZd osru feyrk gSA 55 o"kZ dh mez okys lnL;ksadks fuofÙk &osru (Pension) fn;k tkrk gS c'krsZ fd os nl o"kks± rd ik"kZn jg pqosQ gksa A fuofÙk&osru dk 40 ls 60izfr'kr gksrk gSaA ik"kZnksa dk osru vU; ns'kksa osQ efU=k;ksa dh vis{kk cgqr ghs de gS vkSj os cgqr lknxh ls jgrs gSaAiz'kkldh; foHkkx% fLoV~tjySaM esa iz'kklu osQ leLr dk;Z dks 7 foHkkxksa esa ck¡V fn;k x;k gSaA izR;sd foHkkx ,dla?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ vèkhu gksrk gSaA tks mlosQ dk;Zlapkyd osQ fy, leLr ifj"kn~ osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA ,d foHkkxosQ izeq[k dh vLoLFkrk ;k vuqifLFkfr esa dk;Z djus osQ fy, izR;sd foHkkx dk izeq[k nwljs foHkkx dk mi&izeq[kgksrk gSA lEiw.kZ iz'kklu osQ fy, lkewfgd :i ls mÙkjnk;h (Collectively responsible) gksrk gS_ ijUrq gkzwt osQer esa ;g HkzekRed gS fd la?kh; ifj"kn~ dk lkewfgd :i esa (Corporate body) fdl lhek rd vfLrRo gSAcgqèkk dgk tkrk gS fd fLoV~tySaM esa lkr dk;Zdkfj.kh lnL; (Federal Councillors) gSa ijUrq dksbZ dk;Zdkfj.khifj"kn~ (Federal council) ughaA orZeku dky esa fuEufyf[kr 7 iz'kkldh; foHkkx (Administrative Depart-

ments) gSa ftudk foHkktu vesfjdk osQ leku foèkkf;dh vfèkfu;e ls ugha] cfYd izQkal osQ tSlk dk;Zikfydkfofue; ls gqvk gS&(1) jktuhfrd foHkkx (Political Department)

(2) x`g foHkkx (Department of Interior),

(3) U;k; vkSj iqfyl foHkkx (Department of Justice and Police),

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(4) lSfud foHkkx (Military Department),

(5) foÙk vkSj iz'kqYd foHkkx (Department of Finance and Customs),

(6) lkoZtfud vFkZ&foHkkx (Department of Economy)

(7) Mkd vkSj jsy foHkkx (Postal and Railways Department)

lk/kj.k rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~ dh cSBosQa lIrkg esa nks ckj gksrh gSA bldh dk;Zokgh xqIr gksrh gSA blesa de&ls&depkj lnL;ksa dh mifLFkfr vko';d gSA fu.kZ; cgqer ls gksrk gSA dksbZ Hkh lnL; fcuk ifj"kn~ dh vkKk osQ cSBdls vuqifLFkr ugha jg ldrkA ifj"kn~ dk vè;{k fu.kZ;kRed er (Casting Vote) nsrk gSA la?kh; Pkkalyj (Federal

Chancellor) tks foèkku&lHkk vkSj la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ dk;kZy; dk vè;{k gksrk gS la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lfpo osQ :iesa ifj"kn~ dh cSBdksa esa mifLFkr jgrk gSA pkalyj osQ cnys dksbZ mi&pkalyj Hkh muosQ dk;kZsa dks dj ldrk gSAinkfèkdkjh% la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ fy, lHkkifr vkSj mi&lHkkifr dh Hkh O;oLFkk gS ftudk fuokZpu la?kh; lHkkizfro"kZ la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL;ksa esa ls gh djrh gSA bUgha inkfèkdkfj;ksa dks jkT;e.My dk jk"Vªifr vkSj mi&jk"VªifrHkh dgrs gSaAla?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ vfèkdkj ,oa dR; (Powers and functions of the Federal Council): lafoèkku dh èkkjk 102esa la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa rFkk dR;ksa dh ,d yEch lwPkh nh x;h gSA blosQ dk;Z eq[;r% iz'kkldh; gSA lafoèkku dhèkkjk 95 osQ vuqlkj bls lokZasPp funsZf'kdk rFkk dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ (the supreme directing and executive

authority) izkIr gSA iz'kkldh; 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ vfrfjÙkQ bls dqN egÙoiw.kZ foèkk;uh] foÙkh; ,oa U;kf;d 'kfÙkQ;k¡ Hkh iznkudh x;h gSaA vè;;u dh lqfoèkk osQ nf"Vdks.k ls la?kh; ifj"kn~ dks fuEufyf[kr 'kh"kZdksa osQ vUrxZr j[kk tk ldrk gS&(i) dk;Zikfydk dh 'kfÙkQ;k¡% loZizFke ge bldh iz'kkldh; 'kfÙkQ;ksa dh PkpkZ djxsa A ;g fLol jkT;e.Mydh loksZPp dk;Zdkjh lÙkk gSA la?kh; fofèk;ksa rFkk vkns'kksa osQ vuqlkj leLr jkT;e.My osQ iz'kkld dks fu;fU=krdjrh gS rFkk bl ckr dk fujh{k.k djrh gS fd la?kh; lafoèkku rFkk la?kh; dkuwukssa dk fujh{k.k gks ;k ugha vkSjblosQ fy, vko';d dk;Zokgh djrh gSA la?kh; lHkk }kjk fufeZr fofèk;ksa rFkk vfèkfu;eksa] la?kh; U;k;kfèkdj.k osQfu.kZ;ksa rFkk fofHkUu dS.Vuksa osQ ijLij >xM+ksa osQ fucVkjs gsrq gq, le>kSrs ,oa eè;LFkksa osQ fu.kZ;ksa dks ykxw djkusdk izcUèk djrh gS A bls fu;qfÙkQ dk Hkh vfèkdkj izkIr gSA ftu inksa ij la?kh; lHkk] la?kh; U;k;ky; vU; fdlhla?kh; izkfèkdkjh dh fu;qfÙkQ dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;k gS] ml ij la?kh; ifj"kn~~ fu;qfÙkQ djrh gS A la?kh; iz'kklu osQlHkh foHkkx blosQ vèkh{k.k esa gh viuk dk;Z djrs gSaAla?kh; ifj"kn~~ ij jkT;la?k esa 'kkfUr ,oa O;oLFkk] ns'k dh ckgkz vkØe.kksa ,oa vkarfjd minzoksa ls j{kk rFkkfLoV~tjySaM dh LorU=krk ,oa rVLFkrk dh lqj{kk dk mÙkjnkf;Ro lkSaik x;k gSAla?kh; lsuk la?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ gh vèkh{k.k esa viuk dk;Z djrh gSA ;fn ml le; vko';d gks tk, ftl le;la?kh; lHkk osQ vfèkos'ku u py jgk gks rks la?kh; ifj"kn~~ lsuk dk laxBu dj mldk vko';drkuqlkj mi;ksx djldrh gS A ijUrq ;fn lsuk 3 lIrkg ls vfèkd osQ fy, vFkok nks gtkj lSfudksa ls laxfBr fd;k tk;s rks la?kh;lHkk osQ lnuksa dh cSBd rqjar cqykuk vko';d gSAfLoV~tjySaM osQ oSnsf'kd lEcUèk osQ fu;e rFkk ns[kHkky dk vfèkdkj Hkh la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks gh fn;k x;k gSA lafoèkkuesa dgk x;k gSa fd ;g fons'k esa jkT;e.My osQ fgrksa dh ns[k&Hkky djsxh] [kkldj vUrjjk"Vªh; lacaèk rFkk oSnsf'kdekeysA blosQ vfrfjÙkQ dSaVuks }kjk ijLij ;k fons'kksa ls dh x;h lafèk;ksa dks ;g Lohd`fr nsrh gSAla?kh; ifj"kn~~ lHkk osQ izR;sd lkèkkj.k vfèkos'ku esa vius dk;Z dk fooj.k nsrh gS] vkUrfjd fLFkfr rFkk oSnsf'kdlacaèk ij ,d fjiksVZ izLrqr djrh gS vkSj lHkk osQ fopkjkFkZ lkoZtfud dY;k.k osQ mik;ksa dk lq>ko j[krh gS A la?kh;lHkk ;k muosQ fdlh ,d lnu }kjk ek¡x dh tkus ij fooj.kksa osQ vfrfjÙkQ fooj.k Hkh izLrqr dj ldrk gSAla?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks fdlh ,d ;k nksuksa lnuksa dks fdlh fo"k; ij lUns'k Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gSA lUns'k osQ lkFkfoèks;dksa vFkok ;kstukvksa osQ izk:i Hkh la?kh; lHkk osQ fopkj rFkk Lohd`fr osQ gsrq Hksts tk ldrs gSaA vUr esa]dS.Vuksa osQ iz'kklu ij Hkh la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dk vfèkdkj gS A ;g dS.Vuksa osQ dfri; iz'kklu foHkkxksa dk fujh{k.k

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djrk gS dSaVuksa dh foèkku lHkkvksa }kjk ikfjr dqN foèks;dksa dks la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dh Lohd`fr iznku djrk gSA la?kh;lHkk dh Lohd`fr osQ fy, gq, dSaVu foèkku esa la'kksèku izLrkoksa dk la?kh; ifj"kn~~ tk¡p djrh rFkk foèkkue.Myesa mi;ZqÙkQ izLrko izLrqr djrh gSA fdlh dSaVu esa minzo vFkok v'kkfUr dh fLFkfr esa la?kh; ifj"kn~~ la?kh;gLr{ksi dk fu'p; djrh rFkk lHkk dk vuqeksnu izkIr dj gLr{ksi djrh gSA(ii) foèkk;h 'kfÙkQ;k¡% fofèk&fuekZ.k esa Hkh la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dk dkiQh gkFk jgrk gS èkkjk 102 (4) osQ vuqlkj;g la?kh; lHkk esa dkuwu dk izk:i izLrqr djrh gS rFkk ifj"kn~~ ;k dSaVuksa }kjk izLrqr izLrkoksa ij izkajfHkdizfrosnu nsrh gSA ;|fi blosQ lnL; foèkkue.My osQ lnL; ugha gksrs] ysfdu os fdlh Hkh lnu dh CkSBd esaHkkx ys ldrs gSaA vius fopkj lq>ko rFkk izLrko j[k ldrs gSa rFkk okn&fookn esa Hkkx ys ldrs gSaA la?kh;ifj"kn~~ LosPNk ls ;k foèkkulHkk osQ funsZ'k ls foèks;d Hkh izsf"kr dj ldrh gSA blosQ vykok lHkk esa izLrqr fd,tkus okys lHkh foèks;dksa dk la?kh; ifj"kn~~ ijh{k.k djrh gS rFkk laoSèkkfud n`f"V ls mUgsa =kqfV jfgr cukrh gSAfLoV~tjySaM essa u;k foèks;d izk;% la?kh; ifj"kn~~ ls izkjEHk gksrh gSA vxj dksbZ foèks;d la?kh;&ifj"kn~~ dh utjls NwV Hkh tkrk gS rks mudh vkSipkfjd 'kq:vkr djus osQ fy, la?kh; ifj"kn~~ ls fuosnu fd;k tkrk gSA la?kh;ifj"kn~~ foèks;d dk izk:i rS;kj djrh rFkk rdZiw.kZ izfrosnu osQ lkFk mls la?kh; lHkk osQ le{k j[krh gSA vxjla?kh; lHkk us la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks fdlh fo"k; ij foèks;d dk izk:i rS;kj djus osQ fy, dgk gks vkSj ifj"kn~~mlosQ fo:¼ fjiksVZ nsrh gS rks lkèkkj.kr% lHkk foèks;d osQ ml izk:i dks dkuwu ugha cuus nsrh gSA la?kh; ifj"kn~~dk dk;Z fliQZ foèks;d dk izk:i rS;kj djuk gh ugha gS cfYd blosQ ckn osQ miØeksa esa Hkh og lHkk dks usr`Roiznku djrh gSA bldk Hkkj ifj"kn~~ osQ ,d lnL; dks lkSai fn;k tkrk gSA og foèks;d lfefr ls fopkj&foe'kZdjrk] mldh cSBdksa esa Hkkx ysrk rFkk mls ijke'kZ nsrk gSA bl laUnHkZ esa izks- jSiMZ dk dFku gS fd ;g le>kukdfBu ugha fd laln lnL; D;ksa ugha okLrfod foèkk;d cu ikrs gSa tc foèks;d fdlh lnu osQ le{k j[kktkrk gS] tc la?kh; ifj"kn~ tks ifj"kn~ }kjk mls foèks;d dk laj{kd fu;qÙkQ fd;k tkrk gS] mls izLrqr djrkgSA mldk vFkZ crykrk gS mlosQ i{k esa rdZ nsrk gS vkSj foèkkf;dh HksfM+;ksa ls mldh j{kk djus osQ fy, xM+fj;sdk dke djrk gSA iqu% izks- jSiM osQ 'kCnksa esa ekuuk iM+sxk fd lokZfèkd mÙkjnk;h rFkk Hkkoiw.kZ dk;Z foèkkue.Mydk ugha cfYd dk;Zikfydk dk gSA la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ rÙokoèkku eas foèkkue.My }kjk ikfjr lHkh foèks;d NirsgSa rFkk mlosQ vkns'k ls fuèkkZfjr frfFk ls O;ogkj esa yk;s tkrs gSaAla?kh; lHkk dh lfefr;ksa dh dk;Zokgh vkSj fu.kZ; dks Hkh la?kh; ifj"kn~ izHkkfor djrh gSA lfefr;k¡ ifj"kn~ osQfo'ks"kKksa osQ erksa dh mis{kk ugha dj ldrh_ os la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ fo'ks"kKksa dh lgk;rk ls viuh fjiksVZ rS;kjdjrh gSAla?kh; lHkk vius dkuwuksa dh O;k[;k vFkok Li"Vhdj.k gsrq la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ fofu;e (regulations) cukus dkvfèkdkj nsrh gSA vr% ,d Hkkjh la?kh; ifj"kn~ izfr o"kZ fofu;e vFkok vfèkfu;e ikfjr dj izR;{k :i lsfofèk fuekZ.k esa Hkkx ysrh gSA(iii) U;kf;d vfèkdkj % la?kh; ifj"kn~ dks dqN U;kf;d vfèkdkj (Judicial power) Hkh izkIr gSaA og dqN fo'ks"kizdkj dh vUrjk"Vªh; lafèk;ksa rFkk lafoèkku dh dfri; èkkjkvksa tSls&183 ('kqYd jfgr lSfud vL=k&'kL=k)] 51(ftlwV èkkfeZd leqnk;)] 53 (dfczLrku) vkfn osQ vUrxZr mRiUu fooknksa osQ lEcUèk esa dh x;h vihyksa ij fu.kZ;nsrh gSA la?kh; jsyos iz'kklu rFkk fofHkUu iz'kkldh; foHkkxksa osQ fo#¼ dh x;h vihy dh ;g lquokbZ djrh gSAvU; ns'kksa dh dk;Zikfydk osQ ln'k mls {keknku (pardon) dk vfèkdkj izkIr ugha gSaA(iv) foÙkh; vfèkdkj% lafoèkku Li"V 'kCnksa esa dgrk gS fd la?kh; ifj"kn~~ jkT;&eaMy foÙk dk iz'kklu djrhgS] ctV rS;kj djrh gS rFkk vk;&O;; dk ys[kk j[krh gSAbl izdkj la?kh; lHkk dh Lohdfr ls la?kh;ifj"kn~~ jktLo ,d=k djrh gS rFkk mlosQ O;; dk vèkh{k.k djrh gSA(v) ladVdkyhu vfèkdkj% Hkkjr osQ lafoèkku osQ ln`'k fLol lafoèkku dk;Zikfydk ladV vFkok vkifÙkdkyesa dksbZ fo'ks"k vfèkdkj iznku ugha djrh gSA ysfdu vkUrfjd ;k vUrjkZ"Vªh; fLFfr ls mRiUu ladVdky esa

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(emergency) la?kh; lHkk us ifj"kn~~ dks iw.kZ vfèkdkj lkSai fn;k gSA mnkgj.kLo:i 1835] 1853 vkSj 1870 bZ-esa ns'k dh rVLFkrk osQ j{kkFkZ 1914 rFkk 1939 bZ- esa fo'o;q¼ osQ le; jk"Vª dh rVLFkrk] LorU=k rFkk vkfFkZdfgrksa dh j{kk osQ gsrq vkSj 1930 bZ- esa vkfFkZd ladV dk lkeuk djus osQ fy, la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks îw.kkZfèkdkj*lkSais x;sA la?kh; foèkkue.My rFkk dSaVuksa osQ vfèkdkj la?kh; ifj"kn~~ }kjk iz;qÙkQ gksus yxs] ukxfjd vfèkdkjfuyfEcr dj fn;sA gkzwcj us la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks lkSaisa x;s vfèkdkjksa osQ ifj.kke osQ ckjs esa dgk gS fd muiw.kkZfèkdkfj;ksa osQ }kjk cgqr ek=kk rd lafoèkku fuyfEcr gks x;kA ljdkj gh oLrqr% foèkkf;uh 'kkfDr cu x;h]cgqr lh turkaf=kd laLFkkvksa (fo'ks"kdj yksdfu.kZ; i¼fr) dks ckèkk ig¡qph rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ vfèkdkjksa dkbruk vfèkd izlkj gks x;k fd ftldh dYiuk Hkh ugha dh tk ldrh FkhAfu"d"kZ :i esa] ykWosy osQ dFkukuqlkj la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks eq[; 'kfDr&Ïksr dgk tk ldrk gS vkSj fuf'pr :ils ;g jk"Vªh; ljdkj dk larqyu pØ gSA


lgh fodYi pqfu, (Choose the Correct Option)—

1- og ns'k ftldk jk"Vªifr varjax eaf=keaMy (Kitchen Cabinet) dh lykg ls dk;Z djrk gSμ(d) fczVsu ([k) Úkal (x) jfl;k (?k) phu

2- ^LVsV M~;wek* fdl ns'k dh foèkkf;dk osQ fuEu lnu dk uke gSμ

(d) jfl;k ([k) phu (x) fczVsu (?k) vesfjdk

3- fdl ns'k dh dk;Zikfydk 'kfDr dk ç;ksx 7 lnL;ksa dh ,d la?kh; ifj"kn~~ }kjk fd;k tkrk gSμ

(d) Úkal ([k) vesfjdk (x) fczVsu (?k) fLoV~tjyS.M

4- ¶iape x.kra=k¸ fdl ns'k ls lEcafèkr gSμ

(d) Úkal ([k) jfl;k (x) phu (?k) fLoV~tjyS.M

5- fdlus dgk gS fd ¶vejhdh jk"Vªifr esa fczfV'k lezkV rFkk çèkkuea=kh nksuksa osQ in lfEefyr gSaμ

(d) ykLdh ([k) vkax o js (x) czksxu (?k) fc;MZ


fl¼kUr vkSj rF; esa foHksn fczfV'k lafoèkku dh çeq[k fo'ks"krk gSA ;g og lafoèkku gS] ftlesa dkuwuh lR;(Legal Truth) çk;% jktuhfrd vlR; (Political Untruth) gks tkrk gSA blh çlax esa XySMLVksu us lezkVvkSj Økmu osQ vUrj dks fczfV'k lafoèkku dk lcls egÙoiw.kZ rF; dgk gSA

vc ,d tfVy ç'u mBrk gS] Økmu D;k gS\ Økmu dk 'kkfCnd vFkZμ ¶og Vksih ftls lezkV jkT;in osQfpÉ&Lo:i iguk gSA¸ ysfdu vkt Økmu dk ç;ksx fof'k"V vFkZ esa gksrk gSA bl fof'k"V vFkZ dks bfrgklosQ tfj;s le>k tk ldrk gSA igys baxySaM esa fujadq'k jktrU=k FkkA Økmu dks èkkj.k djus okys lezkV osQgkFk esa jkT; osQ leLr vfèkdkj jgrs FksA lezkV dh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ mldh O;fÙkQxr gSfl;r ls çkIr gksrh FkhA D;ksafdçR;sd jktk O;fÙkQxr :i ls fuokZfpr gksrk FkkA vr% mldh e`R;q osQ i'pkr~ ^vjktdRo dky*(interragnum) dk;e gks tkrk FkkA

1774 bZñ esa gkMZfod (Hardwicke) us tktZ f}rh; ls dgkμ ¶Jheku vkiosQ efU=kx.k ljdkj osQ lkèku&ek=kgSa] tktZ f}rh; us eqLdqjkrs gq, mÙkj fn;kμ ¶bl ns'k esa efU=kx.k gh okLrfod jktk gSaA¸

djhc ,d lkS o"kks± osQ ckn tktZ f}rh; osQ dFku dh lR;rk Li"V gks xbZA efU=kx.k jktk osQ ukSdj u jgx;s cfYd ekfyd cu x;sA

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bl çdkj fczfV'k lafoèkku osQ vUrxZr ,d u;h laoSèkkfud laLFkk dk mn; gqvkA jktkvksa dh e`R;q gksrsgh] u;s jktk ink:<+ gksrs_ ysfdu jktra=k ,d laLFkk osQ :i esa vuojr :i ls pyrk jgkA bl laLFkkdks Økmu dgk tkus yxkA vkt Hkh lezkV O;fÙkQxr :i ls Økmu igurk gSA mlh osQ uke ij jkT;osQ lHkh dk;Z gksrs gSaA foèkkur% lHkh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk Ïksr Hkh ogh gS_ ysfdu O;ogkjr% mudk ç;ksx lezkVO;fÙkQxr :i ls ugha djrk_ cfYd ,d laLFkk osQ :i esa djrk gSA

Økmu dh ,d vU; fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd og dHkh ejrk ugha] mudk vUr ugha gksrkA ;g vfouk'kh(Immortal) gSA lezkV ,d O;fDr gS] og tUe xzg.k djrk gSA mldh e`R;q gksrh gS_ ysfdu Økmu,d laLFkk gS_ blfy, og dHkh Hkh ejrh ugha] cfYd LFkk;h gSA

fu"d"kZ :i esa jktk vkSj Økmu (King and Crown) esa nks çeq[k Hksn gSA igyk] jktk ,d O;fÙkQgS_ ysfdu Økmu ,d laLFkk gSA jktk ejrk gS] ysfdu Økmu LFkk;h gSA jktk æ"VO; gS] Økmu vn`';gS nwljk Økmu dk ,d vax gSA mlosQ vfrfjDr eaf=kifj"kn~~ rFkk laln feydj Økmu dk fuekZ.k djrsgSaμ vr% Økmu dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk mi;ksx jktk lkekU; tulkèkkj.k osQ çfrfufèk;ksa }kjk djrk gSA

la;qÙkQ&jkT; vesfjdk esa 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ foHkktu osQ fl¼kar dks viuk;k x;k gSA dk;Zikfydk] foèkkf;dkrFkk U;k;ikfydk rhuksa foHkkxksa dks vyx&vyx j[kk x;k gS fiQj Hkh bl fl¼kUr dks iwjs rkSj ij ykxwugha fd;k tk ldrkA baxySaM esa rks bl fl¼kar dks dksbZ egÙo ugha fn;k x;kA ogk¡ dk;Zikfydk vkSjO;oLFkkfidk dks ,d&nwljs ls vfHkUu j[kk x;kA foèkkf;uh 'kfÙkQ laln&lfgr lezkV osQ gkFkksa esa gSA

;gk¡ lezkV dk eryc Økmu ls gSA vr% Økmu jk"Vªh; foèkkue.My dk vfHkUu vax gSaA mldhLohd`fr lafofèk ikfjr gksus osQ fy, vko';d gSA dksbZ Hkh foèks;d rc rd lafofèk iqLrd (Statue

Book) esa ntZ ugha gks ldrk tc rd fd lezkV ml ij gLrk{kj u djsA lezkV dks laln ikfjr fdlhfoèks;d dh Lohdfr çèkku djus ;k mldk çfrfu"ksèk (Veto) dk vfèkdkj gS ysfdu og çfrfu"ksèk&vfèkdkjLo;a yqIr gks x;k] 1707 bZñ ckn bldk ç;ksx dHkh ugha gqvkA

Økmu dks U;k; dk Ïksr (fountain of Justice) dgk tkrk gSA bl ,sfrgkfld dFku dk vFkZ gS fdlezkV dk ln~foosd U;k;O;oLFkk esa vfUre okD; gSA ysfdu vc ;g dFku O;kogkfjdrk ls nwj gSAvU; ns'kksa dh rjg baxySM esa Hkh LorU=k U;k;ikfydk osQ fl¼kar dks viuk;k x;k gSA

fczVsu dh vU; laLFkkvksa dh rjg fczfV'k çèkkueU=kh dk in Hkh vkdfLed ?kVukvksa dk urhtk rFkkla;ksx dh ckr (a child of chance) gSA bl in dh mRifÙk çFkkvksa osQ }kjk gqbZA bldh fLFkfr osQ ckjsesa fdlh Hkh ifjfu;e ;k lafofèk esa dqN ftØ ugha gSA buksoj oa'k osQ 'kklu&dky esa okWyiksy dhvè;{krk rFkk lapkyu djus dk volj feykA bl çdkj okWyiksy çFke çèkkuea=kh cukA ysfdu mlsvfèkdka'k yksx çFke eU=kh (First Minister) gh dgrs FksA çèkkueU=kh dh inoh yqbZ pkSngosa osQ 'kkludky osQ 'Prime Minister' dh udy }kjk viuk;h x;hA

cgqer ny dk usrk lafoèkkur% çèkkueaU=kh dh fu;qfÙkQ lezkV }kjk gksrk gSA ysfdu nyxr ljdkj osQfodkl us ,d çFkk pyk nh gS] lezkV yksdlHkk esa fuokZfpr cgqla[;d jktuhfr ny osQ ekU; usrkdks çèkkueU=kh dk in xzg.k djus rFkk eaf=keaMy&fuekZ.k osQ fy, vkefU=kr djrk gSA

dqN ,slh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ gSa tc lezkV futh fu.kZ; (Discretion) osQ vuqlkj dk;Z dj ldrh gSA loZçFke,slh ifjfLFkfr rc mRiUu gksrh gS tc çèkkueU=kh bl ckr dk lcwr NksM+s fcuk fd ny fdldksmÙkjkfèkdkj cukuk pkgrk gS] R;kx&i=k ns nsrk gS ;k cgqer ny dk dksbZ Li"V rFkk fuf'pr usrk ughagSA ysfdu ;g vfèkdkj ,slk gS ftldk liQy ç;ksx bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS fd lezkV }kjk uketnjktuhfrK 'kfÙkQ'kkyh ljdkj dk dgk¡ rd fuekZ.k dj ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] 1880 bzñ esa ykMZgkfVZxu mnkjoknh ny dk yksd&lHkk esa usrk Fkk vkSj xzsuokby mlosQ ykMZ&lHkk esa usrk Fkk] ysfdu

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ny esa XySMLVksu Hkh 'kkfey Fkk vkSj mnkjoknh thr dk vuknj gksus osQ dkj.k Hkkoh çèkkueU=kh le>ktkrk Fkk] ysfdu egkjkuh mUgsa ukilUn djrh FkhA vr% gkfVZxVu vkSj xzsuokby dks ckjh&ckjh lsvkeaf=kr fd;k x;k_ ysfdu mUgksaus eaf=ke.My cukus ls bUdkj dj fn;k vkSj XySMLVksu osQ usr`Ro dksvo';lEHkkoh cryk;kA

lj jkcVZ okWyiksy osQ le; ls ;g ,d lqfuf'pr fu;e&lk cu x;k gS fd çèkkuea=kh yksd&lHkk] ykMZ&lHkknksuksa esa ls fdlh ,d lnu dk lnL; jgsA ysfdu chloha 'krkCnh esa ;g Hkh fuf'pr gks x;k gS fd çèkkuea=khdks yksdlHkk dk lnL; t:j gh gksuk pkfg,] ykMZ&lHkk dk lnL; vFkkZr~ ih;j çèkkuea=kh ugha cu ldrkgSA

;|fi fu;er% çèkkuea=kh in osQ fy, dksbZ fuf'pr ;ksX;rk ugha gS] fiQj Hkh O;kogkj esa mlosQ fy,dqN futh xq.kksa dks gksuk vfuok;Z gSA fofHkÂ fo}kuksa us çèkkuea=kh osQ fy, fofHkÂ ;ksX;rkvksa dk mYys[kfd;k gSA equjks osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶fczVsu osQ çk;% çèkkuea=kh dqyhu] lqf'kf{kr rFkk èkuoku gksrs gSaA os NksVhvk;q esa gh jktuhfr esa ços'k djrs vkSj bls viuk O;olk; cuk ysrs gSaA¸ exj fiV us çèkkuea=kh osQbl xq.kksa dk mYys[k fd;k gS% ¶igyk O;fDrRo 'kfÙkQ] nwljs Kku] rhljs ifjJe vkSj vUr esa] èkS;ZA¸mls osQoy yksder dk vè;;u djus okyk fo|kFkhZ gh ugha gksuk pkfg,] cfYd mls çpkj&dyk dkiafMr Hkh gksuk pkfg,A

lezkV ,d uke ek=k dk çèkku gSA O;ogkj esa mldh reke 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk ç;ksx efU=keaMy }kjk gksrkgS tks vUrrksxRok çèkkueU=kh osQ gkFk esa pyk tkrk gSA oLrqr% çèkkueU=kh osQ gkFk esa gh 'kklu dkreke vfèkdkj jgrk gSA og fczfV'k lafoèkku dh dq¡th gSA

mldh 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ eq[;r% nks Ïksr gSaμ fofèk vkSj foftr ny osQ usrk dh fLFkfrA

çèkkuea=kh eaf=keaMy osQ fuekZ.k] thou rFkk e`R;q dk osQUæ (Centre of formation, life and death)

gSA çèkkuea=kh in dh ckxMksj l¡Hkkyus osQ ckn mldk dÙkZO; gksrk gS efU=keaMy dk fuekZ.k djukAVsdfudy :i ls vU; efU=k;ksa dh fu;qfÙkQ jkT; osQ çèkku vFkkZr~ lezkV }kjk gksrh gS] ysfduvukSipkfjd :i ls çèkkueU=kh gh mUgsa fu;qÙkQ djrk gS] D;ksafd mlosQ ijke'kZ ij lezkV mUgsaefU=keaMy esa 'kkfey djrk gSA

çèkkuea=kh osQoy eaf=keaMy dk fuekZ.k gh ugha djrk gS] cfYd mls thou nsrk gS rFkk xfr çnku djrkgSA efU=k;ksa osQ chp foHkkxksa dk forj.k çèkkueU=kh gh djrk gS ;fn dksbZ vuqHkoh jktuhfrK pkgs rksfdlh foHkkx dks vLohd`r Hkh dj ldrk gS_ c'krsZ fd ml ny esa mldks bruk leFkZu ,oa vknjçkIr gks fd 'kklu dks mldh lsok,¡ vR;Ur t#jh gks vkSj ny osQ fy, Hkh ,sls O;fDr ls oafprgksuk cqf¼ekuh u gksA

çèkkueU=kh fliQZ fuekZrk rFkk ikyudÙkkZ gh ugha] cfYd lagkjdÙkkZ (destroyer) Hkh gSA lHkh eaf=k;ksa dkHkfo"; mlh osQ lkFk c¡èkk gqvk gSA çèkkueU=kh osQ lkFk gh vU; eU=kh Hkh rSjrs ;k Mwcrs gSaA mlosQR;kx&i=k osQ lkFk iwjh efU=kifj"kn~~ Hkax gks tkrhA blosQ vykok mlls vlger gksus okys vU; eU=khdks R;kx&i=k }kjk in&R;kx djuk iM+rk gSA

bl çdkj çèkkuea=kh eaf=ke.My osQ fuekZ.k] thou rFkk ej.k osQ osQUæ&fcUnq gSA og eaf=keaMy dkfuekZ.kdÙkkZ] ikyudÙkkZ rFkk lagkjdÙkkZ] vFkkZr~ czãk] fo".kq vkSj egs'k gSA eaf=keaMy :ih esgjkc (arch)

dh vkèkkjf'kyk gSA eaf=kifj"kn~~ dh og dq¡th gSA ysfdu vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr dh rjg eaf=keaMy dkekfyd ugha gS] eaf=keaMy osQ vU; lnL; mlosQ ukSdj ugha cfYd lg;ksxh gSaA

fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu esa fuf'pr dk;kZofèk osQ fy, fuokZfpr ,dy dk;Zikfydk osQ i{k esa le>kSrkgqvkA vr% lafoèkku esa ;g O;oLFkk dh x;h fd dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ ,d jk"Vªifr esa fufgr gksxh tks

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pkj o"kZ osQ fy, vçR;{k :i ls fuokZfpr gksaA

lafoèkku osQ f}rh; vuqPNsn esa jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu fofèk (Procedure of Election) dk mYys[k fd;kx;k gSA jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu ,d fuokZpd&e.My (Electorral College) }kjk gksrk gSA

czksxu us dgk gS fd ¶vejhdh jk"Vªifr esa fczfV'k lezkV rFkk çèkkuea=kh nksuksa osQ in lefUor gSaA¸vFkkZr~ jk"Vªifr dh rqyuk esa fczfV'k lezkV rFkk çèkkuea=kh nksuksa ls dh tkrh gSA fczfV'k lezkV osQ ln`'kvesfjdk dk jk"Vªifr Hkh jkT; dk çèkku gSA og ljdkj osQ ^xkSjoiw.kZ (dignified) Hkkx dk vfèk"BkrkgSA tSlk fd ykWLdh us cryk;k gS] jk"Vªifr lezkV ls vfèkd vkSj de nksuksa gSaA vfèkd bl vFkZesa gS fd mldh dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ okLrfod gSA tcfd fczfV'k&lezkV osQoy ukeek=k dk ;k laoSèkkfudçèkku gSA fczfV'k lafoèkku esa fl¼kUrr% lezkV esa leLr dk;Zikfydk 'kfDr;k¡ fufgr gSa] ysfdu ogçR;sd dk;Z efU=ke.My osQ ijke'kZ ls djrk gS] tks lezkV osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h gSA dgus dk vFkZ ;ggS fd O;ogkj esa lezkV dh leLr 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk ç;ksx efU=ke.My djrk gSA efU=ke.My gh okLrfoddk;Zikfydk gSA blosQ foijhr vesfjdk dk jk"Vªifr fliQZ lafoèkkfud çèkku ugha vfirq okLrfod çèkkugSA

Úkal osQ jk"Vªifr ls Hkh vesfjdh jk"Vªifr dh rqyuk dh tk ldrh gSaA prqFkZ x.krU=k osQ vUrxZrvejhdh jk"Vªifr dh rqyuk esa Úk¡lhlh jk"Vªifr dh fLFkfr vR;Ur nqcZy Fkh] ysfdu iape x.krU=kesa mldh 'kfDr esa i;kZIr o`f¼ gqbZ gSA vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu ,d fuokZpd&e.My }kjkgksrk gS tcfd prqFkZ x.krU=k Úkal osQ jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu Úkal dh laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ la;qDrvfèkos'ku }kjk gksrk FkkA ysfdu ik¡posa x.krU=k esa jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu ,d fuokZpd&e.My }kjk gksxk]ftlesa laln osQ lnL;] leqæ ikj osQ çns'kksa dh O;oLFkkfidk osQ tsujy dkSafly osQ lnL; rFkkuxjikfydkvksa osQ fuokZfpr çfrfufèk gksaxsA ;g ç.kkyh Úkalhlh jk"Vªifr osQ çHkko dks vfèkd O;kidcukrh gSA

tgk¡ rd dk;kZofèk dk ç'u gS] vejhdh jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu 4 o"kZ osQ fy, gksrk gS tcfd pkSFksvkSj ik¡pos x.krU=k osQ jk"Vªifr dh inkofèk 7 o"kZ dh gSaA

fczfV'k çèkkuea=kh vkSj vejhdh jk"Vªifr dh rqyuk ,d vuqi;qDr] ij jkspd fo"k; gSA ljdkj osQi`Fkd çdkj rFkk 'kfDr;ksa dk yphyk :i bl çdkj dh rqyuk dks tfVy cuk nsrk gS rFkk fo}kuksaesa erSD; ugha gks ldrk gSA jkEts E;ksj osQ er esa ¶fczfV'k çèkkuea=kh dh 'kfDr;k¡ bruh foLr`r gSafd fo'o osQ fdlh vU; laoSèkkfud 'kkld dks mruh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ çkIr ugha] ;gk¡ rd fd vesfjdk osQjk"Vªifr dks Hkh ughaA¸ nwljh vksj czkbl us dgk gS fd ¶vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr dk in fo'o dk loksZPpin gSA¸

ykWLdh us bu nksuksa çfrdwy fopkjèkkjkvksa osQ eè; dk ekxZ viuk;k gSμ¶vesfjdk dk jk"Vªifr lezkVls de ;k T;knk nksuksa gSA¸ bl çdkj çèkkuea=kh vkSj jk"Vªifr dh fLFkfr osQ fo"k; esa fo}ku~ ,derugha gS fiQj Hkh ykWLdh dk fopkj lR; osQ vfèkd fudV gSA

nksuksa turk osQ çfrfufèk gksrs gSa] nksuksa çtkrU=k jkT;ksa esa losZlokZ gSa] nksuksa dh 'kfDr;k¡ O;kid gSa] nksuksafo'o dh nks egku~ 'kfDr;ksa osQ dk;Zikfydk çèkku gS] nksuksa turk osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h 'kklu osQ lapkydgSa vkSj nksuksa ;q¼ vFkok ladVdkyhu voLFkk esa vlhfer vfèkdkjksa dk ç;ksx dj ldrs gSaA

prqFkZ x.krU=k dk lafoèkku fczfV'k lafoèkku dh rjg iw.kZr% lalnkRed (Parliamentary) FkkA okLrfod

'kklu&'kfDr eaf=kifj"kn~ osQ gkFk esa FkhA jk"Vªifr uke&ek=k dk ;k laoSèkkfud (Nominal or constitutional)

dk;Zikfydk&izèkku FkkA og 'kfDrghu FkkA vCcs ykWrs us bl in dk ,dek=k xq.k uiqaldrk cryk;k

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gS a ysfdu iape x.krU=k eas jk"Vªifr dh fLFkfr esa Økafrdjh ifjorZu gqvk gS blesa jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr

esa vikj o`f¼ gqbZ rFkk eaf=kifj"kn~ ,o laln dh 'kfDr;ksa esa ßklA izQkal osQ ,d Hkwriwoz izèkkueU=kh

es.Mht izQkal osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr ,d voa'kkuqxr jktk cuk;k x;k gS vkSj ,slh 'kfDr;k¡ iznku dh

x;h gS ftuesa og vius dks ,d oSèkkfud vf/uk;d cuk ldrk gSA

1946 bZ- osQ lafoèkku es jk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, vgZrkvksa (Qualifications) dk mYys[k ugha Fkk A flIkQZ

bruk dgk x;k Fkk fd izQkal osQ fdlh HkwriwoZ jktoa'k dk oa'kt bl in osQ fy, mEehnokj ugha gks

ldrk FkkA bl miCkUèk dk mís'; jktrU=k dh iqu% LFkkiuk dks jksduk FkkA vr% jktoa'k osQ O;fÙkQ;ksa

dks NksM+dj 18 o"kZ ls vfèkd mez okyk dksbZ Hkh O;fDr bl in osQ fy, [kM+k gks ldrk FkkA izk;%

eè;e ;ksX;rk osQ O;fDr jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gksrs Fks] D;ksafd okLrfod 'kfDr osQ vHkko esa izHkko'kkyh

O;fDr bl in dks iLkUn ugha djrs FksA iape x.krU=k dk lafoèkku Hkh jk"Vªifr dh vgZrkvksa osQ

lEcUèk esa ekSu gS A ;g¡k rd fd jktoa'k lacaèkh izfrcaèk dh Hkh ppkZ ugha dh x;h gS A vr% u;s

lafoèkku esa dksbZ Hkh o;Ld izQkalhlh ukxfjd jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, [kM+k gks ldrk gSA

fLol 'kklu&i¼fr u rks lalnkRed gS] u vè;{kkRed ghA mldh dk;Zikfydk esa nksuksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa

dk lfEeJ.k feyrk gS_ blesa nksuksa 'kklu&i¼fr;ksa osQ xq.kksa dks viukus rFkk voxq.kksa ls cPkus dk

iz;Ru fd;k x;k gS A fLoV~tjySaM esa dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ dks fczVsu rFkk vesfjdk osQ ln`'k fdlh

,d O;fDr esa fufgr u dj lkr lnL;ksa dh ,d ifj"kn~ esa fufgr fd;k x;k gS ftls la?kh; ifj"kn~~

(Federal Council) dgrs gSaA blh dkj.k fLol dk;Zikfydk dks cgqy dk;Zikfydk (Plural

Executive) ;k e.MykRed dk;Zikfydk (Collegiate Excecutive) ;k fefJr dk;Zikfydk

(Commission Type Executive) dgrs gSaA lalkj dh dk;Zikfydkvksa esa ;g vrqY; rFkk vuks[kh

dk;Zikfydk (Unparallel and peculiar Executive) gSA dksfMax osQ 'kCnksa esa nl vuks[kk NksVs ns'k

dk vuks[kh laLFkk fu%lansg la?kh; ifj"kn~~ vFkkZr~ fLol la?kh; dk;Z ikfydk gSA

lafoèkku dh èkkjk 92 osQ vuqlkj fLol jkT;e.My esa loksZPp funsZ'ku rFkk dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ 7 lnL;ksa

dh ,d la?kh; ifj"kn~~ }kjk iz;qÙkQ dh tkrh gSa bl izdkj fLoV~tjySaM esa dk;Zdkfj.kh 'kfÙkQ fdlh ,d

O;fÙkQ&jk"Vªifr ;k lezkV osQ gkFk es ugha cfYd ,d ifj"kn~~ osQ gkFk esa lkSih x;h gSA lafoèkku }kjk

bldh lnL;&la[;k 7 fuf'pr dh x;h gS A

fLol jkT;&e.My osQ jk"Vªifr in Hkh la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dh rjg vuks[kk rFkk vrqY; gSA fczVsu esa 'kklu

osQ dk;Zdkjh Hkkx dk izèkku izèkkuea=kh gksrk gS vkSj ^xkSjoiw.kZ* Hkkx dk izèkku lezkV gSA fLol jk"Vªifr]

izèkkuea=kh vkSj lezkV nksuksa inksa dk leUo; djrk gS og 'kklu dk izèkku gS vkSj jkT; dk Hkh A ysfdu

bldh rqyuk u rks fczfV'k izèkkuea=kh ls dh tk ldrh gS vkSj u fczfV'k lezkV ls ghA fczfV'k izèkkueU=kh

mlls cgqr T;knk 'kfÙkQ'kkyh gS vkSj fczfV'k lezkV dks mlls cgqr vfèkd lEeku rFkk xkSjo izkIr gS

A

fczfV'k izèkkuea=kh 'kklu dk losZlokZ gSA og eaf=ke.My dk fuekZ.k&dÙkkZ lapkyu rFkk lagkjd gSA og

laln dk usrk jk"Vª dk izeq[k izoÙkQk rFkk fu;qfÙkQ;ksa dk vfèkdkjh gS] ysfdu fLol jk"Vªifr dks buesa

ls dksbZ vfèkdkj izkIr ugha gSA la?kh; ifj"kn~~ lnL;ksa dh u rks fu;qfÙkQ vkSj u rks mUgsa vinLFk djus

esa gh mldk dksbZ gkFk gSA mlosQ lHkh vfèkdkj muosQ lkfFk;ksa ls leku gSA

'kklu&iz.kkyh osQ Lrj ij vè;{kh; iz.kkyh (Presidential System) vkSj lalnh; iz.kkyh

(parliamentary System) dk feJ.k rS;kj djus dk iz;Ru fd;k x;k gSA vè;{kh; iz.kkyh dh

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rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vªifr (President) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS] vkSj lalnh; iz.kkyh dh rjg

;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh laln (Parliament) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS ftls la?kh; lHkk (Fedreal

Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr jkT; dk vè;{k (Head of state ) gS tks lhèks tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk

pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gS_ mls yxkrkj nks ckj ls vkxs ugha pquk tk ldrkA og lafoèkku dk

laj{kd gS] vkSj l'kL=k lsukvksa dk lokZsPp lsukifr (Supreme commander of the Armed Forces)

Hkh gSA

jk"Vªifr ,d varjax eaf=keaMy (Kitchen Cabinet) dh lykg ls dk;Z djrk gS ftlesa mlosQ fo'oLr

fe=k vkSj mPpkfèkdkjh lfEefyr gksrs gSA

jk"Vªifr vkKkfIr;ka (Decrees) tkjh dj ldrk gS tks dkuwu dh rjg ekU; gksrh gSA ijarq ;s vkKfIr;kaizpfyr dkuwu osQ fo#¼ ugha gksuh pkfg,A fiQj laln bUgsa fujLr Hkh dj ldrh gSA nwljh vksj jk"VªifrHkh laln&}kjk& ikfjr foèks;d (Bill) dks dkuwu cuus ls jksd ldrk gS Ans'k dh j{kk (Defence) dk nkf;Ro l¡Hkkyus osQ fy, jk"Vªifr lqj{kk ifj"kn~ (Security Council) fu;qDrdjrk gS ftldk vè;{k og Lo;a gksrk gSA og oasQnzh; cSad (Central Bank) osQ vè;{k (Chairper-

son), egk&vfHk;kstd (prosecutor General) rFkk U;k;ikfydk (Judiciary) osQ izeq[k lnL;ksa dhfu;qfDr dk izLrko laln osQ ikl Hkstrk gSA tuojh] 1994 osQ ckn laj{k.k&lsok,a] x`g&ea=kky;] j{kkea=kky; vkSj fons'k ea=kky; lhèkss jk"Vªifr osQ vèkhu dj fn, x, gSaA jk"Vªifr&in dk mEehnokjde&ls&de nl yk[k ernkrkvksas osQ }kjk euksuhr gksuk pkfg,_ blesa fdlh ,d vaPky (Region)

;k x.kjkT; (Republic) osQ ernkrkvksa dh la[;k dqy la[;k dh 7% ls T;knk ugha gksuh pkfg,Atuoknh phu dk lafoèkku vkaf'kd :i ls lalnh; iz.kkyh dks viukrk gSA Hkkjr dh Hkk¡fr x.kra=k dkvè;{k gksrk gS tks 'kklu osQ vè;{k ;kuh izèkkuea=kh ls vyx gksrk gSA 1954 osQ lafoèkku esa vè;{kin dh O;oLFkk dh x;hA ekvksa &Rls rqax x.kra=k osQ vè;{k osQ lkFk&lkFk ny osQ egklfpo Hkh jgsftl dkj.k os ns'k osQ loZ'kfDr'kkyh inkfèkdkjh cus jgsA ysfdu fym&'kkvksa&ph dh ;g fLFkkfr ughaFkhA 1975 osQ lafoèkku esa bl in dks lekIr dj fn;k x;k vkSj LFkk;h lfefr rFkk mlosQ vè;{kdks x.kra=k osQ vè;{k dh 'kfDr;k¡ vkSj dk;Z lkSai fn;s x;sAphuh x.kjkT; osQ vè;{k dk pquko jk"Vªh; dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA 1954 osQ lafoèkku}kjk mldk dk;Zdky 4 o"kZ fuèkkZfjr fd;k Fkk_ 1982 osQ lafoèkku }kjk dk;Zdky 5 lky dk dj fn;kx;k gSA dksbZ Hkh O;fDr] ftls jktuhfrd vfèkdkj izkIr gksa vkSj mldh vk;q 45 o"kZ gks] vè;{k inpquk tk ldrk gSA oLrqr% ny osQ ofj"B vkSj izfrf"Br usrk gh bl in osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSa tSlsekvks&Rlsrqax] fyÅ&'kkvks&ph vkSj yh thvkfu;uA


dk;Zikfydk % blesa lfEefyr gSμ jkT; osQ çèkku] çèkkuea=kh] eaf=keaMy] foHkkxksa osQ çèkku vkfnA

Økmu % ftls lezkV jkT;in osQ fpÞu Lo:i igurk gSA vFkkZr~ rkt vFkok eqdqVA


1- lezkV vkSj Økmu esa D;k varj gS\ fczVsu esa Økmu osQ cus jgus osQ D;k vkSfpR; gSaA

2- vesfjdu jk"Vªifr osQ pquko ,oa 'kfDr;ksa dh foospuk dhft,

3- fczfV'k çèkkuea=kh vkSj vesfjdh jk"Vªifr dh rqyukRed O;k[;k dhft,A

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4- iape x.kra=k osQ varxZr Úkal osQ jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr;ksa dk fo'ys"k.k djsaA

5- ¶fLol la?kh; ifj"kn~ u rks lnukRed gS u vè;{kkRed¸ foospu dhft,A

6- phuh x.kra=k osQ vè;{k (jk"Vªifr) vkSj Hkkjr&vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr dk rqyukRed foospu dhft,A

mÙkj% Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self Assessment)

(1) x (2) d (3) ?k (4) d (5) x






uksV



bdkbZμ8% laoSèkkfud lajpuk&O;oLFkkfidk

(Constitutional Structure- Legislature)


mís'; (Objectives)


8-1 fczfV'k laln dh 'kfDr vkSj laxBu] vejhdh dkaxzsl] fLol la?kh; foèkkueaMy (Composition and

Power of the British Parliament, U.S. Congress, Swiss Federal Assembly)

8-2 Úkal&jfl;k laln vkSj phu dh jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl (French-Russian Parliament and National

People's Congress of China)





mís'; (Objectives)


fczfV'k laln] vejhdh dkaxzsl] fLol la?kh; O;oLFkkfidk] Úkal&jfl;k laln vkSj phuh x.kjkT; dhO;oLFkkfidk osQ laxBu ,oa 'kfDr;ksa dh O;k[;k djus esaA


ljdkj] jkT; dk vko';d ewy rRo gSA og jkT; dk dk;Zokgd ;U=k gS tks jkT; dh bPNk dks fuèkkZfjr] O;Dr rFkkdk;kZfUor djrk gSA ljdkj osQ vHkko esa jkT; dh dYiuk ugha dh tk ldrhA blfy, mls jkT; dh vkRek dgk tkrkgSA jkT; ,d lw{e èkkj.kk gS] ijUrq ljdkj ,d okLrfod rF; gS ljdkj }kjk gh jkT; osQ y{; dk fuèkkZj.k rFkkfØ;kUo;u gksrk gSA ;g jkT; dk og ;U=k gS ftlosQ Åij jkT; osQ dkuwu cukus] mudk fØ;kUo;u djus rFkk tks mudkikyu u djsa mls mfpr n.M nsus&fnykus dk mÙkjnkf;Ro gksrk gSA bUgha dk;ks± dks iwjk djus osQ fy, ljdkj dh 'kfDr;k¡rhu foHkkxksa esa c¡V tkrh gS ftUgsa Øe'k% O;oLFkkfidk (legislature) dk;Zikfydk (executive) vkSj U;k;ikfydk(judiciary) dgk tkrk gSA ysfdu] M~;wXoh vkfn fo}ku ljdkj osQ osQoy nks vax gh ekurs gSaA ijUrq oqQN fo}ku ik¡pvax ekurs gSaA (1) fuokZpdx.k] (2) 'kklu çcaèkdrkZ] (3) O;oLFkkfidk] (4) dk;Zikfydk vkSj (5) U;k;ikfydkA,d vU; vejhdh fo}ku Mhys us rks ljdkj osQ lkr vax cryk;s gSa (1) dk;Zikfydk] (2) 'kklu foHkkx] (3)O;oLFkkfidk (4) dkuwu loZçèkku (5) U;k; foHkkx] (6) lafoèkku dk O;k[;krk U;k;ky; vkSj (7) U;k;ky;A ysfduvkt ljdkj osQ vaxksa osQ ;s oxhZdj.k ekU; ugha gSA ljdkj osQ rhu vaxksa okyk fl¼kar (Trinity Theory of

Government) fl¼kar gh ekU; gS ftlosQ vuqlkj O;oLFkkfidk] dk;Zikfydk vkSj U;k;ikfydk ljdkj osQ rhuvax gSA ljdkj osQ rhuksa vaxksa esa lcls egÙoiw.kZ O;oLFkkfidk gSA ;gh foHkkx dkuwu dk fuekZ.k djrh gS ftlosQvuqlkj dk;Zdkfj.kh 'kklu djrh gS rFkk O;oLFkkfidk U;k; dk dk;Z djrh gS O;oLFkkfidk dk ljdkj osQ laxBuesa loksZPp LFkku gSa çtkrakf=kd jkT;ksa esa ;g turk dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gS vkSj yksdra=k dk niZ.k gksrh gSA

uksV

bdkbZμ8% laoSèkkfud lajpukμO;oLFkkfidk


8-1 fczfV'k laln dh 'kfDr vkSj laxBu] vejhdh dkaxzsl] fLol la?kh; foèkkueaMy(Composition and Power of the British Parliament, U.S. Congress,Swiss Federal Assembly)

fczfV'k laln (British Parliament): lS¼kafrd n`f"V ls fczfV'k laln esa jkteqdqV (The Crown)] ykMZ lHkk(House of Lords) vkSj dkWeUl lHkk (House of Commons) rhuksa vk tkrs gSaA ykMZ lHkk dks mPp lnu]mijyk lnu (Upper House) ;k nwljk lnu (Second Chamber) dgk tkrk gS_ dkWeUl lHkk dks fuEu lnu;k voj lnu (Lower House) dgk tkrk gSA ijarq okLro esa dkWeUl lHkk dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj d`R; ykMZ lHkkdh rqyuk esa vfèkd foLr`r vkSj egÙoiw.kZ gSA O;kogkfjd vkSj jktuhfrd dkj.kksa ls dkWeUl lHkk dks fczfV'klaln dk i;kZ;okph le>k tkrk gS D;ksafd blosQ lnL;ksa dk pquko tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk fd;k tkrk gS_ blhlnu dks fofèk&fuekZ.k dh vafrd 'kfDr çkIr gS_ vkSj eaf=keaMy (Cabinet) vius vfLrRo osQ fy, blh lnu osQfo'okl (Confidence) ij vkfJr gSA

laln dh çHkqlÙkk (Sovereignty of Parliament): ,-oh- Mkblh (1835&1922) osQ vuqlkj] dkuwuh n`f"V lslaln dh çHkqlÙkk baXySaM dh jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa dh çeq[k fo'ks"krk gSA baXySM osQ dkuwu osQ varxZr fdlh ,sls O;fDr;k laLFkk dks ekU;rk ugha nh xbZ gS ftls laln osQ }kjk cuk, x, dkuwu dks jn~n djus ;k mlls Åapk dkuwu cukusdk vfèkdkj gksA fofy;e CySDLVu (1723&80) osQ 'kCnksa esa laln dks dkuwu cukus] mldh iqf"V] foLrkj ;kO;k[;k djus dk loksZifj vkSj vlhe vfèkdkj gSA ;s dkuwu fdlh Hkh rjg osQ gks ldrs gSaμpkgs os èkkfeZd gks;k lkalkfjd gks] nhokuh gks ;k iQkStnkjh gks] lSfud gks] ;k vlSfud gksA ;g jktflagklu osQ mÙkjkfèkdkj dh iajijkdks fu;fer dj ldrh gSa ;g ns'k osQ laLFkkfir èkeZ dks cny ldrh gSA ;g jkT; ;k Lo;a laln dh lajpuk dkuo&fuekZ.k dj ldrh gSA ;g ,slk lc dqN dj ldrh gS tks çkd`frd n`f"V ls vlaHko u gksA

fczfV'k laln dks çHkqlÙkklaiUu ekuus dk eq[; dkj.k ;g gS fd ogka dksbZ fyf[kr lafoèkku (Written

Constitution) ugha gS 'kklu&ç.kkyh ls tqM+h gqbZ çFkk,¡ (conventions)] U;kf;d n`"Vkar (Judicial Precedents)

vkSj laln osQ vfèkfu;e (parliamentary Enactments) gh ogka osQ lafoèkku dk vkèkkj gSA laln osQ vfèkfu;edkuwu dh n`f"V ls loksZifj gSA blosQ ekè;e ls çFkkvksa dks Hkh cnyk tk ldrk gS] ;k jn~n fd;k tk ldrk gSAU;k;ikfydk dks ;g vfèkdkj ugha gS fd og fdlh Hkh vkèkkj ij laln osQ vfèkfu;eksa dk fofèk&cká (Extra-

Legal) ;k 'kfDr&cká (Ultra Vires) ?kksf"kr dj ns] vFkkZr~ ;g fu.kZ; ns losQ fd çLrqr vfèkfu;e dk fuekZ.klaln dh 'kfDr ls ckgj gSA

ijarq O;kogkfjd n`f"V ls] laln dh 'kfDr loZFkk vlhe ugha gSA ysLyh LVhiQsu osQ vuqlkj] laln dh okLrfod'kfDr;ka vkarfjd n`f"V ls Hkh dqN lhekvksa ls c¡èkh gS ,oa cká n`f"V ls HkhA vkarfjd n`f"V ls ns[kk tk, rks Lo;afoèkkueaMy lkekftd fLFkfr;ksa dh nsu gSA vr% ;g ogh dkuwu cuk ldrk gS tks lkekftd n`f"V ls ekU; gksAog ,slk dksbZ dkuwu Hkh ugha cuk ldrk tks yksder (Public Opinion) osQ fo:¼ gksA cká n`f"V ls ns[kk tk,rks laln varjk"Vªh; dkuwu (International Law) osQ fo:¼ Hkh ugha tk ldrhA fiQj] vkt dh fczfV'k laln ;wjksih;laln (european Parliament) osQ dkuwuksa dks ekU;rk nsus osQ fy, Hkh ckè; gS] D;ksafd ;qukbVsM fdaXMe ;wjksih;la?k (European Union) dk lnL; gSA oSls ;s lc lhek,¡ O;kogkfjd lhek,¡ gSa tks varjkZ"Vªh; leqnk; ;k ;wjksih;la?k osQ fdlh Hkh lnL; ns'k osQ foèkkueaMy ij ykxw gksrh gSaA fczfV'k laln osQ lanHkZ esa budh ppkZ blfy, t:jhgS D;ksafd mldh lÙkk dks fl¼karr% vlhe ekuk tkrk gSA

dkWeUl lHkk (House of Commons): dkWeUl lHkk osQ lnL;ksa dh orZeku la[;k 646 gSA ;s lc lnL; fuokZfprgksdj vkrs gSaA çpfyr Hkk"kk esa bUgsa ,eñihñ (Member of Parliament) ;k laln&lnL; dgk tkrk gSA ckgj osQnckoksa ls eqDr j[kus osQ fy, dqN ^fo'ks"kkfèkdkj* (Privileges) çkIr gksrs gSaA nhokuh dkjZokbZ (Civil Action) osQvarxZr fxjÝrkj ugha fd;k ldrkA laln esa vius dÙkZO;ikyu osQ nkSjku og tks Hkk"k.k nsrk gS ;k vU; xfrfofèk;ksa

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esa fgLlk ysrk gS] muosQ dkj.k ml ij dksbZ eqdnek ugha pyk;k tk ldrkA laln&lnL; dks tks osru feyrk gS]og dj ;k vU; dVkSfr;ka dkVdj vkSlr fczfV'k osru dk nqxquk gksrk gSA

dkWeUl lHkk dk dk;Zdky ikap o"kZ gS] ijarq mls blls igys Hkh Hkax fd;k tk ldrk gS] ;k lalnh; vfèkfu;e(Parliamentary Act) osQ }kjk bldk dk;Zdky c<+k;k tk ldrk gSA dkWeUl lHkk vius vè;{k ;k lHkkè;{k(Speaker) osQ vuq'kklu esa dk;Z djrh gSA bldh eq[; 'kfDr;ka vkSj d`R; bl izdkj gS%

fofèk&fuekZ.k (Legislation): dkWeUl lHkk dk eq[; dk;Z fofèk&fuekZ.k ;k dkuwu cukuk gSA lalnh; vfèkfu;e]1911 osQ vuqlkj] èku&foèks;d (Money Bills) dkWeUl lHkk ls gh 'kq: fd, tk ldrs gSaA ogka ikfjr gksus osQ cknbUgsa ykMZ lHkk esa Hkstk tkrk gSA ijarq ykMZ lHkk bUgsa vfèkd&ls&vfèkd ,d eghus rd jksd ldrh gSA bl rjgns'k dh foÙk&O;oLFkk (Finances) ij dkWeUl lHkk dk iw.kZ fu;a=k.k gSA

lkèkkj.k foèks;d fdlh Hkh lnu ls 'kq: fd, tk ldrs gSa] ijarq vfèkdka'k egÙoiw.kZ foèks;d dkWeUl lHkk ls gh'kq: fd, tkrs gSaA dksbZ Hkh foèks;d nksuksa lnuksa esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn jktdh; lekuqefr (Royal Assent) osQfy, Hkstk tkrk gSA ;g lekuqefr feyus osQ ckn og dkuwu cu tkrk gSA lkèkkj.k foèks;d dks ykMZ lHkk vfèkd&ls&vfèkd ,d o"kZ rd jksd ldrh gSaA 1949 osQ lalnh; vfèkfu;e osQ vuqlkj] ;fn dkWeUl lHkk fdlh lkèkkj.kfoèks;d dks ,d o"kZ dh vofèk osQ Hkhrj yxkrkj nks vfèkos'kksa esa ikfjr dj ns rks ;g dkuwu cu tk,xk] Hkys ghml ij ykMZ lHkk dh Lohd`fr u gksA bl rjg fofèk&fuekZ.k dh çfØ;k esa dkWeUl lHkk dh bPNk dks çeq[krkçkIr gSA tgka rd èku&foèks;d dk lacaèk gS] ykMZ lHkk mls vfèkd&ls&vfèkd ,d eghus rd jksd ldrh gSA;fn og mls bl vofèk esa ikfjr ugha djrh rks mls jktdh; lekuqefr osQ fy, Hkstk tk ldrk gS_ ;fn og blsviuh fliQkfj'kksa (Recommendations) osQ lkFk ykSVk nsrh gS rks dkWeUl lHkk mUgsa ekuus ;k u ekuus osQ fy,iwjh rjg Lora=k gSa bl rjg foÙkh; ekeyksa esa dkWeUl lHkk dh 'kfDr;ka loksZifj gSaA

èku&foèks;d (Money Bill):dkuwu cukus dk ;g çLrko ;k foèks;d ftlosQ varxZr ljdkjh [kpZ (Government

Expenditure) osQ fy, vuqeksnu vkSj vfèkdkj çkIr fd;k tkrk gSA lalnh; ç.kkyh osQ varxZr èku&foèks;d çLrqrdjus dk vfèkdkj osQoy ljdkj dk gS] vkSj bls loZçFke laln ;k foèkkueaMy osQ fupys lnu (Lower House)

esa gh çLrqr fd;k tk ldrk gSA

le; osQ lkFk dkWeUl lHkk dh dbZ 'kfDr;ka eaf=keaMy (cabinet) osQ gkFkksa esa pyh xbZ gSaA vc ;g lnu Lo;a dksbZdkuwu cukus esa igy ugha dj ldrkA vfèkdka'k foèks;d ljdkj Lo;a çLrqr djrh gS] vkSj lnu dh le;&lkj.kh(Time Table) ij Hkh ljdkj dk fu;a=k.k jgrk gSA ljdkj lHkh ekeyksa dks fo'okl dk ekeyk cuk ysrh gSA vr%fdlh Hkh ekeys ij lnu esa ;Fks"V cgqer u fey ikus ij og R;kxi=k nsus osQ fy, rS;kj jgrh gSA

ç'kklu dh fuxjkuh (Supervision of Administration): dkWeUl lHkk ljdkj osQ lkjs dke&dkt dh fuxjkuhdjrh gSA eaf=keaMy rHkh rd vius in ij cuk jg ldrk gS tc rd mls dkWeUl lHkk esa cgqer dk fo'oklçkIr gksA vr% ljdkj dkWeUl lHkk dh dìkn`f"V çkIr djus osQ fy, fujarj ltx vkSj ç;Ru'khy jgrh gSA

foèks;dksa ij okn&fookn osQ le; foi{k (Opposition) osQ lnL; ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa vkSj mldh dk;Z&dq'kyrkdh rh[kh vkykspuk djrs gSaA mldk mi;qDr mÙkj nsuk lac¼ ea=kh dk nkf;Ro gSa

ç'u&dky (Question Hours) osQ nkSjku dkWeUl lHkk osQ lnL; eaf=k;ksa ls muosQ foHkxksa osQ dke&dkt osQ ckj esaç'u iwN ldrs gSaA mUgsa larq"V djuk eaf=k;ksa dk dÙkZO; gSa

xSj&ljdkjh lnL; lkoZtfud egÙo osQ vR;ko';d ekeyksa (Matters of Urgent Public Importance) dh ppkZosQ fy, lnu esa LFkxu çLrko ;k dke&jksdks çLrko (adjournmnet Motion) j[kdj ljdkj dh xyfr;ksa dkinkZiQk'k dj ldrs gSa

foi{k osQ lnL; vuqnku&ekaxksa ij dVkSrh çLrko (Cut Motion) çLrqr djosQ ljdkjh foHkkxksa dh dVq vkykspuk djldrs gSa] ;k vfo'okl çLrko (No-Confidene Motion) çLrqr djosQ ljdkj dks fxjkus dh dksf'k'k dj ldrs gSaA

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vkj-lh- eSfØMhl us foi{k dh ikap fo'ks"krkvksa dh vksj laosQr fd;k gS %& (d) foi{k laxfBr gksrk gS vkSjvius pqus x, fo"k;ksa ij ljdkj osQ lkeus la;qDr pqukSrh j[krk gS_ ([k) og fpjLFkk;h gksrk gS_ (x) og laiw.kZns'k esa fojksèkh ny osQ fu"Bkoku lnL;ksa dks usr`Ro çnku djrk gS_ (?k) og ljdkj dk fodYi (Alternative)

çLrqr djrk gSA ;fn ljdkj fxj tk, rks foi{k lÙkk l¡Hkkyus osQ fy, rS;kj jgrk gSA vr% og ljdkj dh fuankdjrs le; ;k viuh vksj ls dksbZ vk'oklu nsrs le; la;r O;ogkj djrk gS] vkSj (M+) og 'kklu osQ dk;Z esalg;ksx djrk gS rFkk lnu dk dk;ZØe fuèkkZfjr djrs le; og ljdkj osQ lkFk feydj dke djrk gSA

foi{k dk eq[; dk;Z laln esa jk"Vª&fgr vkSj tuer dh n`f"V ls ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa vkSj dk;ZØeksa dh vkykspukdjuk gSA foi{k dh la;r vkSj jpukRed vkykspuk ljdkj osQ fy, vR;ar eqYoku fl¼ gksrh gSA ;gh dkj.k gSfd fczVsu esa foi{k dks egkxfjeke;h dk fu"Bkoku foi{k* (Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition) dgk tkrk gSAfczfV'k laln esa foi{k osQ usrk dks ckdk;knk osru fn;k tkrk gS D;ksafd ;g ekudj pyrs gSa fd lnu esa mldkdk;Z lÙkk:<+ ljdkj osQ fdlh lnL; ls de egÙoiw.kZ ugha gSA foi{k osQ ofj"B usrkvksa dk lewg vius&vkidksNk;k&eaf=keaMy (Shadow Cabinet) osQ :i esa laxfBr dj ysrk gSA blosQ lnL; fof'k"V fo"k;ksa ijμtSls fdfoÙk] fons'kh ekeyksa] çfrj{kk] bR;kfn osQ lanHkZ esa vius ny osQ çoDrk dh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA lnu esa ljdkj dhgkj gks tkus ij bl Nk;k&eaf=keaMy dks ljdkj cukus dk volj fn;k tkrk gSA

ykMZ lHkk (House of Lords): baXySaM esa ,dkRed 'kklu ç.kkyh (Unitary Government) çpfyr gS ftlesalkèkkj.kr% nwljs lnu (Second Chamber) dh t:jr ugha gksrhA ijarq ogka ,sfrgkfld dkj.kksa ls ykMZ lHkk osQ:i esa nwljk lnu pyk vk jgk gS vkSj og vkt Hkh cuk gqvk gSA blesa tulkèkkj.k osQ fuokZfpr çfrfufèk ughagksrs] cfYd ns'k osQ dqN ,sls x.k;ekU; yksx gksrs gSa ftUgsa ;k rks oa'kijaijk (Heredity) ls ykMZ dh inoh feyhgqbZ gS] ;k os iqjksfgroxZ (Clergy) osQ mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ ukrs ykMZ lHkk osQ lnL; ekus tkrs gSa] ;k fiQj mUgsa fo'ks"k;ksX;rkvksa] ns'k&lsok] bR;kfn osQ vkèkkj ij thou Hkj osQ fy, ykMZ osQ :i esa euksuhr dj fn;k tkrk gSA vDVwcj]1999 osQ ckn oa'kijaijkxr ykMks± dks ykMZ lHkk esa cSBus dk vfèkdkj ugha jgk gSA

ykMZ lHkk esa lnL;ksa dh la[;k fu;r ugha gSA budh orZeku la[;k 747 gS tks fdlh dkWeUl lHkk osQ lnL;ksa lsT;knk gSA ykMZ lHkk osQ lfØ; lnL;ksa dh la[;k 400 ls Hkh de gSA bl lHkk osQ lnL;ksa osQ uke ls igys lEekuiwoZd^ykMZ* 'kCn dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS_ fL=k;ksa osQ fy, bldh txg ysMh* 'kCn dk ç;ksx çpfyr gSA oLrqr% cgqrde ykMZ bl lHkk esa dksbZ lfØ; Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA buesa 9 fofèk&ykMZ (Law Lords) Hkh lfEefyr gSa ftudhHkwfedk lcls egÙoiw.kZ gSa U;kf;d fo'ks"kK gksus osQ dkj.k bUgsa vkthou fu;qfDr çnku dh tkrh gSA ykMZ lHkk osQvè;{k dks ykMZ pkalyj (Lord Chancellor) dgk tkrk gSA

fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ {ks=k esa ykMZ dh 'kfDr;ka cgqr lhfer gSaA ijarq bl lHkk esa foèks;dksa (Bills) ij mPp Lrj dkfopkj&foe'kZ gksrk gSA blls dbZ ckj ,slh egÙoiw.kZ ckrsa çdk'k esa vk tkrh gSa tks dkWeUl lHkk lnL;ksa osQ è;kuls NwV ldrh FkhaA blosQ vykok] jktuhfrd nckoksa (Political Pressure) ls eqDr jgus osQ dkj.k ykMZ lHkk vR;aregÙoiw.kZ eqn~nks ij rVLFk Hkko ls fopkj dj ldrh gSA

vkj-lh- eSfØMhl osQ vuqlkj] ykMZ lHkk dh lcls eq[; 'kfDr U;kf;d 'kfDr (Judicial Power) gSA ;g baXySaMdk loksZPp U;k;kfèkdj.k (Highest Tribunal) vkSj vafre vihy&U;k;ky; (Final Court of Appeal) gSA ,dçFkk osQ vuqlkj] tc ykMZ lHkk mPp U;k;ky; (Hight Court) osQ :i esa dk;Z djrh gS] rc mlesa ykMZ pklayjosQ vykok osQoy fofèk&ykMZ mifLFkr gksrs gSaA

ykMZ lHkk osQ lnL; jktuhfr esa Hkkx ugha ys ldrsA ijarq ykMZ pkalyj eaf=keaMy dk lnL; gksrk gS] vkSj (dkWeUllHkk osQ vè;{k osQ foijhr) og ykMZ lHkk osQ okn&fookn esa lfØ; Hkkx ysrk gSA 1963 osQ ,d vfèkfu;e osQ varxZrdksbZ ykMZ viuh inoh dk R;kx djosQ jktuhfr osQ eSnku esa mrj ldrk gS] vkSj jktuhfrd in dk mEehnokjgks ldrk gSA

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ykMZ lHkk dks dk;e j[kus osQ fo#¼ eq[; rdZ %& ;g xSj&yksdra=kh; lnu gS_ ;g èkfud oxZ vkSj :f<+oknh

fopkjkèkkjk (Conservative Ideology) dk x<+ gSA ijarq ;g fl¼ djuk dfBu gS fd ykMZ lHkk osQ vfLrRo osQ

dkj.k fczfV'k jktuhfr esa èkfud oxZ osQ fgrksa dks çèkkurk nh tkrh gSA oLrqr% ykMZ lHkk dh 'kfDr;ka bruh lhfer

gSa fd og loZlkèkkj.k dh bPNk dks dk;kZfUor djus esa dksbZ fo'ks"k ckèkk mifLFkr ugha djrhA pwafd ykMZ lHkk dHkh

Hkax ugha gksrh] blfy, jkteqdqV dh rjg ;g Hkh 'kklu dh fujarjrk dk lkèku cuh gqbZ gSA fiQj] ykMZ lHkk esa

fopkj&foe'kZ esa bruk mPp dksfV dk gksrk gS fd og ns'k osQ 'kklu dks pykus esa egÙoiw.kZ fl¼ gksrk gSA jk"Vªh;

egÙo osQ fo"k;ksa ij tks çoj lfefr;ka (Select Committees) cukbZ tkrh gSa] muosQ dk;Z esa ykMZ lHkk osQ lnL;

fo'ks"k ;ksx nsrs gSaA varr%] ;g ns'k osQ çfrHkk'kkyh yksxksa dks lEeku vkSj ekU;rk çnku djus dk mi;qDr lkèku

Hkh cuh gqbZ gSA ;g ns'k dks mudh ;ksX;rk ls ykHk mBkus dk volj çnku djrh gSA

çèkkuea=kh vkSj eaf=keaMy (Prime Minister and The Cabinet): çèkkuea=kh vkSj mldk eaf=keaMy fczVsu dh

;FkkFkZ dk;Zikfydk (Real Executive) gSA çèkkuea=kh dks 'kklu dk vè;{k (Head of Government) ekuk tkrk

gSA lalnh; çFkk osQ vuqlkj] vke pquko (general Election) osQ ckn tc ubZ laln vFkkZr~ ubZ dkWeUl lHkk dk

xBu gksrk gS] rc egkjkuh bl lnu esa cgqer (Mjority) osQ usrk dks çèkkuea=kh dk in l¡Hkkyus osQ fy, vkeaf=kr

djrh gS blosQ ckn çèkkuea=kh viuh ljdkj osQ vU; eaf=k;ksa osQ uke egkjkuh osQ vkSipkfjd vuqeksnu osQ fy,

Hkstrk gSA tc vusd nyksa dh feyh&tqyh ljdkj (Coalition government) cukbZ tkrh gS] rc laln esa bu nyksa

osQ lewg osQ loZlEer usrk dks çèkkuea=kh cuk;k tkrk gS vkSj vU; ea=kh çèkkuea=kh dh lykg ij bu nyksa osQ

laln&lnL;ksa esa ls fu;qDr fd, tkrs gSaA bu eaf=k;ksa dk ,d NksVk&lk&lewg& ftlesa çèkkuea=kh lesr 16 ls 25

rd ea=kh jgrs gSaμ ,d varjax (Inner)] uhfr&fuekZ.k eaMyh (Policy-making Body) osQ :i esa fu;qDr fd;k

tkrk gS_ bUgsa 'kklu osQ lcls egÙoiw.kZ foHkkx lkSais tkrs gSaA bu eaf=k;ksa osQ lewg dks êaf=keaMy* dgk tkrk gSA

ns[kk tk, rks eaf=keaMy ljdkj osQ <kaps dh vkèkkj&f'kyk gSA

çèkkuea=kh (Prime Minister): eaf=keaMy dk çR;sd ea=kh vius&vius foHkkx ;k foHkkxksa osQ ç'kklu osQ fy,

mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSaA çèkkuea=kh bl eaf=keaMy dk vè;{k gksrk gSA og dqN foHkkx vius gkFk esa Hkh j[k ldrk gSA

fl¼karr% eaf=keaMy osQ lc lnL; led{k ;k cjkcj gksrs gSa] ijarq O;kogkj osQ èkjkry ij çèkkuea=kh dk egÙo

lcls c<+dj gSA blfy, mls ^led{k* yksxks esa çFke (First Among Equals) dgk tkrk gSA

ns'k dh jktuhfr esa çèkkuea=kh dh fLFkfr dbZ rjg ls cstksM+ gSA og laiw.kZ jk"Vª dk çfrfufèk vkSj usrk gksrk gSA og

tc fdlh tu&lHkk esa ;k tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa (Mass Media) ij jk"Vª dks lacskfèkr djrk gS rks mldh ckr lc txg

cM+s è;ku ls lquh tkrh gSA og vius ny dk egÙoiw.kZ usrk Hkh gksrk gSA mlosQ eq[;ky;] {ks=kh; dk;kZy;ksa vkSj fuokZpu

{ks=kksa osQ O;kolkf;d jktuhfrK (Professional Politicians) rFkk LFkkuh; Lrj osQ lfØ; dk;ZdrkZ (activists) mldh

lsok dks rRij jgrs gSaA og pquko dh frfFk fuèkkZfjr djrk gS_ pquko&?kks"k.kki=k (Election Manifeto) osQ eqnn~s vkSj

pquko&vfHk;ku (Election Campaign) osQ rkSj&rjhosQ fuèkkZfjr djus esa fu.kkZ;d Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSaA fiQj] lalnh; ny

osQ usrk osQ ukrs og ny osQ fHkUu&fHkUu xqVksa (Factions) osQ chp lkeatL; LFkkfir djrk gSA

oLrqr% çèkkuea=kh gh eaf=keaMy cukrk vkSj rksM+rk gSA og viuh ilan osQ laln&lnL;ksa dks eaf=keaMy esa j[k ldrk

gS gkykafd mls fofHkUu jktuhfrd fgrksa vkSj fHkUu&fHkUu lewgksa esa usr`Ro osQ nkosnkjksa dks blesa mfpr çfrfufèkRo

nsuk iM+rk gSaA fdlh ea=kh ls larq"V u gksus ij og mldk R;kxi=k ekax ldrk gSA

og eaf=keaMy dh cSaBdksa dh vè;{krk djrk gS] vkSj mldh dk;Zlwph fuèkkZfjr djrk gSA bu cSBdksa esa çèkkuea=kh

osQ n`f"Vdks.k dks fo'ks"k egÙo fn;k tkrk gSA ogh eaf=keaMy osQ fu.kZ;ksa dks mi;qDr Hkk"kk vkSj vfHkO;fDr çnku

djrk gSaA og fofHkUu eaf=keaMyh; lfefr;ksa (Cabinet Committes) osQ lnL; euksuhfr djrk gS] vkSj ,slh

egÙoiw.kZ lfefr;ksa osQ la;kstu (Convener) dh Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA O;kogkjr% eaf=keaMy lfpoky; (Cabinet

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Secretariat) çèkkuea=kh lfpoky; osQ :i esa dk;Z djrk gSA egÙoiw.kZ voljksa ij çèkkuea=kh laiw.kZ ea=kheaMy dk

çfrfufèkRo djrk gSA

fons'kh ekeyksa (Foreign Affairs) esa çèkkuea=kh dk fo'ks"k opZLo jgrk gS] Hkys gh og foHkkx eaf=keaMy osQ fdlhvU; ea=kh dks lkSaik x;k gksA varjkZ"Vªh; f'k[kj&lEesyuksa (Summit Conferneces) esa cgqèkk çèkkuea=kh Lo;a viusns'k dk çfrfufèkRo djrk gS] vkSj fons'kh jkT;kè;{kksa osQ vkxeu ij og Lo;a mudk Lokxr djrk gSA

eaf=keaMy (Cabinet): eaf=keaMy fczfV'k lkafoèkkfud ç.kkyh dh èkqjh gSA eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; vius&vius ç'kklfudfoHkkx osQ vè;{k osQ ukrs ns'k osQ 'kklu esa fu.kkZ;d Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA vejhdh eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; rks foèkkueaMyls fcYdqy ugha tqM+s gksrs vkSj os osQoy jk"Vªifr (President) osQ lsod gksrs gSa] ijarq fczfV'k eaf=keaMy osQ lnL;Lo;a foèkkueaMy osQ egÙoiw.kZ lnL; gksrs gSa] vkSj os lkewfgd :i ls foèkkueaMy dh lapkyu lfefr (Steering

committee) osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gSaA ;gh lnL; lnu esa vius&vius foHkkx ls lacafèkr foèks;d rFkk uhfr lacaèkhçLrko j[krs gSa] vkSj lnu esa vius cgqer osQ cy ij bUgsa Lohdkj Hkh djk ysrs gSaA

eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; dkWeUl lHkk esa cgqer&ny osQ usrkvksa osQ :i esa vius fo'ks"k çHkko dk ç;ksx djrs gSaA ljdkjdks dk;e j[kus osQ fy, lÙkk:<+ ny dh ,drk ;k lqn<+rk (Solidarity) t:jh gSa ;gh lqn<+rk eaf=keaMy dks dkWeUllHkk esa opZLo çnku djrh gSA

eaf=keaMy dk çR;sd lnL; vius foHkkx osQ ç'kklu osQ fy, dkWeUl lHkk osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA ogka mlosQfoHkkx osQ ckjs esa tks ç'u mBk, tkrs gSa] og muosQ mÙkj nsrk gS_ viuh fLFkfr dks Li"V djrk gS vkSj ;fn viuhfLFkfr dk larks"ktud Li"Vhdj.k ugha ns ikrk rks laln&lnL; mldk R;kxi=k ekax ldrs gSA

eaf=keaMy osQ lkewfgd mÙkjnkf;Ro osQ fl¼kar (Doctrine of Collective Responsibility) osQ vuqlkj] ljdkjdh lkekU; uhfr (General Policy) rFkk eaf=keaMy osQ fo'ks"k fu.kZ;ksa osQ fy, iwjk eaf=keaMy lkewfgd :i lsmÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA eaf=keaMy dk fopkj&foeZ'k xqIr j[kk tkrk gSA vr% dksbZ Hkh ea=kh fdlh lkoZtfud eap ij ;grdZ ugha ns ldrk fd mlus eaf=keaMy dh cSBd esa fdlh fo'ks"k fu.kZ; dk fojksèk fd;k FkkA ;fn eaf=keaMy osQ fu.kZ;ls fdlh ea=kh dk erHksn gks rks mls bl fu.kZ; dh Lohd`fr ls igys gh R;kxi=k ns nsuk pkfg,] ;k fiQj ml fu.kZ;vkSj mlosQ mÙkjnkf;Ro dks pqipki Lohdkj dj ysuk pkfg,A

jk"Vª osQ çèkku lsukifr (Commander-in-Chief) osQ ukrs ;q¼uhfr ij mldk iwjk çHkqRo jgrk gSA fiQj] tulaidZosQ mUur lkèkuμ Vsyhfotu] jsfM;ks] lekpkji=k] bR;kfn brus lqyHk gSa fd og buosQ ekè;e ls laiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ tuerdks ,dne çHkkfor dj ldrk gSA tuer jk"Vªifr osQ vuqdwy gksus ij dkaxzsl osQ fy, mldh mis{kk djuk dfBugks tkrk gSA vejhdk tSls egku~ 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vª osQ eq[; dk;Zdkjh osQ ukrs jk"Vªifr dh ckr dks u osQoy vius ns'kesa] cfYd laiw.kZ fo'o esa cM+h mRdaBk osQ lkFk lquk tkrk gS vkSj ml ij foLrr ppkZ dh tkrh gSA

ijarq bu lc lkèkuksa osQ ckotwn ;g t:jh ugha fd vejhdh jk"Vªifr vius lHkh dk;ZØeksa dks cs/M+d vkSj ykxwdjk losQA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] jk"Vªifr fteh dkVZj] vaxksyk vkSj ekstkEchd dks vkfFkZd lgk;rk nsus dk viukbjknk ugha iwjk dj losQA nwljh vksj] fczfV'k çèkkuea=kh ;k rks vius dk;ZØeksa dks ykxw djkus esa leFkZ gksrk gS];k fiQj mls R;kxi=k nsuk iM+rk gSA fczfV'k ç.kkyh osQ varxZr foèkkueaMy vkSj dk;Zikfydk esa xfrjksèk(Dedlock) iSnk gksus dh dksbZ xqatkb'k ugha gSA la{ksi esa] vejhdh O;oLFkk osQ varxZr jk"Vªifr vkSjfoèkkueaMy osQ chp [khapkrkuh osQ ckotwn nksuksa vius&vius dk;Zdky rd cus jgrs gSa] ijarq fczfV'k O;oLFkkosQ varxZr tc rd çèkkuea=kh vkSj laln osQ chp fuHkrh jgrh gS] rc rd nksuksa lkFk&lkFk pyrs gSaA tc muesafuHkuh caan gks tkrh gS rc çèkkuea=kh ;k rks viuk vkSj vius eaf=keaMy dk R;kxi=k çLrqr dj nsrk gS] ;k fiQjdkWeUl&lHkk dks Hkax djus dh lykg ns dj u;k pquko djkus dh O;oLFkk esa tqV tkrk gS vkSj viuk Hkfo";turk osQ iQSlys ij NksM+ nsrk gSA

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fl¼karr% ç'kklu dh fdlh Hkh foiQyrk ij laiw.kZ eaf=keaMy dks R;kxi=k ns nsuk pkfg,]

ijarq dHkh&dHkh jktuhfr ;qfDr&dkS'ky osQ uke ij ,slh foiQyrk dks fdlh fo'ks"k foHkkx

dh foiQyrk dk eqík cukdj ml foHkkx osQ ea=kh dk R;kxi=k fnyk fn;k tkrk gS vkSj

ljdkj dks fxjus ls cpk fy;k tkrk gSA

vejhdh dkaxzsl (American Congress)

la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ foèkkueaMy dks ^dkaxzsl* dgk tkrk gSA vejhdk esa la?kh; 'kklu ç.kkyh (Federal

Government) çpfyr gSA ogka dh la?kh; ljdkj iwjs jk"Vª ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gS] ipkl jkT;ksadh ljdkjsa vius&vius ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gSA la?kh; ç.kkyh dh vko';drk osQ vuq:i ogkala?k osQ foèkkueaMyμvFkkZr~ dkaxzsl esa nks lnu j[ks x, gSa % (1) çfrfufèk lHkk (House of Representatives) tkslaiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ tulkèkkj.k dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gS_ vkSj (2) lhusV (Senate) iFkd~&iFkd jkT;ksa dk çfrfufèkRo djrhgSA çfrfufèk lHkk dks fuEu lnu ;k voj lnu (Lower House) dgk tkrk gS_ lhusV dks mPp lnu] mijyk lnu(Uppoer House) dgk tkrk gS] ;k nwljk lnu (Second chamber) dgk tkrk gSaA çfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; dksdkaxzsl&lnL; dgk tkrk gS] lhusV osQ lnL; dks lhusV lnL; ;k lhusVj (Senator) dgk tkrk gSA

çfrfufèk lHkk (House of Representatives): blesa 435 lnL; gksrs gSa tks fd iwjs ns'k dh turk osQ }kjk pqustkrs gSaA blosQ fuokZpu{ks=k (constituencies) tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij cuk, tkrs gSaA vr% bl lnu esa fdlh jkT;ls vkus okys çfrfufèk;ksa dh la[;k ogka dh tula[;k ij fuHkZj gSA

çfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; nks o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bl vofèk dks fdlh Hkh rjg c<+k;k ;k ?kVk;k ugha tk ldrkAçpfyr çFkk (Convention) osQ vuqlkj] çfrfufèk lHkk dk lnL; mlh fuokZpu{ks=k ls laca/ gksuk pkfg, tgka lsog pquko yM+rk gSA blls jk"Vªh; çfrHkkvksa dk ;Fkksfpr mi;ksx rks ugha gks ikrk] ijarq yksdra=k dh Hkkouk(Democratic Spirit) dks vo'; cy feyrk gSA

çfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL;ksa dks dqN fo'ks"kkfèkdkj (Privileges) çkIr gS mUgsa lnu esa cksyus dh iw.kZ Lora=krk gSA ogkadgh xbZ fdlh Hkh ckr osQ fy, mu ij dksbZ dkuwuh dkjZokbZ ugha dh tk ldrhA vfèkos'ku osQ nkSjku mUgas nhokuhekeyksa (Civil Suits) esa canh ugha cuk;k tk ldrkA

çfrfufèk lHkk vius lHkkè;{k (Speaker) dk pquko Lo;a djrh gSA mls nyxr vkèkkj ij pquk tkrk gS] vkSjlHkkè;{k cu tkus ij og vius ny dk lnL; cuk jgrk gSA

lhusV (Senate): la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ çR;sd jkT; dks lhusV esa vius nks&nks çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gS]pkgs HkkSxksfyd ;k tula[;k dh nf"V ls dksbZ jkT; fdruk Hkh NksVk ;k cM+k D;ksa u gks] pawfd ogka jkT;ksa dh orZekula[;k 50 gS] blfy, lhusV esa 100 lnL; gksrs gSaA 'kq:&'kq: esa jkT;ksa osQ foèkkueaMy vius&vius jkT; dk çfrfufèkRodjus osQ fy, lhusV&lnL;ksa dk pquko djrs FksA ijarq 1913 ls jkT;ksa dh turk budk çR;{k pquko djrh gSA

çR;sd lhusV&lnL; Ng o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gSA nks&nks o"kZ ckn lhusV osQ ,d&frgkbZ lnL; lsok&fuo`Ùk gks tkrsgSaA bl rjg iwjh lhusV dHkh Hkax ugha gksrhA ;g ,d LFkk;h lnu cuh jgrh gSa

la;qDr jkT; vejhdk dk mijk"Vªifr (Vice-President) lhusV dk lHkkifr (Chairman) gksrk gSA vejhdk osQjk"Vªifr dh rjg mijk"Vªifr dk pquko Hkh tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk fuokZpd&x.k osQ ekè;e ls] pkj o"kZ dh fu;rvofèk osQ fy, gksrk gSA lhusV esa mijk"Vªifr fu"i{k :i ls dk;Z djrk gSA og ernku (Voting) esa osQoy fgLlkysrk gS tc fdlh ekeys osQ i{k vkSj foi{k esa cjkcj er gks tkus osQ dkj.k iQSlyk u gks ik jgk gksA ,slh gkyresa og vius fu.kkZ;d er dk ç;ksx djrk gSA

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dkaxzsl dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj d`R; (Powers and Functions of the Congress): vesfjdk esa la?kh; ç.kkyh vkSjfyf[kr lafoèkku viuk;k x;k gSA blosQ varxZr fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ fo"k;ksa dh nks lwfp;ka (Lists) cukbZ xbZ gSa %la?kh; fo"k; (Federal Subject) vkSj jkT; fo"k; (State Subjects)A tks fo"k; buesa ls fdlh lwph osQ fopkj{ks=kesa ugha vkrs] mUgsa vof'k"V fo"k; (Residual Subjects) dgk tkrk gSA bu fo"k;ksa ij dkuwu cukus dh 'kfDr;kajkT;ksa osQ ikl jgrh gSaA bl n`f"V ls vejhdh la?k&O;oLFkk Hkkjrh; la?k&O;oLFkk ls fHkUu gS] D;ksafd Hkkjr esavof'k"V fo"k; la?k ljdkj osQ vfèkdkj&{ks=k esa vkrs gSaA nwljs] Hkkjr esa ,d leorhZ lwph (Concurent List)

dh O;oLFkk Hkh dh xbZ gSaA vejhdh dkaxzsl dks osQoy la?kh; fo"k;ksa ij dkuwu cukus dk iwjk vfèkdkj gSA

fufgr 'kfDr;kssa osQ fl¼kar (Doctrine of Implied Powers) blosQ varxZr dkaxzsl rFkk jk"Vªifr us dbZ ,slh'kfDr;ka çkIr dj yh gS tks Lo;a lafoèkku osQ varxZr mUgsa O;fDr :i ls ugha lkSaih xbZ FkhA mnkgj.k osQ fy, lafoèkkuosQ varxZr dkaxzsl dks eqæk Nkius] dj yxkus] ½.k ysus vkSj [kpZ djus dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;k gSA blosQ vkèkkjij mls ,d fufgr 'kfDr* :i esa jk"Vªh; cSad* (National bank) dh LFkkiuk dk vfèkdkj fey x;k gSA la;qDrjkT; vejhdk dk loksZPp U;k;ky; 'kklu osQ fofHkUu vaxksa dh fufgr 'kfDr;ksa* dks ekU;rk nsrk gS vkSj ogh budhlhek,¡ Hkh fuèkkZfjr djrk gSa

foÙk foèks;d (Finance Bill) ;g osQoy çfrfufèk lHkk ls gh 'kq: fd, tk ldrs gSaA ijarq muosQ fy, lhusV dkvuqeksnu t:jh gksrk gSA bl n`f"V ls] foèkkueaMy osQ nwljs lnu osQ :i esa lhusV dh 'kfDr cstksM+ gSA ;gh dkj.kgS fd vejhdh lhusV dks fo'o dk lcls 'kfDr'kkyh nwljk lnu (Most Powerful Second chamber ofthe World) dgk tkrk gSA

vU; foèks;d fdlh Hkh lnu ls vkjaHk fd, tk ldrs gSA dksbZ Hkh foèks;d nksuksa lnuksa esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn jk"Vªifrdh lekuqefr (Presidential Assent) osQ fy, Hkstk tkrk gSA lkèkkj.kr% jk"Vªifr ml ij gLrk{kj djosQ nldk;Z&fnolksa osQ Hkhrj ykSVk nsrk gSa ;g lekuqefr fey tkus osQ ckn og dkuwu cu tkrk gSA

;fn jk"Vªifr vius fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Veto) dk ç;ksx djosQ fdlh foèks;d dks viuh vkifÙk;ksa osQ lkFk mls 'kq:djus okys lnu osQ ikl okil Hkst ns rks dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnu nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls mls nqckjk ikfjr djosQ blfu"ksèkkfèkdkj dks fu"iQy dj ldrs gSaA

dkaxzsl dks lafoèkku osQ la'kksèku dk iw.kZ vfèkdkj gSA blosQ fy, çR;sd lnu dk nks&frgkbZ cgqer visf{kr gSA ijarqdkaxzsl esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn blosQ fy, de&ls&de rhu&pkSFkkbZ jkT;ksa osQ foèkkueaMyksa dk vuqleFkZu(Ratification) t:jh gSA

loksZPp U;k;ky; lkèkkj.kr% dkuwu dks 'kfDr&cká (Ultra Vires) Bgjkdj fujLr dj ldrk gS] vFkkZr~ og ;gfu.kZ; ns ldrk gS fd ,slk dkuwu cukuk dkaxzsl dh 'kfDr osQ ckgj FkkA ijarq lkafoèkkfud la'kksèku osQ ekeys esaloksZPp U;k;ky; ,slk fu.kZ; ugha nsrkA

ç'kklfud 'kfDr;ka (Administrative Powers): vejhdh dkaxzsl fofHkUu ç'kklfud foHkkxksa osQ ckjs esa fooj.k(Reports) e¡xk ldrh gSA ;g viuh tkap lfefr;ka (Inquiry committees) fu;qDr djosQ ç'kklfud foHkkxksa dhvkykspuk dj ldrh gSA

blosQ vykok] jk"Vªifr mPp inksa osQ fy, (tSls fd eaf=k;ksa] jktnwrksa] U;k;kèkh'kksa] egkU;k;okfn;ksa osQ in ij) tksfu;qfDr;ka djrk gS] ;k fons'kksa osQ lkFk tks lafèk;ka djrk gS] muosQ fy, lhusV dk vuqleFkZu (Ratification) t:jhgksrk gSA ,d çFkk (Convention) osQ vuqlkj] ;fn jk"Vªifr dks ,sls jkT; esa dksbZ fu;qfDr djuh gks tgka dklhusV&lnL; jk"Vªifr osQ vius jktuhfrd ny ls gks rks jk"Vªifr ,slh fu;qfDr djus ls igys ml lhusV&lnL; lsijke'kZ dj ysrk gSA ;fn og lnL; çLrkfor fu;qfDr dk vuqeksnu dj nsrk gS rks lhusV ml fu;qfDr dh iqf"Vdj nsxhA ;fn og lhusV&lnL; bl ij vkifÙk djrk gS rks lhusV Hkh mldh iqf"V ugha djsxhA bl çFkk dkslhusV&lkStU; (Senatorial courtesy) dh laKk nh tkrh gSA

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U;kf;d 'kfDr;ka (Judicial Powers): ;fn ns'kæksg] Hkz"Vkpkj ;k lafoèkku osQ mYya?ku] bR;kfn dk vkjksi yxkdjjk"Vªifr] mijk"Vªifr] U;k;kèkh'kksa ;k ç'kklfud mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa ij egkfHk;ksx (Impeachement) pykuk gks rksblosQ fy, çfrfufèk lHkk egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjk,¡ (Articles of Impeachemnts) rS;kj djrh gS] vkSj lhusV esa eqdnekpyk;k tkrk gSA çfrfufèk lHkk esa egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjkvksa dks lkèkkj.k cgqer (Simple Majority) ls ikfjr fd;ktkrk gSA nks"k&flf¼ osQ fy, egkfHk;ksx dh çR;sd èkkjk ij lhusV esa mifLFkr rFkk ernku esa Hkkx ysus okys lnL;ksadk nks&frgkbZ cgqer (Two-Third Majority) vko';d gksxkA nks"k fl¼ gks tkus ij vfHk;qDr dks in ls gVk fn;ktkrk gSA

fuokZpdh; 'kfDr;ka (Electoral Powers): pkj lky ckn tc jk"Vªifr vkSj mijk"Vªifr dk pquko gksrk gS rks blpquko esa Mkys x, oksVksa dh fxurh osQ fy, dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnuksa dk la;qDr vfèkos'ku (Joint Session) gksrk gSA

;fn jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, fdlh mEehnokj dks iw.kZ cgqer (Absolute Majority) ugha fey ikrk rks ftu rhumEehnokjksa dks lcls vfèkd oksV feys gks]a muesa ls ,d dks çfrfufèk lHkk jk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, pqu ysrh gSA

;fn mijk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, fdlh mEehnokj dks iw.kZ cgqer ugha fey ikrk rks ftu nks mEehnokjksa dks lcls vfèkdoksV feys gksa] mesa ls ,d dks lhusV mijk"Vªifr in osQ fy, pqu ysrh gSA

lfefr ç.kkyh (The Committee System): vejhdh dkaxzsl osQ varxZr fofèk fuekZ.k dk okLrfod dk;Z vusdlfefr;ksa vkSj milfefr;ksa (Sub-Committees) dh lgk;rk ls laiUu fd;k tkrk gSA dkaxzsl osQ çR;sd vfèkos'kuesa gtkjksa foèks;d çLrqr fd, tkrs gSaA dksbZ Hkh lnL; bu foèks;dksa ls tqM+s gq, lkjs eqn~nksa dk tkudkj ugha gksldrkA ns[kk tk, rks fofèk fuekZ.k dk lkjk dk;Z fo'ks"kKrk (Specialization) dh ekax djrk gSA lfefr ç.kkyhdk è;s; ,sls çR;sd dk;Z dks mi;qDr fo'ks"kKksa osQ çfr lkSaiuk gSA fiQj] lfefr osQ lnL; ,d le; fdlh ,dfo"k; ij viuk è;ku osQafær dj ldrs gSa rkfd mlosQ fy, mi;qDr foèks;d dk çk:i rS;kj fd;k tk losQA

dkaxzsl dh lfefr dks vke rkSj ij ^y?kq foèkku&eaMy* (Little Legsilature) dh laKk nh tkrh gSA fdlhHkh foèks;d dks vafre :i nsus dk vfèkdkj ,slh lfefr;ksa osQ gkFk esa jgrk gSA fl¼karr% fdlh lfefr osQ çLrkodks çfrfufèk lHkk lhusV esa vLohdkj dj ldrk gS] ijarq O;kogkjr% ,slk cgqr de gks ikrk gSA tc lfefr dkvè;{k ;k vU; dksbZ lnL; lfefr osQ fopkj ;k fu.kZ; osQ ckjs esa lnu osQ iVy ij cksyrk gS] rc lkèkkj.kr%foèkk;d mldh fo'ks"kKrk dk vknj djrs gSa] vkSj mldh ckr cM+s è;ku ls lqurs gSaA LFkk;h lfefr fdlh foèks;dij mldh fo'ks"kKrk dk vknj djrs gSa] vkSj mldh ckr cM+s è;ku ls lqurs gSaA ;fn dksbZ LFkk;h lfefr fdlh foèks;dij viuk çfrosnu (Report) çLrqr djus esa cgqr nsj dj ns] vFkkZr~ rhl fnu ls T;knk yxk ns rks çfrfufèk lHkkosQ cgqer (vFkkZr~ 218 lnL;ksa) osQ gLrk{kj ls bl foèks;d dks ml lfefr osQ fopkj{ks=k ls okil ysus dh dkjZokbZdh tk ldrh gS] ijarq ,sls volj cgqr gh de vkrs gSaA

fiNyh nks 'krkfCn;ksa osQ nkSjku dkaxsl esa dbZ rjg dh lfefr;ka cukbZ xbZ gSaA eq[; çdkj dh lfefr;ksa dk fooj.kfuEufyf[kr gSa%

LFkk;h lfefr (Standing Committee): dkaxzsl dk çR;sd lnu viuh&viuh vko';drk osQ vuqlkj] vius&viusfu;eksa osQ varxZr] LFkk;h egÙo osQ fo"k;ksa ij LFkk;h lfefr;ka cuk ldrk gSA ,slh lfefr;ka lnu osQ iwjs dk;Zdkyrd pyrh gSaA buosQ mnkgj.k gSa % fofu;kstu lfefr (Appropriation Committee)] ctV lfefr (Budget

Committee) fons'kh ekeyksa dh lfefr (Foreign Affairs Committee)] vFkks±ik; lfefr (Ways and Means

Committee)] bR;kfnA

çoj lfefr (Select Committee): ;g lfefr lkèkkj.kr% fdlh fof'k"V foèkk;h mís'; (Specific Legislative

Purpose) dh iwfrZ osQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gS] tSls fd fdlh lkoZtfud leL;k osQ vè;;u vkSj fo'ys"k.k osQ fy,Abls fuf'pr le; rd viuk çfrosnu çLrqr djuk gksrk gSA blosQ ckn ;g Hkax dj nh tkrh gSSA

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la;qDr lfefr (Joint committee): bldk xBu rc gksrk gS tc blosQ fy, nksuksa lnu ,d&tSlk fu.kZ; djrsgSaA blesa nksuksa lnuksa osQ lnL; j[ks tkrs gSaA ,slh lfefr LFkk;h ;k vLFkk;h nksuksa rjg dh gks ldrh gSA mnkgj.kosQ fy,] vFkZ&O;oLFkk] djkèkku] dkaxzsl iqLrdky;] NikbZ (Printing) dh O;oLFkk] bR;kfn osQ fy, ,slh lfefrcukbZ tk ldrh gSA

lEesyu lfefr (Conference Committee): ;g ,slh la;qDr lfefr gS tks fdlh fo"k; in nksuksa lnuksa osQ fu.kZ;esa ,d:irk ykus osQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy, dksbZ Hkh foèks;d jk"Vªifr dh lekuqefr osQ fy, Hkstusls igys nksuksa lnuksa osQ }kjk ,d gh :i esa ikfjr gksuk pkfg,A ;fn nksuksa lnu ,d gh foèks;d ikfjr djuk pkgrsgksa] ijarq mudh vfHkO;fDr esa dksbZ varj gks rks bl varj dks nwj djus osQ fy, ;k muosQ erHksn dks lqy>kus osQfy, bl lfefr dk lgkjk fy;k tkrk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS dHkh&dHkh lEesyu lfefr dks vejhdh dkaxzsl dkrhljk lnu (Third House) dgk tkrk gSA

lnu fu;ekoyh lfefr (House Rules committee): ;g lfefr ;g fu.kZ; djrh gS fd fdlh foèks;d dks lnuesa fdl :i esa j[kk tk,\ og çfrfufèk lHkk esa fdlh foèks;d ij gksus okys okn&fookn dh le;&lhek Hkh fuèkkZfjrdj ldrh gSA

dkaxzsl dh fofHkUu lfefr;ka fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ dk;Z esa lgk;rk nsus osQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gSaA ijarq mUgsa vius fopkj&{ks=kesa vkus okys fo"k;ksa osQ fo'ys"k.k osQ fy, ç'kklfud foHkkxksa ls foLr`r tkudkjh dh t:jr iM+rh gSA vr% ;slfefr;ka le;≤ ij ç'kklfud foHkkxksa ls rjg&rjg dh tkudkjh ;k fooj.k e¡xkrh jgrh gSA bl ekeys esa,slk vuq'kklu fodflr gks x;k gS fd ç'kklfud foHkkx dkaxszl&lfefr;ksa dh iwNrkN dks cgqr egÙo nsrs gSa] vkSjvisf{kr tkudkjh ;k fooj.k nsus dks ges'kk rS;kj jgrs gSA blls dkaxzsl&lfefr;ksa dks ç'kklfud foHkkxksa osQdke&dkt osQ fujh{k.k dk volj fey tkrk gSA

;g ckr è;ku nsus dk gS fd vejhdk dh vè;{kh; ç.kkyh osQ varxZr ;g laHkkouk cgqr de jgrh gS fd ogkadksbZ laxfBr foi{k (organized Opposition) gksA ç'kklfud foHkkxksa ij dkaxzsl&lfefr;ksa dk fujh{k.k bl dehdks dqN gn rd iwjk dj nsrk gSA

jk"Vªifr vkSj dkaxzslμijLij lacaèk (Relation beweeen the President and the Congress): la;qDr jkT;vejhdk dk jk"Vªifr 'kklu osQ dk;Zdkjh vax (Executive Organ) dk vè;{k gS_ dkaxzsl ogka dk loks±Pp foèkk;hvax (Supreme Legislative Organ) gSA 'kfDr&ikFkZD; (Separation fo Powers) osQ fl¼kar osQ varxZr bu nksuksavaxksa dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj d`R; bl <ax ls fuèkkZfjr fd, x, gSa fd os vius&vius {ks=k esa ,d&nwljs ls Lokèkhu gksa_'kklu dk dksbZ Hkh vax viuh 'kfDr;ksa dk ç;ksx djrs le; ;k vius d`R;ksa dks laiUu djrs le; fdlh nwljsvax ij vkfJr u gksA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] ogka jk"Vªifr dk dk;Zdky pkj o"kZ dk gS_ dkaxzsl dh çfrfufèk lHkk dkdk;Zdky nks o"kZ dk gSA bl fu;r vofèk ls igys u rks jk"Vªifr dkaxzsl dks Hkax dj ldrk gS_ u dkaxzsl ghjktuhfrd leFkZu (Political Support) dh deh osQ dkj.k jk"Vªifr dks gVk ldrh gSA

nwljh vksj] vojksèk ,oa larqyu (Checks and Balances) osQ fl¼kar osQ varxZr ;g O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS fd 'kkluosQ fofHkUu vax ,d&nwljs ij vadq'k j[k ldas rkfd 'kfDr osQ teko (concentration of Power) dks jksdk tklosQ] vkSj 'kklu dk dksbZ Hkh vax fujadq'k u gks tk,A jk"Vªifr vkSj dkaxzsl dk ijLij lacaèk bl fl¼kar dk mi;qDrmnkgj.k çLrqr djrk gSA blosQ eq[; eqn~nksa dk fooj.k fuEu gSa%

jk"Vªifr dk lans'k (Presidential Message): jk"Vªifr çfr o"kZ dkaxzsl dks viuk lans'k nsrk gSA blosQ varxZrog O;kogkjr% dkaxzsl osQ pkyw vfèkos'ku (Current Session) osQ fy, iw.kZ dk;Zlwph (Full Agenda) çLrqr djnsrk gSA blesa og ;g O;oLFkk dj nsrk gS fd orZeku vfèkos'ku osQ nkSjku og foèkkueaMy ls D;k&D;k djus dhvk'kk vkSj vis{kk djrk gS\ jk"Vªifr osQ bl d`R; dks è;ku esa j[krs gq, mls la;qDr jkT; vejhdk dk eq[;foèkk;d (Chief Legislator) dgk tkrk gS vkSj mldh foLr`r ppkZ dh tkrh gSA ns[kk tk, rks jk"Vªifr dk ;g

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lans'k osQoy dkaxzsl osQ uke ugha gksrk_ ;g lkjh vejhdh turk vkSj iwjs fo'o osQ uke gksrk gSA yksder ij mldktks çHkko iM+rk gS] mls è;ku esa j[kdj gh dkaxzsl jk"Vªifr osQ çLrkoksa ij mi;qDr dkjZokbZ djrh gSA vfèkos'kuosQ nkSjku Hkh ;fn jk"Vªifr ;g vuqHko djrk gS fd dkaxzsl dk n`f"Vdks.k mlosQ çLrkoksa osQ çfr vuqdwy ugha gSrks og fiQj] ftruh ckj pkgs] jk"Vª osQ uke lans'k tkjh dj ldrk gSA

ijarq dksbZ jk"Vªifr vius çLrkoksa dks dkaxzsl osQ ekè;e ls dgka rd dk;kZfUor djk ik,xkμ ;g mlosQ viusO;fDrRo] dkaxzsl esa mlosQ ny osQ cgqer vkSj yksder osQ leFkZu ij fuHkZj gSA vke rkSj ij jk"Vªifr osQ çLrkoksaesa ls vkèks ls T;knk dk;kZfUor ugha gks ikrsA mlosQ ctV&çLrkoksa esa Hkh dkaxzsl dbZ rjg osQ ifjorZu ;k dVkSrhdj nsrh gSA

jk"Vªifr dh lekuqefr vkSj fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Presidential Assesent and Veto): dksbZ Hkh foèks;d dkaxzsl osQ nksuksalnuksa esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn jk"Vªifr osQ ikl lekuqifr* osQ fy, Hkstk tkrk gSA ;fn jk"Vªifr ml foèks;d osQ çLrqrhdj.k(Submission) osQ fnu ls dkaxszl osQ nl dk;Z&fnol (Working Days) chr tkus ij Hkh dksbZ vkifÙk ugha djrk rksbls jk"Vªifr dh êkSu lEefr* eku fy;k tkrk gS_ vr% og foèks;d dkuwu cu tkrk gSA

ijarq ;fn jk"Vªifr bl vofèk ls igys ml foèks;d ij viuh vkifÙk;ka O;Dr djosQ mls dkaxzsl osQ ikl okilHkst nsrk gS rks dkaxzsl osQ ikl nks fodYi jg tkrs gS% (d) og jk"Vªifr osQ lq>koksa osQ vuqlkj foèks;d esa la'kksèkudj ns] vkSj mls u, :i esa nqckjk ikfjr djosQ jk"Vªifr osQ ikl Hkst ns rkfd jk"Vªifr mldk vuqeksnu dj ns_;k fiQj ([k) dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnu ml foèks;d dks ewy :i esa nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls nqckjk ikfjr djs nsa ftlls jk"Vªifrdk fu"ksèkkfèkdkj fujLr gks tkrk gSA ijarq bruk cgqer tqVkuk ljy ugha gksrkA bldk vFkZ ;g gqvk fd jk"Vªifr fdlhfoèks;d dks dqN le; osQ fy, fuyafcr (Suspend) dj ldrk gSA jk"Vªifr osQ bl vfèkdkj dks fuyacu&fu"ksèkkfèkdkj(Suspensory Veto) dgk tkrk gSA

;fn jk"Vªifr ,sls fdlh foèks;d ij gLrk{kj djus ls budkj dj ns] vkSj nl dk;Z&fnol iwjs gksus ls igys dkaxzslLFkfxr (Adjorun) gks tk, rks og foèks;d viuh ekSr ej tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr osQ bl vfèkdkj dks tsc esa Mkyusdk fu"ksèkkfèkdkj* ;k ^vojksèku&fu"ksèkkfèkdkj* (Pocket Veto) dgk tkrk gSA ;fn dkaxzsl ml foèks;d ijiqufoZpkj pkgrh gks rks mls u, vfèkos'ku esa u, fljs ls ikfjr djosQ jk"Vªifr osQ ikl Hkstuk iM+sxkA

dk;Zdkjh vkns'k (Executive Order): dkaxzsl jk"Vªifr vkSj mlosQ ç'kklfud foHkkxksa (Executive Agencies) dksdk;Zdkjh vkns'k fudkyus dh vuqefr nsrh gS ;s vkns'k dkuwu dh rjg ekU; vkSj çHkko'kkyh gksrs gSaA ;s vkns'keq[;r% rhu mís';ksa dh iwfrZ osQ fy, tkjh fd, tkrs gSa % (d) lafoèkku ;k fdlh fo'ks"k dkuwu dh O;oLFkkvksadks O;kogkfjd :i nsus osQ fy, ([k) fons'kksa osQ lkFk dh xbZ lafèk;ksa dks ykxw djus osQ fy,_ vkSj (x) u,ç'kklfud foHkkx LFkkfir djus osQ fy, ;k bu foHkkxksa osQ dk;Z esa dksbZ ifjorZu djus osQ fy,A mnkgj.k osQ fy,]fL=k;ksa vkSj v'osrksa osQ fy, lkekjkRed dkjZokbZ (Affirmative Action) dh O;oLFkk osQ dk;kZUo;u] jk"Vªifr dk;kZy;osQ iquxZBu] vkikr fLFkfr (Emergency) osQ nkSjku miHkksDrk oLrqvksa dh jk'ku&O;oLFkk (Rationing) rFkk dherksavkSj etnwjh dh njksa osQ fu;a=k.k] bR;kfn osQ ekeys esa dk;Zdkjh vkns'kksa dk foLrr ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

lhusV dk vuqleFkZu (Senatorial Ratification): jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr;ksa dks dkaxzsl osQ vadq'k esa j[kus osQ fy,,d O;oLFkk ;g dh xbZ gS fd jk"Vªifr mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa dh tks fu;qfDr;ka djsxk] ;k fons'kksa osQ lkFk tks lafèk;kadjsxk] os rHkh ekU; gksaxh tc lhusV mldk vuqleFkZu dj nsxhA fu;qfDr;ksa osQ vuqleFkZu osQ fy, lhusV dk lkèkkj.kcgqer (Simple Majority) i;kZIr gksrk gSA oSls fu;qfDr;ksa dh çfØ;k dks lhusV&lkStU;* (Sentorial Courtesy)

dh çFkk osQ varxZr dqN gn rd ljy cuk fn;k x;k gS vrajkZ"Vªh; lafèk;ksa osQ vuqleFkZu osQ fy, lhusV esa mifLFkrvkSj ernku esa Hkkx ysus okys lnL;ksa dks nks&frgkbZ cgqer t:jh gSA

lhusV&lkStU; vejhdh lafoèkku dh ,d egÙoiw.kZ çFkk (Convention) gSA bldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd ;fn jk"Vªifrdks fdlh jkT;&fo'ks"k ls tqM+s gq, la?kh; in (Federal Office) ijμtSls fd ftyk U;k;oknh (District Attorney)

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osQ in ij fu;qfDr djuh gks] vkSj ml jkT; dk ,d ;k nksuksa lhusV lnL; (Senators) jk"Vªifr osQ vius jktuhfrdny osQ gksa rks jk"Vªifr ,slh fu;qfDr djus ls igys ml ,d ;k nksuksa lhusV&lnL;ksa ls ijke'kZ dj ysrk gS ;fn osçLrkfor fu;qfDr dk vuqeksnu dj nsa rks lhusV ml fu;qfDr dh iqf"V dj nsxhA blosQ foijhr] ;fn mUgsa bl ijvkifÙk gks rks lhusV Hkh mudh iqf"V ugha djsxhA

dk;Zdkjh foHkkxksa osQ fujh{k.k esa dkaxzsl&lfefr;ksa dh Hkwfedk (Role of the Congress Committee in

the Inspection of Executive Agencies): dkaxzsl dh fofHkUu lfefr;ksa oSls rks fofèk fuekZ.k osQ dk;Z esa lgk;rknsus osQ fy, cukbZ tkrh gSa] ijarq vius fopkj{ks=k esa vkus okys fo"k;ksa osQ ç'kklfud foHkkxksa osQ vUos"k.k vkSjfo'ys"k.k osQ fy, os ç'kklfud foHkkxksa ls dksbZ Hkh tkudkjh (Informations) ekax ldrh gS] ;k fooj.k (Reports)

e¡xk ldrh gSA ç'kklfud foHkkx bu lfefr;ksa dh iwNrkN (Inquires) dks cgqr xaHkhjrkiwoZd ysrs gSa] vkSj bUgsami;qDr tkudkjh nsus osQ fy, lnSo rS;kj jgrs gSaA bl rjg bu lfefr;ksa osQ ekè;e ls dkaxzsl us ç'kklfud foHkkxksaosQ dke&dkt osQ fujh{k.k dh Hkwfedk l¡Hkky yh gSA

foÙkh; fu;a=k.k (Financial Control): dkaxzsl fdlh Hkh ç'kklfud foHkkx (Agency) ;k dk;ZØe (Programme)

osQ fy, èku dh Lohdfr nsus ls igys ;g irk yxkrh gS fd ml foHkkx ;k dk;ZØe osQ fy, fiNyh ckj tks fofu;ksx(Appropriations) fd, x, Fks] mudk mi;ksx (Utilization) fdl&fdl rjg fd;k x;k gS\ bl çFkk osQ dkj.kHkh la;qDr jkT; vejhdk esa dk;Zdkjh 'kk[kk (Executive branch) ij dkaxzsl dk fu;a=k.k LFkkfir gks x;k gSA blçFkk dks foÙkh; fu;a=k.k dh laKk nh tkrh gSA

jk"Vªifr ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dk vfèkdkj (Right to Impeachment of the President): vejhdk dhvè;{kh; ç.kkyh osQ varxZr jk"Vªifr vius vfLrRo osQ fy, foèkkueaMy (vFkkZr~ dkaxzsl) osQ jktuhfrd leFkZu(Political Support) ;k fo'okl (Confidence) ij vkfJr ugha gS vr% lkekU; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa dkaxzsl jk"Vªifrdks vius ls ugha gVk ldrhA ijarq ;fn ml ij ns'kæksg] Hkkjh Hkz"Vkpkj] t?kU; vijkèk ;k nq"deZ dk vkjksi gksrks ml ij egkfHk;ksx pyk;k tk ldrk gSA jk"Vªifr ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dk vfèkdkj osQoy dkaxzsl dks gSA ;gdkjZokbZ çfrfufèk lHkk esa 'kq: gkssrh gS tgka egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjk,¡ (Articles of Impeachment) rS;kj djosQ lhusVosQ ikl Hkst nh tkrh gS rkfd muosQ vkèkkj ij lhusV esa eqdnek pyk;k tk losQA egkfHk;ksx dh fdlh Hkh èkkjkdks ikfjr djus osQ fy, çfrfufèk lHkk dk lkèkkj.k cgqer (Simple Majority) i;kZIr gSA egkfHk;ksx osQ fu.kZ;osQ fy, lhusV dk nks&frgkbZ cgqer (Two-Thirs Majority) t:jh gksxkA

ledkyhu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa vejhdh jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr;ksa dk Hkkjh foLrkj gqvk gSA mUuhloh 'krkCnh osQ nkSjku ;glkspk tkrk Fkk fd dkaxzsl dh fo'kky 'kfDr;ksa dh rqyuk esa jk"Vªifr dh 'kfDr cgqr de gS] ijarq bDdhloha 'krkCnhesa tc la;qDr jkT; vejhdk lSU; 'kfDr vkSj vkfFkZd le`f¼ osQ f'k[kj ij igq¡p x;k gS] vejhdh jk"Vªifr dh'kfDr;ka Hkh mlh vuqikr ls c<+ xbZ gSaA vkt og fo'o dh lcls 'kfDr'kkyh vk;qèk'kkyk dk çèkku lsukifr gS_ogh fo'o osQ vU; 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vªks osQ lkFk lafèkokrkZ (Negotiation) pykrk gS_ og jk"Vª osQ lcls cM+s ç'kklfudlaxBu dk vè;{k gS_ og djksa dk çeq[k laxzkgd vkSj dkuwu dk çeq[k çoÙkZd gS_ ogh yksder dk çeq[k ç.ksrkgSaA fo'o osQ lcls 'kfDr'kkyh ns'k osQ eq[; dk;Zdkjh osQ ukrs mldh fLFkfr lpeqp cstksM+ gSA

fLol la?kh; foèkkueaMy (The Swiss Federal Assembly)

fLol lafoèkku osQ vquPNsn 71 esa fLol foèkkue.My dh nks ekSfyd fo'ks"krkvksa dh ppkZ dh x;h gSA çFke] ;gifjla?k dh loksZPp lÙkk (Supremacy) dk mi;ksx djrh gS] f}rh; ;g f}&lnukRed gSA

(i) f}lnukRed & blesa la?kh; lHkk dh loksZPp 'kfÙkQ fufgr gSaA ;g fLol turk rFkk dS.Vuksa osQ vfèkdkjksa dksNksM+dj la?k dh loksZPp 'kfÙkQ dk miHkksx djrh gSA la?kh; lHkk osQoy turk osQ vèkhu gSA turk dks NksM+djblosQ }kjk fufeZr fofèk ij dksbZ vkifÙk ugha dj ldrk gSA vesfjdk osQ ln`'k U;k;ikfydk dks Hkh U;kf;d leh{kkdk vfèkdkj çkIr ugha gSA dS.Vu osQ dkuwu ls la?kh; dkuwu dh mPp fLFkfr Hkh la?kh; foèkkue.My dh loksZPp'kfDr dk |ksrd gSA

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(ii) loksZifjrkμ la?kh; foèkkue.My dh f}lnukRed O;oLFkk osQ mn~Hko dh O;k[;k nks çdkj ls dh tkrh gSAçFke] lafoèkkufuekZrkvksa osQ lkeus nks leL;k,¡ Fkhaμ (i) osQUæh;dj.k vkSj foosQUæh;dj.k ;k oSaQVuksa dh laçHkqrk vkSj'kfÙkQ'kkyh la?k ljdkj rFkk (2) NksVs ,oa cM+s jkT;ksa osQ chp le>kSrk djukA bu leL;kvksa dks lqy>kus osQ fy,mUgksaus vejhdh lafoèkku ls ykHk mBk;kA mUgksaus f}lnukRed ç.kkyh dks viuk;k rkfd ,d lnu esa jk"Vª dkçfrfufèkRo gks losQ vkSj nwljs esa dS.Vuksa dkA ,d esa ns'k dh turk dks tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij çfrfufèkRo çkIrgks vkSj nwljsa esa çR;sd jkT; dks leku la[;k esa çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gksA vr% foèkkue.My dk nks Hkkxfd;k x;kμjk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ (The National Council) vkSj jkT; ifj"kn~ (The Council of States) A çFke jk"Vª dhlqn`<+rk rFkk ,drk dk çrhd gS rks nwljk dSVuksa dh çHkqrk rFkk mudh ijLij lekurk dk |ksrd gSA f}lnukRedO;oLFkk dks viukus dk nwljk dkj.k ,sfrgkfld ijEijk dk çHkko FkkA 1848 bZñ osQ iwoZ fLoV~tjySaM dh la?kh;foèkkuikfydk osQ :i esa ,d MkbV* (Diet) uked laLFkk Fkh ftlesa çR;sd dS.Vu dks ,d er çkIr FkkA vr%]la?kh; foèkkue.My esa ,d lnu dh vko';drk Fkh ftlesa çR;sd oSaQVu dks leku er feysA

jkT;&ifj"kn~~ (The council of States): jkT;&ifj"kn~~ fLol la?kh; lHkk dk mPp ;k f}rh; lnu (Upper orSecond Chamber) gSA ;|fi lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj ;g fuEu lnu dk vèkhuLFk (subordinate) ugha cfYdled{k (co-equal) lnu gS] fiQj Hkh la?kh; bdkb;ksa dk çfrfufèkRo djus osQ dkj.k vejhdh flusV rFkkHkkjrh; jkT; lHkk dh Js.kh esa bls j[kk tkrk gSA

laxBu & fLol jkT;&ifj"kn~~ dk laxBu vejhdh flusV ls feyrk&tqyrk gS ftl çdkj flusV esa çR;sd vejhdhjkT; dks çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gS] mlh çdkj jkT;&ifj"kn~~ esa çR;sd fLol dSaVu dk] pkgs mldk vkdkj;k tula[;k dqN Hkh gks] nks çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gSA fliQZ ,d fofHkUurk ;g gS fd vesfjdk osQ vln`'kLofV~tjySaM esa dqN bdkbZ;ksa dks] ftUgsa v¼Z&dS.Vu dgrs gSa] fliQZ ,d çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;kgSaA bl çdkj] jkT;&ifj"kn~~ dh lnL;&la[;k 44 gSμ 19 dS.Vuksa osQ 28 çfrfufèk vkSj 6 v¼Z&dS.Vuksa osQ 6 çfrfufèkAfo'o osQ vU; mPp lnuksa dh rqyuk esa ;g la[;k cgqr de gS D;ksafd vesfjdk] Hkkjr rFkk fczVsu osQ vU; lnuksadh lnL;&la[;k Øe'k% 100] 250 vkSj 900 gSA lnL;ksa dh ;ksX;rk,¡ mudh fuokZpu&i¼fr] inkofèk vkfn dkfuèkkZj.k dSaVuksa osQ gkFk esa gSaA iQyr% jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ lHkh lnL;ksa dh ;ksX;rk,¡] dk;Zdky rFkk fuokZpu&fofèk ,dleku ugha gSA çR;sd dSaVu dk vyx&vyx fu;e gSA 4 dSaVuksa dk çfrfufèk ogk¡ osQ foèkkueaMy }kjk 1 dSaVurFkk 3 v¼Z&dSaVuksa osQ çfrfufèk lkoZtfud lHkkvksa }kjk vkSj 'ks"k 14 dSaVuksa rFkk ,d v¼Zz dSaVuksa çfrfufèk O;oLFkkukxfjdksa }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ksa osQ pquko ij lafoèkku dh èkkjkvksa 6] 81 rFkk 108 osQ }kjk dfri;çfrcUèk yxk;s x;s gSaA èkkjk 6 esa dgk x;k gS fd dSaVuksa osQ lHkh fuokZpu çtkrkaf=kd* (democratic) gksaxsA èkkjk81 }kjk ;g çfrcUèk yxk;k x;k gS fd jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL; ,d gh lkFk jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ ;k la?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ugha gks ldrs gSaA èkkjk 108 osQ }kjk jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL; dks ,d gh la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ lnL; gksus ij jksd yxknh x;h gSA dSaVuksa }kjk vU; çfrcUèk Hkh yxk;s tk ldrs gSaA

fLol jkT; ifj"kn~~ dk laxBu vejhdh flusV osQ laxBu ls feyrk&tqyrk gSA nksuksa turkaf=kd i¼fr rFkk la?kh;bdkb;ksa dh lekurk osQ fl¼kUr ij vkèkkfjr gSA Hkkjrh; jkT;lHkk ls ;g laxBu bl vFkZ esa fHkUu gS fd ;gk¡ jkT;ksadk çfrfufèkRo lekurk osQ vkèkkj ij ugha vfirq tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij fd;k x;k gSA fczfV'k ykMZ lHkk lsvln`';rk rks vkSj Hkh vfèkd Li"V gS] D;ksafd ykMZ lHkk osQ lnL; oa'kxr ;k uketn gksrs gSaA

jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ laxBu ls ;g lUnsg iSnk gksrk gS fd og fliQZ dSaVuksa dk çfrfufèk rFkk muosQ fgrks dk laj{kdgksxkA ysfdu] O;ogkj esa bl lnu us dHkh bl çdkj dh ladh.kZ eukso`fÙk dk çn'kZu ugha fd;kA jk"Vªh; fgr dhvis{kk blus dHkh dSaVuksa osQ fgrks dk leFkZu ugha fd;kA u rks ;g jkT;fèkdkjksa (State's Rights) osQ leFkZdksa dkx<+ gh gSA u rks fczVsu dh ykWMZ lHkk dh Hkk¡fr bls çfrfØ;kokfn;ksa dk çoDrk gh dgk tk ldrk gSA foèks;dksa ijfopkj&foe'kZ djus esa blus jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ ls Hkh vfèkd mnkjrk dk çek.k fn;k gSA

dk;Zdky & fLol jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ksa osQ dk;Zdky esa Hkh vlekurk gSaA fofHkUu dSaVu vyx&vyx vofèk;ksaosQ fy, lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu djrs gSaA iQyLo:i jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ 35 lnL; 4 o"kZ osQ fy, 5 lnL; 3 o"kZ osQ fy,

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vkSj 4 lnL; osQoy 1 o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA ;gk¡ ;g Lej.kh; gS fd vesfjdh flusV dh Hkk¡fr jkT;&ifj"kn~~osQ lnL;ksa dk dk;Zdky O;kogkjr% cgqr gksrk gS] D;ksafd çk;% mudk iqufuokZpu ckj&ckj gksrk jgrk gSA

lnL;ksa osQ fo'ks"kkfèkdkj rFkk mUeqfÙkQ;k¡& fLol laln osQ çfrfufèk;ksa dks dqN fo'ks"kkfèkdkj (Special

privileges) rFkk mUeqfDr;k¡ (Immunities) çkIr gSA la?kh; dkuwu }kjk lnL;ksa dks cksyus rFkk okn&fokn esa Hkkxysus dh LoraU=krk gSA mUgsa osQoy vius lnu osQ çfr mÙkjnk;h Bgjk;k tk ldrk gSA vU; fdlh vfèkdkjh osQ çfrmÙkjnk;h ughaA foèkkueaMy }kjk ikfjr fofèk;ksa osQ fy, os mÙkjnk;h ugha gksrsA U;kf;d çfØ;kvksa (Judicial

Proceedings) osQ l=k osQ le; mUgsa mUeqfDr çkIr gSA osQoy foèkkueaMy gh bls lekIr dj ldrh gSA foèkkueaMyosQ l=k osQ le; xEHkhj vijkèk osQ fy, fdlh çfrfufèk dks fxjÝrkj fd;k tk ldrk gS] ysfdu lEcfUèkr lnuls 24 ?k.Vs osQ vUnj vkKk ysdj gh mls cUnh cuk;k tk ldrk gSA

inkfèkdkjh & ;|fi lafoèkku }kjk çR;sd o"kZ osQ fy, vè;{k rFkk mikè;{k osQ pquko dh O;oLFkk dh x;h gS]ysfdu jkT;&ifj"kn~ çR;sd o"kZ osQ fy, vè;{k rFkk mikè;{k dk fuokZpu djrh gSA ;s inkfèkdkjh jkT;&ifj"kn~ osQlnL;ksa esa ls gh pqus tkrs gSaA osQoy 'krZ ;g gS fd ,d gh dSaVu osQ lnL; yxkrkj vè;{k ;k mikè;{k fuokZfprugha gks ldrsA ;gk¡ ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk vkSj Hkkjr esa mijk"Vªifr mPp lnu osQ insu(ex-office) vè;{k gksrs gSA

tgk¡ rd vfèkdkj dk ç'u gS fLol jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ vè;{k dh fLFkfr vejhdh flusV osQ vè;{k ls cgqr&dqNfeyrh&tqyrh gSA og cSBdksa dk lHkkifrRo djrk] lnu esa O;oLFkk LFkkfir djrk rFkk fu;eksa dks ykxw djrk gSAcjkcj er (Tie) iM+us ij mls fu.kkZ;d er (Casting Vote) nsus dk vfèkdkj gSA

çfrfufèkμjkT;&ifj"kn~~ dh lnL;rk esa dkiQh fLFkjrk ik;h tkrh gSA vfèkdka'k çfrfufèk iqufuokZpr gks tkrs gSavkSj bPNki;ZUr fuokZfpr gksrs jgrs gSA vfèkdka'k çfrfufèk mPpdksfV osQ gksrs gS rFkk mPp f'k{kk çkIr fd;sjgrs gSaA jktuhfr mudh is'kk gksrh gSA os çk;% dE;wu ;k dSaVu ls viuk jktuhfrd thou çkjEHk djrs gSaAdSaVuksa esa liQy jktuhfrd thou O;rhr djus osQ ckn gh os la?kh; dk;Zikfydk ;k foèkkf;dk esa LFkku çkIrdj ldrs gSaA muesa ls vfèkdka'k mPp f'k{kk çkIr fd;s jgrs gSaA 1960 bZñ esa yxHkx vkèks lnL;ksa dks MkWDVjdh mikfèk çkIr FkhA

jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ (The National Council): jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ turk dh çfrfufèk lHkk gS] dSaVuksa dh ughaA bldk fuokZputurk Lo;a çR;{k :i ls djrh gSA bl lnu dks Hkkjr esa yksdlHkk vkSj fczVsu esa dkWeu lHkk dgk tkrk gSA

laxBu& jkT;ifj"kn~ osQ ln`'k jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ dh jpuk vkSj laxBu la?kh; foèkku osQ micUèkksa osQ vuqlkj fd;k x;kgSA ysfdu] Hkkjrh; yksdlHkk dh rjg mldh vfèkdre lnL;&la[;k fuf'pr ugha dh x;h gSA fliZQ bruk dgkx;k gS fd çR;sd 24]000 dh tula[;k ij ,d çfrfufèk pquk tk;sxkA ysfdu 12]000 ls vfèkd tula[;k ijHkh ,d gh çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gS pkgs mldh tula[;k fdruh Hkh de D;ksa u gksA bl vkèkkj ij çkjEHkessa jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ dh lnL;&la[;k 120 Fkh] ijUrq tula[;k esa o`f¼ gksus osQ dkj.k vktdy ;g la[;k 196 gksx;h gSA lnL;ksa dh la[;k 200 ls de j[kus osQ fy, 1931 bZñ rFkk 1950 bZñ esa laoSèkkfud la'kksèkuksa }kjk tula[;kçfrfufèk osQ vuqikr esa ifjorZu yk;k x;k gSA vHkh 24 gtkj dh tula[;k ij ,d çfrfufèk dk fuokZpu gksrkgSA rqyukRed n`f"Vdks.k ls ;g la[;k cgqr de gS] D;ksafd fczVsu] iwoZ lksfo;r la?k] Hkkjr vkSj vesfjdk esa fuEulnuksa dh lnL;&la[;k Øe'k% 625] 622] 545 vkSj 435 gSA

fuokZpu&ç.kkyh& Úkal osQ prqFkZ x.krU=k dh Hkk¡fr jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ çfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko turk }kjk çR;{k :ils vkuqikfrd çfrfufèk&ç.kkyh (proportional representation) osQ vkèkkj ij fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ç.kkyh 1919bZ- esa viuk;h x;h FkhA 1919 bZñ osQ iwoZ fuokZpu ,dy&lnL; fuokZpu&{ks=kksa (Single member's constituenices)

osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk FkkA orZeku dky esa çR;sd dSaVu vFkok v¼Z&dSaVu dks ,d fuokZpu&{ks=k (electoral

constituency) eku fy;k tkrk gSA vr% fuokZpu&{ks=k osQ vkdkj rFkk mlls fuokZfpr çfrfufèk;ksa dh la[;k esa

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fHkUurk gksrh gSA pquko esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk egÙo c<+ tkrk gS] D;ksafd ernkrk O;kogkjr% nyksa dks er nsrsgSa] O;fDrxr çR;kf'k;ksa dks ugha A fLoV~tjySaM esa vkuqikfrd çfrfufèkRo i¼fr dh vkykspuk vusd ys[kdksa usdh gSA fo'ks"kdj áwt us blosQ dbZ nq"ifj.kkeksa dh vksj è;ku vkdf"kZr fd;k gSμ

(d) ernkrk rFkk çfrfufèk;ksa dk lEidZ lEcUèk vR;Ur fucZy gks x;k gSA jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL; ernkrkvksaosQ çfrfufèk u jgdj jktuhfrd nyksa osQ çfrfufèk gks x;s gSaA

([k) foèkkueaMy dh fLFkfr cgqr fucZy gks tkrh gSA tc fdlh ,d ny dks Li"V cgqer çkIr ugha gksrkA rc,drk rFkk ,d:i uhfr osQ vHkko esa jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ 'kfDr'kkyh rFkk çHkko'kkyh ugha cu ikrh gSA

(x) jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ esa vusd nyksa dks yxHkx leku çfrfufèkRo çkIr gksrk gSA iQyLo:i] foèkkueaMy ,dfuf'pr uhfr dk vuqlj.k ugha dj ikrh gS] fofHkUu fopkjèkkjkvksa esa le>kSrk djuk iM+rk gS rFkkmÙkjnkf;Ro foHkkftr gks tkrk gSA

(?k) la?kh; ifj"kn~~ dk laxBu Hkh cgqnyh; gks tkrk gS ftldk cqjk çHkko 'kklu ij iM+rk gSA cgqnyh; gksusosQ dkj.k jkT;&ifj"kn~ la?kh; ifj"kn~ dk nkl cu tkrh gSA

ysfdu] vkjñlhñ ?kks"k dh jk; esa fLoV~tjySaM esa Úkal vkSj bVyh dh rjg vkuqikfrd çfrfufèkRo ç.kkyh us çcynq"çofÙk;ksa dks tUe ugha fn;k gS] cfYd bl ç.kkyh us fuokZpu esa U;k;çofÙk dks gh c<+kok fn;k gS vkSj tuer&laxzgosQ nks"kksa dks nwj fd;k gSA

ernkrkμ fLol lafoèkku esa ernkrk (Voters) lEcUèkh O;oLFkk mYys[kuh; gSA çR;sd fLot iq:"k ukxfjd dks]ftldh vk;q 20 o"kZ ;k mlls vfèkd gks] er nsus dk vfèkdkj gSA ukxfjdksa osQ ernku dk vfèkdkj vusd çfrcUèkksarFkk lhekvksa ls e;kZfnr gSA lcls mYys[kuh; ckr ;g gS fd fL=k;ksa dks erkfèkdkj ls gky rd oafpr j[kk x;kgSaA 8 iQjojh] 1971 ls mUgsa Hkh erkfèkdkj çnku dj fn;k x;k gSA tks O;fÙkQ lfØ; ukxfjdrk ls oafpr dj fn;sx;s gSa ;k ftUgsa iQkStnkjh vijkèk esa naM feyk gks mUgsa erkfèkdkj çkIr ugha gSaA fofHkÂ dSaVuksa esa fnokfy;ksa] fHk{kqdksarFkk nq'pfj=k O;fDr;ksa dks erkfèkdkj ugha fn;k x;k gSA

lnL;rk& fLol lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ dh lnL; (membership) osQ fy, os vgZrk,¡ fuèkkZfjr dh xbZ gSa tksernkrkvksa dh vgZrk,¡ gS_ vFkkZr~ çR;sd fLol ukxfjdksa] ftls erkfèkdkj çkIr gS] jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ dk lnL; culdrk gSA ysfdu] ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd èkkjk 75 osQ vuqlkj dksbZ èkekZfèkdkjh (clergy) vkSj èkkjk 77 osQ vuqlkjjkT;&ifj"kn~~ rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL; ugha cu ldrs gSaA dSaVu ik"kZnksa dks vU; fdlhin ij dk;Z djus ls oafpr dj ldrs gSa] tSls la?kh; ifj"kn~~ ;k la?kh; U;k;ky; dh lnL;rkA

dk;Zdkyμ1931 bzZ- rd jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ dk dk;Zdky (term) 2 o"kZ FkkA ysfdu] vktdy ;g lafoèkku }kjk 4o"kZ fuf'pr dj fn;k x;k gS tcfd Hkkjr] baxySaM] Úkal] dukMk vkSj bVyh esa 5 o"kZ rFkk vkLVªsfy;k esa 3 o"kZvkSj vesfjdk esa 2 o"kZ gSa ;gk¡ nks ckrsa mYys[kuh; gSA çFke ,d vfèkos'ku osQ vof'k"V dk;Z nwljs vfèkos'ku dksgLrkarfjr gksrs gSa vkSj ,d jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ 'ks"k dk;Z nwljh uo&fuokZfpr jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ dksaA f}rh; vfèkdka'klnL;ksa osQ iqufuZokfpr gks tkus osQ dkj.k lnu dh lnL;rk i;kZIr fLFkj jgrh gS] lnu dks Hkax ugha fd;k tkrk]fliQZ la'kksèku osQ ç'u ij erHksn gksus ij lEHko gSA

ik"kZnksa dh O;fÙkQxr i`"BHkwfe& ik"kZnksa dh O;fÙkQxr i`"BHkwfe ls mudh ;ksX;rk dk irk pyrk gSA jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~esa fofHkUu is'ks osQ yksxksa dks çfrfufèkRo çkIr gS] tSls d`"kd] odhy] O;olk;h] f'k{kd] MkWDVj] dSaVu rFkkuxjikfydkvksa osQ vfèkdkjh vkfnA foxr ipkl o"kks± esa odhyksa dh la[;k esa deh gqbZ gSA 1916 bZñ esa mudh la[;k41 çfr'kr Fkh] 1945 bZñ esa 19 çfr'kr rFkk 1955 bZñ esa 13 çfr'kr gks xbZA

mez osQ n`f"Vdks.k ls vfèkdk'ka lnL; v?ksM+ rFkk cqtqxZ gksrs gSaA 1919 bZñ esa vkuqikfrd çfrfufèkRo ykxw gksus osQckn ;qod lnL;ksa dh la[;k esa fnu çfrfnu o`f¼ gksrh tk jgh gSA 40 ls 49 o"kZ osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k esa fLFkjrkik;h tkrh gS rFkk 50 o"kZ ls vfèkd mez osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k esa o`f¼A

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osru] HkÙks vkfn μ jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ksa dks ekfld osru ugha feyrk gSA bUgsa lnu dh cSBd osQ le; fliQZ70 iQSad çfrfnu HkÙkk rFkk ekxZ O;; fn;k tkrk gS tks bruk de gS fd muosQ thou&fuokZg dk lkèku ugha culdrkA vr%] mUgsa fdlh nwljs oSrfud jktuhfr in ij dk;Z djuk iM+rk gSA

inkfèkdkjhμ jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ vius lnL;ksa esa ls gh ,d vè;{k vkSj ,d mikè;{k dk fuokZpu djrh gSA bldkpquko çfro"kZ ,d o"kZ osQ fy, gksrk gSA ;g çfrcUèk yxk fn;k x;k gS fd dksbZ Hkh O;fÙkQ yxkrkj nks o"kks± rdmikè;{k ugha cu ldrk vkSj tks O;fÙkQ vè;{k jg pqdk gks og vxys o"kZ osQ fy, iqu% vè;{k ;k mikè;{k ughafuokZfpr gks ldrkA bu çfrcUèkksa dk mís'; ;g gS fd ;s in fdlh ,d O;fÙkQ fdlh jktuhfrd ny] fdlh ,ddSaVu] fdlh ,d Hkk"kk&Hkk"kh vFkok èkkfeZd leqnk; osQ ,dkfèkdkj u cu tk;¡A vè;{k dks dksbZ foèks"kkfèkdkj çkIrugha gSA budh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ lkekU; gSaA lnu esa vuq'kklu cuk;s j[kus dk nkf;Ro mlh ij gSA tc lnu esa fuokZpugksrk gS rc vè;{k vU; lnL;ksa osQ leku gh ernku djrk gSA

nksuksa lnuksa esa lEcUèk% leku lnuμ çksñ LVªkax us dgk fdμ ¶fLol dk;Zikfydk dh rjg fLol foèkkuikfydkHkh vf}rh; gSA fo'o esa ;gh foèkkuikfydk gS ftlosQ mPp lnu vkSj fuEu lnu esa dksbZ vUrj ugha gSA¸

lafoèkku }kjk la?kh; lHkk osQ nksuksa lnuksa dks leku fLFkfr çnku dh x;h gSA vesfjdk dh flusV dks NksM+dj fo'oosQ vU; ns'kksa osQ f}rh; lnu f}rh; Js.kh osQ (Secondary) ;k vèkhuLFk (Subordinate) lnu gSaA ijUrq] fLoV~tjySaMesa jkT;&ifj"kn~~ iw.kZr% jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ leku gSA dksbZ foèks;d ;gk¡ rd fd foÙkh; foèks;d Hkh] fdlh lnu esaçsf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA dksbZ Hkh foèks;d rcrd dkuwu ugha cu ldrk tcrd nksuksa lnuksa }kjk ikfjr u gkstk;A ;fn ,d lnu nwljs lnu }kjk ikfjr foèks;d dks Lohdkj u djsa ;k mlesa bl çdkj dk la'kksèku djs tksigys lnu dks Lohdkj u gks rks ,slh n'kk esa foèks;d dks ,d ls nwljs lnu esa iqufoZpkj osQ fy, Hkstk tk;xkA;fn fdlh çdkj le>kSrk u gks losQ rks nksuksa lnuksa osQ lnL;ksa }kjk xfBr ,d eè;LFk lfefr (Arbitration

Committee) dh fu;qfÙkQ dh tkrh gSA ;fn og eè;LFk lfefr Hkh dksbZ le>kSrk dj ldus esa vleFkZ jgrh gSrks foèks;d jí gks tkrk gS ysfdu tSlk fd áwcj us dgk gS] ¶çk;% loZnk dksbZ ekxZ fey tkrk gS vkSj mi;qZÙkQeè;LFkrk dh O;oLFkk dh vko';drk ugha gksrh gSA¸ foèks;d osQ lEcUèk esa rhu ckrsa mYys[kuh; gSaA çFke Hkkjr]baxySaM] Úkal vkfn ns'kksa osQ f}rh; lnuksa dks fliQZ dqN fnuksa rd foèks;d ikfjr gksus esa nsj yxkus dh 'kfÙkQ çkIrgS tcfd fLoV~tjySaM esa iw.kZ lekurk dh fLFkfr gSA f}rh; vU; ns'kksa esa] vesfjdk dks NksM+dj nksuksa lnuksa esa erHksrgksus ij vUrr% fuEu lnu dh gh fot; gksrh gS] ysfdu fLoV~tjySaM esa nksuksa lnuksa dk leku cksyckyk jgrk gSAlnuksa esa erHksn gksus ij fLoV~tjySaM esa vesfjdk osQ leku eè;LFk lfefr (Arbitration Committee) dk lgkjkfy;k tkrk gS tcfd Hkkjr esa nksuksa lnuksa osQ la;qÙkQ vfèkos'ku (Joint Session) vkSj fczVsu esa yksdlHkk }kjk ,do"kZ osQ vUnj yxkrkj nks vfèkos'kuksa esa ikfjr djus dh fofèk dks viuk;k x;k gSA r`rh;] fLV~tjySaM esa foÙkh;foèks;d osQ lacaèk esa nksuksa lnu dks ,d leku vfèkdkj çkIr gS] ysfdu vU; ns'kksa esa foÙk ij vfUre fu;U=k.kfuEu lnuksa dk gSA dk;Zdkfj.kh ij fu;U=k.k Hkh nksuksa lnuksa dk leku gSA la?kh; ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL; nksuksa lnuksa esamifLFkr jgrs gS vkSj ç'uksa dk mÙkj nsrs gSaA vU; çtkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa dk;Zdkfj.kh ij fu;U=k.k dh vfUre vkSjokLrfod 'kfÙkQ fuEu lnuksa dks gh çkIr gSA bl çdkj] gj {ks=k esa nksuksa lnuksa dh 'kfÙkQ ,d leku gS] nksuksa dkegÙo ,d leku gSA ;fn nksuks esa dqN vUrj gS rks os ux.; gSA

?kVrk çHkko& vkèkqfud dky esa ,d u;h laoSèkkfud ço`fÙk n`f"Vxkspj gks jgh gSμ jkT;&ifj"kn~~] jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~osQ leku vfèkdkj j[krs gq, Hkh de egÙoiw.kZ gks x;h gS vkSj gksrh tk jgh gSA blosQ èkhjs&èkhjs de gksrs la?kh;ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ksa dk pquk tkuk] dqN lnL;ksa dk vçR;{k jhfr ls fuokZpu rFkk lnL;ksa dk tula[;k osQ vuqikresa çfrfufèkRo u djukA nwljh vksj] jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ loZlkèkkj.k dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gSA iQyLo:i] mldh çfr"Bkvfèkd gS vkSj leLr jktuhfrd fØ;kdykiksa osQ osQUæ LFky gSA blh dkj.k çfrHkk'kkyh rFkk vuqHkoh O;fÙkQ jk"Vªh;ifj"kn~~ dh lnL;rk dks Js"Brj le>rs gSaA ykWosy osQ vuqlkj Hkh jkT;&ifj"kn~~ osQ ?kfV;k çHkko dk ,d dkj.k gSfd mlesa jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ dh vis{kk jktuhfrd usrk de feyrs gSaA fiQj Hkh] bruk Li"V gS fd fLol jkT;&ifj"kn~~

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baxySaM dh ykWMZlHkk] Hkkjr dh jkT;lHkk] tkiku rFkk bVyh dh flusV bR;kfn f}rh; lnuksa ls cgqr vfèkd'kfDr'kkyh gSA blosQ vfrfjÙkQ] tSlk fd equjks us dgk gS] ¶fo'o osQ vfèkdka'k f}rh; lnuksaa osQ leku jkT;&ifj"kn~us çfrfØ;koknh gksus dh çflf¼ çkIr ugha dh gSA fLol jkT;&ifj"kn~~ dks dksbZ Hkh O;fDr çfrfØ;kokn dk x<+ vFkokçxfr dk ckèkd ugha dgrk gSA¸

la?kh; lHkk dh 'kfDr;k¡% fczfV'k laln dh Hkk¡fr fLol la?kh; lHkk esa jk"Vª dh loksZPp 'kfÙkQ fufgr gSaA jk"Vª esabudh fLFkfr loksZifj gSA fliQZ vUrj ;g gS fd bl ij dqN laoSèkkfud çfrcUèk gS fd ftudk mYys[k lafoèkku osQvuqPNsn 71 vkSj 84 esa feyrk gSA vuqPNsn 71 osQ vuqlkj] turk rFkk dSaVuksa osQ vfèkdkjksa ij fcuk çfrdwy çHkkoMkys fLol la?kh; lHkk fLol jkT;e.My dh loksZPp 'kfÙkQ dk ç;ksx dj ldrh gSA vuqPNsn 84 osQ vuqlkj] jk"Vªh;ifj"kn~ og lHkh dk;Z dj ldrh gS tks jkT; osQ vfèkdkj&{ks=k esa gSa vkSj tks vU; fdlh la?kh; çkfèkdkjh dks ugha lkSaisx;s gSaA bl vuqPNsnksa ls la?kh; lHkk dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa ij fuEufyf[kr rhu çfrcUèk Li"V gksrs gSaμ

(i) fLol turk osQ vfèkdkj

(ii) fLol dS.Vuksa osQ vfèkdkj

(iii) lafoèkku }kjk vU; la?kh; çkfèkdkfj;ksa dks lkSais x;s vfèkdkjA

lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 85 esa la?kh; lHkk dh 'kfÙkQ;k¡ dk foLrr mYys[k feyrk gS ftudk vè;;u vxzfyf[kr 'kh"kZdksaosQ vUrxZr fd;k tk ldrk gSμ

(i) foèkk;h vfèkdkjμ la?kh; lHkk ewyr% ,d foèkk;h lHkk (legislative body) gSA bldk eq[; dk;Z fofèk fuekZ.kdjuk gSA la?kh; lwph osQ vUrxZr lHkh fo"k;ksa ij bls dkuwu cukus dk vfèkdkj gSA ;g la?kh; çkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ laxBurFkk fuokZpu lEcUèkh fofèk;k¡ cukrh gSA la?kh; vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ osru vkSj HkÙks dks fuèkkZfjr djrh gSA la?kh; 'kkluosQ vUrxZr ;g LFkk;h inksa dk fuekZ.k djrh gS rFkk mudk osru fuèkkZfjr djrh gSA lafoèkku osQ la'kksèku dk;Z esala?kh; lHkk dk çeq[k gkFk jgrk gSA

(ii) ç'kkldh; vfèkdkj & la?kh; lHkk dks dqN egÙiw.kZ dk;Zikfydk 'kfÙkQ;k¡ Hkh çkIr gSμ (d) fuokZpu&lEcUèkhvfèkdkj fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gSA la?kh; lHkk nksuksa lnuksa osQ la;qÙkQ vfèkos'ku esa ifj"kn~~ osQ lnL;ksa ] muosQvè;{k vkSj mikè;{k] la?kh; U;k;kfèkdj.k osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa] la?kh; chek fudk; osQ lnL;ksa] loksZPp lsukifr] fo'ks"ktu&vfHk;kstuk (Extraodinary Public Prosecutor)] pkalyj vkfn dk fuokZpu djrh gSA la?kh; fofèk }kjk bldkvU; fdlh Hkh çkfèkdkfj;ksa dk pquko djus vFkok fdlh pquko dh lEiqf"V djus dk vfèkdkj fn;k tk ldrk gSA

([k) oSnsf'kd lEcUèk ij la?kh; lHkk iw.kZ fu;af=kr gSA ;g jk"Vª dh cká vkØe.kksa ls j{kk djrh gS] mldhLorU=krk rFkk rVLFkrk dh j{kk dh O;oLFkk djrh gS] ;q¼ dh ?kks"k.kk] ijLij vFkok fons'kksa ls dh x;hlaf?k;ksa dks vuqefr çnku djrh gSA

(x) dS.Vuksa dh 'kkluO;oLFkk ij Hkh la?kh; lHkk dk fu;U=k.k jgrk gSA ;g dS.Vuksa osQ {ks=kksa rFkk muosQ lafoèkkudks vkUrfjd v'kkafr rFkk ckgjh geys ls j{kk dh xkj.Vh nsrh gSA tc dksbZ dS.Vu la?kh; fofèk;ksa dksfØ;kfUor djus vFkok la?kh; mÙkjnkf;Ro osQ fuokZgu esa ckèkk Mkyrk gS rc la?kh; lHkk gh ;g fu'p; djrhgS fd vijkèkh dS.Vu osQ fo:¼ D;k dk;Zokgh dh tk;A ;g dS.Vuksa rFkk fons'kh jk"Vªksa ,oa fofHkÂ dS.VuksaosQ eè; gqbZ lfUèk;ksa dks Lohd`fr çnku djrh gSA

(?k) ns'k dh vkUrfjd O;oLFkk dk mÙkjnkf;Ro Hkh la?kh; lHkk ij gh gSA ns'k esa vkUrfjd 'kkfUr o O;oLFkk]osQ fy, vko';d dk;ZokbZ djuk blh dh ftEesnkjh gSA bl lHkk osQ vU; çeq[k ç'kkldh; dk;Z Hkh gStSls] nf.Mr vijkfèk;ksa dks {keknku vFkok lkewfgd {keknku çnku djuk] la?kh; lsuk dk fu;eu ofu;U=k.k djuk rFkk la?kh; ç'kklu dh fujh{k.k o funsZ'ku djuk bR;kfnA

la?kh; lHkk osQ ç'kkldh; dk;ks± osQ lacaèk ls ;g Lej.kh; gS fd og çk;% vius lHkh dk;ks± osQ lEiknu dk mÙkjnkf;Rola?kh; ifj"kn~~ dks lkSai nsrh gS tks lHkk osQ fujh{k.k vkSj funsZ'ku esa dk;Z djrh gSA

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(iii) foÙkh; vfèkdkjμ foÙk ij Hkh la?kh; lHkk dk vuU; fu;U=k.k gSA la?kh; ifj"kn~~ }kjk çLrkfor okf"kZd ctVdks ;g Lohd`fr nsrh gS_ ½.k ysus dh vuqefr ;gh nsrh gSA ;g djksa osQ fy, dkuwu cukrh gSA ;g jsyos vuqnkuçnku djrh gS rFkk lkoZtfud vk;&O;; o ys[ks (Public Accounts) osQ ijh{k.k dk çcUèk djrh gSA

(iv) U;kf;d vfèkdkjμla?kh; lHkk dks nks çdkj osQ U;kf;d vfèkdkj çkIr gSA çFker% ns'k dh U;k;&O;oLFkk ijbldk fu;U=k.k gSA ;g la?kh; U;k;ikfydk dk fujh{k.k rFkk funsZ'ku djrh gS] U;kf;d laxBu dkuwu cukrh rFkk la?kh;U;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa dks fuokZfpr djrh gSA la?kh; U;k;ky; viuh okf"kZd fjiksVZ blosQ lkeus çLrqr djrk gSAf}rh;r% la?kh; lHkk dbZ ekeyksa esa Lo;a vfUre U;k;ky; osQ :i esa dk;Z djrh gSaA ;g la?kh; ifj"kn~ rFkk la?kh;U;k;ky; vFkok chek U;k;ky; osQ eè; mRiÂ fooknksa ;k bu nksuksa U;k;ky;ksa esa ijLij mRiÂ fooknksa dk fu.kZ; nsrhgSA ;g ç'kklu ij fofèk&lEcUèkh ekeyksa esa la?kh; ifj"kn~ fu;eksa osQ fo:¼ vihy lqurh rFkk mu ij vfUre fu.kZ;nsrh gSA ;g la?kh; çkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ chp {kerk lEcUèkh fooknksa ij fopkj djrh gSA rrh;r% la?kh; lHkk dks fdlh Hkhla?kh; deZpkjh osQ fo:¼ dfri; ekeyksa esa dkjZokbZ djus dk vfèkdkj çkIr gSA vUr esa] la?kh; U;k;ky; }kjk nf.MrrFkk lSfud 'kklu osQ vUrxZr eR;q&n.M O;fDr osQ n.M dks] bls {kek djus dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;k gSA

la?kh; lHkk dh dk;Zç.kkyh% la?kh; lHkk osQ nksuksa lnuksa dk ,d vfèkos'ku o"kZ esa vfuok;Z gSA lkèkkj.kr% o"kZesa pkj cSBosQa gksrh gSμ fnlEcj] ekpZ] twu vkSj flrEcj esaA ijUrq] bUgsa ,d gh l=k osQ vUrxZr ekuk tkrk gSAblosQ vfrfjDr la?kh; ifj"kn~ 5 dS.Vu vFkok jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ osQ pkSFkkbZ lnL;ksa osQ vuqjksèkksa ij nksuksa dh vlkèkkj.k(extraordinary) cSBosQ Hkh cqyk;h tk ldrh gSA l=k çk;% NksVs gksrs gSa tks ,d ckj esa 4 lIrkg rd pyrs gSaAlkekU;r% lnL; vfèkos'ku ls vuqifLFkr ugha jgrs] D;ksafd fcuk dkj.k vuqifLFkr jguk dÙkZO; ls th pqjkuk le>ktkrk gSA x.kiwfrZ osQ fy, de&ls&de lnu osQ dqN lnL;ksa ij ckgjh ncko ;k çHkko dh xaqtkb'k de jgrh gSAlkèkkj.kr% nksuksa lnuksa dh cSBosQ vyx&vyx Hkouksa esa gksrh gS] fdUrq dqN fo'ks"k dk;ks± osQ fy, nksuksa lnuksa osQla;qDr vfèkos'ku gksrs gSaμ

(d) la?kh; ifj"kn~ ik"kZnksa vkSj vè;{k] la?kh; fVªC;wuy osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa] jkT;e.My osQ pkalyj vkSj la?kh; l'kL=klsuk osQ loksZPp lsukifr dh fu;qfDr osQ fy,A

([k) la?kh; ljdkj osQ vfèkdkj&{ks=k lEcUèkh erHksnksa vkSj la?k"ks± ij fopkj djus osQ fy,A

(x) {keknku (pardon) dk fu'p; djus osQ fy,A

;gk¡ ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd ftl le; nksuksa lnuksa dk lfEefyr vfèkos'ku gksrk gS] ml le; jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~~ dkvè;{k gh lHkkifrRo djrk gS vkSj fu.kZ; nksuksa lnuksa osQ mifLFkr lnL;ksa osQ cgqer ls gksrk gSA

okn&fookn μ fLol ukxfjd O;kogkfjd] xEHkhj rFkk fopkj'khy gksrs gSaA la?kh; lHkk osQ lnL; jk"Vªh; pfj=k dkiw.kZ çn'kZu djrs gSaA os Bksl] xEHkhj] le>nkj rFkk vkosxjfgr gksrs gSaA çR;sd ç'u ij os O;kogkfjd n`f"Vdks.kls fopkj djrs gSa] rFkk chp dk ekxZ viukrs gSaA lnL; leLr dk;Z 'kkafriw.kZ rjhosQ ls djrs gSaA okn&fookn la;fergksrs gSa rFkk oDrk,¡ uis&rqys 'kCnksa esa gksrh gSaA vkyadkfjd Hkk"kk dk ç;ksx rM+d&HkM+d ls Hkjh&iwjh rkfy;ksa dhxM+xM+kgV] ç'kalklwpd ukjs ;k fuUnkijd vkokts la?kh; lHkk dh cSBdksa esa fojys gh ns[kus dks feyrh gSAfiQyhcLVfjax (Filibustering)] X;ksyhVhu (gulillotine) ;k vU; ckèkk iSnk djusokys ekxks± dks ugha viuk;k tkrkAfoHkktu Hkh cgqr de gksrk gSA

O;oLFkkidμ la?kh; lHkk osQ fdlh Hkh lnu esa dksbZ Hkh foèks;d çsf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA fliQZ la?kh; ifj"kn~^vko';d* (urgent) ?kksf"kr fo"k;ksa dks lHkk dh rqjUr Lohd`fr dh vko';drk ugha iM+rhA lnuksa esa foèks;d pkjçdkj ls çsf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSμ (1) la?kh; ifj"kn~ }kjk] (2) la?kh; lHkk osQ fdlh Hkh lnu }kjk (3) dSaVuksa}kjk rFkk (4) la?kh; lHkk osQ fdlh Hkh lnu osQ fdlh Hkh lnL; }kjk] ysfdu O;kogkjr% foèks;dksa dks rS;kj djusvkSj mudksa çsfjr djus dk dk;Z èkhjs&èkhjs ifj"kn~~ esa osQfUær gks x;k gSA foÙkh; foèks;d la?kh; ifj"kn~~ }kjk ghiqu%LFkkfir gks ldrk gS] fdlh lnL; }kjk ughaA foèks;d çsf"kr gksus ij mlosQ fl¼kUrksa ij fopkj fd;k tkrk gS

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;fn lnu mlls lger gS rks mls ,d lfefr dks fopkjkFkZ lkSai fn;k tkrk gSA fopkj djus osQ mijkar lfefr viuhfjiksVZ lnu dks çLrqr djrh gSA lnu esa foèks;d osQ Åij ¶fopkj osQ fy,¸ çLrko j[kk tkrk gSA rnqijkUr mlosQçR;sd vuqPNsn ij foLr`r okn&fookn gksrk gSA vUr esa] lEiw.kZ foèks;d ij tuer&laxzg fd;k tkrk gSA foèks;ddh Lohd`fr osQ ckn mls nwljs lnu esa Hkst fn;k tkrk gSA ml lnu esa Hkh ogh çfØ;k nqgjk;h tkrh gSA nwljk lnumls T;ksa&dk&R;ksa Lohdkj dj ldrk gSA ;fn lnu dqN la'kksèku djs rks igys og iqu% fopkj osQ foèks;d dks ykSVkfn;k tkrk gSA ;fn nksuksa lnuksa esa bl çdkj le>kSrk u gks losQ rks mls nksuksa lnuksa }kjk xfBr jí dj fn;k tkrkgSA nksauks lnuksa }kjk ikfjr gksus osQ ckn foèks;d ij pkUlyj o jk"Vªifr dk gLrk{kj fy;k tkrk gS ftls mUgsa bUdkjdjus dk vfèkdkj ;k fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (veto) çkIr ugha gSaA rRi'pkr~ foèks;d dkuwu cu tkrk gSA

8-2 Úkal&jfl;k laln vkSj phu dh jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl (French-Russian Parliamentand National People's Congress of China)

Úkal dh laln (Parliament of France)

O;kogkj osQ Lrj ij Úkal esa yksdra=k dh LFkkiuk esa dbZ mrkj&p<+ko vk,A dbZ ckj ogka yksdra=k dks pqukSfr nhxbZ] ml ij çgkj fd, x,] vkSj mldk neu Hkh dj fn;k x;kA ijarq 1958 esa ogka iapd x.kjkT; (Fifth Republic)

dh LFkkiuk osQ ckn yksdra=k iwjh rjg LFkkfir gks pqdk gSA tgka fiNys lok nks lkS o"kks± esa la;qDr jkT; vejhdkesa ,d gh lafoèkku çpfyr jgk gS] vkSj mlesa osQoy NCchl la'kksèku fd, x, gSa] ogka blh vofèk esa Úkal esarhu ckj jktra=k (Monarchy) LFkkfir gqvk gS] nks ckj lkezkT; (empire) LFkkfir gqvk gS] ikap ckj x.kjkT;(Republic) LFkkfir gqvk gS] vkSj rsjg ckj fyf[kr lafoèkku ykxw fd, x, gSaA

Úkal dk iape x.kjkT; f}rh; fo'o ;q¼ (1939-45) osQ çfl¼ lSU; uk;d tujy pkYlZ n xkWy (1890&1970)osQ usrRo esa LFkkfir fd;k x;k FkkA tujy n xkWy 1953 esa lkoZtfud thou ls laU;kl ys pqosQ Fks] ijarq 1958 esamUgsa okil cqyk;k x;kA 1958 esa gh jk"Vªh; ifjiPNk (national referendum) osQ ckn iape x.kjkT; dh uhao j[khxbZ vkSj u;k lafoèkku ykxw fd;k x;kA tujy n xkWy 1959 ls 1969 rd Úkal osQ jk"Vªifr jgsA ledkyhu Úkalhlhljdkj dh laLFkkvksa vkSj uhfr;ksa dks ,d fuf'pr :i esa <kyus esa n xkWy dh Hkwfedk lcls çHkko'kkyh jghA

foèkkueaMyμjpuk vkSj d`R; (The Legislature : Composition and Functions): Úkal osQ iape x.kjkT; osQlafoèkku (1958) osQ varxZr ,dkRed 'kklu&ç.kkyh (Unitary Form of Government) viukbZ xbZ gSA vr%ogka ,d gh jk"Vªh; ljdkj dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA blosQ vykok ogka dh turk 22 {ks=kh; ifj"kn~ksa (Regional

Councils) 96 egkuxj foHkkxh; ifj"kn~ksa (Metropolition Department Councils) vkSj 36]673 uxjikfydkifj"kn~ksa (Municipal Councils) ;k dE;wuksa (Communes) dk pquko Hkh djrh gSA {ks=kh; ifj"kn~sa vkfFkZd fu;kstu(Economic Plannning) esa ljdkj dks lykg nsrh gS] vkSj fupyh ifj"kn~sa vkokl] ifjogu] [ksy&dwn] Ldwyksa]lakLd`frd vkSj dY;k.kdkjh dk;ks± vkSj dkuwu osQ çoÙkZu (Law Enforcement) bR;kfn ls ljksdkj j[krh gSA fiQj];s lc ifj"kn~sa ogka dh lhusV (Senate) dk pquko esa Hkkx ysrh gSA

iape x.kjkT; osQ lafoèkku (1958) osQ varxZr nks&lnuh; laln (Two-Chamber Parliament) vkSj ^nksgjhdk;Zikfydk* (Dual Excutive) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA ;g O;oLFkk Úkalhlh jktuhfr ç.kkyh dks lkèkkj.klalnh; ç.kkyh (Parliamentary System) ls vyx fl¼ djrh gSA lkèkkj.k lalnh; ç.kkyh esa çèkkuea=kh(Prime Minister) ,oa mldk eaf=keaMy (cabinet) dh lykg (Advice) ls dk;Z gksrk gSA ijarq Úkal esa çèkkuea=khvkSj jk"Vªifr fey&ckaVdj dk;Zdkjh 'kfDr;ksa dk ç;ksx djrs gSaA

Úkalhlh laln osQ fupys lnu (Lower House) dks jk"Vªh; lHkk ;k us'kuy vlsacyh (National Assembly) dgktkrk gS] vkSj mijys lnu (Upper House) dks lhusV (Senate) dgk tkrk gSA us'kuy vlsacyh esa 577 lnL; gksrs

uksV



gSa tks ikap o"kZ osQ dk;Z&dky osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSa] gkykafd bl lnu dks le; ls igys Hkh Hkax fd;k tk ldrk gSAus'kuy vlascyh osQ lnL; turk osQ }kjk ,d&lnL;h; fuokZpu{ks=kksa (Single-Member constituencies) ls pqus tkrsgSaA buosQ pquko esa f}rh;d cgqer ç.kkyh* (Run-off Absolute Majority System) dk ç;ksx gksrk gSA O;kogkj osQèkjkry ij] okeiaFkh vkSj nf{k.kiaFkh nyksa osQ xBcaèku vkil esa le>kSrk djosQ cgqr de oksV ikus okys mEehnokjksadks cSB tkus osQ fy, rS;kj dj ysrs gSa rkfd nks lcls cy'kkyh mEehnokjksa esa lhèkk eqdkcyk djk;k tk losQA fiQjHkh lkèkkj.kr% us'kuy vlsacyh osQ rhu&pkSFkkbZ LFkku ^nqckjk ernku ç.kkyh* (second ballot) ls Hkjs tkrs gSaA

lhusV osQ 321 lnL; ,d fuokZp.k (Electoral College) osQ }kjk vçR;{k :i ls pqus tkrs gSaA fuokZpdx.k esaus'kuy vlsacyh osQ LFkk;h lnL;] es;j] foHkkxh; ifj"kn~ksa osQ lnL;] vkSj uxjikfydk ifj"kn~ksa osQ çfrfufèk(Delegates) lfEefyr gksrs gSaA lhusV osQ lnL; ukS o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA blosQ fy, rhu&rhu o"kZ ckn frgkbZlnL; lsokfuo`Ùk gks tkrs gSa] vkSj mudh txg u, lnL;ksa dk pquko gksrk gSA

fuokZpd&x.k (Electoral College) mu çfrfufèk;ksa dk lewg gS tks Lo;a fuokZfpr gksdj vkrs gSa] vkSjmUgsa fdlh mPprj lHkk osQ lnL;ksa ;k mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa dk pquko djuk gksrk gSA

us'kuy vlsacyh osQ 22 lnL; vkSj lhusV osQ 13 lnL; leqæ&ikj osQ foHkkxksa vkSj {ks=kksa (Overseas Departments

and Territories) osQ }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA lhusV osQ 12 lnL; fons'kksa esa jgus okys Úkalhlh jk"Vªtuksa (French

Nationals) osQ }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA

us'kuy vlsacyh viuk dk;Z Ng cM+h&cM+h d`R;kRed LFkk;h lfefr;ksa (Functional Standing committees) osQekè;e ls djrh gSa ftues 61&61 ;k 121&121 lnL; gksrs gSaA ;g lnu laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa esa vfèkd 'kfDr'kkyhgSA ;gh lnu lcls igys okf"kZd ctV dh tkap djrk gSA çèkkuea=kh blh lnu esa ls pquk tkrk gSA lcls c<+dj]blosQ lnL; fuank ;k vfo'okl&çLrko (Censure or No-Confidence Motion) ykdj ljdkj dks fxjkus dh{kerk j[krs gSaA

lhusV osQ pquko&vkèkkj (Electoral base) esa LFkkuh; 'kklu ls tqM+s gq, çfrfufèk;ksa dh çèkkurk jgrh gSA ;s eq[;r%eè;ekxhZ (Centrist) vkSj Lokèkhu fopkjksa okys yksx gksrs gSaA vr% ;g lnu us'kuy vlsacyh ij ,d çHkko'kkyhvadq'k dh Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA us'kuy vlsacyh }kjk ikfjr foèkku (Legislation) ij ;g lnu vLFkk;h fu"ksèkkfèkdkj(Temporary Veto) dk ç;ksx dj ldrk gSA tc nksuksa lnuksa esa erHksn dks nwj djus osQ fy, ^la;qDr lekèkkulEesyu* (Joint Conciliation conferences) cqyk, tkrs gSa] rc ;g lnu fopkjkèkhu foèkku esa la'kksèku çLrqrdj ldrk gSA ijarq us'kuy vlsacyh vius ^fu'p;kRed er* (Definitive Vote) dk ç;ksx djosQ lhusV osQfu"ksèkkfèkdkj dks jí dj ldrh gSA

Úkalhlh 'kklu&ç.kkyh dh ,d vuks[kh fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd blesa jktuhfrd dk;Zikfydk (Political Executive)

osQ eqdkcys laln dh 'kfDr;ka cgqr lhfer jg tkrh gSaA 1958 osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj laln osQoy lhfer {ks=k esadkuwu cuk ldrh gSμtSls fd djkèkku (Taxation)] uxj&O;oLFkk ls tqM+s gq, vfèkdkjksa (Civic Rights)] fuokZpudkuwuksa (Electoral Laws)] jk"Vªh;dj.k (nationalization) vkSj naM&O;oLFkk ls tqM+s gq, ekeyksa (Penal Matters)

esa A ijarq f'k{kk] Je dkuwu (Labour Law)] jk"Vª j{kk laxBu (National Defence Organization)] LFkkuh;'kklu (Local Government) vkSj lkekftd lqj{kk (Social Security) osQ {ks=k esa og osQoy ekxZn'kZd&fl¼kar(Guidelines) ;k ewy&fl¼kar (Principles) gh fuèkkZfjr dj ldrh gSA uhfr (Policy) ls tqM+s gq, vU; {ks=kksa esaljdkj dks dk;Zdkjh vkKfIr (Executive Decree) osQ ekè;e ls dkuwu cukus dh 'kfDr çkIr gSA vius vfèkdkj{ks=k esa Hkhrj Hkh laln le;≤ ij dk;Zdkjh 'kk[kk dks fufnZ"V vofèk osQ fy, ;g vfèkdkj ns ldrh gS fd

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og vè;kns'kksa (Ordinances) osQ ekè;e ls 'kklu pyk ldrh gS] ftu ij jk"Vªifr osQ çfrgLrk{kj (Countersignature)

gksus pkfg,A

fiQj] vuqPNsn 47 osQ varxZr Úkal dh laln dks okf"kZd ctV ij okn&fookn vkSj ernku djus osQ fy, osQoy70 fnu dk le; fn;k x;k gSA ;g vofèk chr tkus ij ljdkj vè;kns'k (Ordinance) tkjh djosQ ml ctV dksykxw dj ldrh gSA vU; foèks;dksa (Bills) osQ ekeys esa ljdkj vius ^mÙkjnkf;Ro* (Responsibility) dh 'kiFkysdj fxyksfVu* dh çfØ;k ykxw dj ldrh gSA ,slh gkyr esa 24 ?kaVs osQ vanj ml foèks;d ls tqM+k gqvk okn&fooknvius&vki lekIr gks tkrk gS] 'krZ ;g gS fd ml ij foi{k dh vksj ls fuank çLrqr (Vote of Censure) ikfjru dj fn;k tk,A dk;Zikfydk ;g ekax Hkh dj ldrh gS fd çLrko foèks;d ij fdlh Hkh la'kksèku dks Lohdkju fd;k tk,] vkSj mlosQ laiw.kZ ikB (Full Text) ij ,dμlkFk ernku djk fn;k tk,A

ewyr% vuqPNsn 28 osQ varxZr ;g O;oLFkk dh xbZ Fkh fd laln ,d o"kZ esa osQoy nks ckjμT;knkμlsμT;knk 170fnu osQ fy, viuk vfèkos'ku cqyk ldrh gSA bl vofèk osQ ckgj ljdkj vkKfIr osQ ekè;e ls 'kklu pyk ldrhFkhA ijarq vxLr] 1995 esa lafoèkku dk la'kksèku djosQ ;g O;oLFkk dj nh xbZ fd laln dk vfèkos'ku vDrwcjls twu rd ykxkrkj ukS eghus pysxk] vkSj eaf=k;ksa dks lIrkg esa ,d ckj lalnh; ç'uksa dk mÙkj nsuk gksxkA

dk;Zikfydkμjpuk vkSj d`R; (The Executive : Composition and Functions): Úkal dh dk;Zikfydki;kZIr 'kfDr'kkyh ekuh tkrh gSA ;fn igyh ckj fdlh mEehnokj dks iw.kZ cgqer çkIr ugha gksrk rks pquko esa lclsÅapk LFkku çkIr djus okys tks nks mEehnokj fiQj ls eqdkcyk djuk pkgrs gksa] muesa nks lIrkg ckn nqckjk pqukodjk;k tkrk gSA blesa ftls igyk LFkku çkIr gksrk gS] mls jk"Vªifr pqu fy;k tkrk gSA bl rjg Úkal dk jk"VªifrHkh ogka dh turk dk çR;{k çfrfufèk gksrk gS ftlls mldh 'kfDr dks fo'ks"k oSèkrk (Legitimacy) çkIr gksrh gSA

tc dksbZ jk"Vªifr pqu fy;k tkrk gS rks og jkT; osQ vè;{k (Head of State) osQ lkFk&lkFk l'kL=k lsukvksa osQ çèkkulsukifr (Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Force) dk in Hkh l¡Hkky ysrk gSA jk"Vªifr dh vkSipkfjd'kfDr;ka vR;ar foLr`r gSA mls çèkkuea=kh osQ p;u (Selection) dk vfèkdkj gS_ og eaf=k&ifj"kn~ (Council of

Ministers) ;k eaf=keaMy (Cabinet) dh cSBdksa dh vè;{krk djrk gS_ ljdkjh foèks;dksa ij çfrgLrk{kj(Countersign) djrk gS_ fons'kh lafèk;ksa osQ fy, okrkZ pykrk gS_ ifji`PNk (Referendum) osQ fy, igy djrkgSA og us'kuy vlsacyh dks Hkax djosQ u, pquko djk ldrk gS] 'krZ ;g gS fd og bls ,d o"kZ esa ,d ckj Hkaxdj ldrk gSA

ifji`PNk (Referendum) ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\

lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 20 vkSj 21 ls ,slk çrhr gksrk gS fd de&ls&de Lons'kh {ks=k (Domestic Field) esauhfr&fuekZ.k osQ fu;a=k.k dk vafre lw=k çèkkuea=kh vkSj eaf=k&ifj"kn~ osQ gkFkksa esa jgrk gSA ijarq vDVwcj] 1962 osQlkafoèkkfud la'kksèku osQ varxZr tc jk"Vªifr osQ çR;{k pquko (Direct Election) dh O;oLFkk dj nh xbZ] rcdk;Zdkjh 'kfDr osQ larqyu esa vkewy ifjorZu vk x;kA blls igys jk"Vªifr dk vçR;{k pquko (Indirect

Election) gksrk Fkk ftlesa laln&lnL;] foHkkxh; ifj"kn~ksa (Department council) osQ lnL; vkSj uxjikfydk&ik"kZn(Municipal Councillors) fuokZpd&x.k* (Electoral College) dh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs FksA jk"Vªifr osQ çR;{k pqukodh O;oLFkk ls mldh lÙkk cgqr Åaph gks xbZ D;ksafd og x.kjkT; dk ,dek=k ,slk O;fDr gks x;k ftls laiw.kZjk"Vª dh vksj ls fuokZfpr fd;k tkrk gSA

blosQ ifj.kkeLo:i 1986 rd jk"Vªifr dks lÙkk:<+ xBcaèku (Governing Coalition) dk oSèk* usrk ekuk tkrkFkkA mldh lsok osQ fy, ,d fo'kky ,oa çHkko'kkyh vfèkdkfjra=k rS;kj jgrk Fkk] vkSj og Lons'k ,oa fons'k uhfr

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osQ fuekZ.k esa egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk FkkA çèkkuea=kh dh fLFkfr osQoy ^lalnh; çcaèkd* (Parliamentary

Manager) dh jg xbZ ftldk dk;Z ljdkj dks pykuk vkSj uhfr dks dk;kZfUor djuk FkkA ijarq 1986 esa tc foi{khxBcaèku dks us'kuy vlascyh esa cgqer çkIr gks x;k vkSj mlus vius usrk tkd fpjkd dks çèkkuea=kh cukus dh?kks"k.kk dh rc mlosQ rFkk jk"Vªifr feÙkjksa osQ chp osQ 'kfDr&larqyu esa u;k eksM+ vk x;kA 1986 ls 1988 rdu, çèkkuea=kh us de&ls&de Lons'kh {ks=k esa viuk flDdk tek fy;k] vkSj jk"Vªifr dks lakosQfrd vè;{k(Nominal Head) dh fLFkfr esa igq¡pk fn;kA 1988 esa jk"Vªifr vkSj us'kuy vlascyh osQ u, pquko gq, ftUgksausbl fLFkfr ij iVk{ksi dj fn;kA 1997 ls lektoknh ikVhZ osQ çèkkuea=kh vkSj nf{k.kiaFkh xBcaèku osQ jk"Vªifr osQchp lgpkfjrk (co-habitation) dh fLFkfr jghA

Úkal esa eaf=keaMy osQ tks ea=kh jk"Vªifr vkSj çèkkuea=kh dh lsok esa jgrs gSa] mudk p;u jktuhfrd vkèkkj ij Hkhgks ldrk gS_ rduhdh ;ksX;rkvksa osQ vkèkkj ij Hkh gks ldrk gSA lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 23 osQ vuqlkj] dksbZ O;fDrljdkj esa dke djrs gq, laln&lnL; ugha jg ldrkA vr% us'kuy vlsacyh osQ çR;sd mEehnokj dks viuk ,dvuqiwjd (running Mate) euksuhr djuk iM+rk gS rkfd ;fn dksbZ laln&lnL; ljdkj esa ea=kh cu tk, ;klafoèkku&ifj"kn~ (Constituinal Council) dk lnL; cu tk,] ;k lhusV dk lnL; pqu fy;k tk,] ;k mldh e`R;qgks tk, rks mldk vuqiwjd mlosQ çfrfufèk (Deputy) osQ :i esa dk;Z dj losQA

dqN ekeyksa esa Úkal dk eaf=keaMy vejhdh eaf=keaMy ls feyrk&tqyrk gS D;ksafd blls fo'ks"kKksa (Specialists)

dks j[kk tkrk gSA ijarq dqN vU; ekeyksa esa Úkal dk eaf=keaMy fczfV'k eaf=keaMy ls feyrk&tqyrk gS D;ksafd blosQlnL; us'kuy vlsacyh osQ okn&fookn esa fgLlk ysrs gSa] vkSj mi;qDr {ks=kksa esa bl okn&fookn dk usr`Ro Hkh djrsgSa_ os LFkk;h lfefr;ksa (Standing Committees) osQ lkeus mifLFkr gksrs gSa] vkSj vlsacyh osQ lnL;ksa osQ fyf[kr,oa ekSf[kd ç'uksa osQ mÙkj Hkh nsrs gSaA Úkalhlh eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; ,d vR;ar fuiq.k ,oa çHkko'kkyh ç'kklfudlsok (Civil Service) osQ fudV lg;ksx esa dk;Z djrs gSaA

Úkal osQ 1958 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr lafoèkku osQ la'kksèku (Consitutional Amendment) dh O;oLFkk Hkh djnh xbZ gSA bldk ,d rjhdk ;g gS fd çLrkfor la'kksèku dks us'kyu vlsacyh vkSj lhusV osQ la;qDr vfèkos'kuesa de&ls&de 60» cgqer çkIr gksA nwljk rjhdk ;g gS fd la'kksèku&foèks;d dks nksuksa lnuksa esa ,d gh :i esaikfjr dj fn;k tk,] vkSj fiQj ml ij ifji`PNk (Referendum) vk;ksftr djosQ turk dk vuqeksnu çkIr djfy;k tk,A blosQ vykok] vuqPNsn 11 osQ varxZr jk"Vªifr fl¼karr% ljdkj ;k laln ls ;g çkFkZuk dj ldrkgS fd lafoèkku&la'kksèku ;k lafèk osQ vuqleFkZu (Treaty Ratification) osQ fy, jk"Vªh; ifji`PNk (National

Referendum) dk vk;kstu fd;k tk,A 1961 osQ ckn vkB ckj ,slh ifji`PNk djkbZ tk pqdh gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,;wjksih; la?k (European Union) dh LFkkiuk osQ fy, 1992 esa ekfLVªPV lafèk (Masstricht Treaty) dk vuqleFkZublh O;oLFkk osQ varxZr djk;k x;k FkkA 1995 esa lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 11 esa la'kksèku djosQ jk"Vªifr dk cgqr lkjsfo"k;ksa ij ifji`PNk vk;ksftr djkus dk vfèkdkj ns fn;k x;kA buesa vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd uhfr (Economic

and Social Policy) rFkk lkoZtufd lsokvksa (Public Services) ls tqM+s gq, fo"k; Hkh lfEefyr gSaA bl çfØ;k esalqj{kk dh n`f"V ls ;g O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS fd tc jk"Vªifr fdlh fo"k; ij ifji`PNk (Referendum) osQ vk;kstudh ekax djrk gS] rc laln dks ml fo"k; ij okn&fookn djus dk vfèkdkj gksrk gSA

jf'k;k dh laln (Parliament of Russia)

fnlacj 1993 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr :l esa la?kh; x.kjkT; (Federal Republic) dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA vr%bl ns'k dk vkfèkdkfjd uke :lh la?k (Russian Federation) gSA bl la?k esa 21 x.kjkT; (Republics)] ,dLok;Ùk vapy (Autonomous Region)] 49 ç'kklfud vapy (Administrative Regions)] 6 çkar (Provinces)]10 Lok;Ùk tuin (Autonomous Districts) vkSj nks la?kh; uxj (Federal Cities)μekLdksa rFkk lsaV ihVlZcxZlfEefyr gSaA bl rjg :lh la?k dqy feykdj 89 ç'kklfud bdkb;ksa (Administrative Units) ls cuk gSA

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System) dk feJ.k rS;kj djus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;k gSA vè;{kh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gak ,d 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vªifr(president) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS] vkSj lalnh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh laln (Parliament) dhO;oLFkk dh xbZ gS ftls la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr jkT; dk vè;{k (head of

State) gS tks lhèks tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gS_ mls yxkrkj nks ckj ls vkxs ugha pquk tkldrkA og lafoèkku dk laj{kd gS] vkSj l'kL=k lsukvksa dk loksZPp lsukifr (Supreme Commander of the

Armed Forces) Hkh gSA og çèkkuea=kh (Prime Minister) rFkk eaf=kifj"kn~ (Council of Ministers) vFkokeaf=keaMy (Cabinet) dh fu;qfDr djrk gS ftlesa yxHkx 30 lnL; j[ks tkrs gSaA budh fu;qfDr osQ fy, laln(parliament) dk vuqeksnu t:jh gksrk gSA jk"Vªifr ,d varjax eaf=keaMy (Kitchen Cabinet) dh lykg ls dk;Zdjrk gS ftlesa mlosQ fo'oLr fe=k vkSj mPpkfèkdkjh lfEefyr gksrs gSaA eaf=keaMy dks lÙkk esa jgus osQ fy, lalndk fo'okl çkIr gksuk pkfg,A

jk"Vªifr vkKfIr;ka (Decrees) tkjh dj ldrk gS tks dkuwu dh rjg ekU; gksrh gSA ijarq ;s vkKfIr;ksa çpfyrdkuwu osQ fo:¼ ugha gksuh pkfg,A fiQj laln bUgsa fujLr Hkh dj ldrh gSA nwljh vksj] jk"Vªifr Hkhlalnμ}kjkμikfjr foèks;d (Bill) dks dkuwu cuus ls jksd ldrk gSA og laln vFkkZr~ la?kh; lHkk (FederalAssembly) osQ çfr vius okf"kZd vfHkHkk"k.k (Annual Address) osQ varxZr ljdkj dh jktuhfrd vkSj vkfFkZduhfr dk fu:i.k dj ldrk gSA ns'k dh j{kk (Defence) dk nkf;Ro l¡Hkkyus osQ fy, jk"Vªifr lqj{kk&ifj"kn~(Security Council) fu;qDr djrk gS ftldk vè;{k og Lo;a gksrk gSA og osQaæh; cSad (Central Bank) osQ vè;{k(Chairperson)] egk&vfHk;kstd (prosecutor General) rFkk U;k;ikfydk (Judiciary) osQ çeq[k lnL;ksa dhfu;qfDr dk çLrko laln osQ ikl Hkstrk gSA tuojh] 1994 osQ ckn lqj{kk&lsok,¡] x`g&ea=kky;] j{kk ea=kky; vkSjfons'k ea=kky; lhèks jk"Vªifr osQ vèkhu dj fn, x, gSaA jk"Vªifr&in dk mEehnokj de&ls&de nl yk[k ernkrkvksaosQ }kjk euksuhr gksuk pkfg,_ buessa fdlh ,d vapy (Region) ;k x.kjkT; (Republic) osQ ernkrkvksa dh la[;kdqy la[;k dh 7» ls T;knk ugha gksuh pkfg,A

:l esa foèkkf;dk (Legislature) osQ d`R; la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dks lkSais x, gSaA blesa nks lnu(Chambers) j[ks x, gSaA voj lnu (Lower House) dks LVsV M~;wek dgk tkrk gSA blesa 450 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkkdh xbZ gSA mPp lnu (Upper House) dks la?kh; ifj"kn~ (Federal Council) dgk tkrk gSA blesa 178 lnL;ksadh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA LVsV M~;wek osQ 225 lnL; lhèks ,dlnL;h; fuokZpu{ks=kksa (Single Member Constituencies)ls pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bl pquko esa cgqyer ç.kkyh (Plurality System) viukbZ tkrh gSμvFkkZr~ tkslcls vkxs] thr mldh* (First pas the post)A 'ks"k 225 lnL; jk"Vªh; ny&lwfp;ksa (National Party Lists) lsvkuqikfrd izfrfufèkRo (proportional Reperesentation) osQ vkèkkj ij pqus tkrs gSaa bl rjg izR;sd ernkrkosQ nks oksV gksrs gSaA ,d LFkkuh; fuokZpu {ks=k osQ fy,_ nwljk jk"Vªh; ny&lwph osQ fy,A LVsV M~;wek osQ mEehnokjdh U;wure vk;q 21 o"kZ gksuh pkfg,A tc dksbZ mEehnokj pqu fy;k tkrk gS] tc og dksbZ oSrfud dk;Z (PaidJob) Lohdkj ugha dj ldrk_ u og fdlh ljdkjh in (Government Post) ij jg ldrk gSA

cgqyer iz.kkyh (Plurality System): og fuokZpu&iz.kkyh ftlosQ varxZr ,dlnL;h; fuokZpu {ks=k esa ftlmEehnokj dks lcls T+;knk oksV feyrs gSa] mls fot;h eku fy;k tkrk gSAvkuqikfrd izfrfufèkRo (Proportional Representation): ,slh pquko iz.kkyh ftlesa ernkrk ,d ls vfèkdmEehnokjksa dks viuh&viuh ilan osQ Øe esa j[k ldrs gSa rkfd cgqer (Majority) osQ lkFk&lkFk vYier(Minority) dks Hkh mfpr izfrfufèkRo fn;k tk losQA ;g ,d tfVy iz.kkyh gSA blosQ fy, dbZ rjhosQ viuk, tkldrs gSa tks izLrkfor pquko osQ fu;eksa osQ varxZr fufnZ"V dj fn, tkrs gSaAla?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ varXkZr :lh la?k dh 89 iz'kklfud bdkb;ksa esa ls izR;sd osQ nks&nks izfrfufèk lfEefyr gksrs gSaftlls bl ifj"kn~ osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k 178 gks tkrh gSA fdlh Hkh x.kjkT; ;k vapy osQ izfrfufèk Øe'k% ogkadh dk;Zikfydk (Executive) vkSj foèkkf;dk osQ vè;{k gksus pkfg,A

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lkèkkj.kr% dksbZ Hkh foèks;d izkjaHk esa LVsV M~;wek esa izLrqr gksuk pkfg, gkykafd dqN uhfr&lacaèkh fo"k; la?kh;ifj"kn~ osQ vfèkdkj{ks=k esa j[ksa x, gSaA LVsV M~;wek esa ikfjr gksus osQ ckn izR;sd foèks;d dks la?kh; ifj"kn~ Hkstukpkfg,A ;fn la?kh; ifj"kn~ fdlh foèks;d dks vLohdkj dj ns rks mls LVsV M~;wek osQ ikl okil Hkstk tk,xkAogka ,d vk;ksx&ftlesa nksuksa lnuksa osQ lnL; lfEefyr gksaxs&buosQ erHksnksa dks nwj djus dk iz;Ru djsxkA ;fnLVsV M~;wek mPp lnu osQ la'kksèkuksa dks vLohdkj dj ns rks og nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls ml foèks;d dks nqckjk ikfjrdjosQ mPp lnu dh bPNk dh vogsyuk dj ldrh gSA ,slh gkyr esa ml foèks;d dks laln }kjk ikfjr ekuktk,xkAlaln ls ikfjr gksus osQ ckn izR;sd foèks;d dks jk"Vªifr osQ gLrk{kj osQ fy, Hkstuk gksrk gSA ;fn jk"Vªifr gLrk{kjdjus ls budkj dj ns rFkk LVsV M~;wek jk"Vªifr osQ la'kksèkuksa ls lger gks rks og mls lkèkkj.k cgqer ls nqckjkikfjr dj ldrh gSA ;fn LVsV M~;wek jk"Vªifr ls vlger gks rks og mls nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls nqckjk ikfjr djosQjk"Vªifr osQ fu"ksèkkfèkdkj (Veto) dks fujLr dj ldrh gSA blh izdkj ;fn la?kh; ifj"kn~ jk"Vªifr osQ la'kksèkuksa lslger gks rks og mls lkèkkj.k cgqer ls nqckjk ikfjr dj ldrh gS] vU;Fkk mls ;gka Hkh nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls ikfjrdjuk gksxkA ;fn ;s 'krs± iwjh gks tkrh gS rks çLrqr foèks;d dks jk"Vªifr osQ }kjk ikfjr ekuk tk,xkA

;ksa foèkkf;dk dks foLr`r 'kfDr;ka çnku dh xbZ gS] fiQj Hkh muesa dbZ rjg ls dVkSrh dj nh xbZ gSA LVsV M~;wekiw.kZ cgqer (Absolute Majority) osQ vkèkkj ij (vFkkZr~ 226 oksVksa osQ vkèkkj ij) vfo'okl&çLrko (Vote of

No-Confidence) ikfjr djosQ ljdkj dks fxjk ldrh gS] ijarq bls rhu eghus osQ Hkhrj nks ckj ,slk çLrko ikfjrdjuk gksxk] rHkh jk"Vªifr ml ij dkjZokbZ djus dks foo'k gksxkA ,slh gkyr esa jk"Vªifr ;k rks ubZ ljdkj dk xBudjsxk] ;k fiQj LVsV M~;wek dks Hkax djosQ u;k pquko djkus dk vkns'k nsxkA u, çèkkuea=kh vkSj ubZ ljdkj dhfu;qfDr osQ fy, LVsV M~;wek dk vuqleFkZu (Ratification) t:jh gksxkA ;fn jk"Vªifr&}kjk çLrkfor mEehnokj dksLVsV M~;wek rhu ckj vLohdkj dj nsrh gS rks jk"Vªifr LVsV M~;wek dks Hkax dj ldrk gS] vkSj u, pquko dk vkns'kns ldrk gSA (d) ;fn ubZ laln osQ pquko osQ ckn ,d o"kZ ls de le; chrk gks_ ([k) ;fn laln jk"Vªifr osQfo:¼ egkfHk;ksx (Impeachement) dh dkjZokbZ 'kq: dj pqdh gks_ (x) ;fn jk"Vªifr laiw.kZ :l esa vkikr&dky(Emergency) dh ?kks"k.kk dj pqdk gks_ ;k (?k) ;fn jk"Vªifr dk dk;Zdky lekIr gksus esa Ng eghus ls dele; jgrk gksA mèkj la?kh; ifj"kn~ jk"Vªifr osQ fo:¼ rHkh egkfHk;ksx pyk ldrh gS tc la?kh; lHkk osQ nksuksa lnublosQ i{k esa oksV ns pqosQ gksa] vkSj loksZPp U;k;ky; (Supreme Court) rFkk lakfoèkkfud U;k;ky; (Constitu-tional Court) nksuksa bl çLrko ls lger gksaA

egkfHk;ksx (Impeachment): og çfØ;k ftlosQ varxZr fdlh ns'k osQ jk"Vªifr] mijk"Vªifr] mPp ;k loksZPpU;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'k ;k fdlh vU; mPpkfèkdkjh ij vR;ar xaHkhj vkjksi yxkdj mls in ls gVkus dh dkjZokbZdh tkrh gSA ;g vkjksi ns'kæksg] Hkz"Vkpkj ;k lafoèkku osQ mYya?ku dk gks ldrk gSA egkfHk;ksx mu mPpkfèkdkfj;ksaij pyk;k tkrk gS ftudh inkofèk (Term of Office) foèkkueaMy osQ jktuhfrd leFkZu (Political Support) ijvkfJr ugha gksrhA

lkèkkj.kr% fdlh ns'k osQ mPpkfèkdkjh ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dh 'kfDr ogka osQ foèkkueaMy (Legislature) esa fufgrjgrh gS] vkSj blosQ fy, visf{kr çfØ;k (Procedure) lafoèkku dh O;oLFkkvksa ;k muls tqM+h çFkkvksa (Conventions)ls fuèkkZfjr gksrh gSA

:l osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªifr ij egkfHk;ksx pykus dh dkjZokbZ pkj pj.kksa esa iwjh dh tk ldrh gS% (d)LVsV M~;wek dks nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls egkfHk;ksx osQ i{k esa oksV nsuk gksxk_ ([k) loksZPp U;k;ky; dks bl ckr dhiqf"V djuh gksxh fd jk"Vªifr dh dfFkr dkjZokbZ xaHkhj vijkèk ;k ns'kæksg (Treason) dh dksfV esa vkrh gS_ (x)lkafoèkkfud U;k;ky; dks ;g O;oLFkk nsuh gksxh fd LVsV M~;wek us egkfHk;ksx pykus osQ fu.kZ; dk tks vuqeksnufd;k gS] mlesa çfØ;k (Procedure) dk dksbZ mYya?ku ugha gqvk_ vkSj (?k) jk"Vªifr dks gVkus dk çLrko la?kh;ifj"kn~ osQ nks&frgkbZ cgqer ls ikfjr gksuk pkfg,A

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lkafoèkkfud U;k;ky; (Constitutional Court): :l osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj] og U;k;ky; ftls U;kf;diqujh{k.k (Judicial Review) dh 'kfDr çkIr gSA blesa 19 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA ;s lnL; jk"VªifrosQ }kjk euksuhr fd, tkrs gSa] ijarq budh fu;qfDr osQ fy, la?kh; ifj"kn~ dh iqf"V vko';d gSA bls U;k;ky;dks ;g fu.kZ; nsus dk vfèkdkj gS fd jk"Vªifr] laln rFkk ljdkj dh dksbZ dkjZokbZ lafoèkkulEer gS ;k ugha\

U;kf;d iqujh{k.k (Judicial Review): fyf[kr lafoèkku osQ varxZr fdlh mPp ;k loksZPp U;k;ky; dh ;g'kfDr fd og fdlh fu;e] dkuwu] ç'kklfud vkns'k ;k dkjZokbZ dks lafoèkku dh O;oLFkkvksa ;k muesa fufgrfl¼karksa dh n`f"V ls ij[k dj mls lafoèkku ;k mudh ewy psruk (Spirit) osQ fo#¼ ?kksf"kr dj ldrk gS ftlls

og jn~n gks tkrh gSA

1993 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr :l dh osQaæh; ljdkj dks fiQj ls foLr`r 'kfDr;ka nsus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;k gS]

ijarq :lh la?k osQ 21 x.kjkT;ksa rFkk 68 vapyks] çkarksa ,oa tuinksa dks Hkh lekurk osQ vkèkkj ij i;kZIr lÙkk

çnku dh xbZ gSA djkèkku] j{kk] fons'kh ekeys] ÅtkZ vkSj lkekftd&vkfFkZd uhfr ls tqM+s fo"k; osQaæh;μvFkkZr~

la?kh; ljdkj osQ fy, lqjf{kr j[ks x, gSa] ijarq f'k{kk] LokLF;] lkekftd lqj{kk] laLd`fr vkSj Hkwfe osQ mi;ksx

ls tqM+s fo"k; osQaæ vkSj LFkkuh; 'kklu osQ la;qDr çcaèk osQ varxZr j[ks x, gSaA x.kjkT;ksa osQ vius&vius lafoèkku

gSa_ mudh viuh&viuh fuokZfpr ljdkjsa gSa_ vkSj os viuk&viuk ctV cukrs gSaA os vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd

lqèkkjksa dh xfr vkSj fn'kk fuèkkZfjr djus esa çHkko'kkyh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSa_ Hkwfe dk LokfeRo eq[;r% bUgha osQ

fu;a=k.k esa vkrk gS_ vkSj jkT; osQ dY;k.kdkjh dk;ZØeksa esa 80» [kpZ buosQ fgLls esa vkrk gSA

;g ckr egÙoiw.kZ gS fd :l dk lafoèkku vius ukxfjdksa dks cqfu;knh ekuo&vfèkdkj vkSj Lora=krk,¡ çnku

djrk gSA buesa vkokl (Housing)] fu%'kqYd fpfdRlk (Free Healthcare)] f'k{kk (Education) vkSj dqN

gkykrksa esa dkuwuh lgk;rk (Legal Assistance) dk vfèkdkj lfEefyr gSA

phuh x.kjkT; dh O;oLFkkfidk% jk‘ªh; tudkaxszl (Legislature of the Chinese Republic:National People's Congress)

phuh x.kra=k dk lafoèkku lalnh; loksZPprk osQ fl¼kar ij vkèkkfjr gSA ;g 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ i`FkDdj.k osQ fl¼kar

dks vLohÑr djrk gSA vr% phuh lafoèkku esa fczfV'k rFkk lksfo;r lalnksa dh Hkkafr loksZPp foèkkf;dk la?k dh

LFkkiuk dh x;h gSA bls jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dgrs gSaA

1954 bZñ osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 21 esa dgk x;k Fkk fd phuh x.kra=k esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks loksZPp foèkk;h

fudk; dk LFkku çkIr gS_ lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 3 osQ vuqlkj] phuh tuoknh x.kra=k dh leLr 'kfÙkQ;k¡ turk

esa fufgr gSA çR;sd Lrj ij turk dh viuh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk ç;ksx gSA bloQk fujh{k.k uhps osQ Lrjksa dh tudkaxzsl

dk;Z djrh gSA bl çdkj] lafoèkku phuh jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks jkT; lÙkk dk loksZPp vax ?kksf"kr djrk gS vkSj

lalnh; laçHkqrk osQ fl¼kar dks Lohdkj djrk gSA lkFk&lkFk ;g Hkh mYys[kuh; gS fd jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks

lkE;oknh ny osQ usr`Ro esa dk;Z djuk iM+rk gSA 1954 bZñ osQ lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh loksZPprk dks

Lohdkj fd;k x;k Fkk] ysfdu mls lkE;oknh ny osQ usrRo esa ugha j[kk x;k FkkA iwoZ lksfo;r :l esa Hkh lkE;oknh

ny osQ usr`Ro dh ppkZ lafoèkku esa ugh feyrh gSA

laxBu ,oa jpuk (Organization and Composition): jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl ,dlnukRed lHkk gSA ijaijkxr

iztkrkaf=kd i¼fr osQ izfrdwy blesa osQoy ,d lnu gS] ;|fi phu ,d cgqjk"Vªh; jkT; gS] fdUrq jk"Vªh;rkvksa

dks izfrfufèkRo iznku djus osQ fy, nwljs lnu dh O;oLFkk ugha dh x;h gSA

lnL;& u, lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k fuf'Pkr ugha dh x;h gSA blosQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k

dkuwu }kjk fuf'pr dh tkrh gSA 1954bZ- osQ lafoèkku esa Hkh ,slh gh O;oLFkk FkhA NBh jk"Vªh; dk¡xszl (6 twu]

1983)esa lnL;ksa dh la[;k 2]978 Fkh A blosQ lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu izkarksa] Lok;Ùk'kklh {ks=kksa] osQUnz'kkflr

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uxjikfydkvksa rFkk tueqfÙkQ lsuk (People's Liberaton Army) osQ }kjk gksrk gSA ;g 56 jk"Vª&tkfr;ksa dk

izfrfufèkRo djrh gSA blesa 75 izfr'kr izfrfufèk Jfed fdlku vkSj lSfud gSaA

izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko& 1975 bZ- osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj tudkaxszl osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko lkoZtfud ,oa

o;Ld erkfèkdkj (universal and audit frenchise) osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk FkkA phu osQ lHkh ukxfjd] tks 18

o"kZ dh vk;q izkIr dj pqosQ gSaA vkSj tks ikxy vFkok fdlh U;k;ky; }kjk nf.Mr ughsa gksa rFkk fdlh vU;

dkj.ko'k erkfèkdkj ls oafpr ugha gksa] izfrfufèk inksa osQ fy, mEehnokj osQ :i esa [kM+s gks ldrs gSaA bl lacaèk

esa tkfr] èkeZ] fyaXk] f'k{kk] lkekftd fLFkfr ;k vU; fdlh vkèkkj ij Hksn ugha fd;k tkrk FkkA u, lafoèkku

(1982 bZ-) esa iqjkuh pquko&i¼fr;ksa dks lekIr dj fn;k x;k gSA vc izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko yksdrkaf=kd ijke'kZ

(democaratic consultation) osQ }kjk gksrk gSA ftl rjg ls nyh; dkaxzsl osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko fd;k tkrk

gSA oSls gh osQUnz jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dks osQUnzh; vkSj LFkkuh; vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ ijke'kZ ls euksuhr

djrk gSA fuokZfpr gksus osQ fy, ny dk lnL; gksuk vkSj ekvks osQ jktuhfrd rFkk Økafrdkjh vkn'kks± dk ekuuk

vfuok;Z gSA bl izdkj] phu esa O;kogkfjd :i esa pquko dk vFkZ gS] ,sls mEehnokjksa dh osQanzh; lÙkk }kjk fu;qfDr

tks ekvks vkSj mlosQ vuq;kf;;ksa osQ ny osQ izfr vkKkdkjh gksA vke turk dgus osQ fy, rks yksdrkaf=kd ijke'kZ

vkSj okn&fookn es Hkkx ysrh gS ijUrq okLrfodrk ;g gS fd izfrfufèk;ksa osQ pquko ls mldk dksbZ lacaèk ugha

jgrkA ;gh dkj.k gS fd pkSFkh jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl esa Jfedksa] fdlkuksa vkSj lSfudksa osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk cgqer FkkA

vke turk }kjk pquko osQ LFkku ij izfrfufèk;ksa dh uketnxh osQ rjhosQ dks viuk;s tkus dk eq[; dkj.k

;g Fkk fd ekvks dh uhfr;ksa osQ fojksfèk;ksa dks tudkaxzsl esa dksbZ LFkku ugha fey losQA lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn

16 esa fo'ks"k jk"Vªoknh O;fÙkQ;ksa dks izfrfufèk osQ :i esa vkeaf=kr djus dh O;oLFkk dj pquko osQ egÙo dks

vkSj Hkh lekIr dj fn;k x;k gSA bl O;oLFkk osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl esa osQoy fuokZfpr izfrfufèk;ksa dks

ghs ugha] cfYd ns'kHkDr O;fDr;ksa dks Hkh 'kkfey fd;k tkrk gSA

dk;Zdky (Term) & iqjkus lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dk vfèkos'ku o"kZ esa ,d ckj gksrk FkkA fdlh fo'ks"k

ifjfLFkfro'k le; ij fuokZpu ugha gks ldus osQ dkj.k tu&dkaxzsl dh dk;kZofèk dks ml le; rd c<+k;k tk ldrkFkk] tcrd fd u;h dkaxzsl dk igyk l=k izkjaHk ugha gksA u, lafoèkku (1982) osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dkdk;Zdky 5 o"kZ dj fn;k x;k gSA fo'ks"k ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa mlosQ dk;Zdky dks c<+k;k Hkh tk ldrk gSA

vfèkos'ku (Session) 1954 osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dk vfèkos'ku o"kZ eas ,d ckj gksrk FkkAcSBd LFkk;h lfefr }kjk cqyk;h tkrh Fkh dqy la[;k osQ 1@5 izfrfufèk;ksa dh ek¡x ij Hkh cSBd cqyk;h tk ldrhFkhA u, lafoèkku (1982) esa Hkh vfèkos'ku osQ lacaèk esa yxHkx ;gh O;oLFkk j[kh xbZ gSA vuqPNsn 18 osQ vUrxZrLFkk;h lfefr dks tudkaxzsl dh cSBd cqykus dh O;oLFkk dh x;h gS ysfdu lPpkbZ ;g gS fd o"kksZa rd bldkvfèkos'ku ,d ckj Hkh ugha cqyk;k x;kA 1964&65 osQ vfèkos'ku osQ ckn tuojh] 1975 bZ- esa gh jk"Vªh; tudkaxszldk pkSFkk vfèkos'ku cqyk;k x;kA 1975 bZ- osQ egku~ lkaLd`frd Økafr osQ iQyLo:i ifjfLFkfr;k¡ vuqdwy gksusosQ ckn jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dk vfèkos'ku cqyk;k x;k tks 13 tuojh ls 17 tuojh] 1975 rd pykA NBh dkaxzsldk vfèkos'ku osQoy 12 fnuksa (6 ls 17 twu) 1983 rd pykA ;g fo'ks"k :i ls mYys[kuh; gS fd Pkhu dhjk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dk vfèkos'ku cgqr gh laf{kIr jgk gSA 10 o"kks± osQ ckn cSBd cqykus ij Hkh osQoy ik¡p fnuksard gh bldk vfèkos'ku pykA blosQ igys Hkh tks vfèkos'ku gq, Fks] os osQoy 12 fnuksa ls 26 fnuksa osQ FksAjk"Vªh; tu&dk¡xszl dh ,d vU; fo'ks"krk gS] mldh xksiuh;rkA phu osQ usrkvksa us jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ pqukoosQ lcaèk esa ,d Hkh 'kCn ugha dgk tcfd fdlh Hkh ns'k osQ fy, ;g ,d egÙoiw.kZ ?kVuk gksrh gSA osQoydkaxzsl osQ vfèkos'ku osQ ckn ,d egÙoiw.kZ vfHkys[k Hkh tkjh fd;k x;k ftlesa dkaxzsl osQ lnL;ksa osQ uke]

eaf=keaMy osQ lnL;ksa osQ uke vkSj lafoèkku osQ u, micaèkkas dk mYys[k fd;k x;k FkkA bl izdkj] jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl

dk vfèkos'ku rFkk mldh dk;Zokfg;ksa dks ,dne xqIr j[kk tkrk gSA

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izfrfufèk (Deputies)- iwoZ lksfo;r :l dh Hkk¡fr phu esa Hkh izfrfufèk;ksa osQ ckjs esa ,d vkd"kZd rFkk dkYifudfl¼kar izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA ,d foèkk;d turk dk lsod (servant), lektokn dk izfrfufèk (agent) rFkkekvksa osQ Øakfrdkjh fopkjksa dk vuqxkeh (follower) gSA izfrfufèk turk dk lans'kokgd (massenger) gSA turkls fujarj laidZ cuk;s j[kuk] mlosQ le{k dkaxzsl rFkk vius dk;ks± dk fooj.k izLrqr djuk] rFkk turk osQd"Vksa dks tkuuk vkSj muosQ fuokj.k dk lekèkku <w¡< fudkyuk izfrfufèk;ksa dk dÙkZO; gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fdizfrfufèk;ksa dks ml bdkbZ osQ fujh{k.k dk dke djuk iM+rk gS] ftlus mUgsa pquk gSA izfrfufèk;ksa dks fuokZpubdkbZ fdlh Hkh le; okil cqyk ldrh gSA izfrfufèk;ksa osQ lacaèk esa mi;qZÙkQ fl¼kar vkd"kZd vo'; gS] ysfduokLrfodrk ls cgqr nwj gSA

inkfèkdkjh (officers)- jk"Vªh; tudkaxzzsl osQ inkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ ckjs easa 1982 bZ- osQ lafoèkku esa dqN Hkh ugha dgkx;k gSA ysfdu] tudkaxzsl viuh CkSBdksa osQ lapkyu osQ fy, ,d izsftfM;e (Presidium) dk fuekZ.k djrhgSA izsftM;e dh la[;k cM+h gksus osQ dkj.k blosQ dqN LFkk;h vè;{k (Permanent Chairman) pqu fy, tkrsgSaA bu vè;{kksa osQ vfèkdkjkas] dk;ks± ,oa fLFkfr osQ ckjs esa lafoèkku esa dqN Hkh ugha dgk x;k gSA ,dlsozsQVjh&tsujy dh Hkh fu;qfDr dh tkrh gSA

mUeqfDr;k¡ (Privileges) - 1954 bZ- osQ lafoèkku }kjk lnL;kas dh mUeqfÙkQ;ksa osQ ckjs esa O;oLFkk dh x;h FkhAizfrfufèk;ksa dks jkT;&ifj"kn~] ea=kky;ksa rFkk vk;ksxksa ls iz'u iwNus dk vfèkdkj FkkA dksbZ Hkh izfrfufèk tudkaxzsl;k mlosQ 'kklu dky esa mlosQ LFkk;h lfefr;ksa dh vuqefr osQ fcuk canh ugha cuk;k tk ldrk Fkk ;k mlij eqdnek ugha pyk;k tk ldrk FkkA 1975 bZ- vkSj 1982 bZ- osQ lafoèkku osQ lacaèk esa dksbZ Hkh micUèk ughagSA

'kfDr;k¡ ,oa dk;Z (Power and Functions): lafoèkku dh èkkjk 17 esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa vkSj dk;ksZadh ppkZ dh x;h gSA bls lafoèkku esa la'kksèku ykus] dkuwu cukus] lkE;oknh ny dh osQUnzh; slfefr dh fliQkfj'kij izèkkuea=kh vkSj jkT;ifj"kn~ osQ lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr djus vkSj c[kkZLr djus] jk"Vªh; vkfFkZd ;kstuk] jk"Vªh;ctV vkSj jktdh; ys[kk&tks[kk dks Lohd`r djus vkSj vU; mu vfèkdkjksa vkSj d`R;ksa osQ iz;ksx dk vfèkdkjgS] ftUgsa ;g vko';d le>sA blosQ vfrfjDr] lafoèkku osQ vU; micUèkksa }kjk Hkh dqN vfèkdkj bls izkIr gSaAèkkjk 18 bls LFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k] mikè;{k vkSj lnL;ksa dks pquus rFkk inP;qr djus dk vfèkdkj nsrh gS]èkkjk 16 jkT;ifj"kn~ dks blosQ izfr mÙknk;h cukrh gS] vkSj èkkjk 25 loksZPp tuU;k;ky;ksa dks blosQ izfr mÙkjnk;hcukrh gSA bl vkèkkj ij jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh fuEufyf[kr izeq[k 'kfDr;ksa dh ppkZ dh tk ldrh gS&

(i) fofèk&fuekZ.k dk vfèkdkj (Law-making Power) -lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl foèkk;h osQUæh; 'kfDr;ksadh loksZPp laLFkk dgh xbZ gSA dkuwu&fuekZ.k osQ {ks=k esa bldh 'kfDr;k¡ dkiQh O;kid gSaA dqN ekeyksa esa rks;g fczfV'k laln ls Hkh vfèkd 'kfDr'kkyh nh[k iM+rh gSA pw¡fd phu es 'kfDr;ksa osQ i`FkDdj.k osQ fl¼kar dksvLohdkj fd;k x;k gS blfy, lkjh 'kfDr;ksa dk L=kksr jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl cu xbZ gSA fdlh Hkh ,slh laLFkk dkizkoèkku ugha gS] tks bldh fofèk;ksa dks fu"ksèk (veto) djrh gksA vU; ns'kksa esa fdlh&u&fdlh :i esa lalnksa osQdkuwu&fuekZ.k osQ vfèkdkj ij fu;a=k.k yxk;k x;k gSA

(ii) lakfoèkkfud la'kksèku (Constitutional Amendment)- phu dh jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl dks lafoèkku esa la'kksèkuykus dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;kA gSA la'kksèku dh izfØ;k osQ ckjs esa lafoèkku ,dne pqi gSA vr% jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsllèkkj.k cgqer ls Hkh lafoèkku esa fczfV'k laln dh Hkk¡fr la'kksèku dj ldrh gSA la{ksi esa] phu dk jk"Vªh;tu&dkaxzsl dks la'kksèku&lacaèkh 'kfDr dh rqyuk fczfV'k laln dh 'kfDr ls dh tk ldrh gSA

(iii) fuokZpu vkSj fu;qfDr (Election and Appointment) - fuokZpu vkSj fu;qfDr osQ lacaèk esa Hkh jk"Vªh;tudkaxzsl dh 'kfDr dkiQh O;kid gSA bls izèkkuea=kh vkSj jkT;ifj"kn~~ osQ vU; lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr vkSj c[kkZLrxhdk vfèkdkj izkIr gSA ysfdu] bl ij ,d caèku yxk fn;k x;k gSA ;g fu;qfDr ;k c[kkZLrxh lkE;oknh ny

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dh osQUnzh; lfefr osQ izLrko ij gks ldrh gSA LFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k] mikè;{k rFkk lnL; Hkh jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl}kjk gh pqus tkrs gSaA bls mUgsa okil cqykus dk Hkh vfèkdkj gSA ;|fi lafoèkku jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl osQ bl vfèkdkjij dksbZ caèku ugha yxkrk gS] ysfdu O;kogkjr% ;s fu;qfDr;k¡ Hkh lkE;oknh ny osQ osQUnzh; lfefr osQ izLrkoij gh dh tkrh gSaA tgk¡ rd loksZPp tu&U;k;ky; dk iz'u gS] mls jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h cuk;kx;k gSA ysfdu] mlosQ vè;{k dks fu;qDr vkSj inP;qr djus dk vfèkdkj LFkk;h lfefr dks lkSai fn;k x;k gSAiqjkus lafoèkku esa ;g vfèkdkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks izkIr FkkA

(iv) vkfFkZd vfèkdkj (Economic Powers)- Pkhuh lafoèkku jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks vkfFkZd {ks=k esa O;kidvfèkdkj nsrk gSA jk"Vªh; vkfFkZd O;oLFkk ls lacafèkr uhfr;ksa dks Lohd`fr dk O;kid vfèkdkj bls izkIr gSA;g jk"Vªh; vkfFkZd ;kstukvksa dks Lohd`fr nsrh gS rFkk jktdh; ctV vkSj vk;&O;; ls lacafèkr uhfr;ksa oQksvafre :i nsrh gSA lksfo;r :l dh lOkksZPp lksfo;r dh Hkk¡fr jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl osQ vkfFkZd vfèkdkj dkiQhO;kid gSaA(v) iz'kkldh; fu;a=k.k (Administrative Control) - lafoèkku jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dk iz'kklu oQks fujh{k.k vkSjfu;a=k.k dk vfèkdkj Hkh nsrh gSA jkT;ifj"kn~~ vkSj LFkk;h lfefr dks blosQ izfr mÙkjnk;h cuk;k x;k gSA ;g bufudk;ksa osQ vfèkdkjksa esa deh&cs'kh dj ldrh gSA bldh cSBdksa esa jkT;ifj"kn~ dh vksj ls izèkkuea=kh] osQUnzh;ljdkj vkSj iz'kklu osQ lacèk esa fjiksVZ is'k dh tkrh gSA bl fjikZV ij ;g fopkj&foe'kZ djrh gSA(vi) vU; vfèkdkj (Miscellaneous Powers)- u, lafoèkku esa izkoèkku gS fd jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl mu 'kfDr;ksadk iz;ksx dj ldrh gS] ftUgsa ;g vko';d le>sA ;g micaèk buosQ vfèkdkj dks dkiQh O;kid cuk nsrk gSAblosQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl mu lHkh 'kfDr;ksa dk iz;ksx dj ldrh gS] ftUgsa og jk"Vªfgr ;k lkE;oknh ØkafrosQ fy, vko';d le>sA osQoy lkE;oknh ny osQ usRk`Ro dk cUèku ml ij gS ny dh osQUnzh; lfefr osQ funsZ'kosQ vUrxZr ;g fdlh Hkh 'kfDr dk iz;ksx dj ldrh gS ftldh ppkZ lafoèkku esa ugha gSAewY;kadu (Evaluation): jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh jpuk] vfèkdkj vkSj fLFkfr osQ ckjs esa dkiQh vkykspuk,¡ lquusdks feyrh gSaA eq[; vkykspuk,¡ bl izdkj gSa&

(i) jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ laxBu vkSj dk;Z&fofèk esa if'peh ns'kksa osQ leku vkykspuk,¡ dh tkrh gSA yksdrkaf=kdi¼fr osQ vUrxZr laln dk pquko turk }kjk izR;{k :i ls gksrk gSA ysfdu lkE;oknh phu esa ,d ubZ i¼frviukbZ xbZ gS ftls tuoknh fopkj&foe'kZ (democratic discussing) dk rjhdk dgk x;k gSA bl i}fr osQvuqlkj izfrfufèk;ksa dk p;u lkE;oknh ny vkSj iz'kklu osQ }kjk gh dj fy;k tkrk gS osQoy dgus osQ fy,turk ls fopkj&foe'kZ fd;k tkrk gSA ;g i}fr ?kksj vyksdrkaf=kd gSA bl pquko&i}fr eas turk dk dksbZ izHkkougha jgrk vkSj izfrfufèk turk osQ ugha] cfYd ny osQ fgek;rh gksrs gSaA lksfo;r ys[kd vsysDtsUMªkso dk dgukBhd gh gS fd ,slh iz.kkyh esa esgurd'k turk osQ fo'kky leqnk; dks ns'k dh lokZsPp foèkk;h laLFkk ij izHkkoMkyus dk volj ugha fey ldrkA

(ii) ns'kHkDr O;fDr;ksa (patriotic personages) osQ jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh cSBdksa esa fgLlk ysus gsrq vkea=k.k dhO;oLFkk Hkh dVq vkykspuk dk fo"k; jgh gSA bldk Li"V vFkZ ;g gS fd 'kkldoxZ O;fDr;ks osQ uke ij fdlhHkh la[;k esa vius euksuqdwy izfrfuf/;ksa dks jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh lnL;rk ns ldrs gSaA ,slh xSj&iztkrkaf=kdO;oLFkk nqfu;k osQ fdlh Hkh lafoèkku esa ugha gSAs

(iii) tgk¡ rd jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl osQ vfèkos'ku dk iz'u gS bldh cSBd cgqr yEcs vjls osQ ckn gksrh gSAo"kZ esa ,d ckj vfèkos'ku dh O;oLFkk dks dHkh O;kogkj esa ugha yk;k x;kA blosQ vfrfjDr bldh cSBd osQoy2&4 fnuksa osQ fy, gh gksrh gSA bruh de vofèk esa vkSj brus yEcs vjls osQ ckn dh cSBdkas }kjk ;g laHkougha gS fd dksbZ laLFkk izHkkodkjh Hkwfedk vnk dj losQA lp iwNk tk; rks ;g O;oLFkk jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dksiw.kZr% uiaqld cuk nsrh gSA

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(iv) jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ dk;Zdky osQ ckjs esa ;g O;oLFkk dh ;g ik¡p lky dh vofèk dks eupkgs <ax lsc<+k ldrh gSA O;kogkj esa ,slk gqvk HkhA ;g phu dh tuoknh O;oLFkk dks XkSj&iztkrkaf=kd cuk nsrh gSA

(v) jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh lnL; la[;k cgqr vfèkd gSA ;g fo'o dh fdlh Hkh laln dh lnL;&la[;k ls dbZxquk T;knk gSA bruh cM+h lHkk esa fdlh fo"k; ;k uhfr ij xaHkhjrkiwoZd fopkj&foe'kZ ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA

(vi) lalnh; laLFkk,¡ mÙkjnk;h <ax ls rHkh dke dj ldrh gS] tc muesa 'kkld ny osQ lkFk&lkFk fojksèkh nyjgsaA phu esa fojksèkh ny dk dksbZ iz'u gh ugha mBrkA vr% jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dk dke osQoy lkE;oknh nydh uhfr;ksa dk leFkZu djuk jg x;k gSA foLr`r% fu.kZ; lkE;oknh ny dh osQUnzh; lfefr;ka 'kklu osQ mPpvaxks] tSls LFkk;h lfefr jkT; ifj"kn~~ }kjk fy, tkrs gSaA jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQoy ml ij eqgj yxk nsrh gSA

(vii) iqjkus lafoèkku dh rqyuk esa u;s lafoèkku osQ vUrxZr jk"Vªh; tudkaxzzsl dh 'kfÙkQ vkSj vfèkdkjksa esa Hkkjh dehdj nh x;h gSA nksuksa lafoèkkuksa dh rqyuk ls irk pyrk gS fd jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ cgqr&ls egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z ovfèkdkj Nhu fy, x;s gSa la[;k esa blosQ vfèkdkj 18 ls ?kVk dj 6 dj fn, x, gSaA la{ksi esa] jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzslosQ dk;ksZa ,oa vfèkdkjksa esa Hkkjh dVkSrh dh xbZ gSA

(viii) phu dh orZeku jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh fLFkfr dks Hkh igys ls uhpk dj fn;k x;k gSA1954 bZ- osQ lafoèkku vuqPNsn 22 osQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl ns'k osQ fy, dkuwu cukus okyh loksZPp lÙkk Fkh]mls jkT; ;k vU; fudk;ksa dh rqyuk esa loksZPp LFkku izkIr Fkk 1982 bZ- osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 16 osQ vuqlkjvc bls lkE;oknh osQ usrRo osQ vUrxZr jkT;'kfrQ dk loksZPp vax dgk x;k gSA vc ;g lkE;oknh ny dh osQUnzh;lfefr osQ funsZ'k osQ vUrxZr dk;Z djrh gSA mnkgj.kLo:i] jkT;ifj"kn~ osQ izèkkuea=kh vkSj jkT;ifj"kn~ osQ lnL;ksadh fu;qfÙkQ o inP;qr lkE;oknh dh osQUnzh; lfefr osQ lq>koksa ij gh dh tk ldrh gSA bl izdkj ;g ek=k oglÙkk jg x;h gS ftlesa osQoy dkuwuh ckr fufgr gS okLrfod 'kfÙkQ lkE;oknh ny dh osQUnzh; lfefr ;k mlosQ vè;{kesa fufgr gSA ;g jkT; dh 'kfDr dk loksZPp vax ugha jg x;k gSA bldk LFkku xkS.k iM+ x;k gSA bldk dkj.k;g gS fd u, lafoèkku esa ,d u;h O;oLFkk dks ykxw fd;k x;k ftlesa ny dks osQUnz fcUnq ekuk x;kA ny osQ funsZ'kosQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl ;k jkT; osQ vU; vax dk;Z djrs gSaA bl izdkj phu dk lkE;oknh ny ;k LFkk;h lfefrjkT;'kfDr dk loksZPp vax gS jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl ughaaA

jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dh LFkk;h lfefr (Standing committee of the National People's Congress)phu osQ lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh LFkk;h lfefr dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA ;g iwoZ lksfo;r jktuhfrdiz.kkyh ij vkèkkfjr gSA ftl izdkj lksfo;r :l dh foèkkf;dk loksZPp lksfo;r vius vè;{ke.My(Presidium) osQ ekè;e ls dke djrh Fkh mlh izdkj phu dh foèkkf;dk Hkh viuh LFkk;h lfefr osQ ek?;els dk;Z djrh gSA bl LFkk;h lfefr dks tu&dkaxzsl dh y?kq foèkkf;dk ;k LFkk;h dk;Zdkjh vax dgk tkrk gSA:l dh loksZPp lksfo;r osQ vè;{ke.My dh Hkk¡fr ;g LFkk;h lfefr Hkh lkyksa Hkj dk;Z djrh jgrh gSA jk"Vªh;tudkaxzsl dk vfèkos'ku dqN fnuksa osQ fy,] NksVh vofèk osQ fy, gksrk gS] blfy, mldh vuqifLFkfr esa LFkk;hlfefr gh mldk dk;Z djrh gSA

laxBu lnL;&lafoèkku dh èkkjk 18 osQ vuqlkj LFkk;h lfefr esa ,d vè;{k] vusd mikè;{k] egklfpo vkSjvusd lnL; gksrs gSaA LFkk;h lfefr osQ vkdkj osQ ckjs esa lafoèkku dqN ugha dgrk gSA bldk fuèkkZj.k jk"Vªh;tudkaxzsl dks djuk gSA PkkSFks jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ fy, tuojh] 1975 esa 144 lnL;ksa dh LFkk;h lfefr fufeZr dhx;h] ftlesa ,d vè;{k] 22 mikè;{k vkSj 121 lkèkkj.k lnL; pqus x,A LFkk;h lfefr osQ lnL; tudkaxzsl }kjkpqus tkrs gSaA dkaxzsl osQ lnL;ksa esa ls gh lfefr osQ lnL; pqus tkrs gSaA

dk;Zdky&tgk¡ rd LFkk;h lfefr osQ dk;Zdky dk iz'u gS] lafoèkku }kjk fuf'pr ugha fd;k x;k gSA lkekU;r%;g dk;Zdky jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ ik¡p o"kZ osQ dk;Zdky dk lgxkeh gksrk gSA ;fn tudkaxzsl dk dk;Zdky c<+kfn;k tkrk gS rks LFkk;h lfefr u;h tudkaxzsl osQ pquko i;ZUr dk;Z djrh jgsxhA dk;Zdky c<+kus dh 'kfDr osQckjs esa dksbZ LiLV mYys[k ughsa gSA lafoèkku esa ;g Hkh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS fd dk;Zdky osQ varxZr ghs jk"Vªh; tudkaxzslLFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k] mikè;{k ;k lkèkkj.k lnL;ksa dks fdlh Hkh le; okil cqyk ldrh gSA

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izfØ;k &;g jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh LFkk;h dk;Zdkjh laLFkk gSA ysfdu] lafoèkku us bldh izfØ;k lacaèkh fu;ekasa dkmYys[k ugha fd;k gSA O;ogkj esa lfefr dk vè;{k bldh CkSBosaQ cqykrk gS vkSj mldh vè;{krk djrk gSA ogpkgs ftruh cSBosaQ cqyk ldrk gSA ;fn LFkk;h lfefr dk vè;{krk djus esa fdlh dkj.ko'k dHkh leFkZ u gks rkslfefr osQ mikè;{kksa esa ls fdlh ,d dks vè;{k osQ dk;ksZa dk fuokZg djus osQ fy, ;g pqu ysrh gSA fdUrq ;fnvè;{k R;kxi=k ns nsrk gS] ej tkrk gS ;k gVk fn;k tkrk gS rc u;s vè;{k dk fuokZpu jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl djrhgSA lfefr dk egklfpo blosQ dk;kZy; dk izèkku gksrk gS] vkSj mldh lgk;rk osQ fy, vusd mi&egklfpoHkh fu;qÙkQ fd;s tkrs gSaA

LFkk;h lfefr dk vè;{k &lafoèkku }kjk LFkk;h lfefr dks vyx ls dksbZ Hkh vfèkdkj ugha fn;k x;k gSA blfy,]mlosQ vfèkdkjksa vkSj fLFkfr osQ ckjs esa fHkUu&fHkUu èkkj.kk,¡ gaSA pw¡fd jk"Vªifr dk in lekIr dj fn;k x;k gS blfy,mls xyrh ls jk"Vªifr osQ led{k Hkh eku fy;k tkrk gSA og ,sls dk;ksZa dks djrk gS tks igys jk"Vªifr djrk FkkAog LFkk;h lfefr dh CkSBdksa dh vè;{krk djrk gS_ mldh vkKfIr;ksa vkSj fu.kZ;ksa ij gLrk{kj djrk gS] fons'kkasaesa ljdkjh mRloksa osQ volj ij lans'k Hkstrk gS phu esa vk;s jkT;kè;{kksa vkSj jktuf;dkssa dk Lokxr djrk gSA ysfdu]bu dk;ksZa osQ lacaèk esa phu esa cgqr vkSipkfjdrk ugha gSA dHkh&dHkh fons'kh jkT;kè;{kksa osQ uke lans'k LFkk;h lfefrosQ vè;{k }kjk u Hkstdj izèkkuea=kh osQ gLrk{kj ;k lkE;oknh ny osQ vè;{k dh vksj ls Hkstk tkrk gSA vr%vkSipkfjdrk osQ n`f"Vdks.k ls Hkh LFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k dk in cgqr egÙoiw.kZ ugha jg tkrk gSA fiQj Hkh] bllsbUdkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk fd LFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k dh xfjek gS] vkSj blh dkj.k ny osQ ofj"B usrk gh blin ij vklhu gksRks gSaA

LFkk;h lfefr dk vfèkdkj vkSj dk;Z (Powers and Functions of Standing Committee)-1954 bZ- osQlafoèkku dh rqyuk esa u, lafoèkku osQ vUrxZr LFkk;h lfefr osQ vfèkdkjksa dks fn;k x;k gSA u;k lafoèkku LFkk;hlfefr dks dbZ ,sls vfèkdkj ugha nsrk gS] tks iqjkus lafoèkku esa mls izkIr FksA fiQj Hkh] lafoèkku osQ micUèkkasa vkSjLFkk;h lfefr osQ O;kogkfjd :i ij è;ku nsus ls Li"V gksrk gS fd mldh 'kfDr;ksa esa fo'ks"k deh ugha gqbZ gSALFkk;h lfefr osQ dk;ksZa dks fuEu izdkj ls lwPkhc¼ fd;k tk ldrk gS&

(i) jkT;kè;{k osQ vfèkdkj&LFkk;h lfefr if'peh ns'kksa osQ jkT;kè;{kksa }kjk lEikfnr fd;s tkus okys dk;ksZa dksdjrh gSA ;g jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh cSBosaQ cqykrh gSA jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh cSBdksa osQ lapkyu osQ fy, fufeZrizsftfM;e esa LFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k vkSj mikè;{k dks egÙoiw.kZ LFkku fn;k tkrk gSA LFkk;h lfefr dksjkT;kè;{kksa dh Hkk¡fr nf.Mr O;fÙkQ;ksa dh ltk dks de djus] cny nsus vkSj ekiQ djus dk vfèkdkj gSA ;gfons'kksa ls vk;s jktuf;oQksa vkSj inkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ izek.ki=k dks izkIr djrh gS rFkk phuh vfèkdkfj;ksa oQks fons'kksaosQ fy, izek.ki=k nsrh gSA LFkk;h lfefr lkekU; {keknku dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa dk iz;ksx djrh gSA LFkk;h lfefr dbZ,sls vfèkdkjksa dk Hkh iz;ksx djrh gS] ftldk mYys[k lafoèkku esa ugha fd;k x;k gSA mnkgj.kLo:i] bls ljdkjhmikfèk;ksa dks izLFkkfir djus vkSj iznku djus dk vfèkdkj izkIr gS_ {keknku osQ vfèkdkj dk Hkh lafoèkku esadgha mYys[k ughas gS] fiQj Hkh ;g bl vfèkdkj dk iz;ksx djrh gSA ,d vksj tcfd bls jkT;kè;{k osQ dbZ dk;ZlkSais x;s gSa] nwljh vksj bls dbZ ,sls dk;ksaZ dks djus dh eukgh gS tks nwljs ns'kksa osQ jkT;kè;{k djrs gSa] tSlsbls jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dh fofèk;ksa dk fu"ksèk djus dk vfèkdkj ugha gS bls jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks Hkax djusdk vfèkdkj ugha gSA

(ii) dk;Zdkjh vfèkdkj& LFkk;h lfefr dks dk;Zikfydk lacaèkh dbZ vfèkdkj fn, x, gSaA jk"Vªh; tudkaxzslosQ lkFk&lkFk LFkk;h lfefr osQ izfr Hkh jkT;ifj"kn~~ vkSj loksZPp tu&U;k;ky; mÙkjnk;h gSA loksZaPp tu&U;k;ky;osQ vè;{k dh fu;qfÙkQ vkSj c[kkZLrxh osQ ckjs esa Hkh bldk vfèkdkj egÙoiw.kZ gS] ;|fi lafoèkku esa bldk dghaLi"V mYys[k ugha feyrk gSA ;g vfèkdkj jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks gS] ysfdu LoHkkor% jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQvarjdky esa bl 'kfÙkQ dk iz;ksx LFkk;h lfefr gh djsxh A lafoèkku LFkk;h lfefr dks fons'kh 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ lkFkdh x;h lafèk;ksa dks vuqlefFZkr djus rFkk lekIr djus dk Hkh vfèkdkj nsrk gSA izkrksa] Lok;Ùk'kklh {ks=kksa] osQUnz}kjk 'kkflr uxjikfydkvksa vkSj Økafrdkjh lfefr;ksa osQ fujh{k.k dk vfèkdkj Hkh LFkk;h lfefr dks izkIr gSA;g muosQ vuqfpr fu.kZ;ksa dks jí dj ldrh gS ;k ladqfpr dj ldrh gSA bl izdkj] LFkk;h lfefr dks fu;qfÙkQ]inP;qfr vkSj fujh{k.k osQ vfèkdkj fn, x, gSaA

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(iii) foèkk;h vfèkdkj&foèkk;h {ks=k esa Hkh LFkk;h lfefr osQ vfèkdkj O;kid gSaA lafoèkku bls vkKkfIr;k¡ tkjhdjus dk vfèkdkj nsrk gSA pw¡fd tu&dkaxzsl dh CkSBd cgqr yacs vjls ckn vkSj FkksM+s le; osQ fy, gksrh gSblfy, vkKkfIr;k¡ tkjh djus dk egÙo c<+ tkrk gSA iwoZ lksfo;r :l esa Hkh izsftfM;e dks vkKkfIr;k¡ tkjhdjus dk vfèkdkj FkkA ysfdu] Pkhu dh LFkk;h lfefr dh ;g 'kfÙkQ vfèkd egÙoiw.kZ gS] D;ksafd jk"Vªh;tudkaxzsl dh cSBd yach vofèk osQ ckn gqvk djrh gSA ;g Hkh egÙoiw.kZ gS fd vkKkfIr;ksa dk ewY; jk"Vªh;tudkaxzsl }kjk ikfjr fofèk;ksa osQ cjkcj gSA ;s phu esa Hkh jktdh; laLFkkvksa] vfèkdkjksa vkSj ukxfjoQksa ij ykxw gksrhgSA vkKkfIr;k¡ osQoy dkuwu dk gh LFkku ughas ysrh gSA] cfYd os dkuwu dh O;k[;k Hkh djrh gS] ;k dkuwu ykxwdjus osQ fy, vkns'k osQ :i esa tkjh dh tkrh gSA la{ksi esa] LFkk;h lfefr dk dkuwu cukus osQ lacaèk esa vfèkdkjcgqr gh O;kid vkSj egÙoiw.kZ gSA

(iv) U;kf;d vfèkdkj& tgk¡ rd U;kf;d vfèkdkj dk iz'u gS] bl {ks=k esa Hkh LFkk;h lfefr dks O;kid vfèkdkjfn, x, gSaA LFkk;h lfefr dks dkuwuksa dh O;k[;k dk vfèkdkj izkIr gSA LFkk;h lfefr dks loksZPp tu&U;k;ky;osQ vè;{kksa dh fu;qfÙkQ vkSj o[kkZLrxh dk Hkh vfèkdkj fn;k x;k gSA ;g U;k;ky;ksa osQ dk;ksZa dh ns[kHkky Hkh djrhgSA LFkk;h lfefr fdlh ljdkjh foHkkx osQ xSj&dkuwuh fu.kZ; dks jí Hkh dj ldrh gSA lkFk&ghs&lkFk fdlh dkuwuhleL;k osQ egÙoiw.kZ eqís ij LFkk;h lfefr dk fu.kZ; gh vafre ekuk tkrk gSA

(v) vU; vfèkdkj&mi;ZqÙkQ vfèkdkjksa osQ vfrfjDr LFkk;h lfefr dks bu lkjs vfèkdkjksa vkSj dk;kZsa osQ lEiknudk vfèkdkj gS] tks bls jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl }kjk lkSais tkrs gSaA ;g izkoèkku bruk O;kid gS fd bldk iz;ksx djjk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dksbZ Hkh vfèkdkj LFkk;h lfefr dks lkSai ldrh gSA bl lacaèk esa phu osQ jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQLFkk;h lfefr osQ vfèkdkj iwoZ lksfo;r la?k osQ izftfM;e ls vfèkd O;kid gSA

var esa] lafoèkkuμfuekZrkvksa dks ;g Li"V mís'; fn[kk;h iM+rk gS fd LFkk;h lfefr dks jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl osQ vèkhuj[kk tk;A lafoèkku jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dks jkT; 'kfDr dk loksZPp vax ekurk gS] ftlosQ çfr LFkk;h lfefr mÙkjnk;hgSA O;kogkj esa lkE;oknh ny dh osQUæh; lfefr osQ çR;{k fu;a=k.k esa dk;Z djus osQ dkj.k LFkk;h lfefr dk LFkkuxkS.k iM+ tkrk gS] og lkE;oknh ny dh uhfr;ksa dk vk¡[k ew¡n dj leFkZu djrh gS vkSj mlosQ funsZ'ku rFkk usr`Roesa dke djrh gSA



1- Úkal dk iape x.kjkT; --------------------------------- osQ usr`Ro esa LFkkfir fd;k x;kA

2- tujy n xkWy -------------------------------- rd Úkal osQ jk"Vªifr jgsA

3- fnlacj -------------------------- osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr :l esa la?kh; x.kjkT; dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA

4- jkT; ifj"kn~ fLol la?kh; lHkk dk ---------------------------------------- gSA

5- vejhdh dkaxzsl dh lfefr dks vkerkSj ij ------------------------ dh laKk nh tkrh gSA


lS¼kafrd n`f"V ls fczfV'k laln esa jkteqdqV (The Crown)] ykMZ lHkk (House of Lords) vkSj dkWeUl lHkk(House of Commons) rhuksa vk tkrs gSaA ykMZ lHkk dks mPp lnu] mijyk lnu (Upper House) ;k nwljklnu (Second Chamber) dgk tkrk gS_ dkWeUl lHkk dks fuEu lnu ;k voj lnu (Lower House) dgktkrk gSA ijarq okLro esa dkWeUl lHkk dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj ÑR; ykMZ lHkk dh rqyuk esa vfèkd foLr`r vkSjegÙoiw.kZ gSaA O;kogkfjd vkSj jktuhfrd dkj.kksa ls dkWeUl lHkk dks fczfV'k laln dk i;kZ;okph le>k tkrkgS D;ksafd blosQ lnL;ksa dk pquko tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk fd;k tkrk gS_ blh lnu dks fofèk&fuekZ.k dh vafrd'kfDr çkIr gS_ vkSj eaf=keaMy (Cabinet) vius vfLrRo osQ fy, blh lnu osQ fo'okl (Confidence) ijvkfJr gSA

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fczfV'k laln dks çHkqlÙkklaiUu ekuus dk eq[; dkj.k ;g gS fd ogka dksbZ fyf[kr lafoèkku (Written

Constitution) ugha gSa 'kklu&ç.kkyh ls tqM+h gqbZ çFkk,¡ (conventions)] U;kf;d n`"Vkar (Judicial

Precedents) vkSj laln osQ vfèkfu;e (parliamentary Enactments) gh ogka osQ lafoèkku dk vkèkkj gSAlaln osQ vfèkfu;e dkuwu dh n`f"V ls loksZifj gSA

oLrqr% çèkkuea=kh gh eaf=keaMy cukrk vkSj rksM+rk gSA og viuh ilan osQ laln&lnL;ksa dks eaf=keaMy esa j[kldrk gS gkykafd mls fofHkUu jktuhfrd fgrksa vkSj fHkUu&fHkUu lewgksa esa usr`Ro osQ nkosnkjksa dks blesa mfprçfrfufèkRo nsuk iM+rk gSA

eaf=keaMy fczfV'k lkafoèkkfud ç.kkyh dh èkqjh gSA eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; vius&vius ç'kklfud foHkkx osQvè;{k osQ ukrs ns'k osQ 'kklu esa fu.kkZ;d Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA vejhdh eaf=keaMy osQ lnL; rks foèkkueaMyls fcYdqy ugha tqM+s gksrs vkSj os osQoy jk"Vªifr (President) osQ lsod gksrs gSa] ijarq fczfV'k eaf=keaMy osQlnL; Lo;a foèkkueaMy osQ egÙoiw.kZ lnL; gksrs gSa] vkSj os lkewfgd :i ls foèkkueaMy dh lapkyu lfefr(Steering committee) osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gSaA

fczfV'k ç.kkyh osQ varxZr foèkkueaMy vkSj dk;Zikfydk esa xfrjksèk (Dedlock) iSnk gksus dh dksbZ xqatkb'k ugha gSA

la;qDr jkT; vesjhdk osQ foèkkueaMy dks dkaxzsl* dgk tkrk gSA vesjhdk esa la?kh; 'kklu ç.kkyh (Federal

Government) çpfyr gSA ogk¡ dh la?kh; ljdkj iwjs jk"Vª ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gS] ipkljkT;ksa dh ljdkjsa vius&vius ls lacafèkr ekeyksa dk 'kklu pykrh gSA la?kh; ç.kkyh dh vko';drk osQvuq:i ogka la?k osQ foèkkueaMyμvFkkZr~ dkaxzsl esa nks lnu j[ks x, gSa% (1) çfrfufèk lHkk (House of

Representatives) laiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ tulkèkkj.k dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gS_ vkSj (2) lhusV (Senate)

i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ jkT;ksa dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gSA çfrfufèk lHkk dks fuEu lnu ;k voj lnu (Lower House)

dgk tkrk gS_ lhusV dks mPp lnu] mijyk lnu (Uppoer House) dgk tkrk gS_ ;k nwljk lnu (Second

chamber) dgk tkrk gSA çfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; dks dkaxzsl&lnL; dgk tkrk gS_ lhusV osQ lnL; dks lhusVlnL; ;k lhusVj (Senator) dgk tkrk gSA

blesa 435 lnL; gksrs gSa tks fd iwjs ns'k dh turk osQ }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA blosQ fuokZpu{ks=k (constituencies)

tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij cuk, tkrs gSaA vr% bl lnu esa fdlh jkT; ls vkus okys çfrfufèk;ksa dh la[;k ogkadh tula[;k ij fuHkZj gSA

çfrfufèk lHkk osQ lnL; nks o"kZ osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSaA bl vofèk dks fdlh Hkh rjg c<+k;k ;k ?kVk;k ugha tk ldrkA

la;qDr jkT; vesjhdk osQ çR;sd jkT; dks lhusV esa vius nks&nks çfrfufèk Hkstus dk vfèkdkj gS] pkgs HkkSxksfyd;k tula[;k dh n`f"V ls dksbZ jkT; fdruk Hkh NksVk ;k cM+k D;ksa u gks] pawfd ogka jkT;ksa dh orZeku la[;k50 gS] blfy, lhusV esa 100 lnL; gksrs gSaA 'kq:&'kq: esa jkT;ksa osQ foèkkueaMy vius&vius jkT; dkçfrfufèkRo djus osQ fy, lhusV&lnL;ksa dk pquko djrs FksA ijarq 1913 ls jkT;ksa dh turk budk çR;{k pqukodjrh gSA

la;qDr jkT; vesjhdk dk mijk"Vªifr (Vice-President) lhusV dk lHkkifr (Chairman) gksrk gSA

vesjhdk esa la?kh; ç.kkyh vkSj fyf[kr lafoèkku viuk;k x;k gSA blosQ varxZr fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ fo"k;ksa dh nkslwfp;ka (Lists) cukbZ xbZ gSa % la?kh; fo"k; (Federal Subject) vkSj jkT; fo"k; (State Subjects)A tks fo"k;buesa ls fdlh lwph osQ fopkj{ks=k esa ugha vkrs] mUgsa vof'k"V fo"k; (Residual Subjects) dgk tkrk gSA

vejhdh dkaxzsl fofHkUu ç'kklfud foHkkxksa osQ ckjs esa fooj.k (Reports) e¡xk ldrh gSA ;g viuh tkaplfefr;ka (Inquiry committees) fu;qDr djosQ ç'kklfud foHkkxksa dh vkykspuk dj ldrh gSA

;fn ns'kæksg] Hkz"Vkpkj ;k lafoèkku osQ mYya?ku] bR;kfn dk vkjksi yxkdj jk"Vªifr] mijk"Vªifr] U;k;kèkh'kksa

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;k ç'kklfud mPpkfèkdkfj;ksa ij egkfHk;ksx (Impeachement) pykuk gks rks blosQ fy, çfrfufèk lHkkegkfHk;ksx dh èkkjk,¡ (Articles of Impeachemnts) rS;kj djrh gS] vkSj lhusV esa eqdnek pyk;k tkrk gSAçfrfufèk lHkk esa egkfHk;ksx dh èkkjkvksa dks lkèkkj.k cgqr (Simple Majority) ls ikfjr fd;k tkrk gSAnks"k&flf¼ osQ fy, egkfHk;ksx dh çR;sd èkkjk ij lhusV esa mifLFkr rFkk ernku esa Hkkx ysus okys lnL;ksadk nks&frgkbZ cgqer (Two-Third Majority) vko';d gksxkA nks"k fl¼ gks tkus ij vfHk;qDr dks in lsgVk fn;k tkrk gSA

pkj lky ckn tc jk"Vªifr vkSj mijk"Vªifr dk pquko gksrk gS rks bl pquko esa Mkys x, oksVksa dh fxurhosQ fy, dkaxzsl osQ nksuksa lnuksa dk la;qDr vfèkos'ku (Joint Session) gksrk gSA

dkaxzsl dh lfefr dks vke rkSj ij y?kq foèkku&eaMy* (Little Legsilature) dh laKk nh tkrh gSA fdlh Hkhfoèks;d dks vafre :i nsus dk vfèkdkj ,slh lfefr;ksa osQ gkFk esa jgrk gSA fl¼karr% fdlh lfefr osQ çLrkodks çfrfufèk lHkk lhusV esa vLohdkj fd;k tk ldrk gS] ijarq O;kogkjr% ,slk cgqr de gks ikrk gSA

la;qDr jkT; vesjhdk dk jk"Vªifr 'kklu osQ dk;Zdkjh vax (Executive Organ) dk vè;{k gS_ dkaxzsl ogkadk loksZPp foèkk;h vax (Supreme Legislative Organ) gSA 'kfDr&ikFkZD; (Separation fo Powers) osQfl¼kar osQ varxZr bu nkuksa vaxksa dh 'kfDr;ka vkSj d`R; bl <ax ls fuèkkZfjr fd, x, gSa fd os vius&vius{ks=k esa ,d&nwljs ls Lokèkhu gksa_ 'kklu dk dksbZ Hkh vax viuh 'kfDr;ksa dk ç;ksx djrs le; ;k vius dR;ksadks laiUu djrs le; fdlh nwljs vax ij vkfJr u gksA

nwljh vksj] vojksèk ,oa larqyu (Checks and Balances) osQ fl¼kar osQ varxZr ;g O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS fd'kklu osQ fofHkUu vax ,d&nwljs ij vadq'k j[k ldas rkfd 'kfDr osQ teko (concentration of Power)

dks jksdk tk losQ] vkSj 'kklu dk dksbZ Hkh vax fujadq'k u gks tk,A

vesjhdh lafoèkku osQ varxZr loksZPp U;k;ky; la?k ljdkj dh U;kf;d 'kk[kk dk loksZPp vax gSA blesa ewyr%ikap U;k;kèkh'k j[ks x, Fks] ijarq le; osQ lkFk budh la[;k Hkh cnyrh jgh gSA 1869 osQ ckn ls loksZPpU;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k ukS jgh gS ftuesa ,d eq[; U;k;kèkh'k (Chieef Justice) gksrk gSA

lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj viuk dk;Z laiUu djrs gq, vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; us èkhjs&èkhjs lafoèkku osQ laj{kd*(Guardian of the Constitution) dh Hkwfedk l¡Hkky yh gSA loksZPp U;k;ky; dh bl Hkwfedk osQ fo'ys"k.kls igys vejhdh lafoèkku osQ nk'kZfud vkèkkj (Philosophical Basis) dh ppkZ dj ysuk mi;qDr gksxkA

vejhdh lafoèkku dk fuekZ.k vejhdh Lokèkhurk dh ?kks"k.kk (Declaration of Indepedence) 1776 osQ ckn1787 esa gqvk FkkA bl ?kks"k.kk osQ varxZr rRdkyhu vejhdk osQ rsjg mifuos'k fczfV'k 'kklu ls eqfDr çkIrdjus osQ ckn ,d jk"Vª osQ :i esa tqM+ x, FksA

bl rjg vejhdh lafoèkku osQ varxZr ,d vR;ar tfVy 'kklu&O;oLFkk LFkkfir dh xbZ FkhA blesa 'kkludh rhu 'kk[kk,¡μ vFkkZr~ foèkkf;dk] dk;Zikfydk vkSj U;k;ikfydkμrFkk nks LrjμvFkkZr~ la?k Lrj vkSj jkT;LrjμLFkkfir fd, x, Fks] vkSj muesa vojksèk ,oa larqyu (Checks and Balances) dh foLr`r O;oLFkk dhxbZ FkhA okLro esa lafoèkku osQ laLFkkid ,d ,slh 'kklu&O;oLFkk LFkkfir djuk pkgrs Fks tks dHkh Hkhfujadq'kra=k (Despotism) dk :i èkkj.k u dj ik,A os ;g vo'; pkgrs Fks fd 'kklu osQ bu fofoèk Lrjksaesa fdlh osQ gkFkksa esa vnE; 'kfDr osQafær u gks ik,] ijarq mUgksaus ;g Li"V ugha fd;k fd 'kklu dh bufofoèk 'kk[kkvksa vkSj Lrjksa esa dksbZ erHksn iSnk gks tkus ij mldk lekèkku dSls gksxk] vkSj ml ij vafrefu.kZ; dkSu nsxk\ la;qDr jkT; vejhdk osQ bfrgkl esa dbZ ckj ,sls erHksn iSnk gq,A

le; osQ vrajky ls dkuwu dh çkekf.kdrk (validity) osQ ç'u ij vejhdh dkaxzsl vFkkZr~ foèkkueaMy dhrqyuk esa U;k;ikfydk dh mPprk Lohdkj dj yh xbZ] vkSj jkT;ksa dh rqyuk esa la?k dh dkuwuh mPprk dksekU;rk ns nh xbZA

uksV



bl rjg loksZPp U;k;ky; us vius&vkidks lafoèkku dk laj{kd (Guardian of the Consitution) eku fy;k gSA

O;ogkj osQ Lrj ij Úkal esa yksdra=k dh LFkkiuk esa dbZ mrkj&p<+ko vk,A dbZ ckj ogka yksdra=k dks pqukSfrnh xbZ] ml ij çgkj fd, x,] vkSj mldk neu Hkh dj fn;k x;kA ijarq 1958 esa ogka iapd x.kjkT; (FifthRepublic) dh LFkkiuk osQ ckn yksdra=k iwjh rjg LFkkfir gks pqdk gSA

Úkal dk iape x.kjkT; f}rh; fo'o ;q¼ (1939-45) osQ çfl¼ lSU; uk;d tujy pkYlZ n xkWy(1890&1970) osQ usr`Ro esa LFkkfir fd;k x;k FkkA tujy n xkWy 1953 esa lkoZtfud thou ls laU;kl yspqosQ Fks] ijarq 1958 esa mUgsa okil cqyk;k x;kA 1958 esa gh jk"Vªh; ifji`PNk (national referendum) osQckn iape x.kjkT; dh uhao j[kh xbZ vkSj u;k lafoèkku ykxw fd;k x;kA tujy n xkWy 1959 ls 1969 rdÚkal osQ jk"Vªifr jgsA ledkyhu Úkalhlh ljdkj dh laLFkkvksa vkSj uhfr;ksa dks ,d fuf'pr :i esa <+kyusesa n xkWy dh Hkwfedk lcls çHkko'kkyh jghA

Úkal osQ iape x.kjkT; osQ lafoèkku (1958) osQ varxZr ,dkRed 'kklu&ç.kkyh (Unitary Form ofGovernment) viukbZ xbZ gSA vr% ogka ,d gh jk"Vªh; ljdkj dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA blosQ vykok ogkadh turk 22 {ks=kh; ifj"kn~ksa (Regional Councils) 96 egkuxj foHkkxh; ifj"kn~ksa (MetropolitionDepartment Councils) vkSj 36]673 uxjikfydk ifj"kn~ksa (Municipal Councils) ;k dE;wuksa (Communes)dk pquko Hkh djrh gSA

iape x.kjkT; osQ lafoèkku (1958) osQ varxZr nks&lnuh; laln (Two-Chamber Parliament) vkSj nksgjhdk;Zikfydk* (Dual Excutive) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA ;g O;oLFkk Úkalhlh jktuhfr ç.kkyh dks lkèkkj.klalnh; ç.kkyh (Parliamentary System) ls vyx fl¼ djrh gSA lkèkkj.k lalnh; ç.kkyh esa çèkkuea=kh(Prime Minister) ,oa mldk eaf=keaMy (cabinet) vkilh lykg (Advice) ls dk;Z djrk gSA ijarq Úkalesa çèkkuea=kh vkSj jk"Vªifr fey&ckaVdj dk;Zdkjh 'kfDr;ksa dk ç;ksx djrs gSaA

Úkalhlh laln osQ fupys lnu (Lower House) dks jk"Vªh; lHkk ;k us'kuy vlsacyh (National Assembly)dgk tkrk gS] vkSj mijys lnu (Upper House) dks lhusV (Senate) dgk tkrk gSA us'kuy vlsacyh esa 577lnL; gksrs gSa tks ikap o"kZ osQ dk;Z&dky osQ fy, pqus tkrs gSa] gkykafd bl lnu dks le; ls igys Hkh Hkaxfd;k tk ldrk gSA us'kuy vlascyh osQ lnL; turk osQ }kjk ,d&lnL;h; fuokZpu{ks=kksa (Single-Memberconstituencies) ls pqus tkrs gSaA buosQ pquko esa ^f}rh;d cgqer ç.kkyh* (Run-off Absolute MajoritySystem) dk ç;ksx gksrk gSA O;kogkj osQ èkjkry ij] okeiaFkh vkSj nf{k.kiaFkh nyksa osQ xBcaèku vkil esale>kSrk djosQ cgqr de oksV ikus okys mEehnokjksa dks cSB tkus osQ fy, rS;kj dj ysrs gSa rkfd nks lclscy'kkyh mEehnokjksa esa lhèkk eqdkcyk djk;k tk losQA

lhusV osQ 321 lnL; ,d fuokZpdx.k (Electoral College) osQ }kjk vçR;{k :i ls pqus tkrs gSaA

us'kuy vlsacyh osQ 22 lnL; vkSj lhusV osQ 13 lnL; leqæ&ikj osQ foHkkxksa vkSj {ks=kksa (Overseas

Departments and Territories) osQ }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA lhusV osQ 12 lnL; fons'kksa esa jgus okys Úkalhlhjk"Vªtuksa (French Nationals) osQ }kjk pqus tkrs gSA

fnlacj 1993 osQ lafoèkku osQ varxZr la?kh; x.kjkT; (Federal Republic) dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA


System) dk feJ.k rS;kj djus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;k gSA vè;{kh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gak ,d 'kfDr'kkyhjk"Vªifr (president) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS] vkSj lalnh; ç.kkyh dh rjg ;gka ,d 'kfDr'kkyh laln(Parliament) dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS ftls la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA jk"Vªifr jkT;dk vè;{k (head of State) gS tks lhèks tulkèkkj.k osQ }kjk pkj o"kZ osQ fy, pquk tkrk gS_ mls yxkrkjnks ckj ls vkxs ugha pquk tk ldrkA og lafoèkku dk laj{kd gS] vkSj l'kL=k lsukvksa dk loksZPp lsukifr(Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces) Hkh gSA

uksV



jk"Vªifr ,d varjax eaf=keaMy (Kitchen Cabinet) dh lykg ls dk;Z djrk gS ftlesa mlosQ fo'oLr fe=kvkSj mPpkfèkdkjh lfEefyr gksrs gSaA eaf=keaMy dks lÙkk esa jgus osQ fy, laln dk fo'okl çkIr gksuk pkfg,A

jk"Vªifr vkKfIr;ka (Decrees) tkjh dj ldrk gS tks dkuwu dh rjg ekU; gksrh gSA ijarq ;s vkKfIr;ka çpfyrdkuwu osQ fo:¼ ugha gksuh pkfg,A fiQj laln bUgsa fujLr Hkh dj ldrh gSA nwljh vksj] jk"Vªifr Hkhlalnμ}kjkμikfjr foèks;d (Bill) dks dkuwu cuus ls jksd ldrk gSA

ns'k dh j{kk (Defence) dk nkf;Ro l¡Hkkyus osQ fy, jk"Vªifr lqj{kk&ifj"kn~ (Security Council) fu;qDrdjrk gS ftldk vè;{k og Lo;a gksrk gSA og osQaæh; cSad (Central Bank) osQ vè;{k (Chairperson)]egk&vfHk;kstd (prosecutor General) rFkk U;k;ikfydk (Judiciary) osQ çeq[k lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr dkçLrko laln osQ ikl Hkstrk gSA

jk"Vªifr&in dk mEehnokj de&ls&de nl yk[k ernkrkvksa osQ }kjk euksuhr gksuk pkfg,_ buessa fdlh ,dvapy (Region) ;k x.kjkT; (Republic) osQ ernkrkvksa dh la[;k dqy la[;k dh 7» ls T;knk ugha gksuh pkfg,A

:l esa foèkkf;dk (Legislture) osQ d`R; la?kh; lHkk (Federal Assembly) dks lkSisa x, gSaA blesa nks lnu(Chambers) j[ks x, gSaA voj lnu (Lower House) dks LVsV M~;wek dgk tkrk gSA blesa 450 lnL;ksa dhO;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA mPp lnu (Upper House) dks la?kh; ifj"kn~ (Federal Council) dgk tkrk gSA blesa178 lnL;ksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA

phuh x.kra=k dk lafoèkku lalnh; loksZPprk osQ fl¼kar ij vkèkkfjr gSA ;g 'kfÙkQ;ksa osQ iFkDdj.k osQ fl¼kardks vLohÑr djrk gSA vr% phuh lafoèkku esa fczfV'k rFkk lksfo;r lalnksa dh Hkkafr loksZPp foèkkf;dk la?kdh LFkkiuk dh x;h gSA bls jk"Vªh; tu&dkaxzsl dgrs gSaA

jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl ,dlnukRed lHkk gSA ijaijkxr iztkrkaf=kd i¼fr osQ izfrdwy blesa osQoy ,d lnu gS];|fi phu ,d cgqjk"Vªh; jkT; gS] fdUrq jk"Vªh;rkvksa dks izfrfufèkRo iznku djus osQ fy, nwljs lnu dhO;oLFkk ugha dh x;h gSA

u, lafoèkku esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxszl osQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k fuf'Pkr ugha dh x;h gSA blosQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k dkuwu}kjk fuf'pr dh tkrh gSA 1954bZ- osQ lafoèkku esa Hkh ,slh gh O;oLFkk FkhA NBh jk"Vªh; dk¡xszl (6 twu] 1983)esa lnL;ksa dh la[;k 2]978 Fkh A blosQ lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu izkarksa] Lok;Ùk'kklh {ks=kksa] osQUnz'kkflr uxjikfydkvksarFkk tueqfÙkQ lsuk (People's Liberaton Army) osQ }kjk gksrk gSA ;g 56 jk"Vª&tkfr;ksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrhgSA blesa 75 izfr'kr izfrfufèk Jfed fdlku vkSj lSfud gSaA

lafoèkku dh èkkjk 17 esa jk"Vªh; tudkaxzsl dh 'kfÙkQ;ksa vkSj dk;ksZa dh ppkZ dh x;h gSA bls lafoèkku esala'kksèku yksu] dkuwu cukus] lkE;oknh ny dh osQUnzh; slfefr dh fliQkfj'k ij izèkkuea=kh vkSj jkT;ifj"kn~osQ lnL;ksa dh fu;qfDr djus vkSj c[kkZLr djus] jk"Vªh; vkfFkZd ;kstuk] jk"Vªh; ctV vkSj jktdh;ys[kk&tks[kk dks Lohd`r djus vkSj vU; mu vfèkdkjksa vkSj d`R;ksa osQ iz;ksx dk vfèkdkj gS] ftUgsa ;gvko';d le>s A blosQ vfrfjDr] lafoèkku osQ vU; micUèkksa }kjk Hkh dqN vfèkdkj bls izkIr gSA èkkjk18 bls LFkk;h lfefr osQ vè;{k] mikè;{k vkSj lnL;ksa dks pquus rFkk inP;qr djus dk vfèkdkj nsrhgS] èkkjk 16 jkT;ifj"kn~ dks blosQ izfr mÙknk;h cukrh gS] vkSj èkkjk 25 loksZPp tuU;k;ky;ksa dks blosQizfr mÙkjnk;h cukrh gSA


vfèkuk;d ra=k % rkuk'kkgh O;oLFkk

ikysZek % iQsap Hkk"kk dk 'kCn gS ftldk vFkZ gSμ okn fookn ;k fopkj&foe'kZ djus okyh ,d lHkk

uksV




1- fczfV'k laln dh 'kfDr ,oa laxBu dh O;k[;k dhft,A

2- vejhdh dkaxzsl dh 'kfDr;ksa dk foospu dhft,A

3- ¶fLol la?kh; lHkk esa lHkh çdkj dh 'kfDr;k¡ gSaμ foèkk;h] ç'kkldh; vkSj U;kf;dA¸ leh{kk dhft,A

4- iape x.kra=k esa Úkalhlh laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ lacaèkksa dk foospu dhft,A

5- jfl;k x.kra=k dh lalnh; 'kfDr;ksa ij laf{kIr fVIi.kh fy[ksaA


(1) tujy pkYlZ n xkWy (2) 1959 ls 1969

(3) 1993 (4) mPp ;k f}rh; lnu (Upper or Second Chamber

(5) y?kq foèkku e.My (Little Legislature)






uksV



bdkbZμ9% laoSèkkfud lajpukμU;k;ikfydk(Constitutional Structure—Judiciary)


mís'; (Objectives)


9-1 vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; vkSj U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu (US Supreme Court and Judicial Review)

9-2 ;w-osQ-] jfl;k] Úkal dh U;kf;d O;oLFkk vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; U;kf;d O;oLFkk (Judicial

System of U.K., Russia, France and Federal Judiciary of Switzerland)





mís'; (Objectives)


vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky;] U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu] fczVsu vkSj Úkal dh U;kf;d O;oLFkk osQ foospu djus esaA

fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; U;kf;d O;oLFkk dh O;k[;k djus esaA


U;k;ikfydk ljdkj dk og vax gS tks vko';drkuqlkj dkuwuksa dh O;k[;k djrh gS vkSj dkuwu osQ Hkax djusokysadks mfpr n.M nsrh gSA vr% 'kklukRed laxBu dks cuk;s j[kus osQ fy, U;k; foHkkx dk jguk loZFkk vfuok;ZgSA dgk tkrk gS fd ;fn fdlh ns'k esa foèkkf;dk vkSj dk;Zikfydk cgqr vPNh gks] ij LorU=k vkSj fu"i{kU;k;ikfydk u gks] rks ml ns'k osQ lafoèkku dk vfèkd ewY; ugha jg tkrk A ;g ns[kus osQ fy, fd jkT; osQ dkuwuksadk leqfpr ikyu gks jgk gS ;k ugha vFkok dkuwuksa osQ Hkax djusokyksa dks n.M osQ fy, loZFkk ,d fu"i{kU;k;ikfydk dh vko';drk gskrh gSA çks- xkuZj us Bhd gh fy[kk gS fd ¶U;k; foHkkx osQ vHkko esa ,d lH; jkT;dh dYiuk ugha dh tk ldrhA dksbZ Hkh lekt fcuk foèkkue.My osQ jgrk gS] ;g ckr le> esa vk ldrh gS]ysfdu ,sls fdlh lH; jkT; dh dYiuk Hkh ugha dh tk ldrh ftlesa U;k;ikfydk ;k U;k;kfèkdj.k dh dksbZ HkhO;oLFkk ugha gksA¸ U;k;ikfydk O;fDr osQ vfèkdkjksa ;k LorU=krkvksa dh j{kk djrh gS ;g vfèkdkjksa dk fu'p;vkSj muij fu.kZ; nsus osQ fy,] vijkfèk;ksa dks n.M nsus osQ fy, rFkk fucZyksa dks vR;kpkj ls j{kk djus osQ fy,furkar vko';d gSA¸ orZeku ;qx esa çR;sd ns'k esa fofèk osQ 'kklu (Rule of Law) osQ fl¼kar dks ekU;rk nh x;hgS_ ftldk vFkZ gksrk gSμçR;sd O;fDr dkuwu osQ vèkhu gS vkSj dksbZ blosQ Åij ugha] dkuwu dh utj esa jktk&jadlHkh cjkcj gSa vkSj lHkh dks leku vijkèk osQ fy, leku n.M feyuk pkfg,A ysfdu U;k;ikfydk rFkk U;k; foHkkxdh vuqifLFkfr esa ;s ckrsa csdkj ekywe gksrh gSaA ykLdh us fy[kk gS fd ¶tc ge ;g tkurs gSa fd jk"Vª&jkT; fdlçdkj vius ;gk¡ U;k; djrk gS rc gesa ;g Kkr gks tkrk gS fd og uSfrd pfj=k osQ fdl Lrj ij gSA czkbl us

uksV

bdkbZμ9% laoSèkkfud lajpukμU;k;ikfydk


fy[kk gS fd ¶fdlh ljdkj dh mÙkerk dh dlkSVh mlosQ U;k; foHkkx dh dq'kyrk gS_ D;ksafd lkèkkj.k ukxfjdosQ fgr rFkk lqj{kk osQ fgr esa ;g Hkkouk vko';d gS fd muosQ lkFk mfpr U;k; 'kh?kz fd;k tk;A fiQj czkblosQ gh 'kCnksa esa ¶;fn U;k; dk nhi v¡aèksjs esa cq> tk; rks og v¡èksjk fdruk xgu gksxk] bldh dYiuk ugha dhtk ldrhA¸ la{ksi esa] ,d fu"i{k ,oa LorU=k U;k; foHkkx ;k U;k;ikfydk osQ fcuk fdlh lH; laxBu dh dYiukugha dh tk ldrhA

9-1 vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; vkSj U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu (US Supreme Court andJudicial Review)

loksZPp U;k;ky; (The Supreme Court)

'kfDr] izfr"Bk vkSj laxBu % la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk dh la?kh; U;k;ikfydk osQ 'kh"kZ ij loksZPp U;k;ky; vofLFkrgSA bldk fuekZ.k lafoèkku }kjk vfuok;Z crk;k x;k gSA dkaxzsl us U;k;ikfydk vfèkfu;e] 1789 }kjk bls laxfBrfd;kA vkt lkoZtfud 'kfDr osQ lokZfèkd LorU=k vfHkdj.k (Agency) osQ :i esa bldk fodkl gqvk gSA tSlsfd Vk¡VZykSV us dgk gS ;g ,slh laLFkk gS ftls lcls de le>k x;k gS vkSj ftls turk us lcls vfèkd egÙoiw.kZrM+d&èkM+d esa ltk;k gS rFkk ftldh j{kk osQ fy, fuEure Js.kh dk ukxfjd Hkh mB [kM+k gksxkA gSfeYVu usdgk Fkk fd jk"Vªifr lekt dh ryokj dks èkkj.k djrk gSA (Hold of the sword of the community) vkSj dk¡xslfoÙk dks fu;fU=kr djrh gSA (Community the purse) ysfdu loksZPp U;k;ky; jk"Vªifr vkSj dkaxzsl nksuksa dkse;kZfnr djrk gS vkSj fliQZ dqN izys[kksa vkSj fofèk;ksa osQ lg;ksx ls 'kklu dks LFkkf;Ro iznku djrk gSA rkRi;Z ;gfd vkt loksZPp U;k;ky; dh 'kfDr rFkk izfr"Bk cgqr c<+ x;h gS ;gk¡ rd fd ttksa dks gh lafoèkku dk fuekZrkdgk tkus yxk gSA

U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k % loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ laxBu dks fuèkkZfjr djus dk vfèkdkj dkaxzsl dks fn;k x;k gSAle;≤ ij U;k;èkh'kksa dh la[;k esa ifjorZu gksrk jgk gSA izkjEHk esa blesa ,d eq[; U;k;kèkh'k rFkk ikap vU;U;k;kèkh'k Fks ysfdu 1801 bZú esa bldh la[;k ?kVkdj 5] 1807 bZú esa 7] 1837 esa 9 vkSj 1863 bZú esa c<+kdj10 dj nh x;hA fiQj 1866 bZú esa ?kVkdj 7 dj nh x;hA iqu% 1869 bZú esa mls fuf'pr dj fn;k tks la[;k vHkhrd pyh vk jgh gSaA vktdy loksZPp U;k;ky; esa ,d eq[; U;k;fèkifr vkSj 8 lgU;k;kèkh'k gSA

U;k;kèkh'kksa dh fu;qfDr % U;k;èkh'kksa dh fu;qfDr jk"Vªifr djrk gS] fdUrq bu fu;qfDr;ksa dh iqf"V flusV }kjkvko';d gS flusV jk"Vªifr }kjk dh x;h fu;qfDr dks jí dj ldrh gS tSlk fd 1930 bZú esa tkWu ijdj (John

Parker) osQ euksu;u dks jí dj fn;k x;k Fkk] 9 vizSy 1970 dks jk"Vªifr fuDlu }kjk euksfur U;k;kèkh'k gsjYMdklZoys dks flusV us vLohdkj dj fn;k D;ksafd dklZosy lkèkkj.k ;ksX;rk dk O;fDr Fkk vkSj izkarh;rk esa fo'oklj[krk FkkA U;k;kèkh'kksa dh fu;qfDr djrs le; jk"Vªifr U;k;ky; osQ oxhZ; èkkfeZd rFkk nyh; xBu dks è;ku esaj[krk gSA

U;k;kèkh'kksa dh ;ksX;rk,¡ % U;k;èkh'kksa dh ;ksX;rkvksa osQ lEcUèk esa lafoèkku pqi gSA ysfdu izk;% mu O;fDr;ksadks U;k;èkh'k fu;qDr fd;k tkrk gS tks [;kfr izkIr odhy] dkuwu osQ izkè;kid] lkoZtfud O;fDr rFkk iz'kkldh;vfHkdj.kksa osQ ijke'kZnkrk jg pqosQ gksrs gSaA MkW VkWdfoys osQ 'kCnksa esa mudh ;ksX;rkvksa dks vPNh rjg O;Dr fd;ktk ldrk gS&la?kh; U;k;kèkh'k dks u osQoy vPNs ukxfjd] fo}ku rFkk bZekunkj gksuk pkfg,] cfyd jktuhfrKHkh gksuk pkfg,A os le; dh xfr ls lqifjfpr gksa vkSj mu vojksèkksa dk lkeuk djus ls 'kafdr ugha gks ftudkso'k esa fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj ,sls yksxksa dks oqQpyus esa lqLrh ls dke u ysa ] tks dkuwuksa osQ fy, vko';d la?kh;loksZPprk ,oa dkuwu osQ ikyu dk fojksèk djsA ;fn loksZPp U;k;ky; esa dHkh cqjs ukxfjd ,oa ukle> O;fDr vktk;sa rks la?k esa x`g;q¼ vFkok vjktdrk iQSyus dh lEHkkouk gSA vkWx ,oa js lokZfèkd liQy eq[; U;k;kfèkifrFksA ek'kZy dh liQyrk dh dq¡th mldh izHkkoiw.kZ rFkk euksgkjh O;fDrRo (Forceful and winsome personality)

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rFkk mnkj] Li"V ,oa rdZiw.kZ fopkj esa ik;k gSA iQjxwlu ,oa eSdgsujh osQ 'kCnksa esa dqN U;k;kèkh'k izfrHkk'kkyhvfèkdka'k vkSlr ;ksX;rk osQ rFkk dqN lkekU; Js.kh osQ gq, gSaA

inkofèk] inP;qfr rFkk osru % la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk eas fczVsu osQ leku U;k;kèkh'kksa dk dk;Z&dky vkthou gSAlnkpkj dky (God behaviour) rd os vius in ij jg ldrs gSaA 70 o"kZ dh voLFkk izkIr djus ij os R;kx&i=knsdj dk;Z&fuo`r gks ldrs gSaA ijarq Hkkjr esa 65 o"kZ dh voLFkk osQ ckn esa fuo`Ùk gks tkrs gSa rFkk fLoV~tjySaM esamudk dk;kZy; fliQZ 6 o"kZ gSA dk;kZofèk osQ vUrxZr gh vesfjdk esa U;k;kèkh'kkksa dks egkfHk;ksx (Impeachment)

}kjk inP;qr fd;k tk ldrk gSA Hkkjr osQ laln osQ nksuksa lnuksa osQ fuosnu djus ij mUgsa jk"Vªifr inP;qr dj ldrkgSA vHkh rd osQoy lseq,y pst (Sammuel Chase) uke U;k;èkh'k ij egkfHk;ksx yxk;k x;k gS ysfdu og HkhfunksZ"k ik;k x;kA

loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa dk osru dkaxzsl }kjk fuèkkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA fuèkkZfjr osru esa mlosQ dk;ZdkyosQ Hkhrj dVkSrh ugha gks ldrhA bl le; eq[; U;k;kèkh'k dks 40]000 MkWyj vkSj vU; U;k;kèkh'kksa dks 32]000MkWyj osru] tks vk;dj eqDr ugha gS] izfro"kZ feyrk gSA

izkjEHk esa loksZPp U;k;ky; dh 'kfDr vkSj izfr"Bk (Power and presitge) ugha osQ

cjkcj FkhA ;gk¡ rd fd okf'akxVu U;k;kèkh'k in osQ fy, N% ;ksX; O;fDr;ksa dks ugha ik

ldkA izFke eq[; U;k;kèkh'k tkWu gs (John Hay) us xouZj in osQ i{k esa R;kx&i=k ns

fn;k FkkA ysfdu Øe'k% bldh izfr"Bk c<+us yxh vkSj mUuhloha 'krkCnh fo'ks"kdj eq[;

U;k;kfèkifr ek'kZy osQ dk;Z&dky ls ;g 'kfDr'kkyh rFkk xkSjoiw.kZ laLFkk cu x;hA

loksZPp U;k;ky; dk dk;Zdj.k (Working of the Supreme Court)

loksZPp U;k;ky; dk l=k izfro"kZ vDVwcj osQ izFke lkseokj ls izkjEHk gksrk gS vkSj twu 'kq: easa lekIr gks tkrkgSA vko';drk iM+us ij eq[; U;k;kèkh'k fo'ks"k l=k Hkh cqyk ldrk gSA eq[; U;k;k/h'k okf'kaxVu esa vofLFkr viusHkO; Hkou esa cSBrk gSA eq[; U;k;kèkh'k iz'kkldh; izèkku gSA og cSBdksa dh vè;{krk djrk gS rFkk U;k;ky; osQfu.kZ;ksa vkSj vkKkvksa dh ?kks"k.kk djrk gSA vfHk;ksxksa dh lquokbZ eaxyokj] o`gLifrokj rFkk 'kqØokj dks gksrh gSA'kfuokjdks U;k;kèkh'k ijLij fopkj&fofue; djrs rFkk lkseokj dks lkoZtfud :i ls fu.kZ; nsrs gSA eqdnesa dhlquokbZ rFkk fu.kZ; osQ fy, 6 U;k;kèkh'kksa dh x.kiwfrZ (Quorum) vko';d gSA fu.kZ; osQ i{k esa er nsus okyhfdlh Hkh U;k;kèkh'k dks fu.kZ; fy[kus osQ fy, dgk tk ldrk gSA vr% lHkh U;k;kèkh'k lHkh eqdneksa esa dkiQh pkSdljgrs gSaA eqdnesa dk fu.kZ; cgqer ls gksrk gS ysfdu cgqer osQ fu.kZ; fo:¼ dksbZ U;k;kèkh'k fHkUu er (Dissenting

Opinion) ns ldrk gSA ;|fi fHkUu er fujFkZd gS fiQj Hkh dHkh&dHkh izpkj osQ iQyLo:i tuer ij bldki;kZIr izHkko iM+rk gS vkSj var eas ns'k] dh fofèk;ksa dks izHkkfor djrk gSA loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ fopkj rFkk fu.kZ;ksadks la;qDr jkT; fjiksVZl (United State Reports) esa izdkf'kr fd;k tkrk gS tks lkafoèkkfud fofèk osQ ,sfrgkfldfodkl rFkk orZeku fLFkfr dk vfèkdkfèkd L=kksr gSA

loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ {ks=kkfèkdkj ,oa dk;Z (Jurisdiction and Role of Supreme Court)

lkafoèkkfud micaèk% la?kh; U;k;ky; dk vfèkdkj {ks=k osQoy dqN ,sls fo"k;ksa rd lhfer gS ftudk lafoèkkuesa Li"V mYys[k gS ;k tks lafoèkku esa miyf{kr (Implied) gSaA 'ks"k leLr fo"k;ksa ij jkT; osQ U;k;ky;ksa dk vfèkdkjgSA loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ vfèkdkj&{ks=k osQ fo"k;ksa esa vuqPNsn 3 esa dgk x;k gS& bl U;k;ky; dk vfèkdj {ks=kjkT; jfpr ,oa ijaijk izkIr dkuwu rFkk lkekU; fl¼kUr (Equity) nksuksa gh gksaxs] mu fLFkfr;ksa esa tks bl lafoèkkuesa la;qDr jkT; osQ dkuwuksa rFkk la;qDr jkT; }kjk dh x;h vFkok dh tkus okyh lfUèk;ksa osQ vuqlkj mRiUu gksxhA

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jktnwrksa] dkmUlyksa rFkk vU; jkT; izfrfufèk;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdnes] ty lsuk rFkk lkeqfæd vfèkdkj {ks=k lEcUèkhlHkh iz'uksa esa mu lc fLFkfr;ksa esa tgk¡ la;qDr jkT; ,d i{k gksxk] la;qDr jkT; osQ nks ;k nks ls vfèkd jkT;ksa osQikjLifjd fooknksa esa] fofHkUu jkT;ksa osQ ukxfjdksa osQ ikjLifjd fooknksa esa rFkk ,d jkT; vFkok mls ukxfjdksa vkSjfons'kh jkT;ksa rFkk ukxfjdksa osQ ikjLifjd fooknksa esa la?kh; U;k;ikfydk dks fu.kZ; djus dk vfèkdkj gksxkA

mi;qZDr vuqPNsn osQ vuqlkj loksZPp U;k;ikfydk osQ {ks=kkfèkdkj osQ vUrxZr fuEufyf[kr eqdnes vkrs gS&

(1) lafoèkku fofèk;ksa vkSj lafèk;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdnesa (Cases arising under the constitution laws and

treaties),

(2) jktwnrksa] jktuhfrd vfèkdkfj;ksa vkSj okf.kT; nwrksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdnesa (Case affecting ambassadors,

other public ministers and consults)

(3) ukfod eqdnesa (Admiralty Cases)

(4) ,sls eqdnesa ftuesa la;qDr jkT; vFkok dbZ ,ddksa jkT; ,d i{k osQ :i esa fooknxzLr gksa (Bases in which

the United state is party)

(5) fofHkUu ,ddksa osQ chp fookn (Controversis between citizens of different states)

lqfoèkk osQ nf"Vdks.k ls loksZPp U;k;ikfydk osQ vfèkdkj {ks=k rFkk dk;ks± dk vè;;u fuEufyf[kr 'kh"kZdksa osQ vUrxZrfd;k tk ldrk gS&

(d) izkjfEHkd vFkok ekSfyd {ks=kkfèkdkj (Original Jurisdiction)

([k) iqufoZpkjd {ks=kkfèkdkj (Appellate Jurisdiction)

(x) U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk vfèkdkj (Power of Judicial Review)

(?k) lafoèkku rFkk ukxfjd vfèkdkjksa dk lja{k.k (Custodian and Guardian of the Constitution) ,oa

(M) vU; vfèkdkj (Miscellaneous)

(d) izkjfEHkd vfèkdkj&{ks=k % lafoèkku loksZPp U;k;ky; dks izkjfEHkd vfèkdkj {ks=k nsrk gSA ;|fi dkaxzsl blvfèkdkj {ks=k dks ?kVk&c<+k ugha ldrh gS] fiQj Hkh bUgha fo"k;ksa ij og nwljs U;k;ky; dks vfèkdkj iznku dj ldrhgSA lafoèkku fuEu nks fo"k;ksa ij loksZPp U;k;ky; dks izkjfEHkd vfèkdkj {ks=k iznku dj ldrk gSA

(1) ,sls ekeys ftldk lEcUèk jktnwrksa] okf.kT;&nwrksa vFkok vU; izdkj osQ fons'kh jkT;ksa osQ izfrfufèk;ksa ls gksAvkèkqfud ;qx esa ,sls >xM+s jk"Vªh; U;k;ky; eas de mBk;s tkrs gSa D;ksafd ;s vUrjkZ"Vªh; fofèk rFkk izFkkvksa osQ vUrxZrvkrs gSaA

(2) ,sls ekeys ftuesa ,d i{k la;qDr&jkT; la?k esa lfEefyr dksbZ jkT; gks vFkkZr~ ,sls >xM+s ftuesa nks ls vfèkdjkT; 'kkfey gksa] la;qDr&jkT; ij eqdnek fd;k gks ;k ,d&ls vfèkd jkT;ksa us la;qDr jkT; ij eqdnek fd;k gksA

([k) iqufoZpkjd vfèkdkj {ks=k % vejhdh lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj izkjfEHkd {ks=k osQ fo"k;ksa dks NksM+dj vU;

lHkh fo"k;ksa ij loksZPp U;k;ky; dk vihy vfèkdkj&{ks=k gksxkA ysfdu dkaxzsl bl vfèkdkj&{ks=k esa ifjorZu

yk ldrh gS mls ?kVk ;k c<+k ldrh gSA bl vfèkdkj osQ varxZr loksZPp U;k;ky;] jkT; U;k;ky; rFkk fuEu

la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ fo:¼ vihy lqurk gSA og mRizs"k.k osQ fjV (Writ of Certioral) }kjk jkT; osQ U;k;ky;ksa

ls ,sls lHkh ekeyksa dks vius fopkj osQ fy, eaxok ldrk gS ftlesa lafoèkku dh fdlh O;oLFkk ;k lafèk dh

O;k[;k dk iz'u fufgr gksA jkT; U;k;ky;ksa ls vihy dh lquokbZ rHkh gksrh gS tc jkT; osQ mPp U;k;ky;

us la?k osQ fdlh dkuwu ;k lafèk osQ fo:¼ fu.kZ; fn;k gks ;k la?kh; fofèk rFkk lafèk osQ izfrdwy fdlh jkT;&fofèk

dks oSèk ?kksf"kr fd;k gksA fuEu la?kh; U;k;ky;ksa osQ fo:¼ vihy rHkh lquh tkrh gS tc muosQ }kjk jkT; fofèk

bl vkèkkj ij voSèk ?kksf"kr dj nh x;h gks fd mlesa lafoèkku] dkuwu ;k lfUèk dk mYya?ku gks jgk gSA 1936

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bZú esa ;g fu;e cuk fn;k x;k fd vlaoSèkkfudrk osQ vkjksi ij loksZPp U;k;ky; fliQZ 3000 MkWyj ls vfèkd

{kfrxzLr ekeys dh gh vihy lqusxhA bl izdkj vesfjdk dk loksZPp U;k;ky; osQoy lkafoèkkfud egÙo osQ

iz'uksa ls lEcfUèkr vihysa lqurk gSA

(x) U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu% la;qDr&jkT; osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; dk lcls egÙoiw.kZ vfèkdkj U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu

dk vfèkdkj gSA bl vfèkdkj osQ vUrxZr loksZPp U;k;ky; la?kh; dkaxzsl rFkk jkT;ksa osQ foèkkue.Myksa }kjk cuk;h

x;h fofèk;ksa dh lafoèkkfudrk ij fopkj djrk gSA rFkk mUgsa oSèk ;k voSèk ?kksf"kr djrk gSA bl oSèkrk dk fu.kZ;

nks dlSfV;ksa osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gSA izFke] jkT; foèkkue.My dks lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj ml dkuwu&fo'ks"k dks fufeZr

djus dk vfèkdkj gS ;k ughaA f}rh; dkuwu fofèk dh mfpr izfØ;k (due process of law) }kjk cuk;k x;k

gS ;k ughaA vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; us bl 'kfDr dk O;kid iz;ksx fd;k gS rFkk lafoèkku dks ifjZofrZr dj

fn;k gSA Hkkjrh; loksZPp U;k;ky; dks Hkh lhfer va'k esa U;kf;d iqufoZYkksdu dk vfèkdkj izkIr gSA

(?k) lafoèkku dk laj{kd rFkk vfoHkkod% la;qDr&jkT; dk loksZPp U;k;ky; vejhdh turk osQ vfèkdkjksa]

LorU=krkvksa rFkk lafoèkku dk lja{kd (Protector) ,oa la?kh; O;oLFkk dk vfHkHkkod (guardian) gSA og funsZ'k]

vkns'k] ijekns'k] ys[k izfr"ksèk] vfèkdkj iPNk] mRizs"k.k bR;kfn }kjk ukxfjdksa osQ ewy vfèkdkjksa rFkk lkafoèkkfud <k¡ps

dh j{kk djrk gSA Hkkjrh; loksZPp U;k;ky; Hkh ukxfjd vfèkdkjksa dk laj{kd rFkk lafoèkku dk vfHkHkkod gSA

(M) vU; vfèkdkj% loksZPp U;k;ky; vU; NksVs&NksVs dk;ks± dks Hkh djrk gSA mls vusd iz'kkldh; dk;ksZ

dks djuk iM+rk gSA U;k;ky; osQ fuEu dksfV osQ deZpkfj;ksa] tSls&fdjkuh] lUns'k&okgd] LVsuksxzkiQj vkfn dh

fu;qfDr U;k;ky; Lo;a djrk gSA U;k;ky; nhokuh rFkk iQkStnkjh dk;Z&fofèk;ksa dk funsZ'ku djrk gSA loksZPp

U;k;ky; dk ,d vU; egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z viuh vkKkvksa dks ykxw djuk gSA vkns'k (Writs) osQ ekè;e ls bl

dk;Z dks fd;k tkrk gSA loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ dk;ks± osQ lEcUèk esa ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd mls ijke'kZ nsus dk

vfèkdkj ugha gS] tks vfèkdrj Hkkjrh; loksZPp U;k;ky; dks izkIr gSA loksZPp U;k;ky; us lafoèkku osQ fodkl

esa lg;ksx Hkh fn;k gSA mls ^vfofPNUu lkafoèkkfud lEesyu* (continuous Constitutional Convention) dh

laKk nh tkrh gSA

izkjEHk esa loksZPPk U;k;ky; ,d detksj fudk; FkkA ysfdu vkt ;g cgqr egÙoiw.kZ rFkk 'kfDr'kkyh laLFkk

cu x;h gSA ifjfLFkfr osQ vuqlkj ifjorZu rFkk vkèkqfudhdj.k loksZPp U;k;ky; dh lcls cM+h fo'ks"krk gSA

gfjdu us loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ fo"k; esa dgk gS fd ¶;g vusd ckrksa esa vejhdh jktuhfrd i¼fr esa lokZfèkd

'kfDr'kkyh rRo rFkk fo'o esa lcls U;kf;d laxBu gSSA¸ equjks dk dFku gS fd ¶vesfjdk osQ loksZPp U;k;ky;

dh 'kfDr bruh vfèkd gS ftruh nqfu;k osQ vkSj fdlh U;k;ky; us cgqr gh de iz;ksx fd;k gS¸A iQkbuj us

loksZPp U;k;ky; dks ¶lafoèkku esa jktuhfr&'kkL=k dks nh x;h ,d lcls ekSfyd vkSj lcls vejhdhiu yh

gqbZ nsu dgk gSA ;g og flesaV gS ftlus leLr la?kh; <k¡ps dks n`<+rk ls tksM+ j[kk gS¸A

U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu (Judicial Review)vFkZ% lafoèkkuokn (Constitutoinalism) dks vejhdh lafoèkku fuekZrkvksa dh dbZ ekSfyd nsus gSaA mues izeq[k

nks ls gSA (1) fu;a=k.k vkSj larqyu dk fl¼kr (Principles of Cheeks and balance) rFkk (2) lafoèkku dh

loksZPprkA loksZPp U;k;ky; dks lafoèkku }kjk ,d egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z lkSaik x;k fd og foèkkf;dk rFkk dk;Zikfydk

dks fu;a=k.k djsA pw¡fd lafoèkku dk mYya?ku rks ugha dj jgs gSA bl izdkj loksZPp U;k;ky; dks ^lafoèkku dk

laj{kd rFkk vfHkHkkod* (Custodian and guardian to the consitituton) cuk fn;k x;k gSA bl vfèkdkj osQ

vUrxZr ;fn fdlh jkT; osQ foèkkue.My }kjk fufeZr dksbZ dkuwu] la?kh; dkuwu] la?kh; lafoèkku vFkok la;qDr

jkT; }kjk dh x;h lafèk osQ izfrdwy gks la?kh; U;k;ky; mls voSèk ?kksf"kr dj ldrh gSA blh izdkj ;fn la?kh;

dkaxzsl fdlh ,slh fofèk dk fuekZ.k djs tks lafoèkku osQ izfrdwy gS ;k dk;Zikfydk dksbZ ,slk vkns'k ns tks

lafoèkku osQ micUèk dk mYya?ku djrk gS rks loksZPp U;k;ky; ml fofèk ;k vkns'k dks voSèk ?ksf"kr djrk

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gSA U;k;ky; osQ blh vkfèkdkj dks U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk vfèkdkj dgrs gSA fMekWd us U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh

ifjHkk"kk bu 'kCnksa esa nh gS&U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu foèkkuikfydk }kjk fufeZr dkuwu vkSj dk;Zikfydk ;k iz'kkldh;

vkfèkdkfj;ksa }kjk fd;s x;s dk;ks± ls lEcfUèkr vius le{k vk;s eqdneksa esa U;k;ky; }kjk ijh{k.k dks dgrs gSa ftlosQ

vUrxZr os fuèkkZfjr djrs gSa fd os dkuwu ;k dk;Z lafoèkku }kjk izfrcfUèkr gS ;k ugha vFkok lafoèkku }kjk iznÙk

vfèkdkjksa dk vfrØe.k djrs gSa ;k ughaA ;gk¡ ;g Lej.k j[kuk pkfg, fd U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk vfèkdkj fliQZ

loksZPp U;k;ky; dks gh izkIr ugha gS] cfYd vU; la?kh; U;k;ky;ksa dks fn;k x;k gSA

mRifÙk% lafoèkku esa ,slk dksbZ micaèk ugha gS tks la?kh; U;k;ikfydk dks Li"Vr% U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk

vfèkdkj iznku djrk gks_ ysfdu bldh mRifÙk dk lzksr lafoèkku osQ micUèkksa esa fufgr feyrk gS rFkk

lafoèkku&fuekZrkvksa dh bPNk ls izdV gksrk gS A lafoèkku jk"Vªh; loksZPprk (National Supermacy) osQ fl¼kUr

dks ekU;rk nsrk gS ftlosQ vuqlkj jk"Vªh; lafoèkku osQ foijhr ;k vU; fdlh Hkh dk;Z dks oSfèkd ekU;rk ugha

nh tk;sxhA lafoèkku dh èkkjk 6 [k.M 8 esa dgk x;k gS fd lafoèkku vkSj blosQ vUrxZr fufeZr la;qDr jkT;

esa U;k;kèkh'k mUgs ekuus osQ fy, ckè; gksaxs] muls vlaxr jkT; osQ lafoèkku ;k fofèk;ksa dks ughaA lafoèkku osQ

micUèkksa osQ vfrfjDr lafoèkku&fuekZrkvksa rFkk fofèk&osÙkkvksa us Hkh la?kh; U;k;ky; dh bl 'kfDr dk leFkZu

fd;k gS A gsfeYVu us îsQMjfyLV* esa Li"V 'kCnksa esa dgk gS fd fofèk dk fuokZpu U;k;ky;ksa dk eq[; vkSj

fo'ks"k dÙkZO; gSA fc;MZ dh loksZPp U;k;ky; vkSj lafoèkku (The Supreme court the constitution)

fiQykMsfYiQ;k&lEesyu osQ izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fopkjksa dk fo'ys"k.k djus osQ ckn blh fu"d"kZ ij ig¡qprk gSA eq[;

U;k;kèkh'k ek'kZy bl fl¼kar osQ lcls cM+s leFkZd rFkk izfriknd gks x;s gSaaA mUgksaus U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ

fl¼kar dk izfriknu gh ugha fd;k] cfYd mls vejhdh U;k;O;oLFkk dh ,d vpy rFkk vVy ijEijk cuk

fn;kA mUgksaus 1803 bZ- es izfl¼ ekjcjh cuke eSfMlu (Marbury Vs. Madison) uked eqdnes dks fu.kZ;

nsrs gq, crk;k fd lafoèkku leLr ns'k dh loksZPp fofèk gS vkSj U;k;èkh'kksa dk ;g izeq[k dÙkZO; gS fd os mlh

osQ vuq:i fu.kZ; nsaA tc dHkh d¡kxzsl }kjk ikfjr dksbZ vfèkfu;e ;k lafofèk ns'k dh loksZPp fofèk vFkkZr lafoèkku

osQ fo:¼ gks rks U;k;ky; dk ;g Li"V dÙkZO; gks tkrk gS fd og lafoèkku dks izFke LFkku nsaA

U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk izHkko (Effects of Judicial Review): U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh 'kfDr ,d lkèkkj.k

'kfDr ugha gS] cfYd vesfjdk osQ jktuhfrd thou ij bldk i;kZIr laoSèkkfud izHkko iM+k A loksZPp U;k;ky;

vejhdh lafoèkkfud i¼fr dk laj{kd gh ugha gS oLrqr% blus lafoèkku dks ifjofrZr fd;k gS rFkk le; osQ

vuqlkj mls u;h fn'kk iznku dh gSA bl 'kfDr osQ vkèkkj ij gh loksZPp U;k;ky;ksa us U;kf;d loksZifjrk

(Judicial Supremacy) osQ fl¼kar dks vfèkf"Br fd;k gSA 14osa la'kksèku osQ vUrxZr dkuwu dh mfpr izfØ;k

(due process of Law ) micaèk dh O;k[;k blus bl rjg dh fd izks0 dksjohu osQ 'kCnksa esa jkT; osQ dkuwu

dks fuf"k¼ djus dh bls Lofoosd 'kfDr fey x;hA bl izdkj U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ vfèkdkj us dkaxzsl vkSj

jkT; foèkkue.Myksa dh rqyuk esa loksZPp U;k;ky; dks n`<+ cuk;kA bl vfèkdkj dk f}rh; lafoèkku izHkko ;g

Fkk fd jkT; dh rqyuk esa la?k dh fLFkfr n`<+ gks x;hA eSdqyksp cuke esjhySaM] 1819 bZ- (Mc. Culloch Vs.

Maryland) esa loksZPp U;k;ky;ksa us d¡kxszl dk jkT;&foèkku osQ fo:¼ cSad dh LFkkiuk djus dk vfèkdkj iznku

fd;k] ;|fi lafoèkku esa d¡kxszl dks ,slk Li"V vfèkdkj izkIr ugha gSA fxCcUl cuke vkWxMsu] 1824 bZ-

(Gibbons Vs. Ogden) esa loksZPp U;k;ky; us dk¡xszl dks fu;fer djus dk iw.kZ vfèkdkj fn;kA czkmu cuke

esfjySaM (Brown Vs.Maryland) 1827 bZ- osQ fu.kZ; osQ }kjk loksZPp U;k;ky; us oSnsf'kd O;kikj dks lapkfyr

djus dk vfèkdkj jk"Vªh; ljdkj dks fn;kA bl izdkj loksZPp U;k;ky; us O;kikj] okf.kT; vkSj foÙk osQ {ks=k

esa jk"Vªh; ljdkj osQ gkFk dks cgqr n<+ cuk fn;k gSA blosQ lkFk&lkFk U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu }kjk jkT; osQ vfèkdkj

dh j{kk djus esa Hkh lgk;rk iznku dh x;h gSA VsªM LdkWV cuke lsuiQsMZ] 1857 bZ- (Tred Scott Vs. Sanford)

esa lokZsPp U;k;ky; us dk¡xszl osQ dkuwu dks voSèk ?kksf"kr fd;k vkSj feljh jkT; osQ vfèkdkj osQ vUrxZr

lkoZtfud lqj{kk] tu&dY;k.k] LokLF;] uSfrdrk vkfn lkekftd fo"k; vkrs gSa] buosQ lEcUèk esa loksZPp

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U;k;ky; us ,d :i uhfr ugha viuk;hA equ cuke fyuksbl 1877 bZ- (Munn Vs. llinois) esa mlus vfyuksbl

jkT; dh fofèk dks oSèk ?kksf"kr fd;k vkSj ykspuj&cuke U;w;kdZ] 1905 bZ- (Lochner Vs. Newyork) esa dke

osQ le; dks izfrfnu nl ?kaVs lhfer dj nsus osQ dkuwu dks voSèk djkj fn;kA lkekftd foèkku&{ks=k esa la?kh;

ljdkj osQ vfèkdkj dks Hkh U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu us izHkkfor fd;k gS vkSj ;gk¡ Hkh loksZPp U;k;ky; dk nf"Vdks.k

lnk ,d leku ugha jgk gSA ,d vksj rks mlus dkaxzsl dks dj yxkus rFkk okf.T; dks fu;fer djus dh NwV

nh vkSj nwljh vksj dbZ lkekftd rFkk vkfFkZd fofèk;ksa dks jí dj fn;kA gSaej cuke MstugVZ] 1913 bZ

(Hummer Vs. Dsagenhert) esa loksZPp U;k;ky; us dkaxszl osQ ,d dkuwu dks voSèk ?kksf"kr fd;k ftlosQ

}kjk mlus cPpksa osQ Je ls mRikfnr oLrqvksa dks okf.kT; ls fu"dkf"kr djus dh ps"Vk dhA fiQj 1922 bZ- esa

csyh cuke MªDlsy iQuhZpj dEiuh (Bailve Vs. Drexel Furniture Company) uked eqdnes esa loksZPp

U;k;ky; us cPpksa osQ Je dks mUewfyr djus osQ iz;kl dks foiQy fd;kA lkekftd&vkfFkZd foèkk;u dks foiQy

djus osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; dh izo`fÙk 1893&1896 bZ- esa 'kh"kZ ij igq¡p x;h] tc mlus vkfFkZd ladV dks nwj

djus osQ mís'; ls fufeZr] 13 dkuwu dks voSèk ?kksf"kr fd;k] ftuesa jk"Vªh; vkS|ksfxd iquthZou vfèkfu;e

(Natioanl industrial Recovery Act) vkSj d`f"k leUo; vfèkfu;e (Agricultural Adjustment) izeq[k FksA

loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ iqufoZyksdu osQ vfèkdkj osQ fo#¼ vkUnksyu mB [kM+k gqvk ysfdu 1937 bZ- osQ ckn loksZPp

U;k;ky; osQ #[k esa egku ifjorZu gqvk vkSj mlus mnkl n`f"Vdks.k viuk;kA

LkoksZPp U;k;ky; osQ U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ vfèkdkj osQ dk;Zdj.k osQ fooj.k ls mldh egÙo lkiQ gks tkrh gSU;k;kèkh'kksa us osQoy lafoèkku dh vkRek rFkk Hkk"kk dk gh fuokZPku ugha fd;k gS cfYd mUgksaus uhfr;ksa dk Hkh fuèkkZj.kfd;k gSA mUgksaus lafoèkku esa Økafrdkjh ifjorZu yk;k gSA rFkk mls u;h fn'kk iznku dh gS vr% bUgsa lafoèkku dku;k fuekZrk (New makers of the Constitution) dgk x;k gSA tfLVl gktw us Bhd dgk gS fd vejhdu turklafoèkku osQ vèkhu vo'; jgrh gSA lafoèkku ogh gS tks U;k;kèkh'k dgrs gSaA tfLVl izQSad us rks ;gk¡ rd dgk gSfd ^loksZPp U;k;ky; lafoèkku gSA¸

U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh vkykspuk (Criticism of Judicial Review): la?kh; U;k;ky;ksa osQ U;kf;d iqufoZyksduosQ foi{k esa vusd rdZ fn;s tkrs gSa&

(i) mfpr dk;ks± ls nqjko% dqN vkykspdksa dk dguk gS fd U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu vfèkdkj osQ pyrs loksZPp U;k;ky;vius ekSfyd dk;ksZa dks djuk Hkwy x;kA og fooknksa dk fuiVkjk ugha djrk gS] cfYd mldk eq[; dke lkekftdrFkk jktuhfrd uhfr;ksa osQ fuèkkZj.k esa gkFk caVkuk gks x;k mlus foèkkuikfydk osQ dk;ksZa dks viuk fy;k gS ftlosQ pyrsturk dh izfrfufèk lHkk turk dh bPNk dks Lora=k :i ls O;Dr ugha dj ldrh gSA og turk dh lkekU; bPNk(General will) dks fofèk osQ :i esa Lora=krkiwoZd vfHkO;Dr ugha dj ldrh gSA mlosQ dk;ks± dks U;k;ikfydk us gfFk;kfy;k gS tks iztkra=kkRed O;oLFkk dk LoLFk fp=k ugha gSA czksxu (Brogan) us Bhd gh dgk gS fd loksZPp U;k;ky;dk;Zikfydk rFkk foèkkuikfydk osQ dk;ks± dks ,d rrh; lnu osQ :i esa fu;af=kr djus yxkA

(ii) ladh.kZ U;k;kèkh'k% U;k;kèkh'kksa dks nyh; foPkkjèkkjkvksa ls Åij jguk pkfg,A mUgsa lnk lpsr jguk pkfg,fd mudk O;fDrxr ;k lkekftd rFkk jktuhfrd n`f"Vdks.k U;k;&lEcUèkh fu.kZ; dks izHkkfor djsA mUgsa fu"i{krFkk Lora=k gksuk pkfg, vkSj tgk¡ rd lEHko gks oSfèkd n`f"Vdks.k dks viukuk pkfg,A ysfdu vesfjdk osQU;k;kèkh'kksa osQ fo#¼ ;g dgk tkrk gS fd mudh fu;qfDr ny fo'ks"k osQ vèkhu ij gksrh gS rFkk muosQ fu.kZ; fo'ks"kjktuhfrd rFkk lkekftd fopkjèkkjkvksa ls izHkkfor gksrs gSA vr% loksZPp u;k;ky; dk fu.kZ; dHkh mnkj gksrk] rksdHkh ladh.kZ] dHkh la?k osQ i{k es rks dHkh jkT; osQA ch- xsRl dk dguk gS fd U;k;kèkh'kksa osQ fopkj mlh izdkjifjorZu'khy gS] ftl izdkj udyh flYd osQ jax ifjoÙkZu'khy gSaA os jktuhfrd èkwi osQ dkj.k 'kh?kz cny tkrs gSaA

(iii) ldkjkRed jkT; osQ fo#¼% cgqr ls vkykspdksa dk er gS fd U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh iz.kkyh vkèkqfudlkekftd rFkk vkfFkZd lHkkvksa osQ fy, vuqi;qDr gSA U;k;kèkh'k izk;% loZ lEiUu oxZ osQ gksrs gSaA os fufgr LokFkks±

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dk laj{k.k djrs gSaA iQyr% izxfr'khy rFkk yksdra=kkRed fojksfèk;ksa dk fojksèk djrs gSaA blls ldkjkRed jkT; dkfodkl ugha gks ikrkA yksLdh us bl vkykspuk dk tksjnkj leFkZu fd;kA

(iv) vlkoèkku rFkk vuqÙkjnk;h dkaxzsl% loksZPp U;k;ky; iqufoZyksdu osQ vkèkkj ij dkaxzsl&lnL;ksa }kjk dM+sifjJe osQ ckn ikfjr fofèk dks u"V dj nsrk gSA iQyr% turk osQ izfrfufèk;ksa osQ iz;kl dk dksbZ lkdkj iQy ughafudy ikrkA vr% dkuwu fuekZ.k osQ lEcUèk esa lkoèkkuh ugha cjrrs rFkk os vius mÙkjnkf;Ro dks eglwl ugha djrsAfiQj os fuf'pr :i ls vius jktuhfrd y{; dks izkIr djus esa vliQy gks tkrs gSA

(v) d`f=ke rFkk f'kfFky dkaxzsl % U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ dkj.k ns'k dk ;kstukc¼ fodkl ugha gks ikrk gS rFkkjktuhfrK vius y{; dks fuf'pr ugha dj ikrs gSaA iQyr% muosQ dk;Z esa ,d izdkj dh d`f=kerk ,oa f'kfFkyrkvk tkrh gSA O;kid lqèkkj ;kstuk ykxw ugha dj ikrs gSa] osQoy lkèkkj.k ifjorZuksa ls mUgsa larks"k djuk iM+rk gSA

i{k esa rdZ % ;fn ,d vksj U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh dBksj vkykspuk dh x;h gS rks nwljh vksj mldk tksjnkjleFkZu Hkh fd;k x;k&

(i) lafoèkku dk laj{kd % iztkra=kkRed jkT; esa ,d Lora=k rFkk fu"i{k U;k;ikfydk dk gksuk vko';d gS tkslafoèkku dk laj{k.k dj losQA vejhdh lafoèkku esa bl rjg osQ Lora=k rFkk fu"i{k vfèkdkjh dh vko';drk dksfo'ks"k :i ls eglwl fd;k x;k gSA vfèkdkj i`FkDdj.k] la?k rFkk jkT; osQ chp vfèkdkj&foHkktu ,oa ukxfjdLora=krk ls lEcfUèkr micaèkksa dks ykxw djus osQ fy, U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ lkèku lss lqlfTtr U;k;ikfydkvesfjdk osQ jktuhfrd thou osQ fy, vR;ko';d gSA loksZPp U;k;ky; dks lafoèkku dk vfHkHkkod rFkk laj{kd(Guardian and Custodian of the Constitution) dguk vuqfpr ugha gksxkA

(ii) la?k vkSj jkT;ksa ij fu;a=k.k % U;kf;d iqfufoZyksdu dh O;oLFkk vko';d gks x;h gS] D;ksafd la?k rFkk jkT;ksadh ,d&nwljs ls j{kk vko';d gSA ;fn la?k rFkk jkT;ksa dks fu;af=kr u fd;k tk; rks la?kh; O;oLFkk dks [krjk igqapusdk Hk; gSA

(iii) lafoèkku dk fodkl% U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ ekè;e ls loksZPp U;k;ky; us lafoèkku osQ fodkl esa lg;ksxigq¡pk;k gSA lafoèkku la'kksèku dh izfØ;k bruh tfVy gS fd lkèkkj.kr% mlosQ }kjk lafoèkku esa ifjorZu djuk vR;ardfBu gSA vr% bl dk;Z osQ fy, vU; lkèkuksa dks viuk;k x;k gSA U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu bu lkèkuksa esa loZizeq[kgS] ftlosQ }kjk le; vkSj vko';drk osQ vuqlkj U;k;iw.kZ ifjorZu yk;k x;k gSA lp iwNk tk; rks] tSlk fdMwch us dgk gS lkekU;r% loksZPp U;k;ky; fuokZpu osQ fu.kZ; dk gh vuqlj.k djrk gSA vr% ;g dguk xyrgS fd U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh O;oLFkk viztkrkaf=kd rFkk izfrfØ;koknh gSA

orZeku fLFkfr% orZeku dky esa U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh fLFkfr esa dkiQh ifjorZu gks x;k gSA izkjEHk eas U;k;kèkh'kksadh izofr izfrfØ;koknh FkhA foèkkf;dk osQ {ks=k esa gLr{ksi djus osQ vkfn gks x;s Fks ysfdu vktdy izofÙk ;g gS fddkaxzsl osQ foèkku {ks=k esa de&ls&de gLr{ksi fd;k tk;A vr% foèkku osQ {ks=k esa loksZPp U;k;ky; us dkaxzsl dk usrRodks Lohdkj dj fy;k gS vkSj U;k;kèkh'k Mxyl dh jk; esa U;kf;d loksZPprk dh fLFkfr vc lekIr gks x;hA


1- fjDr LFkkuksa dh iwfrZ dhft, (Fill in the blanks)—

1- vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; esa orZeku esa ------------------------- vkSj ----------------------- lgU;k;kèkh'k gSaA

2- la;qDr jkT; vejhdk esa U;k;kèkh'kksa dk dk;Zdky --------------------------- gSA

3- loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa dk osru ------------------------------- }kjk fuèkkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA

4- vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; dk l=k çfro"kZ ----------------------- osQ çFke lkseokj ls çkjEHk gksrk gSA

5- U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu us vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; dks ---------------------------- cuk fn;k gSA

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9-2 ;w-osQ] jf'k;k] Úkal dh U;kf;d O;oLFkk vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh la?kh; U;kf;dO;oLFkk (Judicial System of U.K, Russia, France and Federal Judiciaryof Switzerland)

fczfV'k U;kf;d O;oLFkk (The British Judicial System)baXySaM esa dkuwu dh voèkkj.kk (The English Concept of Law)

nks egku oSfèkd i¼fr;k¡ % ekuo bfrgkl esa fofèk dh vusd i¼fr;k¡ gSa] ysfdu muesa ls nks loZizèkku gSa&jkseu dh vlSfud fofèk (Civil Law) vkSj baXySaM dh lkekU; vFkok lkoZtfud fofèk (Common Law) fo'oosQ fdlh Hkh ns'k dh U;kf;d O;oLFkk bu nks i¼fr;ksa ls vNwrh ugha gSA egkns'kh; ;wjksi] ySfVu vesfjdk osQiztkrU=k] nf{k.k vÚhdk] tkiku vkfn ns'k jkse dh U;kf;d fopkjèkkjk ls izHkkfor gq, gSa tcfd vk;ySaM]la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk] lkeqfæd fczfV'k mifuos'k] baXySaM dh lkekU; fofèk osQ izHkko {ks=k esa vkrs gSaA equjks usdgk Hkh gS fd ¶fo'o osQ vfèkdrj Hkkx dh ;k=kk mu ns'kksa ls fcuk xqtjs dh tk ldrh gSA tks baXySaM ;k jksedh fofèk;ksa dks vknj ugha djrsA¸

vko';d gS fd ,d U;k;kèkh'k dks mldh fLFkfr ,oa xkSjo osQ vuq:i fuf'pr vkSj i;kZIr osru feysA gSfeYVuus cgqr Bhd fy[kk gS fd ¶;g ekuo&LoHkko gS fd tks euq"; viuh vkthfodk dh n`f"V ls 'kfDr&lEiUu gSmlosQ ikl ladYi dk Hkh cM+k cy gksrk gSA¸ vr% U;k;ikfydk dh LorU=krk ,oa fu"i{krk osQ fy, U;k;kèkh'kksaosQ fy, vPNs osru dk gksuk Hkh vfuok;Z gSA lkFk&lkFk ;g Hkh vko';d gS fd muosQ osruksa esa muosQ inkofèk&dkyesa ifjorZu ugha gksA

U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk fl¼kar (Theory of Judicial Review): U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu ,d ,slk fl¼kUr gSftldk ns'k osQ jktuhfrd thou ij fu.kkZ;d laoSèkkfud izHkko iM+rk gSA ;g U;k;ikfydk dh og 'kfDr gS ftlosQ}kjk foèkkf;dk ;k dk;kZikfydk osQ fu.kZ;ksa dks voSèk ;k xSj laoSèkkfud ?kksf"kr djus dk vfèkdkj gSA bl 'kfDrosQ vUrxZr U;k;ky; lafoèkku dh O;k[;k djrs gSaA eq[; :i ls la?kkRed lafoèkkuksa esa U;k;ikfydk dks bu 'kfDr;ksals foHkwf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA

fl¼kUrr% U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu fl¼kUr dh ifjHkk"kk fofHkUu :i ls fo¼kukas }kjk nh x;h gSA iQjX;wlu vkSj eSdgsujhus bldh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, dgk gS fd U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu U;k;ky; dh og 'kfDr gS tks fdlh Hkh dkuwu ;k ljdkjhdk;Z dks voSèk ?kksf"kr dj ldrh gS ;fn og le>s fd ;g ekSfyd dkuwu ;k lafoèkku osQ foijhr gSA izksú ,pútsú vczkge us U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dks ifjHkkf"kr djrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ;g U;k;ky; dh ,d ,slh 'kfDr gS tksfdlh Hkh dkuwu ;k ljdkjh dk;Z dks vlaoSèkkfud ?kksf"kr dj ldrh gS vkSj blosQ iz;ksx dks jksd ldrh gS rFkkfdlh Hkh ljdkjh vfèkdkjh osQ voSèk dk;Z dks xSj&dkuwuh ?kksf"kr dj ldrh gS] ;fn ekSfyd dkuwuksa ls os fHkUugksaA¸ fcVsfudk fo'o&dks"k us U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fy[kk gS fd U;k;yk;ksa }kjk fdlh ns'k esaU;kf;d iqufoZyksdu og 'kfDr gS ftlosQ }kjk og foèkk;h dk;Zikfydk vkSj iz'kkldh; dk;ks± dk ijh{k.k djrhgS vkSj og ns[krh gS fd ,sls dk;Z lafoèkku osQ izkoèkkuksa osQ vuqdwy gksa vkSj ;fn os ,slk ugha gksrs rks mUgsa voSèkvkSj vizHkkoh ?kksf"kr djus dk vfèkdkj mUgsa gSA U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu fl¼kUr dk vfLrRo fyf[kr lafoèkku esa ns[kktk ldrk gSA

lkekU;r% U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk fl¼kar la?kkRed lafoèkku esa ik;k tkrk gS ftlesa foèkk;h 'kfDr;ksadk osQUæ vkSj bdkb;ksa esa foHkkftr gksrk gS] ukxfjdksa osQ ewy vfèkdkj gksrs gSa vkSj fofèk&fuekZ=kh 'kfDrij vadq'k yxk gksrk gSA¸

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vaxzstksa dh fofèk O;kogkfjd èkkj.kk % eSXukdkVkZ osQ ckn v¡xjstksa us ¶fofèk osQ 'kklu¸ (Rule of Law) esa fo'oklfd;kA blosQ vykok bu yksxksa us fofèk dh ,d fuf'pr ij lkèkkj.k èkkj.kk cuk;h gSA lkèkkj.kr% bfrgkl us fofèkdh nks èkkjk.kkvksa dks tUe fn;kA izFke fofèk osQ lEizHkq dh vkKk vkSj f}rh; fofèk foosd dh mitA ysfdu] v¡xjstksaus fofèk osQ O;kogkfjd :i dks Lohd`r fd;k fd fofèk fl¼kUr vkSj fu;e gS tks U;k;ky;ksa }kjk Lohd`r rFkk ykxwfd;k tk;A vU; fl¼kar ;k vkn'kZ ftUgsa Hkfo"; esa ykxw fd;k tk ldrk gS] izFkk Hkys gh gks ldrh gS] ysfdufofèk ughaA

fofèk osQ izdkj (Kinds of Law): baXySaM esa rhu izdkj dh fofèk;k¡ izpfyr gSa& (d) lkoZtfud ;k lkekU; fofèk(Common Law), ([k) U;k;&Hkkouk vFkok vi{kikr&fofèk (Equity) vkSj (x) lafofèk vFkok ifjfu;e(Statute Law)A

(d) lkoZtfud ;k lkekU; fofèk% lkekU; fofèk (Common Law) osQ tUe dh viuh dgkuh gSA 800 o"kZiwoZ dh ckr gSA ukeZu jktkvksa dh fot; osQ iwoZ baXySaM esa ,d:i U;k;&O;oLFkk ugha FkhA ukeZu rFkk ,¡tfou jktkvksaus bl deh dks eglwl fd;kA jk"Vª osQ ,dhdj.k rFkk jktrU=k dks izHkkoh cukus esa mUgsa dfBukb;ksa dk lkeuk djukiM+ jgk FkkA vr% bu mís';ksa dh iwfrZ osQ fy, mUgksaus U;kf;d 'kfDr dks gfFk;kj cuk;kA U;k;èkh'kksa dks ns'k&Hkze.kosQ fy, Hkstk tkus yxkA izFker% LFkkuh; izFkkvksa osQ vk/kj ij fu.kZ; fn;k tkrk Fkk ysfdu èkhjs&èkhjs LFkkuh; izFkkvksadk egÙo tkrk jgk vkSj lHkh LFkkuksa ij leku fl¼kUrksa osQ vuqlkj U;k;&O;oLFkk dks tUe fn;k tks leLr ns'kvFkok jkT; osQ fy, leku vFkok lkoZtfud FkhA bl izdkj lkekU; fofèk dk tUe gqvkA lkekU; fofèk mu fu;eksadk lweg gS ftudks dHkh fdlh jktk us fufnZ"V ugha fd;k vkSj u fdlh foèkkueaMy usA blosQ fu.kZ;ksa dk vfHkys[kksaosQ vkèkkj ij fodkl gqvkA iwoZHkkf"k;ksa (Precedents) iwoZ fu;eksa (State Law) dk ;g ladyu gSA tc dksbZU;k;kèkh'k lkoZtfud fofèk osQ lacaèk esa dksbZ fu.kZ; ns nsrk gS rks mDr fu.kZ; fu;e dh rjg Lohdkj fd;k tkrkgS tc rd dksbZ mPp U;k;ky; mls jí u dj nsA la{ksi esa] lkekU; fofèk U;k;èkh'kksa }kjk O;k[;k fd;s x, ijEijkxrO;kogkjksa ,oa :f<+;ksa dk lewg&ek=k gSA ckn esa XySufoy] cSzDVu] dqd CySadLVksu vkfn O;k[;kdkjksa us bldk Øec¼:i ls ladyu fd;k rFkk O;k[;k dhA

([k) ifjfu;e fofèk vFkok lafofèk% lkekU; fofèk osQ lkFk&lkFk ifjfu;e fofèk ;k lafofèk (Statute Law) dkHkh fodkl gqvkA lkekU; fofèk fodflr fofèk Fkh] tcfd lafofèk fufeZr fofèk lfn;ksa rd lezkV osQ lg;ksx ls fofèk;ksadk fuekZ.k djrk FkkA bUgh fofèk;ksa dks lafofèk dgrs gSaA igys bldh la[;k ux.; FkhA ysfdu èkhjs&èkhjs ;s fofèkdk izeq[k L=kksr cu x;hA vkt budk {ks=k cgqr foLr`r gks x;k gSA ;g lkekU; fofèk dk fu"ksèk ugha djrh] cfYdmls yphyk cuk nsrh gS rFkk mldh dfe;ksa dks iwjk djrh gSA lafofèk vfUre vkKk gSA

(x) U;k;&Hkkouk vFkok vi{kikr fofèk% lkekU; fofèk dh catj Hkwfe ij U;k;Hkkouk vFkok vi{kikr&fofèk(Equity) dh uhao iM+hA èkhjs&èkhjs lkekU; fofèk le;kuqdwy u jg x;h vkSj vusd ekeyksa esa og ykxw u gksus yxhAblosQ vykok le; dh vfLFkjrk osQ dkj.k ,d fofèk dh vko';drk gqbZ tks izkfofèk (Technical) u gks rFkk nsju yxsA bl i`"BHkwfe ij vi{kikr fofèk dh mRifr gqbZ vkSj lkekU; fofèk dh vusd =kqfV;k¡ nwj gqbZ A vc ge ns[ksaxsfd bldk fodkl dSls gqvkA pw¡fd jktk U;k; dk lcls cM+k vfèkdkjh le>k tkrk Fkk blfy, ftu O;fDr;ksa dksnhokuh vnkyr ls mfpr U;k; ugha feyrk Fkk os jktk ls U;k; dh izkFkZuk djrs FksA dk;Z&Hkkj dh otg ls lezkV~mu izkFkZukvksa dks pkalyj osQ ikl tks ¶jktk osQ ln~foosd dk j[kokyk¸ (Keeper of the king's consceience)

Fkk] Hkst nsrk FkkA pkalyj ;k mlosQ lgk;d foosd osQ vkèkkj ij fu.kZ; nsrs FksA bl izdkj vi{kikr fofèk dk tUegqvk ftldk vkèkkj izFkk ugha cfYd ln~foosd FkkA bl fofèk dh ekU;rk Fkh fd ns'k dh fofèk tkfr osQ lnkpkjosQ vuq:i vkSj uhfr osQ vuqlkj gksuh pkfg,¸ izeq[k U;k;kfèkdkfj;ksa (Chancellors) us] tks ckj&ckj ih<+h&nj&ih<+hvusd fu.kZ; fn,] mu lc fu.kZ;ksa dks feykdj fu;eksa dk ,d lewg cu x;kA ysfdu bu nksuksa fofèk;ksa osQvyx&vyx U;k;ky; cgqr fnuksa rd cus jgsA 1873 bZ- esa nksuksa fofèk;ksa osQ fy, ,d U;k;ky; gks x;kA nksuksa fofèk;ksaeas lkeatL; iSnk fd;k x;k] ysfdu fojksèk osQ le; U;k;Hkkouk dks Åij LFkku fn;k x;kA bl izdkj U;k;&Hkkouk

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lkekU; fofèk ls gh iSnk gqbZ tks mldh =kqfV;ksa dks nwj djrh rFkk mPp dksfV dk U;k; nsrh gSA bl ij jkseu fofèkdk dkiQh izHkko iM+kA vkt bldk {ks=k cgqr fo'kky gks x;k gSA

fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dh fof'k"Vrk,¡ (Features of the British Judicial System)

(i) ,d:irk dk vHkko % fczfV'k U;k; O;oLFkk dh ,d izeq[k fo'ks"krk gS&lEiw.kZ ns'k esa ,d:irk(Uniformity) dk vHkkoA iwjs xzsV fczVsu esa fofèk dk ,d izdkj dk fl¼kar U;k;ky; dh ,d izdkj dh dk;Ziz.kkyhrFkk laxBu ugha gSA baXySaM vkSj osYl esa bl izdkj dh U;k;&O;oLFkk gS rks LdWVySaM vkSj mÙkjh vk;jySaM esa Hkhi`Fkd~&i`Fkd fofHkUu O;oLFkk,¡ gSaA

(ii) iz'kklfud U;k;ky; dk vHkko % fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dh nwljh fo'ks"krk iz'kklfud dk vHkko gSA ÚkalrFkk vU; ;wjksih; nks'kksa esa nks i`Fkd~ fofèk;k¡ rFkk U;k;ky; gSaA ,d lkekU; ukxfjdksa osQ fy, rFkk nwljs 'kklu osQvfèkdkfj;ksa osQ fy,A ysfdu baXySaM esa ukxfjdksa rFkk vfèkdkfj;ksa esa dksbZ foHksn ugha gSA vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ fy, i`Fko~Qiz'kklfud U;k;ky; (Administrative Courts) ugha gSaA pkgs dksbZ lkèkkj.k ukxfjd gks ;k iz'kklu dk vfèkdkjh]lHkh dks lkekU; U;k;ky; osQ le{k mifLFkr gksuk iM+rk gS vkSj lcosQ Åij ,d lkekU; fofèk ykxw gksrh gSA ysfdubaXySaM esa èkhjs&èkhjs iz'kklfud U;k;&O;oLFkk dk izknqHkkZo gks jgk gSA

(iii) baXySaM vkSj osYl esa U;k;ky;ksa dk leUo; % baXySaM vkSj osYl osQ U;k;ky;ksa esa leUo; gks ldrh gS] ysfdu;g O;oLFkk lnk ls ugha gS nks ih<+h iwoZ fczfV'k U;k;ky;ksa dk laxBu vO;ofLFkr vlEc¼ rFkk vfroknh FkkAU;k;ky;ksa dh Hkjekj FkhA ifj.kker% vusd izdkj dh dfBukb;k¡ iSnk gksrh FkhA ysfdu 1773 bZú ls 1876 bZú rdvfèkfu;eksa }kjk U;k;&O;oLFkk esa lqèkkj yk;k x;k] ftlosQ iQyLo:i U;kf;d O;oLFkk esa iw.kZrk yk;h x;h vkSjosQUæh; O;oLFkk osQ laxBu }kjk vO;oLFkk dks nwj fd;k x;kA

(iv) U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh izFkk dk vHkko % vesfjdk esa lafoèkku esa U;k;ky;ksa dks U;kf;d iqfufoZyksdu(Judicial Review) dh 'kfDr nh x;h gS tks mUgsa lafoèkku dk laj{kd cuk nsrk gSA ysfdu blosQ foijhr baXySaMesa lkaln dh loksZPprk osQ dkj.k U;k;ky;ksa dks laln dh fofèk;ksa dks voSèk ?kksf"kr djus dh 'kfDr ugha gSA

(v) U;k;ky;ksa dh LorU=krk% fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dh ,d vU; fo'ks"krk U;k;ky;ksa dh Lora=krk rFkk fu"i{krkgSA baXySaM esa U;k;kèkh'k iw.kZr;k LorU=k gSaA mudh fu;qfDr Økmu }kjk gksrh gSA thoui;ZUr rFkk lnkpkji;ZUr osvius inksa ij cus jgrs gSaA laln lnuksa dh izkFkZuk ij gh mUgsa dk;Z&eqDr fd;k tk ldrk gS] mudk osru fuf'prgS rFkk os U;k;&Hkkouk dk ikyu djrs gSaA bl izdkj U;k;kèkh'kksa dks izHkkoghu rFkk LorU=k cuk;k x;k gSA

(vi) ukxfjd LorU=krk dk laj{kd % U;k;kèkh'k ukxfjd vfèkdkj osQ laj{kd gSaA baXySaM esa U;k;ky;ksa dks bldk;Z osQ fy, tks Js; izkIr gS os fdlh Hkh vU; ns'kksa osQ U;k;ky;ksa dks ughaA ekSfyd vfèkdkjksa dh lwph ;k fyf[krlafoèkku LorU=krk dh j{kk osQ lkèku ugha gS cfYd fofèk dk 'kklu gSA U;k;kèkh'k fofèk osQ 'kklu osQ ykxw djusosQ fy, iz;Ru'khu jgrs gSA

(vii) twjh&izFkk % fczfV'k U;kf;d O;oLFkk dh ,d fo'ks"krk twjh&izFkk (Jury System) vFkok vfHkfu.kkZ;dksa osQj[kus dh izFkk gSA fofèk osQ 'kklu dh liQyrk esa vfHkfu.kkZ;dksa dk cgqr cM+k gkFk gSA os tuer rFkk ekuorkdks lnk è;ku esa j[krs gSa rFkk dHkh&dHkh U;k; fo:¼ Hkh tk ldrs gSa ;k vfHk;qDr dks n.M nsuk vLohdkj djldrs gSA twjh ukxfjdksa dh LorU=krk dh j{kk osQ fy, ns'k osQ ladqfpr rFkk dBksj dkuwuksa ij izgkj Hkh djrs gSaA;s fu"i{krk] fuMjrk] le>nkjh osQ fy, fo'ofo[;kr gSA

(viii) U;k;ky; dh izoh.krk % fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dh vfUre] ij egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk U;k;ky; dh izoh.krk(Efficiency) gSA baXySM esa U;kf;d dk;Zokgh 'kh?kz gksrh gSA rFkk fu.kZ; es nsjh ugha gksrhA blosQ vusd dkj.k gSAmu vko';d fl¼karksa dk vuqlj.k fd;k tkrk gS tks U;k; O;oLFkk dh izoh.krk osQ fy, vfuok;Z gS tSls&twjhizFkk] [kqyk U;k;ky;] odhy j[kus dh izFkkA blosQ vfrfjDr U;kf;d dk;Z&fofèk Li"V rFkk ljy gSA U;k;èkh'kksadks oSèkkfud ifjHkk"kkvksa (Legal Technicalities) osQ fuokZpu dks i;kZIr LorU=krk nh x;h gSA fiQj U;k;ky; dh

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dk;Z&fofèk;ksa (Rules of procedure) dk fuekZ.k laln dh U;kf;d fu;e lfefr (Judicial Rule Committee) djrhgS tks fo'ks"kKksa dh ,d lfefr gSA fo'ks"kK oSfèkd ifjHkk"kkvksa rFkk U;kf;d fu;eksa dk bl izdkj fuekZ.k djrs gS fdU;k; esa 'kh?kzrk gksA izoh.krk] n{krk rFkk 'kh?kzrk osQ fy, fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk fo'o esa loZJs"B LFkku j[krh gSA

(ix) odhyksa dh izFkk % odhyksa dh nqgjh iz.kkyh Hkh fczfV'k O;oLFkk dh ,d fo'ks"krk gSA izFke Js.kh osQ odhy]ftUgsa lkWfyflVj (Solicitors) ;k ,VkWuhZ dgk tkrk gS dkuwuh lykg nsrs gSA f}rh; Js.kh osQ odhy ftugs cSfjLVj(Barrister) dgk tkrk gS] U;k;ky; esa oknh osQ leFkZu esa lqfDr;k¡ is'k djrs gSaA

fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dk laxBu (Organisation of the British Judicial System)

iQkStnkjh vkSj nhokuh U;k;ky; % yxHkx ,d 'krkCnh iwoZ fczfV'k U;k;ky; dk dksbZ lqO;ofLFkr laxBu ughaFkkA ysfdu 1873 bZú osQ chp vusd vfèkfu;e cus vkSj U;kf;d O;oLFkk dks laxfBu fd;k x;kA vktdy fczVsuesa nks izdkj osQ U;k;ky; gSa&(1) iQkStnkjh U;k;ky; vkSj (2) nhokuh U;k;ky; ftudk laxBu fofHkUu Lrjh;U;k;ky;ksa esa fd;k x;k gSA iQkStnkjh U;k;ky;ksa }kjk lkoZtfud mYya?ku osQ fy, n.M fn;k tkrk gS] tSls&gR;k]pksjh] MdSrh èkks[ksckth bR;kfnA nhokuh U;k;ky; os gSa tks ukxfjdksa osQ ikjLifjd >xM+ksa dk fucVkjk djrs gSa] tSlslEifÙk {kfr ;k vukfèkdkj izos'k] ekugkfu vkfn ls lEcfUèkr ekeys bR;kfnA

(d) iQkStnkjh U;k;ky; (Criminal Courts)

(i) lejh tqfj'kfMD'ku dk U;k;ky; % lejh tqfj'kfMD'ku (Summary Juirisdiction) dk U;k;ky; iQkStnkjhU;k;ky;ksa esa lcls fuEu Lrj dk U;k;ky; gSA tfLVl vkWiQ nh ihl (Justice of the peace) ;k o`ÙkHkksxh eSftLVªsVeqdnesa dh tkap djrs gSaA ofÙkHkksxh eSftLVªsV dh fu;qfDr xgea=kh vkSj tfLVl vkWiQ nh ihl dh fu;qfDr ykWM pkalyjdjrk gSA nksuksa osQ i`Fkd&i`Fkd dk;Z gksrs gSaA bu U;k;ky;ksa esa NksVs&NksVs vfHk;ksxksa ij fopkj gksrk gS] ysfdu laxhuvfHk;ksx ij isVh ls'kal dksVZ (Court of Petty Sessions) ftlesa nks ;k nks ls vfèkd eSftLVªsV gksrs gaS }kjk lquokbZgksrh gSA

(ii) DokVZj ls'kUl dk U;k;ky; % DokVZj ls'kUl (Quarter Sessions) dk U;k;ky; lejh tqfj'kfMD'ku osQU;k;ky; ls Åij gksrk gSA bls dkm.Vh U;k;ky; (County Courts) Hkh dgk tkrk gS] D;ksafd dkm.Vh esa nks ;knks vfèkd tt fy;s tkrs gSaA blosQ lHkkifr dks fjdkMZj (Recorder) dgrs gSA ;g U;k;ky; dqN xEHkhj vijkèkksaosQ fy, vkjfEHkd U;k;ky; (Original Court) gSA lejh tqfj'kfMD'ku ls vihysa bl U;k;ky; esa vkrh gSA

(iii) ,lkbtst dk U;k;ky;% DokVZj ls'kUl osQ U;k;ky; ls Åij ,lkbtst (Assizes) osQ U;k;ky; vkrs gSaAblesa mPp U;k;ky; osQ fdaXl csap foHkkx (King's Bench Divison) osQ dkmf.V;ksa es U;k; djus osQ fy, nkSjkij fudyrs gSaA blesa nks U;k;èkh'k jgrs gSaA blesa DokVZj ls'kUl osQ U;k;ky; ls vihy dh tkrh gSaA

(iv) dksVZ vkWiQ fØfeuy vihy % mi;qZDr U;k;ky; osQ Åij dksVZ vkWiQ fØfeuy vihy (Criminal appeal)

gksrh gSA uhps osQ U;k;ky; ls blesa vihy dh tkrh gSA ;g loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ vax gSa ftlesa ykWMZ phiQ tfLVlrFkk fdaXl csap foHkkx osQ rhu U;k;kèkh'k gksrs gSaA ;g eqdnesa dks fiQj ls tk¡p&iM+rky dj ldrk gSA

(v) ykMZ&lHkk% U;kf;d laxBu osQ lcls Åijh fljs ij ykMZ&lHkk (House of Lords) gS tgk¡ iQkStnkjh vkSj nhokuhnksuksa izdkj osQ eqdneksa dh vfUre vihy gksrh gSA ;g loksZPp U;k;ky; gS rFkk blesa fliQZ oSèkkfud rFkk lkoZtfudegÙo ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksa dh vihy dh tk ldrh gSA

([k) nhokuh U;k;ky; (Civil Court)

(i) dkmUVh U;k;ky; % dkm.Vh U;k;ky; (County Courts) nhokuh ekeyks esa lcls fuEu Lrj dk U;k;ky;

gSA 290 ikS.M ls de ekfy;r eqdnes dh lquokbZ dh ;ksX;rk blesa gksrh gSA 1846 bZú esa laln vfèkfu;e osQ }kjk

bldh LFkkiuk dh x;h gSA iwjs baXySaM vkSj osYl dks 500 U;kf;d ftyksa esa ck¡V fn;k x;k gS vkSj lHkh ftyksa dks

60 lfdZVksa (Circuits) esa ck¡Vk x;k gSA izR;sd ftyksa osQ fy, ykWMZ pkalyj ,d U;k;kèkh'k dh fu;qfDr djrk gS

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tks lfdZV osQ izR;sd ftyk esa ,d eghuk rd U;k;ky; dh cSBd djrk gSA ;ksa rks ns[kus esa bl U;k;ky; osQ dk;Z

cgqr vfèkd yxrs gSa] ysfdu okLro esa rhl izfr'kr eqdnesa gh U;k;kèkh'k }kjk lqus tkrs gSaA ckdh eqdneksa dks

jftLVªkj vkSj DydZ le>kSrk vkfn djosQ fucVk nsrs gSaA dkm.Vh U;k;ky; dh dk;Z&iz.kkyh cgqr ljy gSA

mPp U;k;ky; % ;fn eqdnek dh ekfy;r dkm.Vh U;k;ky; osQ {ks=kkfèkdkj ls ckgj gks rks mPp U;k;ky; (high

Court of Justice) osQ fdlh foHkkx esa eqdíes dh lquokbZ gksrh gSA mPp U;k;ky; 1873 bZú osQ tqMhosQpj ,sDV

(Judicature Act) osQ vkèkkj ij cuk gSA blesa ykWMZ phiQ tfLVl vkSj 30 vU; U;k;kèkh'k gksrs gSaA bl U;k;ky;

osQ rhu foHkkx gSa&

(d) fdaXl csap fMohtu (king's Bench Divison)

([k) pkaljh fMohtu (Chancery Divison)

(x) izksosV rykd vkSj ,MfejYVh fMohtu (Probates Divorce and Admirality Divison)

(ii) vihy dk U;k;ky;% blosQ ckn vihy dk U;k;ky; (Court of Appeal) gksrk gS ftlesa dkm.Vh U;k;ky;ksa

rFkk mPp U;k;ky;ksa ls vihysa lquh tkrh gSaA bldh nks rhu fMohtu gksrh gSaA dHkh&dHkh eqdnesa dh lquokbZ osQ

fy, leLr ykWMZ tfLVlst (Lord Justices) ,d lkFk cSBrs gSaA bl U;k;ky; esa ekLVj vkWiQ jkWYl (Master of

Rolls) vkSj vkB ykWMZ tfLV~l vkWiQ vihysa (Lord Justice of Appeal) cSBrs gSaA

(iii) ykWMZ lHkk% vihy osQ U;k;ky; ls Hkh vihyksa dks dqN fo'ks"k 'krks± osQ vèkhu ykWMZ&lHkk esa yk;k tkrk gSA

ykWMZ&lHkk leLr ns'k dk loksZPp vihyh; U;k;ky; gSA nhokuh vkSj iQkStnkjh nksuksa ekeyksa dh vihysa bles gksrh

gSaA ykWMZ&lHkk osQ U;k;ky; dk xBu dqN vkthou fi;jksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS ftUgsa ykWMZl vkWiQ vihy bu vkfMZujh

(Lords of Apeal in ordinary) vFkok fofèkK ykWM~l (Law Lords) dgk tkrk gSA tqfj'kfMD'ku vfèkfu;e 1947

bZ- osQ }kjk bl U;k;ky; dk iquxZBu gqvk vkSj fofèkK ykWMks± dh la[;k c<+kdj 9 dj nh x;hA ;s ykWMZ mPp

[;kfr&izkIr U;k;&'kkL=k&osÙkk] U;k;kèkh'k ;k mPpdksfV os odhy gksrs gSaA bl U;k;ky; dk vè;{k ykWMZ pkalyj

(Lord Chancellor) gksrk gS] tks efU=keaMy dk Hkh lnL; gksrk gSA

(x) fizoh ifj"kn~ dh U;kf;d lfefr (Judicial Committee of the Privy Council): fczfV'k laxBu esa fizoh

ifj"kn~ U;kf;d lfefr dk Hkh LFkku mYys[kuh; gSA ;g ,d mPpoa'kh; vihyh; lnu gSA ;g oLrqr% U;k;ky;

ugha gS] cfYd ,d ijke'kZ&nkr lfefr gSA vkt bldk fo'ks"k egRo blfy, gS fd ;g leqæ ikj osQ mifuo'kksa ls

vk;h gqbZ vihy dks lqurh gSA bl lfefr osQ lnL; fizoh ifj"kn~ (Privy Councillor) gksrs gSA ftudks vU; jkT;ksa

osQ U;k;kèkh'kx.k vius ns'k dh U;k;&O;oLFkk osQ vuqlkj vko';d eU=k.kk nsrs gSaA bl lfefr esa yxHkx 20 Lefrdkj

vFkok U;k;'kkL=kh gksrs gSa ftuesa fofèkK ykWM~Zl (Law Lords) Hkh gksrs gSaA bl lfefr dk ,d fo'ks"k vfèkdkj&{ks=k

gS&;q¼ dky esa leqæh ywV osQ eky dk c¡Vokjk djukA

fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dk ewY;kadu (British Judicaial System Evaluated): fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk fu"i{krk]

izoh.krk rFkk dk;Zijk;.k;rk osQ fy, fo'o&fo[;kr gSA U;k;ky; Lora=k gS rFkk muij jktuhfrd izHkko ugha iM+rk

gSA fuEu Lrj osQ U;k;ky;ksa osQ foosd rFkk fu.kZ; ij i;kZIr fu;a=k.k jgrk gSA blfy, fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk bl

flyflys esa fo'o esa lcls vfèkd lkSHkkX;oku gSA ysfdu vU; iz'u Hkh gS] ftUgsa fczfV'k U;k;ky;ksa dh n{krk dks

tk¡pus fy, mBk;k tk ldrk gSA

(i) U;k;ky; dk okrkoj.k dSlk gS % igyk iz'u fczfV'k U;k;ky;ksa osQ okrkoj.k (Atmosphere of Courts)

osQ lEcUèk esa mBk;k tkrk gSA U;k;ky;ksa dh dk;Ziz.kkyh cgqr gh xEHkhj gSA ;gk¡ rd fd fuEu U;k;ky;ksa dh izfr"Bk

rFkk vkpkj vesfjdk osQ mPp U;k;ky;ksa ls dgha Js"B gSA U;k;kèkh'k mPp vklu ij cSBrk gS odhy xkÅu esa

foHkwf"kr c¡èks gq, 'kCnksa esa rdZ&fordZ djrs gSaA xokgksa ls fliQZ eqdíesa osQ rF;ksa osQ ckjs esa iwNk tkrk gS] U;k;kèkh'k

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gj ckr dks è;ku ls lqurk gS] n'kZd gYyk&xqYyk ugha dj ldrs gSa] rdZ o`gr~ Kku ij vkèkkfjr gksrs gSa rFkk gj

ckr dks rkfdZd rFkk izHkkoiw.kZ rjhosQ ls izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj okrkoj.k cgqr gh HkO; rFkk Kkuiw.kZ

gSA fo'o osQ fdlh Hkh vU; ns'k osQ U;k;ky; esa bruh mPpdksfV dk okrkoj.k ugha gSA

(ii) D;k lHkh izek.kksa (evidences) dks lkeus yk;k tkrk gS% baXySaM esa eqdnesa dh dk;Zokgh dh ,d foy{k.krk;g gS fd U;k;kèkh'k ,d iap (umpire) osQ :i esa dk;Z djrk gS vUos"kd osQ :i esa ughaA og eqdíesa dh NkuchuLo;a ugha djrk] ftjg esa og Hkkx ugha ysrk rFkk U;k;kèkh'k eqdnesa dh dk;Zokgh esa 'kh?kzrk ykus ;k rF;ksa osQLi"Vhdj.k osQ mís'; ls dksbZ dk;Z ugha djrk gSA ;g eqíbZ vkSj eqíkyg dk dk;Z gS fd os lHkh rF;ksa dks Li"V djsaAizFkk osQ izfrdwy egkns'kh; (;wjksi) ns'kksa osQ U;k;kèkh'k eqdneksa dh dk;Zokgh rFkk ftjg esa [kqydj Hkkx ysrs gSaA

(iii) D;k eqíkyg dks i;kZIr lqj{kk iznku dh tkrh gS eqíkyg dks i;kZIr lqj{kk (adequate protection to

the defendant) nh tkrh gSA iQkStnkjh eqdnes esa] fo'ks"kdj tgk¡ ljdkj ,d ny dh jgrh gS] eqíky; cgqrdetksj fLFkfr esa jgrk gS] blfy, bldh i;kZIr ps"Vk dh tkrh gS fd eqíky; dks fdlh izdkj fnDdr dk lkeukugha djuk iM+sA bl mís'; ls xokgksa ls ,sls iz'u ugha iwNs tkrs gSaA ftlls dksbZ Li"V mÙkj fudys] iwoZ xyfr;ksadks dk;Zokgh osQ le; ugha j[kk tkrk gSA fcuk okj.V osQ fdlh dks fxjÝrkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk gS] vijkèk osQle; ml lEcUèk esa dkuwu dk gksuk vko';d gS vkSj dkuwu dh vKkurk rks vijkèkh osQ fy, ojnku gSA bl izdkjvijkèkh dks gj rjg dh lqj{kk iznku dh tkrh gSA

(iv) D;k U;k;ky; 'kh?kzrkiw.kZ mipkj iznku djrk gS % eqdnesa dh leqfpr lquokbZ rFkk O;fDr osQ vfèkdkjksadh j{kk osQ vfrfjDr fczfV'k U;k;ky; 'kh?kzrkiwoZd U;k; djrs gSaA blosQ foijhr vesfjdk] Hkkjr vkfn ns'kksa esa cgqrnsj yxrh gSA dkj.k ;g gS fd fczVsu esa U;k;ky; dh dk;Z&fofèk cgqr ljy izdfr dh gSA mudk fodkl iFkd~&iFkd~U;k;ky;ksa }kjk gqvkA iQyr% os izkfofèkd dh vis{kk vfèkd O;kogkfjd gSA ysfdu vesfjdk esa U;kf;d dk;Z fofèk;k¡foèkkf;dk osQ iz;Ru osQ iQy gSA vr% os vfèkd izkfofèkd (technical) gSaA baXySaM esa 'kh?kzrkiw.kZ U;kf;d mipkj osQ ekxZesa fliQZ ,d ckèkk gS&U;k;&O;oLFkk esa foosQUædj.k dk vHkko vFkkZr~ vihyksa osQ yUnu vofLFkr U;k;ky;ksa esa lqus tkusosQ dkj.k vfèkd [kpZ vFkok vlqfoèkk dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA

(v) D;k U;k;ky; lHkh osQ fy, leku :i ls [kqyk gqvk gS % izkfofèkd :i esa U;k;ky; dk njoktk lHkhosQ fy, leku :i ls [kqyk gqvk gSA dkuwu osQ le{k lekurk rFkk U;k;ky; dh dq.Mh [kV[kVkus osQ fy, lekuvolj nsuk vaxjstksa osQ egÙoiw.kZ vfèkdkj gSA ysfdu O;kogkj esa ckr dqN vkSj gSA vesfjdk dh rjg baXySaM esaHkh U;k;ky; rFkk odhy dh iQhl bruh vfèkd gS fd vke turk tYnh U;k;ky; tkus dk lkgl ugha djrh gSA vr%;g dgk tkrk gS fd U;k;ky; fliQZ èkfudksa dk j{kd gSA bl deh dks nwj djus dh ps"Vk dh x;h gSA xjhcksa dks fu%'kqYdU;k; nsus osQ fy, dkuwu cuk;s x;s gSa] odhyksa osQ la?kksa us Hkh xjhcksa osQ eqdnes dh fu%'kqYd iSjoh dh ;kstuk,¡ pyk;hgSA fiQj Hkh] xjhc oxZ osQ fy, U;k;ky; rd igq¡puk ,d dfBu rFkk nqLlkgliw.kZ dk;Z gSA

mi;qZDr iz'uksa osQ mÙkj ls ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk cgqr larks"ktud gSA fo'o osQ lHkhU;k;&iz.kkfy;ksa esa ;g loZJs"B LFkku dk nkok djrk gSA fu"i{k rFkk 'kh?kzrkiw.kZ U;k; osQ fy, fczfV'k U;k;ky;fo'o&fo[;kr gSA

fofèk dk 'kklu (Rule of Law)

fofèk osQ 'kklu dk vFkZ% fczfV'k lafoèkku dh ,d vf}rh; nsu gS] fofèk dk 'kkluA lkèkkj.k 'kCnksa esa bldk rkRi;Z;g gS fd baXySaM dk dkuwu gh ns'k dk 'kklu djrk gS u fd fdlh O;fDr&fo'ks"k dh LosPNkA dkuwu loksZPp gSrFkk blosQ lkeus lHkh cjkcj gSA ykWMZ gsDVZ us bldk vFkZ crykrs gq, dgk gS fd O;fDr;ksa osQ fu.kZ; esa euekus<ax ;k ,slh gh fdlh vU; izdkj osQ <ax osQ LFkku ij] tks dkuwu ugha gS] dkuwu dh loksZPprk Lohdkj dh tk;Alkèkkj.kr% blosQ rhu vFkZ gSA izFke fofèk gh loksZPp gSA LosPNkpkfjrk uke dh dksbZ pht ugha gSA ns'k dk 'kklufofèk osQ vqulkj gksuk pkfg,A f}rh; izR;sd O;fDr fofèk osQ vèkhu gS rFkk izR;sd O;fDr dk dÙkZO; fofèk dk

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ikyu gSA r`rh;] fofèk dk 'kklu laln dh lEizHkqrk dk vkèkkj gSA blosQ vUrxZr laln osQ ekè;e ls loZlkèkkj.kfofèk dk nkl gSA

Mk;lh dh O;k[;k % izksú Mk;lh us fofèk osQ 'kklu dh ljy O;k[;k dh gSA mlosQ vuqlkj blosQ vUrxZr rhu

fofHkUu ijUrq ltkrh; fopkj gSaA izFke] bldk vFkZ gS fd u rks fdlh dks n.M fn;k tk ldrk gS u fdlh dks

'kkjhfjd d"V vFkok gkfu igq¡pkbZ tk ldrh gS tcrd fd dksbZ O;fDr Li"Vr% fofèk osQ fo:¼ vkpj.k u djs

vkSj og fofèk fo:¼ vkpj.k ns'k osQ lkekU; U;k;ky; esa fl¼ u gks tk;A rkRi;Z ;g gS fd baXySM esa fdlh O;fDr

dks rc rd nf.Mr ugha fd;k tk ldrk tc rd fd ;g Li"V :i ls fl¼ u gks tk; fd mlus ns'k osQ fdlh

dkuwu dks rksM+k gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa bl 'kklu osQ vUrxZr euekus <ax ls u rks fdlh dh tku yh tk ldrh gS u

fdlh dh lEifÙk ;k LorU=krk dk vijg.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj u fu;e osQ fo:¼ fdlh dks dkjkx`g esa j[kk

tk ldrk gSA blosQ vfrfjDr vfHk;ksx dh [kqyh lquokbZ gksrh gS vkSj vfHk;qDr dks vius cpko osQ fy, liQkbZ

nsus dk iwjk volj fn;k tkrk gSA

f}rh;] fofèk osQ 'kklu dk vFkZ ;g gS fd dksbZ O;fDr dkuwu ls Åij ugha cfYd izR;sd O;fDr pkgs mldk in

vkSj fLFkfr dqN gks] ns'k osQ lkekU; dkuwu ls 'kkflr gksrk gSA rFkk lkekU; fVªC;wuyksa osQ {ks=kkfèkdkj osQ vUrxZr

jgrk gSA tks pht ,d vkneh osQ fy, dkuwu gS og leLr ukxfjdksa dk dkuwu gSA

nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ns'k dk izR;sd ukxfjd fofèk osQ lEeq[k leku gS vkSj lcosQ fy, ,d gh izdkj dh fofèk gSA jktk

jad] vehj] xjhc] Å¡p] uhp lHkh fofèk osQ le{k leku gSA Úkal esa lkekU; ukxfjdksa rFkk iz'kklu osQ vfèkdkfj;ksa

osQ fy, vyx&vyx fofèk;k¡ rFkk U;k;ky; gSaA ysfdu baXySM esa vke turk rFkk uhps ls Åij rd lHkh vfèkdkfj;ksa

osQ fy, ,d gh fofèk rFkk U;k;ky; gSA ;fn 'kklu osQ vfèkdkjh fdlh O;fDr osQ lkFk vU;k; djrs gS vFkok fofèk

}kjk nh x;h 'kfDr;ksa dk nq:i;ksx djrs gSa rks muosQ fo:¼ lkekU; U;k;ky; esa lkekU; fofèk osQ vuqlkj nkok

fd;k tk ldrk gSA izR;sd ljdkjh deZpkjh izèkkuea=kh ls ysdj ,d flikgh rd ,d lkèkkj.k ukxfjd dh rjg

vius voSèk dk;Z osQ fy, mÙkjnk;h gSA

r`rh;] fczfV'k lafoèkku osQ lkekU; fl¼kar mu U;kf;d fu.kZ; osQ ifj.kke gSa] ftuesa U;k;ky;ksa us fo'ks"k vfHk;ksxksa

esa lkèkkj.k ukxfjdksa osQ vfèkdkj dks fuf'pr fd;k gSA rkRi;Z ;g gS fd bxySaM esa ukxfjdksa dh LorU=krk dk vkèkkj

U;kf;d fu.kZ; gSA U;k;kèkh'kksa us O;fDr;ksa dh LorU=krk dh lqj{kk esa egÙoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;k gSA

Mk;lh dh O;k[;k dh vkykspuk % Mk;lh osQ fofèk osQ 'kklu lacUèkh fopkjksa dh izcy vkykspuk dh x;h gSA

osV tsfuaXl] jkWYlu vkfn ys[kdksa us mlosQ fopkjksa dks =kqfViw.kZ cryk;k gSA

(i) izFke O;k[;k% igyh O;k[;k osQ lEcUèk esa ;gk dgk tkrk gS fd Mk;lh dh O;k[;k LosPNkpkjh 'kfDr

(arbitarary power) vkSj Lofoosd dh vkykspuk&vfèkdkj (discretionary authority) osQ Hksn dks Li"V u dj

ldk] vfirq mlus bu nksuksa 'kCnksa dks my>k fn;kA oLrqr% Lofoosd 'kfDr;ksa dk vFkZ LosPNkpkjh 'kfDr dk vFkZ

vuqÙkjnk;h rFkk vfu;fU=kr 'kfDr gSA ;g fofèk osQ 'kklu dk fojksèkh gS ysfdu Lofoosd 'kfDr dk iz;ksx vkt

ifjgk;Z gS] tSlk fd iznÙk O;oLFkkiu (delegated Legislation) osQ O;ogkj ls Li"V gSA ;fn Lofoosd 'kfDr dk

iz;ksx fofèk osQ 'kklu osQ fo:¼ gS rks fofèk osQ 'kklu osQ fy, fdlh Hkh vkèkqfud 'kklu&O;oLFkk esa ughA

(ii) Mk;lh dk f}fr; vFkZ Hkh lafnXèk gSA 'kklu osQ vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ ikl dfri; fo'ks"kkfèkdkj ,o foeqfDr;k¡ gS]

ftuls lkoZtfud vfèkdkj ykHk mBk ldrs gSaA vU; lexz jk"Vªksa dh rjg baXySaM Hkh vius 'kkldksa rFkk dwVuhfrd

vfèkdkfj;ksa dks U;k;ky;ksa dh dk;Z&iz.kkyh eqdnek vkfn osQ lEcUèk esa dfri; foeqfDr;k¡ iznku djrs gSaA ,sls Hkh

mnkgj.k gSa ftuesa vkUrfjd vko';drkvksa osQ dkj.k foeqfDr;k¡ nsuh iM+h Fkh tSls&1960 bZ- osQ VªsM fMI;wV~l ,sDV

(Trade Disputes Act) osQ vuqlkj fdlh O;fDr dh 'kkjhfjd ;k lkEifÙkd gkfu ij Hkh VsªM ;wfu;u osQ fo:¼

vnkyrh dk;Zokgh ugha dh tk ldrh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr vkt iz'kkldh; foHkkxksa dks vius {ks=k esa U;k;ky;ksa dh

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rjg vafre fu.kZ; nsus dk vfèkdkj fn;k x;k gS] tSls&x`gea=kh fonsf'k;ksa dks Lons'k osQ ukxfjd dk vfèkdkj iznku

dj ldrk gSA vU; foHkkxh; ea=kh ;k vfèkdkjh] LokLF;eU=kh] f'k{kkcksMZ] O;kikj cksMZ] ;krk;kr eU=kh vkfn U;k;ky;ksa

dh rjg >xM+ks dk fucVkjk djrs gSaA bl izdkj iz'kklfud 'kfDr c¡Vokjk osQ dkj.k fofèk osQ 'kklu osQ fl¼kUr

ij vkt i;kZIr e;kZnk,¡ yn pqdh gSA

(iii) Mk;lh osQoy ekSfyd jktuhfrd vfèkdkjksa dks Lohdkj djrk gS ftlosQ fy, U;k;ky; dh 'kj.k yh tk ldrhgSA og lafofèk;ksa ls izkIr vfèkdkjksa dh vksj è;ku ugha nsrk gSA vkt rks lafofèk dk {ks=k bruk O;kid gks x;k gSfd lkekU; fofèk }kjk iznÙk vfèkdkjksa&oS;fDrd LorU=krk dk vfèkdkj] Loj{kk dk vfèkdkj] fopkj O;Dr djusdk vfèkdkj vkfn dks lafofèk dh 'kj.k ysuh iM+rh gSA lkekU; fofèk dk va'k gksrs gq, Hkh cUnh izR;{khdj.k(Habeas Corpus) ;k viekutud ys[k dh fofèk (Law of Libel) dks vfèkfu;eksa dk :i fn;k x;kA

izQkal dh U;kf;d O;oLFkk (French Judicial System)

usiksfy;u lafgrk % Úkal esa 1789 bZú dh egku Økafr ls iwoZ dksbZ laxfBr U;k;&O;oLFkk ugha FkhA ns'k esa oSfèkd,d:irk dk furkar vHkko FkkA U;k;&iz'kklu jktkvksa dh vkKfIr;ksa] vè;kn'kksa jktkKkvksa vkfn }kjk gksrk FkkØec¼ U;k;ikfydk dk vHkko Fkk vkSj fHkUu&fHkUu dkuwu ykxw FksA okYVs;j us bldk lgh fp=k izLrqr fd;kgS&¶ns'k esa ,d vksj ls nwljh vksj rd tkusokys ;k=kh dks ftruh ckj ?kksM+k cnyuk iM+rk Fkk mlls vfèkd izdkjosQ dkuwuksa dks cnyuk gksrk FkkA jkT;Økafr us lgh&lgh U;kf;d O;oLFkk dks fNUu&fHkUu dj fn;kA rRi'pkr~ U;kf;di¼fr ,o fofèk;ksa esa lqèkkj osQ vusd iz;kl gq,A ysfdu ;s iz;kl vYidkyhu rFkk VqdM+s&VqdM+s :i esa gq,A loZizFkeusiksfy;u egku us Úkalhlh fofèk dks lafgrkc¼ djus dk egku dk;Z vius gkFk esa fy;k vkSj ml ;kstuk dks viuhfof'k"V 'kfDr ,oa {kerk ls dk;kZfUor djrs gq, dqN gh o"kks± osQ vUnj iw.kZ dj fn;kA usiksfy;u }kjk dkuwu osQlaxzg dks usiksfy;u&lafgrk (Code of Napoleon) dgrs gSaA vkt osQ Úkal dh fofèk;k¡ izkFkfed :i ls usiksfy;ulafgrk ij vkèkkfjr gSA ;g Bhd gS fd uohu ifjfLFkfr;ksa ,oa vko';drkvksa osQ vuqlkj foxr Ms<+ lkS o"kks± esa mlsla'kksfèkr ,oa ifjof¼Zr fd;k tk jgk gS ysfdu mls iw.kZ :i ls Bqdjk;k ugha tk ldrk gSA og Úkal dh U;kf;dO;oLFkk osQ ,d ltho ,oa xfr'khy vax osQ :i esa vkt Hkh lqjf{kr gSA

bl izlax esa ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd Úkal dh U;kf;d ,oa oSèkkfud O;oLFkk osQ fodkl esa jkse dh oSèkkfud i¼frÚkal dh izkphu lkeUroknh O;oLFkk] jktkvksa }kjk fufeZr fofèk;ksa] 1789 bZú dh jkT;ØkfUr rFkk usiksfy;u }kjklaxzfgr ,oa fufeZr fofèk;ksa dk izHkko iM+k gSA eè;;qxhu lkeUroknh :f<;ksa rFkk fujadq'k jktrU=kh; 'kklu dh blij vfeV Nki gSA ysfdu lcls vfèkd izHkko usiksfy;u cksukikVZ dk iM+k gSA mlh us izFke ckj Úkalhlh fofèk;ksadks lafgrkc¼ fd;k vkSj ogh lafgrk vkt rd dfri; ifjorZuksa osQ lkFk pyh vk jgh gSA

usiksfy;u lafgrk ls vki D;k le>rs gSaA

Úkalhlh U;k;&i¼fr dh fo'ks"krk,¡ (Special features of the Judiciary): Úkalhlh U;k;&i¼fr dh dfri;futh fo'ks"krk,¡ gSa ftudk mYys[k ;gk¡ vko';d gS &(1) izfyf[kr fofèk;k¡ (Written Laws)% Úkal esa izk;% lHkh fofèk;k¡ iw.kZr% fyf[kr :i esa gSaA baXySaM esa Hkhfofèk;ksa dk vfèkdka'k Hkkx fyf[kr gS] ysfdu mudk ,d egÙoiw.kZ Hkkx ftls lkekU; dkuwu (common law)dgrs gS vfyf[kr gSA(2) laoSèk fofèk;ka (Statutory Laws): Úkal esa izk;% lHkh fofèk;k¡ laln vFkok fdlh laxfBr fuekZf=k laLFkk }kjkfufeZr dh x;haA :f<+;ksa vkSj izFkkvksa dk muesa dgha&dgha vkSj izFkkvksa dk muesa dgha&dgha vkSj cgqr de lekos'kgqvk gSA Úkal esa U;k;kèkh'k fufeZr (judgemade) fofèk;ksa dk fodkl ugha gqvk gS] D;ksafd izR;sd U;k;ky; viuk

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fu.kZ; nsus osQ fy, LorU=k gS] iwoZdkyhu U;kf;d n`"VkUrksa esa og ckè; ugha gSA blosQ foijhr baXySaM esa vfèkdka'kfofèk;k¡ U;k;èkh'kksa }kjk fufeZr gSA ogk¡ iwoZdkyhu U;kf;d n`"Vkrksa dk leknj fd;k tkrk gS blfy, ,slh fofèk;ksadk ogk¡ fodkl gksrk gSA(3) iz'kkldh; vax (Administrative Organ): Úkal esa U;k;ikfydk dks ewyr% iz'kkldh; vax ekuk x;kgSA equjks osQ 'kCnksa esa ¶U;k;ikfydk dks foèkkf;dk vkSj dk;Zikfydk ls fHkUu 'kklu osQ ,d Lora=k vax osQ :iesa ekuus dh vknr Úkalhlh turk esa ugha gSA os Mkd?kjksa dh Hkk¡fr U;k;ky;ksa dks Hkh osQoy iz'kkldh; 'kk[kkvksaosQ :i esa ekurs gSaA blosQ foijhr baXySaM esa U;k;ikfydk dks ljdkj dk ,d LorU=k vax ekuk tkrk gSA(4) U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dk vHkko (Absence of Judicial Review): Úkal esa U;k;kikfydk iz'kklu dk,d vèkhuLFk vax gSA blfy, mls laln }kjk fufeZr dkuwuksa dh laoSèkkfudrk dh tk¡p djus dk vfèkdkj ugha gSA;g dk;Z ,d vU; laLFkk] laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ (Constitutional Council) dks lqiqnZ fd;k x;k gSA ysfdu HkkjrrFkk vesfjdk esa ;g dk;Z fu;fer U;k;ky;ksa dks lkSaik x;k gSA bu ns'kksa esa U;k;ky;ksa dks foèkkf;dk }kjk fufeZZrfofèk;ksa dh laoSèkkfudrk dh tk¡p djus dk vfèkdkj gSA

(5) U;kf;d Lora=krk (Independence of Judiciary)% Úkal esa U;k;kèkh'kksa dks mruh LorU=krk izkIr gS fturhfd baXySaM rFkk vesfjdk esaA bldk dkj.k ;g gS fd Úkal esa U;k;kèkh'k ljdkj osQ U;k;&foHkkx esa dke djrs gSalkFk gh os ljdkjh odhy dk dke djrs gS vkSj U;k; ea=kky; osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h gksrs gSaA

(6) fu;qfDr (Appointment): Úkal esa U;k;kèkh'kksa dh fu;qfDr dh iz.kkyh Hkh vU; ns'kksa ls fHkUu gSA izfr;ksfxrkijh{kk osQ vkèkkj ij mudh fu;qfDr mPp U;kf;d ifj"kn~ (The High Council of Judiciary) osQ }kjk gksrh gSAysfdu baXySaM] vesfjdk] Hkkjr vkfn ns'kksa esa izk;% lqfo[;kr vkSj mPp dksfV osQ odhyksa dks U;k;kèkh'k fu;qDr fd;ktkrk gSA

(7) LFkkuh; U;k;ky; (Local Courts): lHkh Úkalhlh U;k;ky; LFkkuh; gksrs gSaA mudh cSBd fuf'pr LFkkuksaesa gh gksrh gSA os nkSjs ij ugha tkrs gSaA

(8) }Sèk U;k; O;oLFkk (Double System of Courts) : Úkal esa nks izdkj osQ U;k;ky; ik;s tkrs gSa&lkekU;U;k;ky; (Ordinary Courts) vkSj iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; (Administrative Courts) lkekU; U;k;ky; xSj&ljdkjhO;fDr;ksa osQ eqdneksa dk fu.kZ; djrs gSaA iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa osQ vijkèkksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksadk fu.kZ; djrs gS vkSj os fHkUu izdkj dh fofèk;ksa dks ykxw djrs gSa ftUgas dkuwu (Administrative Laws) dgrs gSaA

(9) lkewfgdrk dk fl¼kar (Doctrine of Collegiality) : Úkal es U;k; osQ lacaèk esa èkkj.kk ;g gS fd U;k;djus osQ fy, dbZ efLr"dksa dk laxfBr fopkj&foe'kZ vko';d gSA dksbZ Hkh fu.kZ; de&ls&de rhu U;k;kèkh'kksadh Li"V lgefr ls fn;k tkrk gSA

U;k;ky;ksa dk laxBu (Organisation of Courts): Úkal esa U;k;ky;ksa dk laxBu ,dhd`r ugha gS] cfYdla?kkRed gSA U;kf;d izkfèkdkj dk fdlh ,d laLFkk esa laosQæ.k ugha gksrk gS] cfYd ikap izdkj osQ i`Fkd&i`FkdU;k;ky; gSa&

(d) lkekU; U;k;ky; (Ordinary Courts),

([k) iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; (Administrative Courts),

(x) laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ (Constitutional Council),

(?k) mPp U;kf;d ifj"kn~ (The High Council of Judiciary), rFkk

(M) U;k; dk mPp U;k;ky; (The High Court of Justice)

(d) lkekU; U;k;ky; (Ordianry Courts) % bu U;k;ky;ksa esa fliQZ xSjljdkjh O;fDr;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksadh lquokbZ gksrh gSA

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'kkafr U;k;kèkh'k osQ U;k;ky; % lcls fuEu èkjkry ij 'kkfUr U;k;kèkh'kksa (Justices of Peaces) dk U;k;ky;gSA izk;% dSaVu esa ,slk ,d U;k;ky; gksrk gSA cM+s&cM+s 'kgjksa esa vusd ,sls U;k;ky; gksrs gSaA lkjs ns'k esa yxHkx300 ,sls U;k;ky; gSaA bl U;k;ky; es ,d U;k;kèkh'k gksrk gS ftls 'kkafr U;k;kèkh'k dgrs gSaA 'kkfUr U;k;kèkh'k dhfu;qfDr U;k;kèkh'k dh fliQkfj'k ij jk"Vªifr djrk gSA ;s U;k;ky; nhokuh vkSj iQkStnkjh nksuksa izdkj osQ eqdneksadk fu.kZ; djrs gSaA bu U;k;ky;ksa dk izeq[k dk;Z oLrqr% eqdneksa dk fu.kZ; djuk gh ugha oju~ eqdneksa dks jksdukgSA U;k;kèkh'k le>k&cq>kdj vFkok eè;LFkrk }kjk fojksèkh i{kksa esa le>kSrk djus dk iz;Ru djrs gSaA bl izdkjbu U;k;ky;ksa dk dk;Z lkekftd n`f"Vdks.k ls cgqr egÙoiw.kZ gSA buosQ fu.kZ;ksa osQ fo:¼ izkjfEHkd U;k;ky;ksa esavihy dh tk ldrh gSA baXySaM esa 'kkfUr U;k;kèkh'k voSrfud gksrs gSa tcfd Úkal esa iw.kZ loSrfud deZpkjhA

izkjfEHkd U;k;ky; % 'kkfUr U;k;kèkh'k osQ U;k;ky; osQ Åij izkjfEHkd U;k;ky; (Courts of the first Instance)

gksrk gSA izR;sd ,jks.MkbtesaV (Arrondisement) esa ,slk U;k;ky; gksrk gSA blesa 15 U;k;kèkh'k gksrs gSaA bls nhokuhrFkk iQkStnkjh] izkjfEHkd rFkk vihyh; {ks=kkfèkdkj izkIr gS] nhokuh ekeyksa esa bldk vfèkdkj&{ks=k lhfer gSAiQkStnkjh ekeyksa esa pksjh] xcu vkSj ekj&ihV rd bldk {ks=k lhfer gSA 3000 ÚSad ls vfèkd osQ nhokuh eqdneksaesa bldks izkFkfed {ks=kkfèkdkj izkIr gSA bl U;k;ky; esa 'kkfUr U;k;kèkh'kksa osQ fu.kZ;ksa osQ fo:¼ vihy dh tk ldrhgSA blosQ dqN fu.kZ;ksa osQ fo:¼ iqujkosnu& U;k;ky; esa vihy dh tk ldrh gSA

iqujkosnu U;k;ky;% izkjfEHkd U;k;ky;ksa osQ Åij iqujkosnu U;k;ky; (Courts of Appeal) gksrs gSaA ,dU;k;ky; dk {ks=kkfèkdkj lkr fMikVZesUVksa (Departments) rd gksrk gS] vHkh Úkal esa ,sls 27 U;k;ky; gSaA izR;sdU;k;ky; esa rhu foHkkx gksrs gSa&nhokuh] iQkStnkjh rFkk nks"kkjksi.k (Indictment) foHkkxA nks"kkjksi.k foHkkx bl ckrij fopkj djrk gS fd fdlh O;fDr ij nks"kkjksi.k fd;k tk; ;k ughaA izR;sd foHkkx esa ikap U;k;kèkh'k gksrs gSabl U;k;ky; dk dksbZ ekSSfyd vfèkdkj&{ks=k (Original Jurisdiction) ugha gSA ;g eq[;r% izkjfEHkd U;k;ky;ksaosQ nhokuh ekeyksa ls lEcfUèkr fu.kZ; osQ fo:¼ vihy lqurk gSA bldk rF;&lEcUèkh (facts) fu.kZ; vfUre gksrkgS] ysfdu oSèkkfud rF;ksa (points of law) ls lEcfUèkr fu.kZ;ksa osQ fo:¼ U;k;ky;ksa esa vihy dh tk ldrh gSA

fu"ksèk U;k;ky; (Courts of Assize) : fu"ksèk U;k;ky; vfLFkj U;k;ky; gSA ;g cM+s&cM+s uxjksa dk ckjh&ckjh lsnkSjk djrk gS rFkk eqdneksa dk iQSlyk djrk gSA blesa iqujkosnu&U;k;ky; dk ,d U;k;kèkh'k vkSj izkjfEHkdU;k;ky; osQ nks U;k;kèkh'k gksrs gSaA ;g Úkal dk nf.Mr U;k;ky; (Criminal Court) gS ftlesa vfèkd xEHkhjiQkStnkjh ekeyksa osQ izkjfEHkd U;k;ky; osQ fu.kZ; dh vihy dh tkrh gSA blesa twjh (Jury) dh lgk;rk ls U;k;ky;dk fu.kZ; vfUre gksrk gS mlosQ fo:¼ vihy ugha dh tk ldrh gSA

fojke U;k;ky; (Court of Cessation) : fojke U;k;ky; Úkal dk loksZPp U;k;ky; gSA blosQ laxBu ,oa dk;ZHkkjr ;k vesfjdk osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; ls fHkUu gSA blesa ,d egkè;{k] 3 foHkkxh; vè;{k rFkk 45 vU; U;k;kèkh'kgksrs gSa ftUgsa ik"kZn~ (Councillors) dgrs gSaA bldh cSBd isfjl esa gksrh gSA blosQ rhu foHkkx gSa&izkFkZuk&foHkkx(Chamber of Request)] nhokuh (civil) foHkkx rFkk n.M (Criminal) foHkkxA rhuksa foHkkx vyx&vyx viukdk;Z djrs gSaA ;g osQoy iqujkosnuh; (Appellate) U;k;ky; gSA iqujkosnuksa esa Hkh ;g osQoy fofèk iz'u ij gh fopkjdjrk gS] rF; iz'u ij ughaA ;g U;k;ky; gj fuEu U;k;ky;ksa osQ fu.kZ;ksa osQ cnys viuk fu.kZ; ughsa ns ldrk]cfYd mudh iqf"V dj ldrk gS vFkok jí dj ldrk gSA ;|fi ;g U;k;ky; Hkkjr osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; ;k baXySaMdh fizoh ifj"kn~ dh U;kf;d lfefr dh Hkk¡fr ugha gS] fiQj Hkh tks xfjek izkIr gS] og 'kk;n gh fdlh vU; loksZPpU;k;ky; dks izkIr gksA

([k) iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; (Administrative Council) : iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; osQ nks Lrj gSa&

izknsf'kd ifj"kn~ % fuEu èkjkry ij izknsf'kd ifj"kn~ (Regional Council) gSA bUgsa izkFkfed vUrfoZHkkxh; ifj"kn~(Inter-Departmental Council) Hkh dgrs gSaA izR;sd ifj"kn dk dk;Z{ks=k 2 ls 7 fMikVZesaV rd jgrk gSA budhdqy la[;k 23 gSA izR;sd ifj"kn~ esa ,d lHkkifr vkSj pkj ik"kZn~ (councillors) gksrs gSaA iz'kklu&lEcUèkh eqdnes

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loZizFke bUghsa U;k;ky;ksa esa vkrs gSaA ;s fuèkkZj.k (Assessment) lacaèkh fooknksa] lkoZtfud fuekZ.k] LFkkuh; fuokZpu]Bhdk&Hkax (Breach of Contract) vkfn iz'uksa dk fu.kZ; djrs gSaA blosQ fu.kZ;ksa osQ fo:¼ jkT; ifj"kn~ esa vihydh tkrh gSA

jkT; ifj"kn~ % jkT; ifj"kn~ (Council of State) jk"Vª dk loksZPp iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; gSA bldk vè;{k Úkaldk U;k;&eU=kh gksrk gSA blosQ vèkhu ,d mikèk;{k rFkk ikap foHkkxkè;{k jgrs gSaA bl ifj"kn~ esa 149 lnL; gksrsgSa ftudh fu;qfDr U;k;&eU=kh osQ ijke'kZ ls jk"Vªifr djrk gSA ;g Lora=k] xkSjoiw.kZ] 'kfDr'kkyh rFkk izHkkoiw.kZlaLFkk gSA ;g izknsf'kd ifj"knksa osQ fu.kZ; osQ fo:¼ vihy lqurh gSA iz'kkldh; U;k; dk okLrfod mÙkjnk;h blhosQ dUèkksa ij gSA ;g eaf=keaMy dks mlosQ }kjk tkjh fd;s tkus okys vkns'kksa vFkok vkKkfIr;ksa osQ lEcUèk esa ijke'kZnsrh gSA ljdkj osQ fofHkUu foHkkxksa osQ chp mRiUu fooknksa dk Hkh ;g fucVkjk djrh gSA bldh dk;Z&iz.kkyh cgqrlkèkkj.k gSA ;g laLFkk turk osQ vfèkdkjksa dks lqjf{kr j[kus esa egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z djrh gSA

(x) laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ (Constitutional Council) : laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ Úkalhlh U;k; O;oLFkk dh vuks[khfo'ks"krk gSA Hkkjr rFkk la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa fofèk;ksa dh laoSèkkfudrk dh tkap djus dk vfèkdkj loksZPpU;k;ky; dks fn;k x;k gSA bls U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu (Judicial Review) dk vfèkdkj dgrs gSaA Úkal esa iqufoZyksdudk vfèkdkj fu;fer U;k;ky;ksa dks u nsdj ,d&nwljh laLFkk dks fn;k x;k gS ftls laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ (constitutional

Council) dgrs gSaA bls v¼Z&U;kf;d laLFkk (Quasi-Judicial Institution) Hkh dgk tk ldrk gSA

lafoèkku osQ lkrosa vè;k; esa laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ osQ laxBu rFkk dk;ks± dk fooj.k fn;k x;k gSA blesa 9 lnL; gksrsgSa tks 9 o"kks± osQ fy, fu;qDr fd;s tkrs gSaA izR;sd rhu o"kksZa ij ,d&frgkbZ lnL; vodk'k xzg.k djrs gSaA rhulnL; jk"Vªifr }kjk] rhu jk"Vªh; lHkk osQ vè;{k }kjk rhu flusV osQ lHkkifr }kjk fu;qDr fd;s tkrs gSaA lnL;ksa osQvfrfjDr Úkal osQ HkwriwoZ jk"Vªifr blosQ insu (Ex-Officio) lnL; gksrs gSaA blosQ vè;{k dh fu;qfDr jk"Vªifr osQ}kjk gksrh gSA vè;{k dks fu.kkZ;d er (Casting vote) nsus dk vfèkdkj gSA laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ osQ lkFk&lkFkeaf=keaMy vFkok laln osQ lnL; ugha gks ldrs gSaA vkafxd fofèk osQ }kjk ifj"kn~ osQ laxBu rFkk dk;Z&iz.kkyh dksfuèkkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA

laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ osQ fuEufyf[kr dk;Z gS&

(1) jk"Vªifr dk fuokZpu fu;fer :i ls djokuk rFkk fuokZpu&lEcUèkh lHkh vkjksiksa dh tk¡p djuk vkSj fu.kZ; nsuk

(2) laln&lnL;ksa osQ fuokZpu dh vfu;ferrk dk fujkdj.k djuk]

(3) tuer&laxzg dks fu;fer (regualte) djuk rFkk mlosQ ifj.kke dh ?kks"k.kk djuk

(4) vkafxd fofèk;ksa (Organic laws) rFkk vU; fofèk;ksa osQ izorZu (Promulgation) dh iw.kZ laoSèkkfudrk dhtk¡p laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ }kjk vfuok;Z gS vFkZ ;g fd bl ifj"kn~ dks U;kf;d leh{kk (Judicial review)

dk vfèkdkj izkIr gSA

(?k) mPp U;kf;d ifj"kn~ (The High Council of the Judiciary): jk"Vªifr U;kf;d Lora=krk dk laj{kd gSAbl dk;Z esa mldh lgk;rk osQ fy, mPp U;kf;d ifj"kn~ dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k gSA jk"Vªifr bldk vè;{k rFkkU;k;&ea=kh insu (ex-officio) mikè;{k gksrk gSA ;g ifj"kn~ Úkal osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; (The Court of Cessation)

osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa vkSj iqujkosnu&U;k;ky;ksa osQ vè;{k dh fu;qfDr djrh gSA bls vuq'kklu lEcUèk ekeyksa esa Hkh fu.kZ;nsus dk vfèkdkj gSA U;k;ikfydk dh Lora=krk dh j{kk osQ flyflys esa ;g jk"Vªifr dh lgk;rk djrh gSA

(M) U;k; dk mPp U;k;ky; (The High Court of Justice): ;g ,d jktuSfrd U;k;ky; (Political

Court) gSA blosQ lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu laln osQ nksuksa lnu djrs gSaA izR;sd lkèkkj.k vFkok v¼Z&fuokZpu osQi'pkr~ jk"Vªh; lHkk vkSj flusV vius gh lnL;ksa esa ls cjkcj&cjkcj la[;k esa bl mPp U;k;ky; osQ lnL;ksa dksfuokZfpr djrs gSaA vius gh lnL;ksa esa ls U;k;ky; viuk vè;{k pqurk gSA jk"Vªifr ij ns'kæksg osQ fy,] eaf=k;ksa

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ij ns'kæksg] ns'k dh lqj{kk vU; fdlh Hkh nkf.Md dk;Z osQ fy, fd;s x;s nks"kkjksi.k dk ijh{k.k ;g U;k;ky;djrk gS vkSj fu.kZ; nsrk gSA

iz'kkldh; fofèk (Administrative Law): iz'kkldh; fofèk Úkal dh U;kf;d iz.kkyh dh egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krkgSA lkèkkj.kr% iztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa lHkh osQ fy, ,d gh izdkj dh U;k;&O;oLFkk gksrh gSA ysfdu Úkal esa nksizdkj dh U;k;&O;oLFkk gSA lkekU; turk osQ fy, nhokuh dkuwuksa (Civil Laws) rFkk nhokuh U;k;ky;ksa (Civil

Courts) dh O;oLFkk gS] ysfdu ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksa dk iQSlyk iz'kkldh; fu;eksa osQvkèkkj ij gksrk gSA

ifjHkk"kk % iz'kkldh; fofèk dh ifjHkk"kk,¡ vusd fo}kuksa us fHkUu&fHkUu izdkj ls nh gSA izksú Mk;lh us iz'kkldh;fofèk dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, dgk gS fd ¶Úkal dh iz'kkldh; fofèk 'kklu vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ vfèkdkjksa vkSj dÙkZO;ksaosQ os fl¼kar gS ftuosQ vkèkkj ij jk"Vª lÙkk osQ izfrfufèk osQ :i esa jktk] deZpkfj;ksa vkSj turk osQ ikjLifjdO;kogkj dk fu.kZ; vkSj fu;a=k.k gksrk gSA¸ ckj Fkhfy;s osQ vuqlkj ¶Úkal esa iz'kklfud dkuwu dk vk'k; mu lcdkuwuh fu;eksa ls gS ftuosQ iz'kklu osQ foHkkxksa dk ijLij vkSj turk ls lEcUèk dk fu.kZ; gksrk gSA¸ izksú jsu MsfoMdk dFku gS ¶iz'kkldh; dkuwu dh ifjHkk"kk bl izdkj dh tk ldrh gS fd ;g mifu;eksa dh lafgrk gS ftllslkoZtfud iz'kklu dh O;oLFkk vkSj dÙkZO;ksa dk fu.kZ; rFkk iz'kkldh; deZpkfj;ksa osQ jk"Vª osQ ukxfjdksa osQ izfrlEcUèkksa dk fu;a=k.k gksrk gSA

MkW- tsfuaXl dk dguk gS ¶'kkldh; dkuwu osQoy iz'kklu ls lEcfUèkr fu;e gSA fu;eksa osQ }kjk 'kklu&vfèkdkfj;ksaosQ vfèkdkjksa vkSj dÙkZO;ksa dk Kku vkSj fu.kZ; gksrk gSA

mi;qZDr lHkh ifjHkk"kkvksa osQ lE;d vuq'khyu osQ ckn iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ lEcUèk esa fuEufyf[kr ckrsa fLFkj dhtk ldrh gSa&

(d) iz'kkldh; fofèk os dkuwu gS tks ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa ,oa lkekU; turk osQ lEcUèk dks fuèkkZfjr djrs gSaA blnf"V ls iz'kkldh; fofèk] nhokuh fofèk (Civil Law) ls fHkUu gSa] D;ksafd nhokuh fofèk ukxfjdksa osQ ikjLifjd lEcUèkksadks fuèkkZfjr djrs gSaA iz'kkldh; U;k;ky;ksa osQ le> ,sls gh ekeys vk;k djrs gSa ftuesa ljdkj dk dksbZ deZpkjhlfEefyr gks vkSj ,sls eqdneksa dh rtcht iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ vkèkkj ij gksrh gksA

([k) ljdkj ;k ljdkjh deZpkjh rFkk ukxfjdksa osQ chp tks >xM+s gksrs gSa] mudk iQSlyk lkekU; U;k;ky; esa ughgksrk gSA ,sls >xM+s osQ fy, Úkal esa ,d fo'ks"k izdkj osQ U;k;ky; dk laxBu fd;k x;k gS ftUgsa iz'kkldh; U;k;ky;dgrs gSaA Úkal esa bl rjg dh fopkjèkkjk izpfyr gS fd U;k;kèkh'k ljdkjh vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ nq'eu gksrs gSa vkSjukxfjdksa rFkk ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa osQ chp >xM+s esa ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa dks rax dj ldrs gSaA vr% fu"i{k U;k;osQ fy, ;g vko';d gS fd ,sls >xM+ksa dk fucVkjk iz'kkldh; U;k;ky;ksa }kjk gh gksA

(x) ljdkjh deZpkjh jkT; osQ fu;eksa dks vey esa ykus osQ fy, ;k vius Å¡ps vfèkdkfj;ksa dh vkKk dk ikyudjrs le; ;k vius dÙkZO;ksa dk ikyu djrs le; ;fn fdlh osQ oS;fDrd vfèkdkjksa esa gLr{ksi dj ns rks ,slhfLFkfr esa mldks nks"kh Bgjkuk vU;k; gksxkA vr% mldh j{kk vko';d gSA ,sls ekeys esa iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; ghmfpr fu.kZ; ns ldrk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd ,sls vijkèkksa dh tkap osQ fy, jk"Vªh; ifj"kn dh vuqefr ysuh iM+rhgS ftu vijkèkksa dks dksbZ ljdkjh vfèkdkjh vius dÙkZO; fuHkkrs le; djrk gSA

nk'kZfud vkèkkj % Úkal esa iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ vkèkkjLo:i nks ewyHkwr fl¼kar gSA igyk vkèkkj jkse osQ foèkku(Roman Law) dk izHkko gSA bl fopkjèkkjk osQ vuqlkj jkT; lkè; (end) gS vkSj O;fDr lkèku (means)A vr%jkT; osQ deZpkfj;ksa dks ukxfjdksa dh vis{kk vfèkd vfèkdkj vkSj lqfoèkk,¡ nh tkuh pkfg,A usiksfy;u usjkT;&deZpkfj;ksa osQ vfèkdkjksa dh izkFkfedrk dks ekuk FkkA iz'kkldh; fofèk dk nwljk vkèkkj ekaVsLD;w(Montesquiu) osQ 'kfDr foHkktu (Separation of Powers) dk fl¼kUr gSA ml fl¼kUr osQ vuqlkjdk;Zikfydk] foèkkf;dk rFkk U;k;ikfydk dks ,d&nwljs ls Lora=k j[kuk pkfg,A vr% iz'kkldh; deZpkfj;ksa

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oQks LorU=k rFkk fu"i{k j[kus osQ fy, vyx fofèk&O;oLFkk gksuh pkfg,A bUgha nks fl¼kUrksa ij Úkal dhiz'kkldh; fofèk&O;oLFkk vkèkkfjr gSA

iz'kkldh; fofèk vkSj fofèk dk 'kklu (Administrative Law and Rule of Law): iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ dkj.kÚkal esa ljdkjh deZpkjh osQ fy, U;k; dh vyx O;oLFkk gSA bl n`f"V ls ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa vkSj lkekU; turkesa dkuwu osQ ekeys esa Hksn LFkkfir fd;k tkrk gSA ljdkjh deZpkjh iz'kkldh; fu;eksa ls iz'kkflr gksrs gS tcfdlkèkkj.k ukxfjdksa osQ fy, lkekU; fofèk dh O;oLFkk gSA ysfdu fczVsu esa lkekU; dkuwu dh èkkj.kk dks ekU;rk nhtkrh gSA bl O;oLFkk osQ dkj.k fczVsu esa fofèk dk 'kklu gSA fofèk osQ 'kklu osQ vuqlkj jkT; esa clusokys lHkhyksx dkuwu osQ le{k cjkcj gSaA izks- Mk;lh us viuh iqLrd nh ykW vkWiQ nh dULVhV~;w'ku* esa fofèk osQ 'kklu osQrhu vFkZ fLFkj fd;s gSaA izFker% fdlh Hkh O;fDr dks rcrd dksbZ ltk ugha nh tk ldrh tcrd fd [kqys U;k;ky;esa ml O;fDr osQ fo:¼ mlosQ vijkèk lkfcr u gks tk;A f}rh;r% dkuwu osQ le{k lHkh cjkcj gS pkgs lkekU;ukxfjd gksa ;k cM+k&ls&cM+k vfèkdkjh gksA r`rh;r% lHkh osQ fy, ,d izdkj osQ dkuwu gSa vkSj ,d gh rjg osQU;k;ky; dh O;oLFkk gSA fczVsu dh U;k;&O;oLFkk ls fHkUu Úkal esa nksgjs dkuwu rFkk nksgjs U;k; dh O;oLFkk gSAÚkal esa vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ fy, iz'kkldh; fofèk dh O;oLFkk gSA bl dkuwu dh n`f"V esa Úkal esa lHkh ukxfjd lekuugha gSA bl n`f"V ls ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd fczVsu rFkk Úkal dh U;k;&iz.kkyh esa dksbZ lerk ugha gSA lkFk gh];g Hkh dgk tk ldrk gS fd Úkal esa jkT; deZpkfj;ksa dh rqyuk esa ukxfjdksa dks de U;kf;d vfèkdkj izkIr gSaysfdu ;g fopkjèkkjk Hkzkafriw.kZ gSA

izksú Mk;lh osQ vuqlkj Úkal dh iz'kkldh; fofèk baXySaM dh lksygoha rFkk l=kgoha 'krkCnh dh U;kf;d O;oLFkkls fHkUu ugha FkhA xkSjoiw.kZ ØkfUr osQ igys fczVsu esa dk;Zikfydk] U;k;ikfydk osQ vèkhu ugha FkhA U;k;ikfydkljdkj osQ fdlh dk;Z esa gLr{ksi ugha dj ldrh FkhA jkT;&deZpkfj;ksa osQ lacaèk esa fo'ks"k vfèkdkj izkIr FksA

vU; lHkh ns'kksa dh rjg fczVsu esa Hkh ,slh cgqr&lh iz'kkldh; laLFkk,¡ gSaA tks U;kf;d rFkk vU; v¼Z U;kf;d dk;Zdjrh gSA cgqr ls ,sls inkfèkdkjh vkSj dwVuhfrK vfèkdkjh gSa ftUgsa U;k;ky; ls fo'ks"k mUeqfDr;k¡ feyh gSaA bulc ckrksa osQ dkj.k fofèk osQ 'kklu dh èkkj.kk ogh ugha jg x;h gS] ftldk o.kZu Mk;lh us fd;k FkkA

fiQj U;k; osQ lacaèk esa fofHkUu ns'kksa esa vyx&vyx èkkj.kk,¡ gSA fczVsu] vesfjdk vkfn ns'kksa esa ljdkj dk nkf;Rogh vfèkdkfj;ksa dk nkf;Ro ekuk tkrk gS tcfd Úkal esa deZpkfj;ksa dk mÙkjnkf;Ro jkT; dk mÙkjnkf;Ro ekuk tkrkgSA izk;% izR;sd U;k;&O;oLFkk esa jkT; deZpkfj;ksa }kjk fd;s x;s turk osQ izfr vijkèk osQ fo:¼ U;k; ek¡xk tkrkgSA Úkal esa jkT; }kjk deZpkfj;ksa dks cpkus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gS tcfd deZpkjh turk osQ izfr vijkèk viusdÙkZO; dks fuckgus osQ flyflys esa djrs gSaA bldk ;g Hkh vFkZ dnkfi ugha gS fd iz'kkldh; fofèk dh fLFkfr osQdkj.k turk dh LorU=krk [krjs esa jgrh gSA Úkal esa iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ dkj.k turk dh LorU=krk lqjf{kr gSAogk¡ Hkh ljdkjh deZPkkjh turk osQ vfèkdkjksa esa gLr{ksi djrs gSa ;k turk osQ izfr vijkèk djrs gSa] iz'kkldh;U;k;ky; ml vfèkdkjh osQ fo:¼ viuk fu.kZ; nsrs gSaA

izk;% cgqr ls ns'kksa esa U;k; iz.kkyh dkiQh tfVy gSA U;k; lqyHk ugha gS ysfdu iz'kkldh; U;k;ky; 'kh?kzfr'kh?kzU;k; nsus dh O;oLFkk djrs gSaA

baXySaM vkfn ns'kksa esa U;k; dkiQh eg¡xk gS dkuwuh dk;Zokgh bruh eg¡xh gS fd lkekU; turk vklkuh ls U;k; izkIrugha dj ldrh gSA baXySaM dh U;k;&iz.kkyh mlh osQ fy, lqyHk gS tks dkiQh xjhc vkSj mldk U;k;ky; 'kqYdekiQ gks tkrk gSA eè;e oxZ osQ fy, lqyHk ugha gSA bl n`f"V ls iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ dkj.k yksxksa dks lLrk U;k;fey tkrk gSA

fLol U;kf;d O;oLFkk (Swiss Judicial System)

la?kh; U;k;ky; dk laxBu (Organization of the Federal Tribunal): bfrgkl % la?kkRed 'kklu&O;oLFkkesa lafoèkku dh loksZPprk osQ laj{k.k rFkk la?k] la?kh; vkSj la?khHkwr bdkb;ksa osQ eè; mRiUu fooknksa dks fuiVkus

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osQ fy, fu"i{k la?kh; U;k;ky; dh vko';drk gksrh gSA fLoV~tjySaM esa loZizFke 1848 bZú osQ lafoèkku us la?kh;vfèkdkj&{ks=k esa U;k;&O;oLFkk osQ fy, ,d U;k;ky; dh O;oLFkk dh] ijUrq bl U;k;ky; dk vfèkdkj&{ks=kvR;Ur lhfer FkkA og iw.kZr;k la?kh; lHkk rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ vèkhu FkkA jkT;&e.My vkSj dSaVuksa dh fofèk;ksaesa vUrj vFkok fookn dk fu.kZ; djus dk bls vfèkdkj ugha FkkA ,sls fooknksa dk fu.kZ; Lo;a la?kh; lHkk rFkk la?kh;ifj"kn djrh FkhA la?k U;k;ky; osQoy mUgha fooknksa ij fopkj dj ldrk Fkk ftUgsa la?kh; lHkk rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~mlosQ ikl HkstrhA 1874 osQ lkafoèkkfud iqufuZjh{k.k us la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ laxBu vkSj vfèkdkjksa esa dqN egÙowi.kZifjorZu yk;kA ysfdu ;s ifjorZu cgqr izHkkoh rFkk ØkfUrdkjh ugha FksA lafoèkku dh èkkjk 106 esa osQoy bruk ghdgk x;k fd ¶la?kh; U;k;kfèkdj.k dh LFkkiuk dh tk; tks la?kh; vfèkdkj {ks=k osQ lEcUèk esa U;k; dh O;oLFkkdjsxkA ¶fiQj Hkh] bls vfèkdkj {ks=k esa la?kh; fofèk;ksa rFkk lafoèkkukfrfjDr fodklksa (Extra-constitutional

development) }kjk fujUrj o`f¼ gksrh jgh gSA vkt la?kh; U;k;ky; lgh ekus esa ns'k dk loksZPp U;k;ky; cux;k gS] ;gh lgh gS fd oÙkZeku fLFkfr dks izkIr djus esa bls vU; la?kh; vaxksa dh rqyuk esa cgqr vfèkd le;yxkA ;g fofèk osQ ,dhdj.k rFkk fLol turk osQ vfèkdkjksa dh j{kk osQ lEcUèk esa egÙoiw.kZ ikVZ vnk djrk gSA

,edek=k la?kh; U;k;ky; % la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa la?kh; U;k;ky; (Federal Court) dk laxBu ,d fijkfeM(pyramid) dh rjg gS ftlosQ 'kh"kZ ij loksZPp gS loksZPp U;k;ky; rFkk blosQ vèkhu vusd fuEu U;k;ky; gSAysfdu fLoV~tjySaM esa leLr la?kh; {ks=k osQ fy, osQoy ,d gh U;k;ky; gS ftls la?kh; U;k;ky; (Federal

Tribunal) dgrs gSaA

;g ns'k dk ,dek=k rFkk loksZPp la?kh; U;k;ky; gSA blosQ vrfjDr la?kh; èkjkry ij fuEu U;k;ky;(Subordinate Courts) ugha gSA

U;k;èkh'kksa dh la[;k% la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ laxBu osQ lacaèk eas lafoèkku dksbZ fu'p; ugha djrkA og fliQZ brukvkns'k nsrk gS fd fofèk gh la?kh; U;k;ky; vkSj mlosQ mi;ksxksa osQ laxBu dh jhfr] mlosQ lnL;ksa vkSj mi&lnL;ksadh la[;k ,oa mudh inkofèk rFkk osru vkfn osQ lEcUèk esa fu.kZ; djsxhA bl izdkj lafoèkku U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k(number of judges) fuf'pr ugha djrk gSA ;g vfèkdkj la?kh; lHkk dks lkSai fn;k x;k gS tks vius lnuksa osQla;qDr vfèkos'ku esa U;k;kèkh'kksa dk fuokZpu djrh gSA iQyr% ;g la[;k fujUrj ifjorZu'khy jgh gSA 1875 bZúesa U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k 9 FkhA ijUrq 1943 bZú esa ,d fofèk }kjk bl la[;k dks iqu% fuèkkZfjr fd;k x;kA U;k;kèkh'kksadh la[;k 9 ls c<+dj 26&28 dj nh x;hA buosQ vfrfjDr mi&U;k;kèkh'kksa (Alternate of Deputy Judges) dhHkh fu;qfDr dh tkrh gSA ftudh la[;k 11&13 gksrh gSA bl le; la?kh; U;k;kfèkdj.k esa 26 U;k;kèkh'k rFkk 12oSdfYid U;k;kèkh'k gSA mi&U;k;kèkh'k dh vuqifLFkfr esa muosQ in ij dk;Z djrs gSaA la?kh; lHkk] la?k&U;k;ky;osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa esa ls gh ,d vè;{k (President) vkSj ,d mikè;{k (Vice-President) dks nks o"kks± osQ fy, fuokZfprdjrh gSA

dk;Zdky % U;k;kèkh'kksa ,oa mi&U;k;kèkh'kksa dk fuokZpu 6 o"kZ osQ fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g Hk; Fkk fd fuokZpu i¼frrFkk 6 o"kZ osQ vYidky osQ dkj.k U;k;kèkh'kksa ij jktuhfrd izHkko iM+rk rFkk mldh fu"i{krk ,oa dk;Zdq'kyrk lekIrgks tkrhA ysfdu U;k;kèkh'kksa osQ fuokZpu osQ pyrs ;g Hk; tkrk jgkA fuokZpu dh O;oLFkk osQ ifj.kkeLo:i U;k;kèkh'kksadk dk;Zdky (Tunure) LFkk;h&lk gks tkrk gSA ;g ijEijk cu x;h gS fd tcrd os bPNqd gks mldk ckj&ckjiqufuZokZpu gksrk jgrk gSA osQoy vè;{k vkSj mikè;{k osQ iqufuZokZpu ugha gks ldrs gSaA

vgZrk,¡ % lafoèkku U;k;kèkh'kksa dh ;ksX;rkvksa vkSj vgZrkvksa (Qualifications) osQ lEcUèk esa ekSu gS fliQZ brukgh dgk x;k gS fd dksbZ Hkh ukxfjd tks jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ (National Council) dh lnL;rk dh vgZrk j[krk gks]la?kh; U;k;ky; dk U;k;kèkh'k fu;qDr fd;k tkrk gSA vr% oxkZfèkdkjh] U;k;kèkh'k fuokZfpr ugha gks ldrs D;ksafdjk"Vªh; ifj"kn~ dh lnL;rk muosQ fy, oftZr gSA blosQ vfrfjDr ;g Hkh è;ku esa j[kk tkrk gS fd rhuksa jktdh;Hkk"kkvksa] eq[; jktuhfrd nyksa] ,oa dSFkksfyd rFkk izksVsLVsUV nksuksa èkeks± dks U;k;ky; esa mfpr izfrfufèkRo feysA

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bl lEcUèk esa dqN izfrcUèk Hkh gSA nks fudV lEcUèkh la?kh; lHkk rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~ osQ lnL; ;k muosQ }kjk fu;qDrdksbZZ inkfèkdkjh la?kh; U;k;ky; dk U;k;kèkh'k ugha cu ldrs gSaA vius dk;Zdky esa U;k;kèkh'k u rks la?k ;k dSaVuosQ vUrxZr fdlh vU; in ij jg ldrs gSa vkSj u dksbZ O;olk; ;k ukSdjh gh dj ldrs gSaA 1814 bZú osQ igys;s ckrsa oftZr ugha FkhA ;|fi lafoèkku }kjk fdlh fo'ks"k ;ksX;rk dh vko';drk ugha gS] fiQj Hkh vuqHkoh rFkkfo'ks"kK&fofèkosÙkkvks dks gh U;k;kèkh'k fuokZfpr fd;k tkrk gSA ykWM czkbl us dgk Hkh gS U;k;kèkh'kksa osQ fuokZpuosQ fy, ;|fi dksbZ vgZrk fofèk }kjk fufgr ugha dh x;h gSA fiQj Hkh U;k;'kkL=k osQ fo}kuksa rFkk ;ksX; O;fDr;ksadks fuokZfpr djus dk Hkjld iz;Ru fd;k tkrk gSA ysfdu ;g dguk xyr gksxk fd U;k;kèkh'kksa dk fuokZpujktuhfrd izHkkoksa ls ,dne vNwrk gS] Hkys gh bldk mYVk izHkko U;k;kèkh'kksa dh Js"Brk ij ugha iM+rkA

osrukfn % fLol la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'kksa dks osru osQ :i esa 53]000 ÚSad izfro"kZ feyrk gSA vè;{k dksHkÙkk osQ :i esa vrfjDr 36]000 ÚSad izfro"kZ feyrk gSA mi&U;k;kèkh'kksa dks dksbZ fuf'pr okf"kZd osru ugha feyrkgSA osQoy ftu fnuksa os dk;Z djrs gSa] mUgs nSfud Øe ls dqN HkÙkk fn;k tkrk gSA isa'ku dh Hkh O;oLFkk gSA in&fuofÙk;fn 60 o"kZ dh vk;q ij gks vkSj U;k;ky; osQ lnL; osQ :i es dk;Z dj pqdk gS rks mlosQ lsok&dky osQ vuqlkjmlosQ osru dk 40 ls 60 izfr'kr rd isa'ku osQ :i esa fn;k tkrk gSA

lfpoky; % la?k&U;k;ky; dk viuk lfpoky; (Chancellory) gS ftldk laxBu rFkk deZpkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDrLo;a U;k;ky; djrk gSA ysfdu deZpkfj;ksa dh la[;k] budk osru rFkk dk;Z&dky la?kh; lHkk fuf'pr djrh gSA

LFkku % la?kh; U;k;ky; dk LFkk;h LFkku ok¡M (Vand) uked dSaVu dh jktèkkuh ykstku uxj gSA bl uxj esaU;k;ky; dh LFkkiuk osQ nks eq[; dkj.k FksA izFker% la?kh; 'kklu osQ nks vax (dk;Zikfydk rFkk foèkkuikfydk)teZu Hkk"kk&Hkk"kh uxj cuZ es vofLFkr FksA vr% lafoèkku fuekZrk pkgrs Fks fd la?kh; 'kklu dk de&ls&de ,dvax Úsap Hkk"kk&Hkk"kh uxj ykstku gks ftlls Úsap cksyusokys dks larqf"V feysA blh mís'; ls Úsap Hkk"kk&Hkk"kh Hkkxesa vofLFkr dj la?kh; U;k;ky; dk LFkku cuk;k x;kA f}rh;r% áwej osQ erkuqlkj lafoèkku&fuekZrk cuZ ls la?kh;U;k;ky; dks gVkdj 'kfDr i`FkDdj.k osQ fl¼kar ij cy nsuk pkgrs FksA mudk fopkj Fkk fd jktèkkuh ls nwj jgdjU;k;ky; jktuhfrd okrkoj.k ls eqDr jgsxkA

foHkkx % dk;Z dh lqfoèkk osQ n`f"Vdks.k ls fLol U;k;ky; dks pkj foHkkxksa esa ck¡V fn;k x;k gSA bues nks foHkkxnhokuh eqdneksa ij fopkj djrs gSa] rhljk foHkkx lkoZtfud fofèk lEcUèkh fooknksa ij fopkj djrk gS vkSj pkSFkkfoHkkx ½.k rFkk nhokfu;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksa ij fopkj djrk gSA bu foHkkxkas dk laxBu iwjk U;k;ky; nks o"kksZosQ fy, djrk gSA

iQkStnkjh eqdneksa ij fopkj djus osQ fy, Hkh la?k U;k;ky; osQ pkj foHkkx fd;s x;s gSa& (1) iQfj;kn foHkkx(Chamber of Complaints)] (2) iQkStnkjh foHkkx (Criminal Chamber)] (3) la?kh; n.M foHkkx (Federal

penal Court)] (4) lkafoèkkfud foHkkx (Court of Cessation) iQkStnkjh foHkkx dHkh&dHkh ifjHkze.k'khyU;k;ky; osQ :i esa djrk gSA le;≤ ij ns'k esa ifjHkze.k dj eqdíeksa dh lquokbZ djrk gSA iQkStnkjh ekeyksaij fopkj osQ le; twjh dh lgk;rk yh tkrh gSA izR;sd iQkStnkjh eqdnesa dh lquokbZ osQ le; 12 twfj;ksa dhmifLFkfr vko';d gSA twfj;ksa dk fuokZpu turk }kjk 6 o"kksZ osQ fy, gksrk gSA

la?kh; U;k;ky; dk vfèkdkj&{ks=k (Jurisdiction of the Federal Tribunal): la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ vfèkdkj&{ks=kdks fuEufyf[kr pkj oxks± esa foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gSA

(i) nhokuh (Civil)

(ii) iQkStnkjh (Criminal)

(iii) lkafoèkkfud (Constitutional) vkSj

(iv) iz'kkldh; (Administrative)

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nhokuh {ks=kkfèkdkj % (d) izkjfEHkd (Original) rFkk ([k) iqfuoZpkj (Appellate) nksuksa izdkj dk gSA

(d) izkjfEHkd lafoèkku dh èkkjk 110 osQ vUrxZr fuEufyf[kr foif{k;ksa osQ chp mRiUu fooknksa dk ;g fu.kZ;djsxk&(1) jkT;&la?k rFkk dSaVuksa osQ chpA(2) jkT;&la?k rFkk fdlh ,d fuxe vFkok lkèkkj.k ukxfjd osQ eè; c'krsZ fd oknh (plaintiff) ukxfjd vFkok

fuxe gks] jkT;&la?k ugha] vkSj fooknxzLr jkf'k] 4]000 ÚSad ls de u gksA(3) dSaVuksa osQ chpA(4) fdlh ,d dSaVu rFkk lkèkkj.k ukxfjdksa vFkok fuxeksa osQ chp c'krsZ fd fookn&xzLr jkf'k 4]000 ÚSad ls

de u gksA(5) ukxfjdrk osQ [kksus rFkk fofHkUu dSaVuksa osQ dE;wuksa osQ chp ukxfjd vfèkdkj lacaèkh fooknA;gk¡ ;g mYys[kuh; gS fd izkjfEHkd :i ls cgqr de nhokuh ekeys la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ le{k vkrs gSaA

([k) iqufoZpkjd % bl lEcUèk esa nks ckrsa mYys[kuh; gSa&

(1) èkkjk 111 osQ vuqlkj ;fn nksuksa i{k lger gksa rFkk fooknxzLr jkf'k 10]000 ÚSad ls de u gks rks la?kh;U;k;ky; esa fdlh Hkh eqdíesa esa vihy dh tk ldrh gSA

(2) la?kh; U;k;ky; dh fofèk;ksa osQ vUrxZr dSaVuksa osQ U;k;ky;ksa osQ fu.kZ; osQ fo:¼ vihy lquus dk vfèkdkjgSA bl vfèkdkj&{ks=k osQ vUrxZr dSaVuksa osQ U;k;ky;ksa osQ le{k izLrqr dqN eqdneksa dk n'kok¡ Hkkx vkrk gSA

la?k % U;k;ky; osQ iQkStnkjh (Criminal) vfèkdkj&{ks=k osQ vUrxZr èkkjk 112 osQ vuqlkj fuEufyf[kr fo"k; vkrsgSa&

iQkStnkjh {ks=kkfèkdkj &(1) jkT;&la?k osQ fo:¼ jktæksg] la?kh; vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ fo:¼ foæksg rFkk fgalk lEcUèkhvfHk;ksxA

(2) vUrjkZ"Vªh; fofèk;ksa osQ fo:¼ vijkèk vFkok nqjkpkj&lEcUèkh vfHk;ksxA

(3) jktuhfrd vijkèk vFkok nqjkpkj lEcUèkh ,sls vfHk;ksx ftuosQ dkj.k la?kh; lSU;cy osQ gLr{ksi dhvko'drk iM+h gksA

(4) fdlh la?kh; izkfèkdkjh (Federal Authority) }kjk fu;qDr vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ fo:¼ vfHk;ksx ftls ogh izkfèkdkjhizLrqr djsA

lafoèkku dh èkkjk 113 la?kh; U;k;ky; dks fuEufyf[kr lkafoèkkfud (constitutional) ekeyksa esa fu.kZ; dk vfèkdkjnsrh gSA

lkafoèkkfud {ks=kkfèkdkj % (1) la?kh; vfèkdkfj;ksa rFkk dSaVuksa osQ vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ eè; {ks=kkfèkdkj lacaèkh fooknA

(2) dSaVuksa osQ chp lkoZtfud fofèk (Public law) osQ lEcUèk esa fooknA

(3) ukxfjdksa osQ lkafoèkkfud vfèkdkjksa osQ vfrØe.k osQ fo:¼ vihyksa rFkk lkèkkj.k ukxfjdksa }kjk le>kSrk rFkkvUrjkZ"Vªh; lfUèk;ksa osQ vfrØe.k osQ fo:¼ dh x;h vihysaA

;gk¡ ;g Lej.k j[kuk pkfg, fd vejhdh lokZsPp U;k;ky; osQ ln'k fLol la?kh; U;k;ky; dks U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu(Judicial Review) vfèkdkj izkIr gSA

iz'kklfud {ks=kkfèkdkj % vUr esa fLol la?k U;k;ky; dks dfri; e;kZfnr iz'kklfud (Administrative)

vfèkdkj izkIr gSA blosQ varxZr og iz'kklfud vfHk;ksxksa ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa dh dkuwuh {kerk (Legal

Competence) lEcUèkh >xM+s jsy&iz'kklu lEcUèkh fookn] djkjksi.k lEcUèkh iz'kklfud ekeyksa vkfn ij fopkjdjrh gSA 1928 bZ- osQ iwoZ iz'kklfud ekeyksa dk fu.kZ; la?kh; ifj"kn~ djrh Fkh] ysfdu ,d la'kksèku }kjk mUgasla?k U;k;ky; dks gLrkarfjr dj fn;k x;kA

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vfèkdkj esa o`f¼ % fLol la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ vfèkdkj dk Li"V fp=k fliQZ lkafoèkkfud micUèkksa ls ugha feyldrk gSA lafoèkku esa mYysf[kr vfèkdkjksa osQ vfrfjDr la?kh; dkuwuksa }kjk U;k;ky; osQ vfèkdkj esa o`f¼ dh tkldrh gSA la?kh; lHkk dh vuqefr ls dSaVuksa osQ foèkkueaMy Hkh dqN nhokuh ekeys la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ {ks=kkfèkdkjesa j[k ldrs gSaA U;k;ky; osQ le{k izLrqr gksus okys 95 izfr'kr ekeys bl o`f¼xr vfèkdkj {ks=kksa osQ gh vUrxZrvkrs gSaA Hkkjr esa Hkh loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ vfèkdkjksa esa laln o`f¼ dj ldrh gSA

fLoV~tjySaM esa U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu vekU;% ysfdu fLoV~tjySaM esa U;k;ky; dks U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dhlkafoèkkfudrk dh tk¡p ugha fn;k x;k gSA mls la?kh; fofèk;ksa dh lkafoèkkfudrk dh tk¡p djus dk vfèkdkj ughagSA lafoèkku dh èkkjk 113 esa dgk x;k gS fd lHkh ekeyksa esa la?kh; U;k;ky; }kjk ikfjr fofèk;ksa dks vkSj lHkhloZekU; vkKkvksa dh rFkk la?kh; lHkk }kjk vuqlefFkZr lHkh fofèk;ksa dks ekU;rk nsus ij foo'k gksxkA¸ bl izdkjlafoèkku dh O;k[;k dk nkf;Ro la?k&U;k;ky; dks ugha fn;k x;kA og osQoy dSaVuksa }kjk fufeZr fofèk;ksa dhlkafoèkkfudrk dh tk¡p dj ldrk gSA vkSj mUgsa voSèk ?kksf"kr dj ldrk gS] la?kh; dkuwuksa dks ughaA ;g vfèkdkjLo;a foèkku lHkk rFkk turk dks iznku fd;k x;k gSA


2- lgh fodYi pqfu, (Choose the Correct Option)—

1- fczfV'k U;kf;d laxBu esa lcls Åijh ik;nku ij gS(d) ykMZ lHkk ([k) DokVZj ls'kal dk U;k;ky;

(x) dksVZ vkiQ fØfeuy vihy (?k) dkmUVh U;k;ky;

2- ;w-osQ- esa fofèk osQ çdkj çpfyr gaSμ(d) nks ([k) rhu (x) pkj (?k) ik¡p

3- U;k;ikfydk dks ewyr% ç'kkldh; vax ekuk x;k gSμ(d) fczVsu esa ([k) vesfjdk esa (x) Úkal esa (?k) fLoV~tjyS.M esa

4- Úkal osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; jkT; ifj"kn~ esa fdrus lnL; gksrs gSa\(d) 120 ([k) 135 (x) 149 (?k) 171

5- fLol la?kh; U;k;ky; esa U;k;kèkh'kksa ,oa mi&U;k;kèkh'kksa dk dk;Zdky gksrk gSμ(d) 5 o"kZ ([k) 6 o"kZ (x) 8 o"kZ (?k) 10 o"kZ


vesfjdk esa lafoèkku esa U;k;ky;ksa dks U;kf;d iqfufoZyksdu (Judicial Review) dh 'kfDr nh x;h gS tksmUgsa lafoèkku dk laj{kd cuk nsrk gSA ysfdu blosQ foijhr baXySaM esa lkaln dh loksZPprk osQ dkj.k U;k;ky;ksadks laln dh fofèk;ksa dks voSèk ?kksf"kr djus dh 'kfDr ugha gSA

fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dh ,d vU; fo'ks"krk U;k;ky;ksa dh Lora=krk rFkk fu"i{krk gSA baXySaM esa U;k;kèkh'kiw.kZr;k LorU=k gSA

U;k;kèkh'k ukxfjd vfèkdkj osQ laj{kd gSaA baXySaM esa U;k;ky;ksa dks bl dk;Z osQ fy, tks Js; izkIr gS os fdlhHkh vU; ns'kksa osQ U;k;ky;ksa dks ughaA ekSfyd vfèkdkjksa dh lwph ;k fyf[kr lafoèkku LorU=krk dh j{kk osQlkèku ugha gS cfYd fofèk dk 'kklu gSA

fczfV'k U;kf;d O;oLFkk dh ,d fo'ks"krk twjh&izFkk (Jury System) vFkok vfHkfu.kkZ;dksa osQ j[kus dh izFkkgSA fofèk osQ 'kklu dh liQyrk esa vfHkfu.kkZ;dksa dk cgqr cM+k gkFk gSA os tuer rFkk ekuork dks lnk

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è;ku esa j[krs gSa rFkk dHkh&dHkh U;k; fo:¼ Hkh tk ldrs gSa ;k vfHk;qDr dks n.M nsuk vLohdkj djldrs gSaA

fczfV'k U;k;&O;oLFkk dh vfUre] ij egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk U;k;ky; dh izoh.krk (Efficiency) gSA baXySM esa

U;kf;d dk;Zokgh 'kh?kz gksrh gSA rFkk fu.kZ; esa nsjh ugha gksrhA

fczfV'k lafoèkku dh ,d vf}rh; nsu gS] fofèk dk 'kkluA lkèkkj.k 'kCnksa esa bldk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd baXySaM

dk dkuwu gh ns'k dk 'kklu djrk gS u fd fdlh O;fDr&fo'ks"k dh LosPNkA dkuwu loksZPp gS rFkk blosQ

lkeus lHkh cjkcj gSA

LkoksZPp U;k;ky; osQ U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu osQ vfèkdkj osQ dk;Zdj.k osQ fooj.k ls mldh egÙkk lkiQ gks tkrh

gS U;k;kèkh'kksa us osQoy lafoèkku dh vkRek rFkk Hkk"kk dk gh fuokZPku ugha fd;k gS cfYd mUgksaus uhfr;ksa dk

Hkh fuèkkZj.k fd;k gSA mUgksaus lafoèkku esa Økafrdkjh ifjorZu yk;k gSA rFkk mls u;h fn'kk iznku dh gS vr%

bUgsa lafoèkku dk u;k fuekZrk (New makers of the Constitution) dgk x;k gSA tfLVl gktw us Bhd dgk

gS fd vejhdu turk lafoèkku osQ vèkhu vo'; jgrh gSA lafoèkku ogh gS tks U;k;kèkh'k dgrs gSaA tfLVl

izQSad us rks ;gk¡ rd dgk gS fd ^^loksZPp U;k;ky; lafoèkku gSA

loZizFke usiksfy;u egku us Úkalhlh fofèk dks lafgrkc¼ djus dk egku dk;Z vius gkFk esa fy;k vkSj ml

;kstuk dks viuh fof'k"V 'kfDr ,oa {kerk ls dk;kZfUor djrs gq, dqN gh o"kks± osQ vUnj iw.kZ dj fn;kA

usiksfy;u }kjk dkuwu osQ laxzg dks usiksfy;u&lafgrk (Code of Napoleon) dgrs gSaA vkt osQ Úkal dh

fofèk;k¡ izkFkfed :i ls usiksfy;u lafgrk ij vkèkkfjr gSA

Úkal esa U;k;ky;ksa dk laxBu ,dhd`r ugha gS] cfYd la?kkRed gSA

laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ Úkalhlh U;k; O;oLFkk dh vuks[kh fo'ks"krk gSA Hkkjr rFkk la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa fofèk;ksa

dh laoSèkkfudrk dh tkap djus dk vfèkdkj loksZPp U;k;ky; dks fn;k x;k gSA bls U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu

(Judicial Review) dk vfèkdkj dgrs gSaA Úkal esa iqufoZyksdu dk vfèkdkj fu;fer U;k;ky;ksa dks u nsdj

,d&nwljh laLFkk dks fn;k x;k gS ftls laoSèkkfud ifj"kn~ (constitutional Council) dgrs gSaA bls

v¼Z&U;kf;d laLFkk (Quasi-Judicial Institution) Hkh dgk tk ldrk gSA

iz'kkldh; fofèk Úkal dh U;kf;d iz.kkyh dh egÙoiw.kZ fo'ks"krk gSA lkèkkj.kr% iztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa lHkh osQ

fy, ,d gh izdkj dh U;k;&O;oLFkk gksrh gSA ysfdu Úkal esa nks izdkj dh U;k;&O;oLFkk gSA lkekU; turk

osQ fy, nhokuh dkuwuksa (Civil Laws) rFkk nhokuh U;k;ky;ksa (Civil Courts) dh O;oLFkk gS] ysfdu ljdkjh

deZpkfj;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksa dk iQSlyk iz'kkldh; fu;eksa osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gSA

iz'kkldh; fofèk osQ dkj.k Úkal esa ljdkjh deZpkjh osQ fy, U;k; dh vyx O;oLFkk gSA bl nf"V ls ljdkjh

deZpkfj;ksa vkSj lkekU; turk esa dkuwu osQ ekeys esa Hksn LFkkfir fd;k tkrk gSA ljdkjh deZpkjh iz'kkldh;

fu;eksa ls iz'kkflr gksrs gS tcfd lkèkkj.k ukxfjdksa osQ fy, lkekU; fofèk dh O;oLFkk gSA ysfdu fczVsu esa

lkekU; dkuwu dh èkkj.kk dks ekU;rk nh tkrh gSA bl O;oLFkk osQ dkj.k fczVsu esa fofèk dk 'kklu gSA fofèk

osQ 'kklu osQ vuqlkj jkT; esa clusokys lHkh yksx dkuwu osQ le{k cjkcj gSaA

izks- Mk;lh osQ vuqlkj Úkal dh iz'kkldh; fofèk baXySaM dh lksygoha rFkk l=kgoha 'krkCnh dh U;kf;d O;oLFkk

ls fHkUu ugha FkhA xkSjoiw.kZ ØkfUr osQ igys fczVsu esa dk;Zikfydk] U;k;ikfydk osQ vèkhu ugha FkhA U;k;ikfydk

ljdkj osQ fdlh dk;Z esa gLr{ksi ugha dj ldrh FkhA jkT;&deZpkfj;ksa osQ lEcUèk esa fo'ks"k vfèkdkj izkIr FksA

iz'kkldh; fofèk&iz.kkyh osQ dkj.k Úkalhlh turk dks U;k; lLrk vkSj lqyHk gks tkrk gSA ;g iz.kkyh lkekU;

U;k;ky;ksa dks iz'kkldh; ekeyksa ls vyx dj vfèkd dk;Z&{kerk iznku djrh gSA lpeqp iz'kkldh; fofèk

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osQ dkj.k Úkal osQ yksxksa dh oS;fDrd LorU=krk fujkin gksrh jgrh gSA ljdkjh deZpkfj;ksa osQ fo:¼ lqyHk

U;k; vU; fdlh iz.kkyh esa lEHko ugha gSA

la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa la?kh; U;k;ky; (Federal Court) dk laxBu ,d fijkfeM (pyramid) dh rjggS ftlosQ 'kh"kZ ij loksZPp gS loksZPp U;k;ky; rFkk loksZPp U;k;ky; osQ vèkhu vusd fuEu U;k;ky; gSaA ysfdufLoV~tjySaM esa leLr la?kh; {ks=k osQ fy, osQoy ,d gh U;k;ky; gS ftls la?kh; U;k;ky; (Federal Tribunal)

dgrs gSaA

;g ns'k dk ,dek=k rFkk loksZPp la?kh; U;k;ky; gSA blosQ vrfjDr la?kh; èkjkry ij fuEu U;k;ky;(Subordinate Courts) ugha gSA gsujh f}rh; us 'kklu dks liQyrkiwoZd pyk;k vkSj jktra=k dks n`< cuk;kAysfdu] mlls v;ksX; mÙkjkfèkdkfj;ksaμfjpMZ çFke vkSj tkWu dh xyr uhfr;ksa us Økafr dh vkx HkM+dk nh_leFkZdksa us mldk lkFk NksM+ fn;kA vUr esa] cSjksuh us tkWu dks viuh 'krks± dks ekuus osQ fy, ckè; fd;kAiQyr%] mls eSXukdkVkZ (Magna Carta) ftls ek¡x&jkti=k (The Great Charter) dgrs gSa] ij viuh eatwjhnsuk iM+hA ;g jkti=k fo'o dk ugha rks de&ls&de xzsV fczVsu dk lcls egÙoiw.kZ ys[k vo'; gSA mUuhloha'krkCnh esa fo'ki fcfy;e LVCl (Bishop Wiliam Stubbs) us dgk Fkk fd fczfV'k lafoèkku dk iwjk bfrgklbl egku jkti=k dh ,d O;k[;k gSA

la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ laxBu osQ lEcUèk eas lafoèkku dksbZ fu'p; ugha djrkA og fliQZ bruk vkns'k nsrk gSfd fofèk gh la?kh; U;k;ky; vkSj mlosQ mi;ksxksa osQ laxBu dh jhfr] mlosQ lnL;ksa vkSj mi&lnL;ksa dh la[;k,oa mudh inkofèk rFkk osru vkfn osQ lacaèk esa fu.kZ; djsxhA

1875 bZú esa U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k 9 FkhA ijUrq 1943 bZú esa ,d fofèk }kjk bl la[;k dks iqu% fuèkkZfjr fd;kx;kA U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k 9 ls c<+dj 26&28 dj nh x;hA buosQ vfrfjDr mi&U;k;kèkh'kksa (Alternate of Deputy

Judges) dh Hkh fu;qfDr dh tkrh gSA ftudh la[;k 11&13 gksrh gSA bl le; la?kh; U;k;kfèkdj.k esa 26 U;k;kèkh'krFkk 12 oSdfYid U;k;kèkh'k gSA ;g mi&U;k;kèkh'k dh vuqifLFkfr esa muosQ in ij dk;Z djrs gSaA

U;k;kèkh'kksa ,oa mi&U;k;kèkh'kksa dk fuokZpu 6 o"kZ osQ fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g Hk; Fkk fd fuokZpu i¼frrFkk 6 o"kZ osQ vYidky osQ dkj.k U;k;kèkh'kksa ij jktuhfrd izHkko iM+rk rFkk mldh fu"i{krk ,oadk;Zdq'kyrk lekIr gks tkrhA

la?kh; U;k;ky; dk LFkk;h LFkku ok¡M (Vand) uked dSaVu dh jktèkkuh ykstku uxj gSA

dk;Z dh lqfoèkk osQ nf"Vdks.k ls fLol U;k;ky; dks pkj foHkkxksa esa ck¡V fn;k x;k gSA bues nks foHkkx nhokuheqdneksa ij fopkj djrs gSa] rhljk foHkkx lkoZtfud fofèk lEcUèkh fooknksa ij fopkj djrk gS vkSj pkSFkkfoHkkx ½.k rFkk nhokfu;ksa ls lEcfUèkr eqdneksa ij fopkj djrk gSA bu foHkkxkas dk laxBu iwjk U;k;ky;nks o"kksZ osQ fy, djrk gSA

la?kh; U;k;ky; osQ vfèkdkj&{ks=k dks fuEufyf[kr pkj oxks± esa foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gSA

(i) nhokuh (Civil)(ii) iQkStnkjh (Criminal)(iii) lkafoèkkfud (Constitutional) vkSj(iv) iz'kkldh; (Administrative)

la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa 'kklu dk izeq[k fl¼kar lafoèkku dh loksZPprk gSA lafoèkku dh loksZifjrk osQ j{kkFkZU;k;ky;ksa dks ,d egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z lkSaik x;k gS fd og foèkkf;dk rFkk dk;Zikfydk dks fu;fU=kr djsA pw¡fd lafoèkkuloksZifj gS] blfy, dk;Zikfydk ,oa foèkkf;dk lafoèkku }kjk fuèkkZfjr lhekvksa osQ varxZr gh dk;Z djs vkSj loksZPpU;k;ky; ;g ns[ks fd os lafoèkku dk myya?ku rks ugha dj jgs gSA bl izdkj loksZPp U;k;ky; dks lafoèkku dklaj{kd rFkk vfHkHkkod (Custodian and Guardian of the Constitution) cuk fn;k x;k gSA ftlosQ pyrs

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vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; dks ,d ¶vVwV lkafoèkkfud lHkk¸ (Continuous constitutional convention)

dkaxzsl dk rhljk lnu (Third Chamber of the Congress) dgk tkus yxk gSA

ysfdu fLoV~tjySaM esa U;k;ky; dks U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh lkafoèkkfudrk dh tk¡p ugha fn;k x;k gSA mlsla?kh; fofèk;ksa dh lkafoèkkfudrk dh tk¡p djus dk vfèkdkj ugha gSA lafo/ku dh èkkjk 113 esa dgk x;kgS fd lHkh ekeyksa esa la?kh; U;k;ky; }kjk ikfjr fofèk;ksa dks vkSj lHkh loZekU; vkKkvksa dh rFkk la?kh;lHkk }kjk vuqlefFkZr lHkh fofèk;ksa dks ekU;rk nsus ij foo'k gksxkA¸

fLoV~tjySaM esa la?kh; Lrj ij osQoy ,d U;k;ky; gS] la?kh; U;k;ky; (Federal Tribunal)A vU; dksbZ fuEuU;k;ky; ugha gSA ysfdu vesfjdk esa la?kh; U;k;ky; dk Ja[kykc¼ (Hierachical) laxBu gS ftlosQ 'kh"kZ ijloksZPp U;k;ky; rFkk mlosQ uhps Øe'k% nkSjk U;k;ky; rFkk ftyk U;k;ky; gSA Hkkjr esa osQUæhdj.k dh çofÙkcgqr n<+ gSA ;gk¡ ns'k osQ lHkh U;k;ky; ,d Ja[kyk esa xw¡Fks gq, gSa ftlosQ 'kh"kZ ij loksZPp U;k;ky; gSA

fLol la?kh; U;k;ky; esa U;k;kèkh'kksa dh la[;k cgqr gSA blesa 26&28 U;k;kèkh'k rFkk 11&13 mi&U;k;kèkh'kgSa tcfd vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; esa osQoy 9 vkSj Hkkjr osQ loksZPp U;k;ky; esa 25 U;k;kèkh'k gSa ysfdulksfo;r loksZPp U;k;ky; esa ,d vè;{k ,d mikè;{k vusd U;k;kèkh'k (orZeku le; 68) lgk;dU;k;kèkh'k rFkk vusd tu fuèkkZfjr gSaA fLol la?k U;k;ky; 4 foHkkxksa esa (Division) rFkk lksfo;r loksZPpU;k;ky; 5 e.Myksa (Collegiunits) esa c¡Vs gq, gS ysfdu vesfjdk rFkk Hkkjr esa ,slh dksbZ O;oLFkk ugha gSSA

vesfjdk esa U;k;kèkh'k vlhfer dky ;k lnkpkj dky* (good behaviour) osQ fy, rFkk Hkkjr esa 65 o"kZdh mez rd osQ fy, fu;qDr fd;s tkrs gSaA lksfo;r :l esa U;k;kèkh'k 5 o"kZ osQ fy, fuokZfpr gksrs gSaA fLolla?kh; U;k;ky; osQ U;k;kèkh'k :l dh rjg 6 o"kZ osQ fy, fuokZfpr gksrs gS] ysfdu iquZfuokZpu dh O;oLFkkosQ dkj.k O;kogkjr% os vesfjdk dh rjg ^lnkpkj dky* rd inklhu jg ldrs gSaA

fLol] vejhdh rFkk Hkkjrh; U;k;ky;ksa esa bl fo"k; ij lkE;rk gS fd vius fu.kZ;ksa dks ykxw djus osQ fy,muosQ dksbZ çkfèkdkjh ugha gksrsA mUgsa la?k RkFkk jkT; ljdkjksa ij buosQ fy, fuHkZj jguk iM+rk gSA fLol la?kh;U;k;ky; blosQ fy, dSaVuksa rFkk la?kh; ifj"kn~ ij vkfJr gSA

vejhdh loksZPp U;k;ky; dk ,d çeq[k vfèkdkj U;k;f;d iqufoZyksdu dk vfèkdkj gSA Hkkjr esa loksZPpU;k;ky; dks vfèkdkj lfefr :i esa çkIr gSA ysfdu fLol la?kh; U;k;ky; dks lksfo;r loksZPp U;k;ky;dh rjg vfèkdkj çnku ugha fd;k x;kA


çoh.krk % n{krk] çHkko'khyrkA

lnkpkji;±r % vkthou lqfprkiw.kZ O;ogkj A

dk;Zijk;.krk % bZekunkjhiw.kZ dk;Z djukA

fuoZpu % dkuwu dh O;k[;k djukA


1- vesfjdh lqçhe dksVZ vkSj U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu dh O;k[;k dhft,A

2- fczVsu] Úkal vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa U;kf;d iqufoZyksdu fl¼kar dh foospuk dhft,A

3- fczVsu] Úkal vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M dh U;kf;d O;oLFkkvksa dk fo'ys"k.kkRed o.kZu dhft,A

4- vesfjdk (USA) vkSj fLoV~tjySaM dh la?kh; O;oLFkk dh O;k[;k dhft,A

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1- (1) ,d eq[; U;k;kèkh'k vkSj 8 (2) vkthou

(3) dkaxzsl (4) vDVwcj

(5) lafoèkku dk laj{kd ,oa vfHkHkkod

2- (1) d (2) [k (3) x (4) x (5) [k





4- rqyukRed jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk] fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjh

jksM] fnYyhA

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bdkbZ—10% nyh; O;oLFkk


bdkbZμ10% nyh; O;oLFkk (Party System)


mís'; (Objectives)


10.1 nyh; O;oLFkk dk vFkZ vkSj oxhZdj.k (Meaning and Classification of Party System)

10.2 nyh; O;oLFkk osQ izdkj ,oa dk;Z (Kinds and Function of Party System)

10.3 lkjka'k (Summary)

10.4 'kCndks'k (Keywords)

10.5 vH;kl&iz'u (Review Questions)

10.6 lanHkZ iqLrosaQ (Further Readings)

mís'; (Objectives)


nyh; O;oLFkk osQ vFkZ] izdkj ,oa dk;ks± dh O;k[;k djus esaA


jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd nyksa dh dk;Z iz.kkyh] mudh lajpukvksa vkSj bu lajpukvksa dks fuèkkZfjr djusokys dkjdksa ls fu:fir gksrh gSA bl vkèkkj ij ,d nyh; O;oLFkkvksa o nks ;k cgq&nyh; O;oLFkkvksa esadksbZ fo'ks"k vUrj ugha jg tkrk gSA xgjkbZ ls ns[kus ij fofHkUu izdkj dh nyh; O;oLFkkvksa esa nyksa osQ }kjkfd;s tkus okys dk;Z o jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vko';drkvksa dh iw£r esa mudh Hkwfedk eksVs rkSj ij lekurkj[krh gSA vr% ny iz.kkyh nks ;k nks ls vfèkd nyksa dk LorU=k o [kqys pqukoksa esa izfr;ksxh gksuk gS] lgh izrhrugha gksrh gSA ;g O;k[;k bl ckr ij vkèkkfjr gS fd nks ;k vfèkd nyksa osQ izfr;ksxh u gksus ij jktuhfrdizfØ;k osQ izdVhdj.k esa ekSfyd varj vk tkrk gSA bl dkj.k] vusd fo}ku ,d ny okyh O;oLFkk dks] nyh;O;oLFkk esa lfEefyr ugha djrs gSaA gsjh ,DlVhu us bUVjus'kuy bulkbDyksihfM;k vkWiQ nh lks'ky lkbalstiqLrd esa vius ,d ys[k îkVhZ flLVe* esa blh er dh iqf"V djrs gq, fy[kk gS] ¶ge ,d ny O;oLFkk dhvoèkkj.kk dks ysa rks lgh vFkks± esa ,slh dksbZ O;oLFkk ugha gks ldrhA vxj ny O;oLFkk dk vFkZ fuokZpuizfr;ksfxrk izfØ;k esa nyh; bdkb;ksa dh vUr%fØ;k gS rks ,d ny O;oLFkk dk fopkj csgwnk gS D;ksafd osQoy,d gh ny esa izfr;ksfxrk ;k vUr%fØ;k ugha gks ldrhA

ny iz.kkyh dk mijksDr vFkZ vfèkdka'k fo}kuksa osQ }kjk Lohdkj ugha fd;k x;k gSA muosQ vuqlkj ,d ny okyh'kklu&O;oLFkkvksa esa Hkh fuokZpu izfr;ksfxrk gksrh gSa Mqojtj osQ vuqlkj ukth teZuh] iQkflLV bVyh] lkyktkj osQle; esa iqrZxky rFkk 1923 ls 1950 rd VdhZ esa ,d ny osQ gksrs gq, Hkh fuokZpu izfr;ksfxrk dk vHkko ugha FkkAdksyeSu us Hkh ny O;oLFkk esa la[;k dk vkèkkj vLohdkj djrs gq, ukbthfj;k] ?kkuk] lksekfy;k] jksMsf'k;k vkSjukxkyS.M dks ,d ls vfèkd nyksa osQ izfr;ksxh gksus ij Hkh mUgsa ,dnyh; iz.kkyh esa lfEefyr fd;k gSA CysadLVhublh rjg esfDldks dks ,dnyh; O;oLFkk okyk jkT; ekurs gSaA vr% ny O;oLFkk u la[;kRed y{k.k ls ifjHkkf"krdh tk ldrh gS vkSj u gh bldk fuokZpu izfr;ksfxrk osQ lkFk lhèkk lEcUèk tksM+k tk ldrk gSA

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10-1 nyh; O;oLFkk dk vFkZ vkSj oxhZdj.k (Meaning and Classification ofParty System)

ny O;oLFkk dk vktdy O;kid vFkZ esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa nyksa dh la[;k] lajpuk] fopkjèkkjk] mudhikjLifjdrk bR;kfn vusd y{k.kksa dk vkèkkj fy;k tkus yxk gSA ny O;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k&vkèkkjksa osQ foospuls ny O;oLFkk dk vFkZ vkSj Hkh Li"V gks tkrk gSA

yk ikyksEckjk us nyh; O;oLFkk osQ izdkj dk fuèkkZj.k djrs le; jktuhfrd nyksa osQ fuEufyf[kr y{k.kksa dklanHkZ vko';d ekuk gSμ

(1) jktuhfrd ny dh fo'ks"krk,a o y{k.k]

(2) nyksa osQ ikjLifjd lEcUèk]

(3) ny ;k nyksa dk lekt osQ vU; o`Ùkksa (sectors) ls lEcUèk] vkSj

(4) nyksa dh fØ;kUo;rk dks izHkkfor djus okys rÙoA

nyh; O;oLFkkvksa dks bl vkèkkj ij oxhZÑr fd;k tk ldrk gSA yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ekblu ohuj us blh vkèkkjdks ysdj ny O;oLFkkvksa dh nks eksVh Jsf.k;ksa dk mYys[k fd;k gSA muosQ vuqlkj ny O;oLFkkvksa dh nksizdkjμizfr;ksxh ny O;oLFkk,a o vizfr;ksxh ny O;oLFkk,¡μ gh ekuk tk ldrk gSA

gsjh ,DlVhu us ny O;oLFkkvksa osQ rhu fu;ked izeq[k ekus gSaA mlosQ vuqlkj fdlh ny dks osQoy la[;k osQ vkèkkjij fdlh ny O;oLFkk esa j[kuk mi;qDr ugha gSA blh rjg og osQoy fuokZpu izfr;ksfxrk dks Hkh nyksa dks] nyO;oLFkkvksa esa oxhZÑr djus dk Bksl vkèkkj ugha ekurk gSA mlosQ vuqlkj nyksa dks nyh; O;oLFkkvksa esa oxhZÑrdjrs le; fuEufyf[kr ckrksa dk vkèkkj j[kuk vfèkd roZQlaxr gSμ

(1) lkekU; jktuhfrd O;oLFkk o mldh mi&lajpuk,a]

(2) lkekftd lajpuk o laLÑfr] vkSj

(3) Lo;a ny dk bfrgklA

,DlVhu dh ekU;rk gS fd ny O;oLFkkvksa dks] jktuhfr dh O;kid vkSj mlosQ vU; igyqvksa osQ izfr mudhvuqfØ;kRedrk osQ lUnHkZ esa gh le>k tk ldrk gSA blh rjg ny O;oLFkkvksa dks] lkekftd&lkaLÑfrd'kfDr;ksa osQ jktuhfrd la;qDrd osQ lkèku osQ :i esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA jktuhfrd ny dk vrhr Hkh mlosQny O;oLFkk fo'ks"k esa j[kus dk vkèkkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS yEcs vrhr okys jktuhfrd ny dh xfrfofèk;ka vrhrosQ lUnHkZ ls fu;fer jgrh gSaA ,sls ny dk dk;Z ekxZ cgqr oqQN fuf'pr jgus osQ dkj.k fn'kk funsZ'k dh {kerkizLrqr dj nsrk gS bl izdkj] ,DlVhu us ny O;oLFkkvksa dks vR;fèkd O;kid lanHkZ esa j[kdj gh oxhZÑr djusdk lq>ko fn;k gSA

lkjVksjh us Hkh O;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa osQoy la[;k gh osQ vkèkkj dks Hkzkafriw.kZ dgk gSA mlus nyksa osQ oxhZdj.kesa] buosQ oSpkfjd iQklys] oSpkfjd mxzrk rFkk lÙkk dky ;k muosQ lÙkk esa vkus dh lEHkkouk dks è;ku esa j[kusdh ckr dgh gSA mlosQ vuqlkj ny O;oLFkk osQ :i dk fuèkkZj.k djrs le; nyksa dh la[;k dk vkèkkj NksM+k ughatk ldrk gS] ijUrq osQoy la[;k dk gh vkèkkj ysuk xqejkg gksuk gSA vr% mlus ny O;oLFkkvksa dk oxhZdj.k djusosQ fy, f=keq[kh vkèkkj izfrikfnr fd;k gSA ;g f=keq[kh vkèkkj gSμ

(1) jktuhfrd nyksa dh la[;k]

(2) nyksa dh fopkjèkkjk dh izÑfr] vkSj

(3) nyksa esa fo[k.Mu dh ek=kk (fragmentation)

lkjVksjh ny iz.kkfy;ksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa la[;k osQ vkèkkj dks HkzkfUriw.kZ ekudj Hkh bl vkèkkj dks R;kxus ls budkj

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djrk gSA mldk dguk gS fd nyksa dh la[;k vius vki esa nyksa osQ y{k.k izdV djus okyh gSA vr% bls NksM+kugha tkuk pkfg,A mnkgj.k osQ fy,] fdlh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa nks nyksa dk gksuk gh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk]jktuhfrd nyksa dk fuokZpu iz.kkfy;ksa osQ ckjs esa cgqr oqQN rF; izLrqr dj nsrk gSA

lkjVksjh ny iz.kkfy;ksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa la[;k osQ vkèkkj dks HkzkfUriw.kZ ekudj Hkh bl

vkèkkj dks R;kxus ls budkj djrk gSA

CyksUMsy us Hkh nyh; iz.kkfy;ksa osQ oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa dh ppkZ dh gSA mlosQ vuqlkj Hkh osQoy la[;k dks ns[kdjfdlh ns'k dh ny iz.kkyh osQ Lo:i fuèkkZj.k dk iz;kl vèkwjk gSA og ny iz.kkyh osQ okLrfod :i] mldh izÑfr]mlosQ fodkl dh fLFkfr rFkk nyksa osQ izfrekfur lEcUèkksa dks oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkj ekurk gS] ijUrq mldh ekU;rkgS fd nyksa esa bruh fofoèkrk,a o fofp=krk,a gSa fd osQoy bUgha vkèkkjksa ij fd;k x;k oxhZdj.k fo'ks"k mi;ksxh ughajgrk gSA blfy, og bu vkèkkjksa osQ lkFk oqQN vU; y{k.kksa dks Hkh tksM+us dh ckr dgrk gSA mlosQ vuqlkjfuEufyf[kr rF; Hkh ny iz.kkyh osQ izdkj osQ fu;ked gksrs gSaμ

(1) jktuhfrd nyksa dh fØ;k&dyki dh n`f"V ls x.kuk vkSj ns'k dh jktuhfr esa mudh HkwfedkA

(2) jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ny dh 'kfDr] bl 'kfDr osQ eki esa ny dh lnL; la[;k] ernku izfr'kr vkSjO;oLFkkfidk esa mls izkIr LFkkuksa dh la[;k dks vkèkkj cuk;k tk ldrk gSA

(3) nyksa esa fopkjèkkjk lEcUèkh vUrjA

(4) nyksa osQ leFkZu dk vkèkkjA

(5) nyksa dk laxBuA

CyksUMsy us bu ikap rÙoksa osQ vkèkkj ij ny O;oLFkkvksa osQ ikap izdkj ekus gSaA ;g gSaμ,dnyh;] f}nyh;]<kbZ&nyh;] ,d ny&izèkku] cgqnyh;] rFkk cgqnyh; ;ksx ny iz.kkfy;kaA CyksUMsy dk ;g oxhZdj.k fo'ks"kifj'kq¼rk ;qDr ugha gSA blesa cekZ] phu rFkk eSfDldks ,dnyh; iz.kkyh osQ oxZ esa gh j[ks tk,axs tcfd bu rhuksagh jkT;ksa esa ny dh xfrfofèk;ka cgqr oqQN fHkUurk j[krh gSaA

ny iz.kkyh osQ vFkZ o ny&iz.kkfy;ksa esa oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa dk foospu djrs le; ;g ckr Li"V gks tkrh gSfd ny O;oLFkk dk loZlEer vFkZ ugha fd;k tk ldrk blh rjg ny O;oLFkk osQ oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa ij Hkhfo}kuksa esa i;kZIr erHksn fo|eku gSaA

,ysu cky dk oxhZdj.k (Alan Ball’s Classification)

,ysu cky osQ vuqlkj] ny i¼fr;kas osQ dbZ oxhZdj.k lEHko gSaA pkgs dksbZ Hkh oxhZdj.k ge iz;ksx esa yk,a] blesatkap djus dh ckr fliZQ bruh gS fd og oxhZdj.k gesa ,sls lkekU; fu"d"kks± ij igqapk, tks lgh o lwpukizngksaA mlosQ vuqlkj ny O;oLFkkvksa dh cgqr cM+h la[;k gksus osQ dkj.k oxhZdj.k dh dksbZ Hkh ;kstuk fcYoqQy lghugha gksxhA oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa dh vusdrk osQ dkj.k Hkh ny O;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa ;g isphnfx;ka mRiUugksrh gSaA nyksa dk lapkyu ny i¼fr;ksa osQ vUrxZr gksrk gS vkSj i¼fr dk izdkj ny osQ vkpj.k ij xgjk izHkkoMkyrk gSA tSls lqLi"V fopkjèkkjk okys osQUnzhÑr] vuq'kkflr jktuhfrd ny dk f}nyh; i¼fr ;k cgqnyh; i¼frosQ vUrxZr vyx&vyx vkpj.k gksrk gSA vr% ny O;oLFkkvksa dk oxhZdj.k osQoy izfr;ksxh nyksa dh la[;k osQvkèkkj ij djus esa Hkh dkiQh lkoèkkfu;ka j[kuk vko';d gSA cM+s nyksa dh la[;k leku gksrs gq, Hkh ny O;oLFkkvkasosQ chp egÙoiw.kZ vUrj gksrs gSaA bl rjg] ;fn ge f}nyh;] cgqnyh; rFkk ,dnyh; O;oLFkkvksa osQ chp vUrjdjsa rks fczfV'k vkSj vejhdh ny i¼fr;ka ,d izoxZ esa vk,axh vkSj cgqnyh; i¼fr;ka gksus osQ dkj.k bVyh o LohMu

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esa ny i¼fr;ksa dks ,d lkFk oxhZÑr djus dh xyrh dh tk,xh rFkk :l] ratkfu;k o cekZ dh ,dnyh; iz.kkfy;ksadks ,d gh [kkus esa j[k fn;k tk,xkA :l] ratkfu;k o cekZ dh i¼fr;ksa dks ,d izdkj dh ekuuk ,dnyh; i¼frosQ lkekU; y{k.kksa osQ fo"k; esa lgh Kku dk ifjp; nsuk ugha gksxkA vr% ny O;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa lkoèkkfu;kao lroZQrk,a j[kdj gh mi;ksxh oxhZdj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa dks O;kid o lqfuf'pr cukdjgh oxhZdj.k djuk gksxkA ,ysu cky us nyksa dh la[;k] mudh lajpuk rFkk mudh rkdr osQ lqfuf'pr vkèkkj ysdjfuEufyf[kr ny O;oLFkk,a crkbZ gSaμ(1) vLi"V f}nyh; i¼fr;ka (indistinct party systems), (2) lqLi"Vf}nyh; i¼fr;ka (distinct two party systems), (3) dk;Zokgh cgqnyh; i¼fr;ka (working multi-party

systems), (4) vfLFkj cgqnyh; i¼fr;ka (unstable multi-party systems), (5) izHkkoh ny i¼fr;ka(dominant party systems), (6) ,dnyh; i¼fr;ka (one party systems), (7) lokZfèkdkjh ,dnyh;i¼fr;ka (totalitarian one party systems)A

(1) vLi"V f}nyh; i¼fr;ksa esa nyh; fopkjèkkjkksa ij de cy fn;k tkrk gS] vfèkØfed lajpuk dk vHkkovkSj erksa dks thrus osQ dk;ks± ij è;ku osaQfnzr fd;k tkrk gSA bl i¼fr esa ny osaQnzhÑr gksrs gSa vkSj oqQNJs"Btuksa dks vkxs c<+kus osQ LFkku ij O;fDrxr xq.kksa ij vkèkkfjr [;kfr ij vfèkd fuHkZj jgrs gSaA la;qDrjkT; vejhdk rFkk vk;jyS.M dh nyh; i¼fr;ksa dks vLi"V f}nyh; i¼fr;ka dgk tk ldrk gSA

(2) lqLi"V f}nyh; i¼fr;ksa esa ny vfèkd osaQnzhÑr gksrs gSaA if'pe teZuh vkSj vkLVªsfy;k dh la?kh;i¼fr;ksa osQ vUrxZr Hkh ;gh fLFkfr gSA os ny] fof'k"V èkk£ed tfVyrkvksa dks ysdj oxks± ij vkèkkfjrgksus dh izo`fÙk j[krs gSaA bl i¼fr osQ vUrxZr pqukoh yM+kbZ esa fopkjèkkjk dh VDdj jktuhfr dks oqQNvfèkd ljl cuk nsrh gSA bu i¼fr;kas esa lalnh; Lrj ij vYier nyksa dk vfLrRo vo'; jgrk gS]fdUrq bu NksVs nyksa osQ leFkZu lfgr ;k fcuk buosQ leFkZu osQ] nks cM+s nyksa esa ls ,d viuh fLFkjljdkj cukus esa leFkZ gksrk gSA vke rkSj ij lqLi"V f}nyh; i¼fr;ksa esa ljdkj vxys fofoèk pqukord ;k izèkkuea=kh osQ foèkku e.My dks Hkax djus osQ i{k esa gksus rd cuh jgrh gSA bl izdkj if'peteZuh esa izQh MseksozsQV~l] vkLVªsfy;k esa oaQVªh ikVhZ rFkk fczVsu esa fycjy ikVhZ tSlh rhljh ik£V;ksa osQ gksrsgq, Hkh bu ns'kksa dh f}nyh; i¼fr;ksa osQ vko';d y{k.kksa esa xM+cM+h iSnk ugha gks ldh gSA vr% fczVsu]if'pe teZuh o vkLVªsfy;k lqLi"V f}nyh; O;oLFkkvksa osQ mnkgj.k dgs tk ldrs gSaA

(3) dk;Zokgd cgqnyh; i¼fr;ka os ny i¼fr;ka gSa tks nks ls vfèkd ny okyh gksrs gq, Hkh Li"V f}nyh;i¼fr;ksa osQ leku vkpj.k djrh gSaμ[kkl rkSj ls ljdkjksa dh fLFkjrk osQ lEcUèk esaA bl izdkj LohMurFkk ukosZ esa lks'ky MSeksozsQfVd ik£V;ka gSa ftudk fojksèk mnkjoknh] Ñ"kd] vuqnkjoknh] fØf'p;u ik£V;katSlh dbZ ik£V;ka djrh gSa ij cqfu;knh fLFkfr ;g jgrh gS fd ;k rks lks'ky MseksoszQVksa dh ljdkjsa curhgSa] ftls laln esa dke pykus osQ fy, cgqer izkIr gks tkrk gS vFkok ukosZ dh rjg osQUnz esa ik£V;ksadh fLFkj lfEefyr ljdkj cu tkrh gSA vr% LohMu o ukosZ esa dk;Zokgh cgqnyh; i¼fr;ka dgh tkldrh gSA

(4) vfLFkj cgqnyh; i¼fr;ksa esa ljdkj dh fLFkjrk dk vHkko gksrk gSA ,slh i¼fr;ksa okys jkT;ksa esa ljdkjsavfèkdrj osQUnz dh ik£V;ksa osQ lkFk lk>snkjh ls curh gSa] ftudk fojksèk nf{k.k vkSj oke dh ik£V;ka djrhgSaA bl izdkj dh ny i¼fr dk loksZÙke mnkgj.k bVyh esa feyrk gSA bVyh dh laln esa de ls de vkBik£V;ksa dk izfrfufèkRo jgrk gS vkSj f}rh; fo'o;q¼ osQ ckn vkt rd (1977) dksbZ Hkh ikVhZ cgqer esa ughavk ldh gSA fØf'p;u MseksozsQV ny lcls cM+k ny gSA vr% ;gh ljdkj cukus okyh ikVhZ jg xbZ gS] ftlus^nkb±* ;k ckb±* rjiQ dks >qdh gqbZ NksVh ik£V;ksa osQ lkFk lk>snkjh ls bVyh dk 'kklu pyk;k gSA ,slh nyh;i¼fr;ksa okys jkT;ksa esa ljdkjksa dk iru tYnh&tYnh gksrk jgrk gS ysfdu ,d ljdkj osQ iru osQ cknvfèkdrj FkksM+s le; esa gh nwljh ljdkj cu tkrh gSA ;g nwljh ljdkj yxHkx ml iwoZorhZ ljdkj] ftlosQiru us blosQ xBu dh ifjfLFkfr iSnk dh Fkh] dh rjg gh gksrh gSA

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(5) izHkkoh ny i¼fr;ka os i¼fr;ka gSa] ftuosQ vUrxZr ny izfr;ksfxrk pyus nh tkrh gS ftlls ,d nydk mn; gksrk gS tks nwljs lc nyksa ij Nk tkrk gSA Hkkjr izHkkoh ny i¼fr dk vPNk mnkjgj.k gSμvktknhosQ ckn ls 1977 rd jk"Vªh; Lrj ij Hkkjrh; jk"Vªh; dkaxzsl gh ,dek=k 'kkld ny gSA cgqr ls nwljs nyHkh ekStwn gSa vkSj mUgsa izHkkoh ny ls [kqyh izfr;ksfxrk dh NwV nh xbZ gSA ;gka rd fd oqQN ,d NksVs nyksaus dbZ Hkkjrh; jkT;ksa osQ 'kklu ij tc&rc fu;a=k.k Hkh fd;k gSA esfDldks esa Hkh ,slh gh i¼fr gSA ;gkaîk£rnks fjoksY;wf'kusfjvks baLVhV~;wf'kuy* (PRI) us 1917 ls dksbZ Hkh jk"Vªirh; pquko ugha gkjk gSA ysfdu;g vius egÙoghu izfr}anh] ik£rnks ,fl;ks us'kuy (PAN) dks pqukoksa esa gj Lrj ij VDdj nsus nsrk gSAHkkjr vkSj esfDldks dh rqyuk ny i¼fr;ksa dh oqQN dfBukb;ksa dh vksj laosQr djrh gSA bu nksuksa ns'kksaesa izHkkoh ny vkSj pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk gS fiQj Hkh izfr;ksxh nyksa ij dkaxzsl dk fu;a=k.k ih- ,- ,u- ij ih-vkj- vkbZ- osQ fu;a=k.k ls de gSA

(6) ,dnyh; i¼fr;ksa dh lgh ifjHkk"kk djuk nq"dj gSA bl Js.kh esa feÏ ls ysdj ratkfu;k rd j[ks tkldrs gSaA feÏ esa lektoknh la?k dk fuekZ.k Økafrdkjh fof'k"V oxZ us ljdkj dks O;kid tu leFkZu fnykusosQ fy, fd;k FkkA ratkfu;k esa ,d gh ny] ratkfu;k vÚhdh jk"Vªh; la?k osQ vUnj xqVksa esa [khaprku vkSjpqukoh izfr;ksfxrk osQ fy, btktr jgrh gSA dhfu;k ,dnyh; i¼fr dk mnkgj.k ekuk tk ldrk gSA 'ks[keqthc osQ le; esa caxyk ns'k rFkk orZeku esa cekZ Hkh ,dnyh; i¼fr;ksa osQ izoxZ esa gh j[ks tkrs gSaA bui¼fr;ksa esa pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk dk iw.kZr;k vHkko ugha gksrk gSA ny esa gh xqV] pqukoh [khaprku djus dhoqQN&oqQN NwV j[krs gSaA

(7) lokZfèkdkjh ny i¼fr;ksa dks ,dnyh; i¼fr;ksa ls dbZ ckrksa esa fHkUu ikrs gSaA bu i¼fr;ksa esa lkekftd]vk£Fkd o jktuhfrd lfØ;rk osQ lc igyqvksa ij ny dk vR;fèkd fu;a=k.k jgrk gSA buesa izHkkohfopkjèkkjk ij cy fn;k tkrk gS rFkk osQoy 'kkld ny osQ gkFkksa esa gh jktuhfrd vfHktuksa dh HkrhZ gksrhgSA :l] phu] iwohZ teZuh o vU; lkE;oknh ns'kksa esa lokZfèkdkjh ,dnyh; iz.kkfy;ka ikbZ tkrh gSaA

,ysu cky osQ }kjk fd;k x;k oxhZdj.k O;kid vkSj xR;kRed gksrs gq, Hkh lhfer mi;ksfxrk j[krk gSA ;g oxhZdj.kdh cgqr ckjhd ;kstuk gksrs gq, Hkh lkekU; fu"d"kks± ij igqapkus esa lgk;d ugha gSA blls ny i¼fr;ksa osQ vUrxZrgksus okys tfVy ifjorZuksa dh i`"BHkwfe dk laosQr Hkh ugha feyrk gSA ;g ckr lgh gS fd ny i¼fr;ksa osQ vUrxZrgksus okys ifjorZuksa dk fuèkkZj.k tfVy gksrk gS rFkk bu ifjorZuksa dks vyx&vyx djosQ le>kuk dfBu gS fiQjHkh oxhZdj.k dh ;kstukvksa esa ny i¼fr;ksa dh xR;kRed rkdrksa dh vuns[kh ugha dh tk ldrhA vr% nyO;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k dh cgqr ckjhd ;kstukvksa osQ eqdkcys esa eksVh ;k lkekU; ;kstuk,a bl dkj.k Js"Brj gkstkrh gSa D;ksafd] muesa ny dh lajpukvksa osQ xR;kRed igyqvksa dk lekos'k lEHko gksrk gSA bl izdkj osQ oxhZdj.kdh ;kstuk yk ikyksEckjk vkSj ekbuj ohuj osQ }kjk izLrqr dh xbZ gSA

,ysu cky osQ }kjk fd;k x;k oxhZdj.k O;kid vkSj xR;kRed gksrs gq, Hkh lhfer mi;ksfxrk j[krkgSA

yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ohul dk oxhZdj.k (La Palombara and Myron Weiner’s Classification): nyO;oLFkkvksa dk oxhZdj.k dbZ vU; vkèkkjksa ij Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ekbjy ohuj usny iz.kkfy;ksa dks pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk osQ vkèkkj ij oxhZÑr fd;k gSA bUgksaus mu jktuhfrd nyksa dks tks pqukohizfr;ksfxrk esa LorU=krkiwoZd lfEefyr jgrs gSa] izfr;ksfxrkRed ny i¼fr dh Js.kh esa rFkk mu nyksa ;k nydks ftuesa ,slh izfr;ksfxrk dk vHkko gksrk gS] vizfr;ksfxrkRed ny i¼fr dh Js.kh esa j[kk gSA bu nksuksa izdkjdh ny i¼fr;ksa dk i`Fkd&i`Fkd o.kZu bl izdkj gSμ

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(d) izfr;ksxh ny iz.kkfy;ka (The competitive party systems)μizfr;ksxh ny iz.kkyh dh O;k[;k djrsgq, ikyksEckjk rFkk ohuj us fy[kk gS fd ¶izfr;ksxh ny iz.kkyh esa lÙkk:<+ ny ;k nyksa dk feyk&tqyk xBcUèkuvius vkidks ljdkj osQ fu;a=kd osQ :i esa j[kus osQ fy, izfr;ksxh okrkoj.k esa la?k"kZ'khy jgrk gSA ,sls okrkoj.kosQ fy, ;g vko';d gS fd tks lÙkk ls ckgj gS os fcuk glk dk lgkjk fy, lÙkk osQ vUnj lS¼kfUrd o fofèkd:i ls vk losaQA Hkkjr] eysf'k;k] Jhyadk] vejhdk] dukMk] vkLVªsfy;k o if'peh ;wjksi osQ jkT;ksa esa ,slh ghny iz.kkyh ikbZ tkrh gSA izfr;ksxh ny iz.kkyh esa lHkh f}nyh; o cgqnyh; i¼fr;ka lfEefyr gksrh gSa fdUrq ckjhdhls ns[kus ij fczVsu o vejhdk dh f}nyh; i¼fr esa Hkh vUrj fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA vr% izfr;ksxh ny iz.kkyh esa Hkh vusdizdkj osQ ny i¼fr izfreku igpkus tk ldrs gSaA

yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ohuj us izfr;ksxh ny i¼fr dk] nyksa dh vkarfjd fo'ks"krkvksa rFkk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ljdkjij fu;a=k.k cuk, j[kus dh fofèk osQ vkèkkj ij mi&i¼fr;ksa esa oxhZdj.k fd;k gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrdnyksa osQ }kjk lÙkk dh vny&cny fdl lhek rd gksrh gS bl vkèkkj ij ny i¼fr;ka nks izdkj dh ekuh xbZ gSaAbUgksaus ;g nks i¼fr;kaμmyVuh; ny i¼fr;ka (turnover party systems) o vkfèkiR;;h ny i¼fr;ka(hegemonic party systems) ekSfyd vUrjksa okyh crkbZ gSa] fdUrq ;g nksuksa izdkj dh i¼fr;ka] nks&nks :i j[kldrh gSaA nyksa dh vkUrfjd fo'ks"krkvksa osQ vkèkkj ij buesa ls gj ,d i¼fr esa ;k rks fopkjèkkjk dk izkèkkU;gks ldrk gS ;k iQyewydrk dk tksj gks ldrk gSA vr% bu nksuksa vkèkkjksa ij jktuhfrd nyksa dh izfr;ksxh nyi¼fr;ksa dks pkj izdkj dh mi&Jsf.k;ksa esa oxhZÑr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g pkj izdkj dh mi&Jsf.k;ka bl izdkjgSaμ

(1) vkfèkiR;;h&oSpkfjd ny i¼fr;ka

(2) vkfèkiR;;h&iQyewyd ny i¼fr;ka

(3) myVuh;&oSpkfjd ny i¼fr;ka

(4) myVuh;&iQyewyd ny i¼fr;ka

vkfèkiR;;h&oSpkfjd ny i¼fr;kaμftl ny i¼fr esa osQUnzh; izo`fÙk fopkjèkkjk dh gS rFkk lÙkk:<+ ny ;knyksa dk feyk&tqyk lewg yEch vofèk rd ljdkj ij fu;a=k.k j[krk gS] ,slh ny i¼fr dks vkfèkiR;;h&oSpkfjdny i¼fr dgk tkrk gSA ,slh i¼fr esa lÙkk:<+ ny ;k nyksa dk xBcUèku ckj&ckj pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk osQ }kjklÙkk esa vius vkidks cuk, j[kus dh voLFkk esa jgrk gSA vejhdk esa U;w Mhy (New deal) vkSj isQ;j Mhy(Fair deal) osQ le; ,slh gh ny i¼fr jgh FkhA fo'o;q¼ osQ ckn tkiku dh jktuhfr esa fycjy ny dk Nk;kjguk vHkh rd ukosZ esa MseksozsQfVd lks'kfyLV ny dk ljdkj ij fu;a=k.k rFkk LorU=krk osQ ckn Hkkjr esa dkaxzslny dk 30 o"kZ rd yxkrkj lÙkk esa cuk jguk] bu ns'kksa dh ny i¼fr;ksa dks vkfèkiR;;h&oSpkfjd ny i¼frdh Js.kh esa yk nsrk gSA

vkfèkiR;;h iQyewyd ny i¼fr;kaμbuesa osQUnzh; izo`fÙk rF;kRedrk dh vksj >qdh jgrh gSA buesa jktuhfrdny yEch vofèk rd lÙkk esa cus jgrs gSa rFkk jktuhfrd ny fodkl osQ ekxZ ij eaFkj xfr ls pyrs gSa] D;ksafd,slh i¼fr;ksa esa nyksa dks rsth ls vkxs c<+kus okyh 'kfDr osQ :i esa fopkjèkkjk dh izsj.kk dk vHkko jgrk gSAvejhdk esa 1896 ls 1932 rd fjifCydu ny ,slh gh i¼fr cu x;k FkkA

myVuh;&oSpkfjd ny i¼fr;kaμbuesa nyksa dh osQUnzh; izo`fÙk fopkjèkkjk dh jgrh gS fdUrq lÙkk esa nyksa dhtYnh&tYnh vnyk&cnyh gksrh jgrh gSA bl izdkj dh i¼fr;ksa esa lekt nks ;k vusd fopkjèkkjk vk;keksa esacjkcj&cjkcj foHkDr jgrk gS ftlls dksbZ Hkh ny viuh fopkjèkkjk osQ vuqlkj cukbZ xbZ uhfr;ksa dks 'kklu&rU=kosQ ekè;e ls fØ;kfUor djuk vlEHko ikrk gS] rFkk ,d osQ ckn nwljk ny lÙkk esa vkus ij mlosQ iwoZorhZ ny}kjk ykxw dh xbZ oSpkfjd uhfr;ksa dks myVus dk iz;kl djrk gSA ,slh ny i¼fr;ksa esa lÙkk:<+ ny ;k nyksadh gsjk&isQjh ekSfyd mFky&iqFky o [kycyh mRiUu dj nsrh gSA ,sls oSpkfjd ny tks lkekftd] vk£Fkd o

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jktuhfrd ifjorZu ls izfrc¼ gksa] ifjorZu osQ LFkku ij vkfèkiR;;h voLFkk pkgsaxs ijUrq ifjfLFkfr;ka ,slk djusesa cM+h ckèkk cudj [kM+h gks tkrh gSaA Úkal dh ny O;oLFkk blh izdkj dh gSA

myVuh;&iQyewyd i¼fr;kaμbuesa jktuhfrd ny ckj&ckj lÙkk esa vkus&tkus dh osQUnzh; izofÙk osQ dkj.k] lÙkkesa vkrs gh rsth ls vkxs c<+us dk dk;ZØe viukrs gSaA ,slh i¼fr okys jktuhfrd nyksa esa oSpkfjd erHksn vkèkkjHkwrugha gksrs gSaaA lkekU; ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa vejhdk o fczVsu osQ jktuhfrd ny bl izdkj dh Js.kh esa j[ks tk ldrs gSaA

izfr;ksxh ny i¼fr dh bu mi&Jsf.k;ksa ls Li"V gksrk gS fd jktuhfrd ny dh oSpkfjd] iQyewyd ;k vkfèkiR;;hvkSj myVuh; izÑfr gesa nyksa dh vk£Fkd] lkekftd o jktuhfrd fodkl esa Hkwfedk le>kus esa lgk;d gksrhgSA vr% izfr;ksxh i¼fr;ksa osQ mijksDr mi&foHkktu nyksa dh lajpuk] nyksa dh dk;Zfofèk o nyksa osQ jktuhfrdO;oLFkk osQ lEcUèkksa osQ ckjs esa O;kid tkudkjh nsus okys dgs tk ldrs gSaA

([k) vizfr;ksxh ny&iz.kkfy;ka (The non-competitive party systems)μ,dnyh; i¼fr;ksa esa lkekU;r%pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk dk vHkko jgrk gSA ,d ny izfreku ifjHkk"kk ls gh vkfèkiR;;h izdkj dk gksrk gS] fdUrq ;glEHko gS fd ekStwnk ,d ny ifjfLFkfr vUrr% izfr;ksxh cu tk,A yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ohuj osQ vuqlkj ^jk"Vªh;,dhdj.k dh LFkkiuk] vis{kkÑr vkèkqfud vFkZO;oLFkk dk fodkl rFkk vU; egÙoiw.kZ leL;kvkas o ekaxksa osQiw.kZ gksus ij jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k dh LokHkkfod 'kfDr;ka dbZ ckj ,d ny ifjfLFkfr esa izfr;ksxh nyksa dhvoLFkk izfrLFkkfir dj nsrh gS] fdUrq ,d ny i¼fr;ksa dh lajpuk] dk;Zfofèk rFkk usr`Ro bruk dBksj gksrk gSfd vU; ny dh mRifÙk ugha gks ikrh gSA vr% vizfr;ksxh ny iz.kkfy;ksa esa ,d ny ls vfèkd nyksa dk gksuk ghfojksèkkHkkl gSA oSls ,d ny gksrs gq, Hkh bu i¼fr;ksa esa i;kZIr vUrj ik, tkrs gSaA yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ohuj usvizfr;ksxh ny iz.kkfy;ksa esa rhu mi&Jsf.k;ka djosQ budks rhu izdkj gh ekuk gSA ;g rhu izdkj fuEufyf[kr gSaμ

(1) ,d ny fujaoqQ'krk i¼fr

(2) ,d ny cgqyoknh i¼fr

(3) ,d ny lokZfèkdkjh i¼fr

,d ny fujaoqQ'krk i¼fr esa] ,d v[kf.Mr ;k ,dk'; (monolithic) fopkjèkkjk vkeq[kh o vlokZfèkdkjoknhny lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ij vkPNkfnr jgrk gSA bl izdkj dh ny i¼fr esa fojksèkh lnL;ksa dks Økafrdkjh;k jk"Vªoknh fufeÙkksa osQ izfr ns'knzksgh rFkk lqj{kk o ,drk osQ fy, [krjk dgdj nck fn;k tkrk gSA bl izdkjdh i¼fr;ksa esa jk"Vª osQ xUrO; o vkdka{kk,a ,d gh ny ls rknkRe; j[krh gSaA lkekU;r;k ,slh ny i¼fr esany o jk"Vª dk ,d gh peRdkfjd O;fDr }kjk fu;a=k.k o funsZ'ku gksrk gSA izSaQdks (Franco) osQ le; Lisu],dozwQek osQ le; ?kkuk] nkbe (Diem) osQ le; nf{k.k fo;ruke rFkk orZeku le; esa D;wck] cekZ vkSj ekyhtSls ns'kksa esa ,d ny fujaoqQ'krk i¼fr ikbZ tkrh gSA

,d ny cgqyoknh i¼fr okys ns'k vèkZ&fujaoqQ'k gksrs gSaA buesa ,d ,slk ny gksrk gS tks laxBu esa cgqyoknhn`f"Vdks.k esa dBksj oSpkfjd osQ LFkku ij rF;kRed o vU; lewgksa dks fu"Bqjrk ls [kRe djus osQ ctk; viusesa vkRelkr djus okyk gksrk gSA ,d ny fujaoqQ'krk i¼fr ls ;g ny i¼fr bl ckr esa fHkUurk j[krh gS fdblesa oSpkfjd n`f"Vdks.k osQ ctk; rF;kRed n`f"Vdks.k dk vuqikyu gksrk gSA eSfDldks] lsusxy] vkbojh dksLVo osQesyu esa ,slh gh ny i¼fr;ka fo|eku gSaA

,d ny lokZfèkdkj i¼fr esa jkT; ,dk'e ny osQ gkFk esa ;U=k ek=k gksrk gSA bl izdkj dh i¼fr esa ny,dkfèkdkjh gh ugha gksrk gS oju lekt dh vk£Fkd O;oLFkk o lkekftd O;oLFkk osQ iquxZBu osQ fy, ije lÙkkdk mi;ksx Hkh djrk gSA blosQ }kjk gh ,d oSpkfjd xUrO; dh O;k[;k gksrh gSA phu] :l] mÙkjh dksfj;k o iwohZ;wjksi osQ lkE;oknh jkT;ksa esa ,d ny lokZfèkdkj i¼fr;ka gSaA

yk ikyksEckjk o ohuj us ny i¼fr;ksa dk oxhZdj.k djrs le; nks nf"Vdks.k viukdj] ny i¼fr;ksa osQ oxhZdj.kdks xR;kRed cuk;k gSA mUgksaus jktuhfrd nyksa dks lkekftd] vk£Fkd o jktuhfrd ifjorZuksa dh izfØ;k osQ

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izfriQy osQ :i esa ns[kus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA blh rjg mUgksaus jktuhfrd nyksa dks jktuhfrd fodkl djus okyhLorU=k laLFkkxr rkdr osQ :i esa j[krs gq, oxhZÑr fd;k gSA bl dkj.k budk oxhZdj.k ;FkkFkZoknh] xR;kRedrk;qDr o O;kidÙke gS] fdUrq bl oxhZdj.k esa bruk vfèkd yphykiu gS fd ,d gh ny vyx&vyx ifjfLFkfr;ksaesa vyx&vyx izdkj dh ny iz.kkyh esa oxhZÑr fd;k tk ldrk gSA oSls oqQN fo}kuksa dk dguk gS fd yk ikyksEckjkrFkk ohuj dk oxhZdj.k blh fo'ks"krk osQ dkj.k loZJs"B cu tkrk gSA ;g oxhZdj.k vizfr;ksxh ny i¼fr;ksa osQrhu izdkj cukdj ,d ny i¼fr;ksa esa O;kIr vUrjksa dk vPNk Li"Vhdj.k Hkh dj nsrk gSA vr% ny i¼fr;ksadk ;g oxhZdj.k larks"ktud ekuk tk ldrk gSA

ny i¼fr;ksa osQ oxhZdj.kksa osQ mijksDr foospu ls ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd ny i¼fr;ksa dh la[;k [kklh cM+h gksusosQ dkj.k oxhZdj.k dh dksbZ Hkh ;kstuk fcyoqQy lgh ugha gks ldrh gSA oSls Hkh ny i¼fr;ksa osQ dbZ oxhZdj.klEHko gSaa pkgs dksbZ Hkh oxhZdj.k ge iz;ksx esa yk,a blesa tkap djus dh ckr fliZQ bruh gS fd ;g oxhZdj.kgesa ,sls lkekU; fu"d"kks± rd igqapkrk gS ;k ugha tks lgh vkSj lwpukizn gksaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd oxhZdj.k ;kstukvksaesa vktdy osQoy nyksa dh la[;k dk gh vkèkkj ugha fy;k tkrk gSA

10-2 nyh; O;oLFkk osQ izdkj ,oa dk;Z (Kinds and Functions of Party System)

ny i¼fr;ksa dks eq[;r% rhu oxks± esa j[kk tkrk gSμ

1- ,dnyh; i¼fr (Single party System)

2- f}&nyh; i¼fr (Bi-party or two party System)

3- cgqnyh; i¼fr (Multi-party System)

1- ,dnyh; i¼fr (Single party System)μ,dnyh; i¼fr og O;oLFkk gS ftlesa osQoy ,d ghjktuhfrd ny dk vfLrRo jgrk gSA vfuok;Z :i ls ljdkj ij mlh ny dk vfLrRo jgrk gSAvfèkdkjoknh rFkk lkE;oknh_ tSls ukbthfj;k] teZuh] iQkflLV bVyh] Lisu] lksfo;r :l] lkE;oknh phuvkfn esa ,slh O;oLFkk ik;h tkrh gSA bl i¼fr osQ leFkZdksa dk dguk gS fd ;g lPps vFkZ esa turkaf=kdgSA tura=k lEiw.kZ turk dk 'kklu gS] fofHkUu oxks± dk ughaA lkjh turk bldk izfrfufèkRo dj ldrhgS] vusdny ugha] iztkrU=k esa vusd nyksa dk vfLrRo rks ,d fojksèkkHkkl gSA ,dnyh; O;oLFkk ls turkesa foHkktu rFkk xqVcanh dk Mj Hkh [kRe gks tkrk gSA jk"Vªh; ,drk cuh jgrh gSA bl O;oLFkk esa fojksèkhny dk vHkko jgrk gSA vr% fojksèk osQ vHkko esa ny n`<+rkiwoZd 'kklu&lapkyu djrk gS rFkk lqfuf'prfn'kk esa uhfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k djrk gSA ysfdu bl i¼fr esa vusd =kqfV;k¡ Hkh ik;h tkrh gSA ;g i¼frviztkrkaf=kd gSA iztkra=k dk vkèkkj okn&fookn rFkk fopkjèkkjkvksa dk Vdjko gSA ysfdu ,dnyh; O;oLFkkesa fopkj dk cgqeq[kh fodkl ugha gks ldrkA vr% O;fDr dh Lora=krk lekIr gks tkrh gSA mlosQlkspus&fopkjus dh Lora=krk tkrh jgrh gSA blosQ vykok ,d ny dk 'kklu LFkkfir gks tkrk gSA iQyr%vfèkuk;dra=k dh LFkkiuk gks tkrh gS ftuesa O;fDr osQ vfèkdkjksa dk vigj.k gksus yxrk gSA ljdkj dh,dkadh uhfr turk ij yknh tkrh gSA jk"Vªh; fgr vkfn vksV esa iM+ tkrk gS rFkk nyh; fgr dh izèkkurkgks tkrh gSA la{ksi eas] tura=k dk fouk'k gks tkrk gS vkSj ns'k dh mUufr vo#¼ gks tkrh gSA

2- f}&nyh; i¼fr (Bi-party or two party System)μf}&nyh; i¼fr esa osQoy nks nyksa dh izèkkurkjgrh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr vU; NksVs ny Hkh jgrs gSa] ysfdu ns'k dh jktuhfr esa mldk dksbZ egÙoiw.kZLFkku ugha jgrkA nks izeq[k nyksa esa cgqer ny lÙkk:<+ jgrk gS vkSj vYier fojksèkh ny dk dke djrkgSA bl i¼fr dk loksZÙke mnkgj.k fczVsu rFkk la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk gSA ;g iz.kkyh iztkrkaf=kd gSA iztkra=kesa cgqer ny dk 'kklu jgrk gSA turk dk izfrfufèkRo cgqer ny djrk gSA blh iz.kkyh esa mÙkjnk;h'kklu dh LFkkiuk gksrh gSA fojksèkh ny osQ gksus ls lÙkk:<+ ny fujaoqQ'k vkSj LosPNkpkjh ugha gks ikrkA

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ljdkj dks viuh =kqfV;ksa dks tkuus dk volj feyrk gSA eaf=keaMy dh LFkkiuk cM+h ljyrk ls gks tkrhgSA lkFk gh] mudh fLFkfr Hkh n`<+ jgrh gSA ,d ny }kjk fuekZ.k dk og n`<+ rFkk fuf'pr uhfr;ksa dkvuqlj.k djrk gSA blls turk dk jktuhfrd izf'k{k.k Hkh gksrk gS D;ksafd fojksèkh ny gj leL;k osQfofHkUu igyqvksa dks turk osQ le{k j[krs gSaA bl i¼fr dk lcls cM+k nks"k ;g gS fd 'kklu ij cgqerny dk ,dkfèkdkj gks tkrk gS] eaf=keaMy dh rkuk'kkgh dh LFkkiuk gks tkrh gSA laln dh fLFkfr detksjiM+ tkrh gSA eaf=keaMy gk¡ esa gk¡ feykusokyk ,d lHkk ek=k jg tkrk gS fuokZpdksa dks ernku dh Lora=krkugha jg tkrh] D;ksafd ckè; gksdj mUgsa nks esa ls fdlh ,d ny dks er nsuk gh iM+rk gSA muosQ le{kdksbZ nwljh bPNk ugha jg tkrhA

3- cgqnyh; i¼fr (Multi-Party System)μcgqnyh; i¼fr mls dgrs gSa tgk¡ vusd jktuhfrd ny gksrsgSa vkSj ,d ls vfèkd ny izHkko'kkyh jgrs gSaA fdlh ,d ;k nks nyksa dh izèkkurk ugha jgrh cfYdlHkh ny led{k gksrs gSaA fdlh ,d ny dks foèkkueaMy esa bruk izfrfufèkRo izkIr ugha gksrk fd ogljdkj cuk losQA dbZ ny feytqydj ljdkj dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA la;qDr eaf=keaMy (CoalitionMinistry) cuk;k tkrk gSA cgqnyh; i¼fr ;wjksi osQ egkns'kh; ns'kksa] tSlsμÚkal] bVyh vkfn esa ik;htkrh gSA bl i¼fr esa fdlh ,d ny dh fujaoqQ'krk ugha gksus ikrh vkSj O;oLFkkfidk eaf=keaMy osQgkFkksa dk f[kykSuk ek=k gh jgrh gSA fofHkUu oxks± rFkk LokFkks± dks 'kklu esa iw.kZ izfrfufèkRo feyrk gSA bli¼fr dk lcls cM+k nks"k ;g gS fd blosQ varxZr cuk;h x;h la;qDr ljdkj vR;Ur vLFkk;h gksrh gSAiydksa esa ljdkj curh&fcxM+rh jgrh gSA Úkal esa] 1870&1914 bZ- osQ chp 88 eaf=keUMyksa dk fuekZ.kgqvkA fucZyrk osQ dkj.k ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa esa ,d:irk Hkh ugha gks ikrhA nwljh vksj dHkh&dHkh eaf=keaMyHkh mPN` Ükà[ky rFkk vfu;fU=kr gks tkrk gSA O;oLFkkfirk dk ml ij fu;a=k.k ugha jg tkrkA erSD; osQpyrs Hkh ljdkj n`<+rkiwoZd fdlh ;kstuk dk dk;kZUo;u ugha dj ldrh gSA

cgqnyh; O;oLFkk ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\

ny&i¼fr dk ewY;kadu (Evaluation of the Party System)ny&iz.kkyh jktuhfrKksa dh iz'kalk rFkk HkRlZuk dk ik=k jgh gSA ik'pkR; jktuhfr&'kkfL=k;ksa us ny&izFkk dks iztkrU=kdk izk.k dgk gSA equjks us rks dgk gS fd nyh; 'kklu dk nwljk uke yksdrU=kh; 'kklu gSA vejhdh lafoèkku osQfuekZrkvksa us nyksa dk dM+k fojksèk fd;k FkkA ekDlZokfn;ksa us nyh; iztkra=k dks foÑr iztkra=k dgk gSA muosQ vuqlkjny lekt esa oxks± rFkk LokFkks± osQ |ksrd gSA loksZn;oknh usrk rks nyfoghu ljdkj (Partyless government) osQi{kikrh gSa bl fookn dks nwj djus dk loksZÙke mik; gS fd ge ny&iz.kkyh osQ xq.k vkSj nks"k ij è;ku nsaA

ny i¼fr osQ xq.k (Merits)

1- jktuhfrd ny ljdkj dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA ;fn jktuhfrd ny u jgs rks iztkra=k osQ vUrxZr ljdkj dkO;kogkfjd :i nsuk dfBu gks tk,xkA ny fuokZpuksa esa Hkkx ysrs gSa rFkk foèkku e.Myksa esa izos'k djljdkj cukrs gSaA

2- izfrfufèk ljdkj dh liQyrk jktuhfrd nyksa osQ vfLrRo ij gh fuHkZj djrh gSA ;g iwjs ns'k dh turkdks fdlh lkekU; fl¼karksa osQ leFkZu esa ijLij feydj dke djus ;ksX; cukrh gS ¶laxfBr jktuhfrdnyksa osQ vHkko esa la?k"kkZRed fopkj&lewg gksaxs ftuesa lkeatL; osQ fy, dksbZ ,slh loZekU; ckr ugha gksxhtks mUgsa bdV~~Bs feydj izHkkoiw.kZ <ax ls dke djus ;ksX; cuk,A¸

3- esdkboj osQ 'kCnksa esaμ¶ny iz.kkyh osQ fcuk jkT; esa u rks yksp gksrh gS vkSj u lPpk&vkRe fu'p;ghA¸ iztkra=k dk vkèkkj tu&lgefr rFkk tuer gS] 'kfDr ughaA ¶;g foo'krk dh vis{kk izsj.kk dks

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vfèkd mfpr vkSj 'kL=k&la?k"kZ osQ ctk; fopkj la?k"kZ dks vfèkd jpukRed¸ ekurh gSA ny O;oLFkk osQpyrs fopkjksa dk vknku&iznku gksrk gS] ljdkj dh vkykspuk dh tkrh gSA ;fn ljdkj turk dh bPNkosQ vuqlkj uhfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k ugha djrh rks turk mls nyksa osQ ekè;e ls vinLFk dj ldrh gSA vr%jktuhfrd nyksa osQ pyrs ljdkj dk lapkyu tuer osQ vuqlkj gksrk gSA

4- ny turk osQ jktuhfrd izf'k{k.k osQ izeq[k lkèku gSaA os turk dh jktuhfrd funzk Hkax djrs gSa] muesajktuhfrd tkxj.k iSnk djrs gSa rFkk lkoZtfud iz'uksa osQ izfr lfØ; #fp iSnk djrs gSa] os O;k[;kuksa]lHkkvksa] i=k&if=kdkvksa vkfn osQ }kjk ukxfjdksa dks jk"Vªifr rFkk vUrjkZ"Vªh; leL;kvksa ls voxr djkrsgSa_ ukxfjd mRlkg dh o`f¼ djrs gSa rFkk tura=kh; Hkkouk dks mn~cq¼ djrs gSaA

5- ny&iz.kkyh ls Js"B dkuwuksa dk fuekZ.k gksrk gSA ,d ny nwljs ny dh =kqfV;ksa dks crykrk gSA lHkkvksaesa fojksèkh ny dkuwu&fuekZ.k esa lÙkk:<+ ny dks vkykspukvksa rFkk lq>koksa }kjk ijke'kZ nsrk gSA dkuwucukrs le; tks mrkoysiu ;k jktuhfrd erSD;rk iSnk gks tkrh gS] mls ny nwj djrs gSaA ykWosy osQ 'kCnksaesa] ¶ny&laxBu] jktuhfrd erSD;rkvksa dks fu;fU=kr djrs gSaA¸

6- jktuhfrd ny turk dh vO;Dr bPNkvksa dks O;Dr djrs gSaA ykWosy osQ fopkjkuqlkj ;s fopkjksa osQ nyky(Broker of ideas) osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gSaA ;fn ny u jgs rks turk dh bPNk vlaxfBr rFkk fc[kjhjg tk,xh_ og ,d dYiuk dh oLrq jg tk,xhA ny tu&bPNk dks laxfBr dj yksder dk fuekZ.kdjrs gSaA

7- ny iz.kkyh osQ ekè;e ls lHkh yksxksa dks 'kklu esa Hkkx ysus dk volj feyrk gSA lÙkk esa nyksa dk ifjorZugksrk gSA tks lÙkk:< ny ls lEcfUèkr ugha jgrk og fojksèkh ny ls lEcUèk LFkkfir dj viuhvkykspukvksa }kjk gh 'kklu dk;Z esa lg;ksx ns ldrk gSA

8- jktuhfrd ny 'kklu osQ fofHkUu vaxksa esa lkeatL; LFkkfir djrs gSaA ;s O;oLFkkfidk rFkk dk;ZikfydkosQ chp dM+h (Link) dk dke djrs gSA ;s iwjs 'kklu&ra=k dks ,d lw=k esa ck¡èkdj ,d fn'kk dh vksjys tkrs gSaA

9- jktuhfrd ny oS;fDrd Lora=krk osQ j{kd Hkh gSaA fojksèkh ny] 'kkld ny dh xyfr;ksa osQ fo#¼ lnkvkokt mBkrs gSa ny ljdkj dks lnk lpsr djrs gSa fd og viuh 'kfDr;ksa dk nq#i;ksx u djsa] fujaoqQ'ku cu tk;¡A ykWLdh osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶jktuhfrd ny ns'k esa rkuk'kkgh ls gekjh j{kk djus osQ loZJs"Blkèku gSaA

10- jktuhfrd ny foèkkuikfydk esa] vius izfrfufèk;ksa osQ chp vuq'kklu vkSj fu;a=k.k j[krs gSa ftuls ,dfuf'pr uhfr dk fodkl gksrk gS rFkk 'kfDr'kkyh 'kklu dh LFkkiuk gksrh gSA

11- jktuhfrd ny jk"Vªh; ,drk LFkkfir djrs gSaA LFkkuh;rk] tkfrokn] èkk£ed rFkk {ks=kh; ladh.kZrk dkR;kx dj ;s ukxfjdksa dks o`gn LokFkks± dh vksj ys tkrs gSaA

12- jktuhfrd nyksa ls ,d ykHk ;g Hkh gS fd os èkk£ed] lkekftd rFkk vk£Fkd lqèkkj esa Hkkx ysrs gSaAlkekftd oqQjhfr;ksa dks nwj djuk fiNM+s ns'kksa esa nyksa dk izeq[k dk;Z gSA blosQ fy, os tuer dkfuekZ.k djrs] vUos"k.k djrs] jktuhfrd vkSj fo'ks"kK&lfefr;ksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA

13- vUr esa] jktuhfrd ny ns'k osQ vUnj ,d lqUnj rFkk LoLFk jk"Vªh; vkSj lkekftd thou dk fuekZ.kdjrs gSaA os leLr jk"Vª dks Hkzkr`Ro osQ lw=k eas ck¡èkrs gSaA MkW- iQkbuj dk dguk gS fd ¶jktuhfrdny bl izdkj dk;Z djrs gSa fd izR;sd ukxfjd dks lkjs jk"Vª dk Kku izkIr gks tk; tks vU; izdkjls le; vkSj izns'k dh nwjh osQ dkj.k izkIr djuk vlEHko gSA¸

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ny i¼fr osQ nks"k (Demerits)

1- ny&O;oLFkk vLokHkkfod gSA ;g ekuo&LoHkko dk ifj.kke ugha cfYd Ñf=ke gSA O;fDr;ksa esa dksbZekSfyd ikjLifjd vUrj ugha gSA jktuhfrd ny muosQ chp >wB&ewB dk foHkktu djrs rFkk Ñf=kele>kSrk dj mUgsa iqu%laxfBr djrs gSaA

2- jktuhfrd nyksa osQ pyrs ns'k dbZ xqVksa esa c¡V tkrk gSA bu fojksèkh lewgksa esa fujUrj la?k"kZ pyrk gStks ns'k dh ,drk dks u"V dj nsrk gSA gekjs ns'k esa rks nycUnh us xk¡oksa vkSj ?kjksa rd dks foHkkftrdj fn;k gSA fuokZpu osQ le; jktuhfrd ny ;q¼ osQ leku turk dh Hkkoukvksa dks mHkkjus dh ps"Vkdjrs gSa ftlls turk osQ ikjLifjd lEcUèk esa ruko ,oa dM+okgV mRiUu gksrh gS vkSj dHkh&dHkhnaxs&iQlkn rd gks tkrs gSaA

3- jktuhfrd ny ukxfjdksa dks iru osQ fy, Hkh mÙkjnk;h gSa os lkoZtfud thou esa csbZekuh] Hkz"VkpkjrFkk voljokfnrk dks izksRlkfgr djrs gSaA pquko osQ le; >wBs izpkj djrs rFkk lR; dks nckrs gSa]er&izkfIr osQ fy, vuSfrd rFkk fuEudksfV osQ mik;ksa dh 'kj.k ysrs gSaA ,d ny nwljs ij dhpM+mNkyrk rFkk viekutud 'kCnksa dk iz;ksx djrk gSA fxyØkbLV osQ 'kCnksa esa] ¶ny cgqèkk okLrfodrkdk neu djus vkSj vokLrfodrk izdV djus osQ vijkèkksa osQ nks"kh gksrs gSaA¸ roZQ vkSj foosd dk xyk?kksaV fn;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ny i¼fr yksdra=k osQ fy, [krjukd fl¼ gks tkrh gSA

4- ny&iz.kkyh esa ny&fgr dks izksRlkgu feyrk gS vkSj jk"Vªh; fgr dk mYya?ku gksrk gSA ny osQ izfr oiQknkjh(Loyalty) jk"Vªh; fgr osQ fy, ?kkrd gSA

5- fxyØkbLV osQ vuqlkjμ¶ny&iz.kkyh fdlh ns'k osQ jktuhfrd thou dks ;U=kor~ cuk nsrh gSA fojksèkhny dk ,dek=k mís'; gksrk gSμlÙkk:<+ ny dk fojksèk djukA os 'kkld ny osQ gj dne dk vUèkkèkqUèkfojksèk djrs gSa] Hkys gh og dne xyr gks ;k lgh_ mi;ksfxrk vkSj roZQ ls mudk dksbZ lEcUèk ugha gksrkAmudk n`f"Vdks.k bruk laoqQfpr rFkk ladh.kZ gks tkrk gS fd ,d&nwljs dk fojksèk dj 'kklu dks gfFk;kukmudk ,dek=k y{; jg tkrk gSA¸

6- ny i¼fr osQ dkj.k 'kklu ;ksX; O;fDr;ksa dh lsok ls oafpr gks tkrk gSA 'kkludk;Z esa osQoy cgqerny osQ O;fDr;ksa dks Hkkx ysus dk ekSdk feyrk gS] Hkys gh os ;ksX; gksa ;k v;ksX;A nwljs nyksa osQ;ksX; O;fDr 'kklu&dk;Z esa Hkkx ysus ls oafpr gks tkrs gSaA

7- jktuhfrd ny LokFkhZ] jktuhfrd lkgfl;ksa rFkk voljokfn;ksa dks izksRlkfgr djrs gSaa os fuR; u;s&nyksa dkfuekZ.k djrs] viuh LokFkZ&flf¼ osQ fy, turk dks HkM+dkrs rFkk 'kfDr dks vius gkFk esa djus osQ fy,xyr jkLrk viukrs gSaA jktuhfrd thou Lok£Fk;ksa rFkk Hkz"V O;fDr;ksa dk x<+ cu tkrk gSA dgk x;kgS] ¶ftl izdkj gj ,d eqxkZ vius futh Vhys ij [kM+k gksuk pkgrk gS] mlh rjg jktuhfrd voljoknhvius LokFkhZ y{;ksa dh o`f¼ osQ fy, viuk tUe vfèkdkj fl¼ djrk gSA ,sls nyksa dk cjlkrh oqQoqQjeqÙkkdh rjg tgk¡&rgk¡ iSnk gksuk fdlh ns'k dh jktuhfrd leL;kvksa dks tfVy cuk nsrk gSA¸

8- vfèkdka'k jktuhfrd nyksa dk vkUrfjd laxBu viztkrkaf=kd gksrk gSA iwjs ny ij oqQN usrkvksa ;k xqVksadk fu;a=k.k gks tkrk gSA ;s xqV eupkgs :i ls lHkh fu.kZ; ysrs gS] turk dh bPNk dh mUgsa rfud Hkhijokg ugha jgrhA bl izdkj ny'kkgh dh vkM+ esa rkuk'kkgh dk;e gks tkrh gSA

9- ny&iz.kkyh dh xUnxh vusd lq;ksX; ukxfjdksa dks lkoZtfud thou ls foeq[k dj nsrh gSA jk"Vª mucqf¼eku O;fDr;ksa dh foosd'khyrk] Kku vkSj vuqHko ls oafpr gks tkrk gS] tks ;k rks fuokZpu&Hkh# gSavFkok ny&lpsrd vkSj ny&vuq'kklu esa jgus ls bUdkj djrs gSaA

10- jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dkj.k O;fDr dh Lora=krk dk vigj.k gksrk gSA lHkh lnL; ny osQ fu;U=k.k esa jgrs gSa]

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mUgsa ny dh fuèkkZfjr uhfr;ksa dk leFkZu vfuok;Z :i ls djuk iM+rk gS] vU;Fkk nyh; vuq'kklu dkdksi&Hkktu cuuk iM+rk gSA fxycVZ us fy[kk gS fd ¶eSaus ges'kk vius ny osQ vuqlkj er fn;k vkSjLo;a dHkh Hkh oqQN ugha lkspkA¸ ukxfjdksa dh LorU=krk dk Hkh vigj.k gksrk gS D;ksafd vfuPNk osQ ckotwnmUgsa fdlh&u&fdlh ny dk leFkZu djuk iM+rk gSA

11- vusd ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ ekè;e ls iw¡thifr oxZ 'kklu ij fu;U=k.k dj ysrk gSA ny iw¡thifr;ksals vk£Fkd lgk;rk ysrs gSaA vr% os muosQ gkFk dh dBiqryh cu tkrs gSaA ljdkj ij bl fu;U=k.k osQpyrs iw¡thifr oxZ ^vn`'; ljdkj* (Invisible government) cu tkrk gSA

ny&i¼fr osQ nks"kksa dks nwj djus dk mik;μfuLlUnsg ny&i¼fr esa dfri; nks"k gSa] ysfdu bu nks"kksa osQpyrs mls tM+&ewy ls uk'k dj nsuk vlEHko rFkk vLokHkkfod gSA gk¡] muosQ nks"kksa dks nwj dj Hkys gh muesalqèkkj yk;k tk ldrk gSA lcls igys nyksa dk fuekZ.k rFkk laxBu jktuhfrd fl¼karksa osQ vkèkkj ij gksuk pkfg,Af'kf{kr turk gh jktuhfrd leL;kvksa dks leqfpr :i ls le> ldrh gS rFkk nyksa dh uhfr;ksa vkSj dk;ZØeksadk lgh ewY;kadu dj ldrk gSA turk dh xjhch dks nwj djuk pkfg, ftlls muosQ er dks dksbZ ny [kjhnu losQ rFkk iw¡thifr;ksa dk ny ij fu;U=k.k u gks losQA nyksa dks Hkh viuk n`f"Vdks.k o`gn djuk pkfg,A mUgsanyh; fgr dks R;kx dj jk"Vªh; fgr dks viuk y{; cukuk pkfg,A ljdkj dks pkfg, fd og nyksa dh vuSfrd]voSèkkfud rFkk vuqfpr dk;Zokfg;ksa ij dM+k fu;U=k.k j[ksA laoqQfpr vkèkkjksa ij laxfBr nyksa&lkEiznkf;d]èkk£ed] tkrh; vkèkkj vkfn dks voSèkkfud djkj nsuk xyr u gksxkA ljdkj fdlh ny dk i{kikr u djsa]cfYd lHkh nyksa dks leku ,oa mfpr volj iznku djsA lÙkk:<+ ny dks pkfg, fd og fojksèkh nyksa osQ vPNslq>koksa dk vknj djs rFkk lHkh nyksa dks leku ,oa mfpr volj iznku djsA lÙkk:<+ ny dks pkfg, fd ogfojksèkh nyksa osQ vPNs lq>koksa dk vknj djs rFkk mUgsa dk;kZfUor djus dk iz;Ru djsA fltfod us ny i¼frosQ nks"kksa dks nwj djus osQ fy, oqQN O;kogkfjd lkèku crk;s gSaA vè;{kkRed 'kklu&i¼fr osQ vUrxZr jk"Vªifrdk fuokZpu O;oLFkkfidk }kjk fd;k tkuk pkfg, rFkk dk;Zikfydk osQ deZpkfj;ksa dk in nycUnh osQ vuqlkjugha gksuk pkfg,A foHkkxh; vè;{kksa dh fu;qfDr nyh; vkèkkj ij ugha gksuk pkfg, rFkk foèkkf;dk lHkk osQvfo'okl&izLrko osQ ckn efU=keaMy dks in&R;kx djuk pkfg,A

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Z (Functions of the Political Parties)

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd ny vusd izdkj ls lfØ; jg ldrk gSA ny dh lajpuk] vU; nyksa dhfo|ekurk rFkk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh fo'ks"krkvksa osQ }kjk ny osQ dk;ks± o Hkwfedk dk fu;eu gksrk gSA jkcVZlh- cksu osQ vuqlkj ,d jktuhfrd ny ,slk ifjoR;Z gS tks rhu izdkj dh Hkwfedk ,d lkFk fuHkkus dh {kerkj[krk gSA ;g ,d gh lkFk eè;orhZ] LorU=k ;k vkfJr ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa xR;kRed Hkwfedk fuHkk ldrk gS;k buesa ls dksbZ ,d Hkwfedk Hkh fu"ikfnr dj ldrk gSA jktuhfrd ny dh ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa bu rhuksaHkwfedkvksa dk i`Fkd&i`Fkd o.kZu djosQ gh bl :i esa ny dh Hkwfedk dk lgh ewY;kadu fd;k tk ldrk gSμ

(1) eè;oÙkhZ ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa ny dh Hkwfedk (Role of political party as an intervening

variable)μjktuhfrd ny eè;oÙkhZ ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk djrk gSA bl :i esa ny ljdkjhrU=k rFkk jktuhfrd lekt osQ chp esa vknku&iznku dh dM+h dk dke djrk gSA ;g lekt vkSj ljdkj dkstksM+rk gSA bl :i esa ny {ks=kh; fgrksa dks ,d&nwljs osQ djhc ykrs gSa] HkkSxksfyd nwfj;ksa dk fuokj.k djrs gSavkSj dHkh&dHkh foHkDr dj nsus okyh 'kklu lajpukvksa esa lkeatL; LFkkfir djrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny dh bl:i esa Hkwfedk gj izdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jgrh gSA eè;oÙkhZ ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa ny dh Hkwfedk osQnks igyw gksrs gSaA tc ;g lÙkk:<+ gks] rc bldh Hkwfedk esa ml voLFkk dh Hkwfedk ls FkksM+k vUrj vk tkrkgS tc ;g lÙkk ls ckgj gksrk gS ij ;g vUrj ek=kkRed gh gksrk gS] izdkjkRed ugha gks ldrkA eè;oÙkhZifjoR;Z osQ :i esa ny dh rhu lkekU; Hkwfedk,a gksrh gSaμ

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(1) ny ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa dh vius leFkZdksa o vke turk osQ fy, O;k[;k djrk gS vkSj ljdkj osQ dk;ks±osQ ckjs esa turk dks le>krk gSA

(2) jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa mBus okyh ekaxksa dks ljdkj rd igqapkrk gSA

(3) lÙkk esa cus jgus osQ fy, ;k lÙkk esa vkus osQ fy, yksder dh ij[k esa yxk jgrk gSA

vr% eè;orhZ ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa jktuhfrd nyksa dh vR;fèkd egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk jgrh gSA ;g ljdkj vkSj lektosQ chp dh gj ckr esa n[ky nsus osQ lkFk gh lkFk eè;LFk Hkh curs gSaA eè;orhZ ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa nyksa dh Hkwfedkdks fp=k 10-1 esa fpf=kr fd;k x;k gSA

ljdkj jktuhfrd ny jktuhfrd lekt

fp=k 10-1

fp=k 10-1 esa ljdkj o lekt osQ chp lEioZQ dk egÙoiw.kZ ekè;e jktuhfrd ny dks gh crk;k x;k gSA ny

dh eè;orhZ ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa Hkwfedk loZ=k lHkh izdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa ikbZ tkrh gS] fdUrq bl

:i esa ny dh Hkwfedk yksdrkaf=kd lektksa esa vfèkd izHkkoh jgrh gSA fujaoqQ'k o lokZfèkdkjh jktuhfrd

O;oLFkkvksa esa ,d gh ny osQ dkj.k izfr;ksxh jktuhfr dk vHkko gksrk gSA vr% ny dh eè;orhZ ifjoR;Z osQ

:i esa Hkwfedk uke ek=k dh gh jg tkrh gSA ;gka rd fd dksbZ Hkh jktuhfrd izfØ;k ny osQ lfØ; gLr{ksi

osQ fcuk fu"ikfnr gh ugha gks ikrh gSA

(2) vkfJrifjoR;Z osQ :i esa ny dh Hkwfedk (Role of political party as a dependent

variable)μjktuhfrd ny 'kwU; esa dk;Z ugha djrs gSaA ;g jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa dk;Zjr jgrs gSaA budk dk;Z

lkekftd] jktuhfrd] vk£Fkd o lkaLÑfrd i;kZoj.k esa gh lapkfyr gksrk gSA vr% vius pkjkas rjiQ osQ

okrkoj.k ls ny u osQoy izHkkfor gksrs gSa oju~ mlls mudh xfrfofèk;ka cgqr oqQN lhfer o fu;fer Hkh gksrh

gSaA fdlh ns'k dh 'kklu lajpuk dh izÑfr] lekt dk Lrj.k (stratification) dk foHkktu] O;fDr;ksa osQ pru

o fØ;k dks izHkkfor djus okyk lkaLÑfrd <kapk vkSj ny fØ;k dks fu;af=kr o izHkkfor djus okys dkuwu]

jktuhfrd ny dks vkfJr ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa gh Hkwfedk fuHkkus osQ fy, pkjksa rjiQ ls nckrs jgrs gSaA vkfJr

ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa gj jktuhfrd ny fuEufyf[kr Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSμ(i) jktuhfrd lekt dh lajpuk o lekt

osQ lkaLÑfrd izfreku dks izHkkfor djus okyh jktuhfrd izfØ;k dks tksM+uk] ljy djuk vkSj fLFkj cukukA

(ii) lekt dh lajpukvksa o mi&O;oLFkkvksa esa leUo; LFkkfir djukA (iii) i;kZoj.k esa gksus okys ifjorZuksa osQ

vuq:i vius dks <kyrs gq, lekt dh lEiw.kZ lewg O;oLFkk osQ vuqowQyu esa ;ksx nsukA vkfJr ifjoR;Z osQ

:i esa nyksa dh Hkwfedk dks fp=k 10-2 esa fpf=kr fd;k x;k gSA

fp=k 10-2 jktuhfrd ny dh vkfJr ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa Hkwfedk

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fp=k 10-2 esa jktuhfrd ny ,d rjiQ rks ljdkj osQ }kjk rFkk nwljh rjiQ lekt dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dhlajpukvksa osQ Åij vkfJr gksdj gh lfØ; jgrk gSA bl :i esa ny vius dk;ks± o Hkwfedk esa vkfJr gh jgrkgSA og gj Lrj ij fu;fer o izfrcfUèkr jgdj gh lfØ; gksrk gSA

(3) LorU=k ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa ny dh Hkwfedk (Role of political party as an independent

variable)μjktuhfrd ny vR;fèkd ,dhÑr mi&laLÑfr osQ :i esa Hkh ns[kk tk ldrk gSA bl :i esa nylEiw.kZ lekt dk fu;ked cu tkrk gSA ekSfyd rFkk xR;kRed rkdr osQ :i esa jktuhfrd ny lkekftd ojktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks fu;fU+=kr djus dh voLFkk esa gksus osQ dkj.k bu nksuksa ls LorU=k cu tkrk gSA f}nyh;o cgqnyh; iz.kkfy;ksa esa nyksa dk izHkko o Hkwfedk dbZ 'kfDr;ksa o ¯[kpkoksa ls lhfer jgrh gS] fdUrq ,dnyh;i¼fr esa ,slk dksbZ izfrcUèk ugha jgrk gSA vr% LorU=k ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa jktuhfrd ny] fopkjèkkjk dk;ZØedh :ijs[kk osQ vuqlkj U;k;ksfpr lekt dh LFkkiuk djus osQ fy, lekt o ljdkj nksuksa dk gh fu;U=kd]funsZ'kd o fujh{kd jgrk gSA bl :i esa ny dh Hkwfedk fuEu izdkj jgrh gSμ(i) lekt o ljdkj] nksuksa dkfunsZ'ku djuk o mu ij fu;U=k.k j[kukA (ii) fopkjèkkjk osQ vuqlkj lEiw.kZ laLFkkRed O;oLFkkvksa dks <kyukA (iii)dk;ZØe dh fØ;kfUofr esa vkus okyh lHkh izfØ;kRed o lajpukRed ckèkkvksa dks nwj djukA

jktuhfrd ny

ljdkj

jktuhfrd lekt

(ljdkj dh lekt ls lEioZQrk dk ekxZ)

(jktuhfrd lekt dh ljdkj ls lEioZQrk dk ekxZ)

fp=k 10-3 jktuhfrd ny dh LorU=k ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa Hkwfedk

LorU=k ifjoR;Z osQ :i esa jktuhfrd ny lHkh izdkj osQ fu;U=k.kksa ls eqDr jgrk gS rFkk lekt O;oLFkk o 'kklurU=k dks iwjh rjg ls fu;fU=kr o funsZf'kr djrk gSA bl :i esa bldh Hkwfedk lokZfèkdkjh 'kklu&O;oLFkkvksa esagh lEHko gSA bu O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfrd ny gh jktuhfrd psruk dk osQUnz gksrk gSA lkjh jktuhfrd lfØ;rkny osQ ekè;e ls xqtjrh gS vkSj ogh 'kklu rFkk tksM+&rksM+ dk midj.k gksrk gSA vr% LorU=k ifjoR;Z osQ :iesa ny dh Hkwfedk u osQoy O;kid gksrh gS vfirq ,dkfèkdkjh o O;fDrxr rFkk lkekftd xfrfofèk osQ lHkh igyqvksadh fu;U=kd Hkh gksrh gSA

fofHkUu ifjoR;ks± osQ :i esa jktuhfrd nyksa dh Hkwfedk osQ foospu ls ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd ny vusd izdkj osQdk;Z djrs gSaA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh izÑfr Lo;a] nyksa dh lajpuk,a rFkk 'kklu <kaps dh fo'ks"krk,a jktuhfrdnyksa osQ dk;ks± dh fu;ked gksrh gSa] fdUrq jktuhfrd nyksa osQ oqQN dk;Z ,sls gSa tks bu lcls izHkkfor jgrs gq,Hkh gj izdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa buosQ }kjk fu"ikfnr gksrs gSaa ge ;gka jktuhfrd nyksa osQ ,sls lkekU; dk;ks±dk mYys[k dj jgs gSaA

jkcVZ lh- cksu us jktuhfrd nyksa osQ O;kid dk;ks± dh ppkZ dh gSA mlosQ vuqlkj gj izdkj dh jktuhfrdO;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd ny lfØ; jgrs gSaA ;g lkekU;r;k gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ,d gh izdkj osQ fopkjksaokys O;fDr;ksa osQ O;ofLFkr <ax ls laxfBr gksus dk lkèku izLrqr djrs gSaA cksu jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± esa

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(i) laxBu] (ii) ekaxksa osQ O;ofLFkr la'kksèku] (iii) usrkvksa dh HkrhZ] (iv) lÙkk dk oSèkhdj.k] (v) uhfr dk fuèkkZj.k](vi) 'kklu mÙkjnkf;Ro] vkSj (vii) vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ dk;ks± dks izeq[k ekurs gSaA mlosQ vuqlkj gj izdkj dhjktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd ny de ;k vfèkd ek=kk esa ;g dk;Z djrs gq, ik, tkrs gSaA yksdrkaf=kdjktuhfrd lektksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ ;g dk;Z pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk osQ voljksa ij gh vfèkd O;kogkfjd cursgSa] fdUrq fujaoqQ'k lokZfèkdkjh jktuhfr;ksa esa rks ny gj le; bu dk;ks± dks O;ogkj esa fujUrj djrs jgrs gSaA

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± osQ ckjs esa U;weSu Hkh jkcVZ lh- cksu ls feyrs&tqyrs fopkj j[krk gSA fdUrq mlosQ vuqlkjiztkrkaf=kd jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Z fujaoqQ'k o lokZfèkdkjh 'kklu&O;oLFkkvksa eas muosQ dk;ks±osQ leku ugha gks ldrsA lokZfèkdkjh 'kkluksa esa ny dk ,dkfèkdkj gksus osQ dkj.k u osQoy mldh dk;Z 'kSyh esavUrj vkrk gS oju~ mldh dk;Z{kerk dh vlherk osQ dkj.k mlosQ dk;Z Hkh fHkUu gks tkrs gSaA vr% ogyksdrkaf=kd jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dks lokZfèkdkjh 'kkluksa esa muosQ dk;ks± ls i`Fkdekudj budk vyx&vyx foospu djrk gSA mlosQ vuqlkj yksdrkaf=kd O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfrd nyμ(i)

vLr&O;Lr ,oa fc[kjh tu&bPNk dks laxfBr djus] (ii) ukxfjdksa dks jktuhfrd mÙkjnkf;Ro dh n`f"V lsf'kf{kr cukus] (iii) 'kklu vkSj tuer dks tksM+us okyh dM+h dk izfrfufèkRo djus ,oa (iv) usrkvksa dk pqukodk;Z djrs gSaA

U;weu osQ vuqlkj vfèkuk;doknh ny ckgj ls yksdrkaf=kd nyksa ls fHkUu ugha fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA muosQ fl¼kar vkSj dk;Zyksdrkaf=kd èkkj.kk fy;s jgrs gSaA os Hkh ;gh dk;Z djrs gSaA lokZfèkdkjh ny Hkh vLr&O;Lr tu&bPNk dks laxfBrdjus] O;fDr;ksa dks lewg esa vkc¼ djus] tuer rFkk 'kklu dks tksM+us okyh dM+h dk mÙkjnkf;Ro fuHkkus o blosQlkFk gh usrkvksa osQ pquko dh O;oLFkk djus dk dk;Z djrs gSa] ijUrq U;weSu dk dguk gS fd bruk gksrs gq, Hkh]usrkvksa o vuq;kf;;ksa dh mudh voèkkj.kkvksa dh yksdrkaf=kd èkkj.kkvksa ls iw.kZ izfrowQyrk osQ dkj.k bu dk;ks± dkvFkZ vkèkkjHkwr :i ls cnyk tkrk gSA vr% lokZfèkdkjh nyμ(1) tu&bPNk ij fu;a=k.k] (2) O;fDr;ksa ij,d:irk dk yknuk] (3) lekt o jkT; osQ eè; lEioZQ osQ fy, osQoy Åij dh vksj ls ,drjiQk izpkj o funsZ'k,oa (4) usrkvksa osQ pquko dk dk;Z djrs gSaa ;gka bl ckr dk è;ku j[kuk vko';d gS fd lokZfèkdkjh ny eksVsrkSj ij ogh dk;Z djrs gSa] tks yksdrkaf=kd O;oLFkk esa nyksa osQ }kjk lEikfnr gksrs gSaA

vUrj osQoy dk;Z&fofèk] dk;Z{kerk rFkk dk;Z mís';ksa dk gksrk gSA ;g vUrj rks yksdrkaf=kd jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksaesa Hkh ik, tkrs gSaa mnkgj.k osQ fy,] usrkvksa dk p;u f}nyh;] cgqnyh; ;k ,dnyh; vkfèkiR; O;oLFkkvksa esa i;kZIrvUrj j[krk gSA vr% ge U;weSu }kjk nksuksa izdkj dh ny O;oLFkkvksa osQ dk;ks± osQ vyx&vyx oxhZdj.k ls lgerugha gks ldrsA nyksa osQ dk;Z] gj jktuhfrd ifjfLFkfr esa de ;k vfèkd gksrs jgrs gSaA vr% gesa nyksa osQ osQoy,sls dk;ks± dh ppkZ djuh gS tks gj O;oLFkk] ifjfLFkfr o voLFkk esa nyksa osQ }kjk fd, tkrs gSaA

yk ikyksEckjk us viuh iqLrd iksfyfVDl fon bu us'kUl esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ fuEufyf[kr dk;Z cryk, gSaμ

(i) usrkvksa dh HkrhZ vkSj lekthdj.kA

(ii) jktuhfrd igpku o erksa dks lajpukRed :i nsukA

(iii) ljdkj cukukA

(iv) la?kVu] lkSnsckth o ,dhdj.k djukA

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ bu dk;ks± dks ysdj fo}kuksa esa vfèkd erHksn ugha gSA lHkh jktuhfrd ny de ;k vfèkd ek=kkesa ;g dk;Z djrs gSaA fdUrq jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dks yk ikyksEckjk us osQoy jktuhfrd dk;ks± rd lhferj[kus osQ ctk; O;kid lanHkZ iznku fd;k gSA blh rjg] og nyksa dks osQoy dkuwuh ifjfèk esa gh lfØ; ugha ekurkgSA mldk dguk gS fd fofoèk ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa vusd jktuhfrd ny fofoèk <kaps dk mYya?ku gh ugha djrs vfirqmlosQ izfrowQy dk;Z Hkh djrs gSaa vr% jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dks vkSipkfjdrk osQ vkoj.k esa gh ns[kuk i;kZIrugha gSA jktuhfrd nyksa osQ jktuhfr dks dyqf"kr cukus okys dk;ks± ls cs[kcj ugha jgk tk ldrkA yk ikyksEckjkus jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± osQ bl igyw ij vfèkd cy ugha fn;k gSA vkèkqfud ny fo'ks"kdj fodkl'khy jkT;ksa

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esa] jktuhfrd izfØ;k dks tksM+us] ljy djus vkSj fLFkj cukus osQ dk;Z osQ lkFk gh lkFk bls rksM+us] isphnk cukuso mlesa vfLFkjrk ykus dk dk;Z Hkh djrs jgrs gSaa vr% jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± esa bl izdkj dh xfrfofèk;ka HkhlfEefyr dh tkuh pkfg,A vkt jktuhfrd ny ,d ^'kfDr lajpuk* rFkk jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh vkèkkjHkwrmi&O;oLFkk cu x;s gSaA buosQ dk;ks± dk foospu djrs le; bu y{k.kksa dks è;ku esa j[kuk vko';d gSA bl izdkj]jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dks Lo;a jktuhfrd ny] lekt] lewg O;oLFkk rFkk 'kklu <kaps osQ lanHkZ esa gh ns[kukvfuok;Z gks tkrk gSA bu ckrksa dks è;ku esa j[krs gq,] ge buosQ fuEufyf[kr dk;ks± dks loZ=k lHkh izdkj dhjktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa fu"ikfnr eku ldrs gSaA

usrkvksa dh HkrhZ o p;u (The Recruitment and Selection of Leaders)

jktuhfrd lekt dk lqO;ofLFkr lapkyu djus osQ fy, ,sls O;fDr;ksa dh vko';drk gksrh gS tks tu leqnk;osQ cgqr cM+s Hkkx }kjk le£Fkr jgsaA bl izdkj dk tu&leFkZu u osQoy yksdra=k O;oLFkkvksa esa gh vko';dgS oju~ lokZfèkdkjh 'kkluksa osQ fy, Hkh vfuok;Z gSA vr% gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa fofHkUu ljdkjh inksa osQusr`RodÙkkZvksa dh HkrhZ o p;u dh O;oLFkk djuh gksrh gSA jktuhfrd ny bldh laLFkkxr lqfoèkk o lkèkumiyCèk djkrs gSaA djksM+ksa O;fDr vius esa ls gh usrkvksa dk pquko djus osQ vfèkdkj dk O;ogkj esa mi;ksx djsarks lS¼kafrd n`f"V ls ;g lEHko gksrs gq, Hkh O;ogkj esa vlEHko gksxk rFkk ,d fLFkfr ;g Hkh gks ldrh gS fdmrus gh usrk cuus osQ izR;k'kh gksa ftrus usrk pquus okysA bl voLFkk esa usrkvksa dh HkrhZ o pquko dk dk;ZvlEHko gks tk,xkA jktuhfrd ny bl fLFkfr esa usrkvksa dh HkhM+ dk ,d ek=k ekè;e cu tkrs gSaA

usrkvksa dh HkrhZ o p;u esa nks isphnfx;ka vkSj gSaA ,d ckr rks ;g gS fd usrkvksa dh HkrhZ ;ksX;rk o fo'ks"k n{krkosQ vkèkkj ij gks rFkk nwljs usrk] vfèkd ls vfèkd tu leFkZu }kjk gh ljdkjh inkfèkdkjh cuus dh voLFkkesa vk,aA buosQ dkj.k usrkvksa dh HkrhZ dh leL;k vkSj Hkh dfBu cu tkrh gSA jktuhfrd ny] pqukoksa esa] fofHkUuizR;kf'k;ksa osQ :i esa ernkrk osQ lkeus vusd fodYi izLrqr djosQ ;g dk;Z lEHko cukrs gSaa lokZfèkdkjh O;oLFkkvksaesa Hkh usrkvksa dk vUrr% p;u djuk gh gksrk gS vkSj ;g dk;Z jktuhfrd ny gh djrk gSA bl izdkj jktuhfrdny vla[; yksxksa esa ls oqQN osQ fodYi izLrqr djosQ ,d dk p;u lEHko cukrs gSaA

uhfr;ksa o dk;ZØeksa dk mRiknu (The Generation of Policies and Programmes)

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ny gh uhfr;ksa o dk;ZØeksa osQ mRiknudÙkkZ gksrs gSaA ernkrkvksa esa vfèkdka'k rks lEiw.kZ lektosQ O;kid fgrksa dh n`f"V ls lksp gh ugha ikrs gSaA lewg vius lnL;ksa osQ fgrksa ls Åij ugha mB ikrs gSaA vosQyk]vyx&Fkyx O;fDr lEiw.kZ lekt osQ fy, mi;ksxh uhfr;ksa o dk;ZØeksa dk fuèkkZj.k djuk pkgs rks Hkh ugha djldrk gS D;ksafd ,slk dk;ZØe vfèkd ls vfèkd mu yksxksa dh LohÑfr rd gh O;kIr jgsxk ftuosQ lkFk fuèkkZj.kdjus okys O;fDr dk lEioZQ gSA jktuhfrd ny pqukoksa esa eqís is'k djosQ uhfr;ksa o dk;ZØeksa osQ fuekZrk cu tkrsgSaaA pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk esa turk osQ lkeus vusd uhfr fodYi izLrqr gks tkrs gSa] ftuesa ls ,d dk p;u djosQlekt dh uhfr dk fu'p; djuk O;kogkfjd gks tkrk gSA ljdkjksa dks D;k djuk gS] fdl fn'kk esa lekt dksys tkuk gS ;g lc jktuhfrd ny turk ls r; djkus osQ fy, vusd fodYih dk;ZØe izLrqr djus dk lkèkugksrs gSaA

lokZfèkdkjh 'kklu&O;oLFkkvksa esa rks ;g dk;Z jktuhfrd ny Lo;a gh djrs gSaA bu O;oLFkkvksa esa fodYi izLrqrdjosQ ;g ugha fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ny dh nk'kZfud dksjh vkSipkfjdrk gh gksrk gSA vr% ny osQ }kjk mRiUufd, x, dk;ZØeksa esa fdlh izdkj dh dkV&NkaV dk Hkh iz'u ugha mBrk gSA bl izdkj lokZfèkdkjh 'kklu&O;oLFkkvksaesa ny gh uhfr vkSj dk;ZØe dk ,dek=k Ïksr jgrk gS] ij bl lEcUèk esa ;g è;ku nsus dh ckr gS fd uhfr mRiknuo dk;ZØe fuèkkZj.k dk dk;Z jktuhfrd ny fo'kq¼ O;kid fgr dh n`f"V ls ugha djrs gSaA dk;ZØe fuèkkZj.k osQckn muosQ vey dk dksbZ fu'p; Hkh ugha gksrk gSA nyh; LokFkZ dh izofÙk;ka dHkh&dHkh nyksa dks dk;ZØeksa ls foeq[k

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Hkh dj nsrh gSa] ij blls dk;ZØe o uhfr&mRiknu esa lgk;rk feyrh gSApqukoksa esa ernkrk bu uhfr&lEcUèkhfopyuksa (deviations) dh iqu% tkap dk volj j[krs gSaA vr% ny lekt osQ fy, uhfr;ksa dk mRiknu gh ughadjrs oju~ mudh fujUrj ij[k dh voLFkk Hkh ykrs gSaA

ljdkj dk fu;U=k.k o leUo; (Control and Co-ordination of Government)

jktuhfrd nyksa dk rhljk egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z 'kklu&vaxksa esa leUo; o ljdkj osQ fu;a=k.k dk gSA ,iLVhu (EPS-

TEIN) us viuh iqLrd ¶iksfyfVdy ikVhZ”k bu oSLVuZ MseksozsQlht* esa nyksa osQ bl dk;Z dks lokZfèkd egÙodk crkrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ¶ny jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa fu.kZ; ysus vkSj vius vkidks 'kkfey djus osQ mís';osQ fy, laxBu o leUo; dh vko';drk osQ izfr vuqfØ;k gSA¸ ny gh ljdkj ij izHkkoh fu;aa=k.k dk ;U=kgks ldrs gSaaA nyksa dk ;g dk;Z fujUrj pyrk jgrk gSA bruk gh ugha] nyksa }kjk 'kklu dk dk;Z] osQoy muosQ lÙkkesa jgus ij gh ugha gksrk oju~ foi{k esa Hkh os 'kklu dk;Z esa lfØ; jgrs gSaA ny foi{k dh O;oLFkk djosQ turkdks Hkh 'kklu dk;Z esa lfEefyr djus dh O;oLFkk djrs gSaA

ny ljdkj osQ fuekZ.k esa vusd izdkj ls lgk;d gksrs gSaA os 'kklu osQ fy, ;ksX; O;fDr;ksa dks pqurs o izf'kf{krdjrs gSaA laxBukRed o izsj.kkRed xfrfofèk;ksas }kjk 'kkld oxZ osQ fy, leFkZu tqVkrs gSa] vkSj tuer dks tkx`rdjosQ ljdkj ij izHkkoh fu;U=k.k O;oLFkk ykxw djrs gSaA

lÙkk dk oSèkhdj.k (Legitimization of Authority)

'kkld lÙkk dk mi;ksx djus dk vkSfpR; j[krs gSa ;k ugha bldh tkap dk ,d ekè;e fu;rdkfyd fuokZpu gksrsgSaA ijUrq nks pqukoksa osQ vUrjky esa 'kkldksa dh lÙkk okLrfod oSèkrk j[krh gS ;k ugha laLFkkRed O;oLFkk dh foèkkue.My osQ ekè;e ls ij[k ugha gks ikrh gSA bl dk;Z dks turk dh rjiQ ls jktuhfrd ny djrs gSaA ;g usrkvkasdh HkrhZ o vnyk&cnyh osQ fy, lajpukRed izfØ;k,a tqVkus osQ lkFk gh lkFk lÙkk osQ oSèkhdj.k dh O;oLFkk Hkhdjrs gSaA tcnZLrh gfFk;kbZ lÙkk dks oSèkhdj.k osQ fy, turk osQ lkeus ny gh j[kokrs gSaA budh lÙkk oSèkhdj.kesa bruh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk jgrh gS fd fujaoqQ'k O;oLFkkvkas esa Hkh nyksa dk ugha rks de ls de ,d ny dk fuekZ.k'kk;n blfy, gh fd;k tkrk jgk gSA

jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa lÙkk dh oSèkrk dk ladV mRiUu gksrk jgrk gSA vc rd ekU;rk jgh dh lÙkk osQ {kh.kgksus ij mldh iqu% yksdfiz; vfHkiqf"V ;k tu leFkZu dh vko';drk vfuok;Z gks tkrh gSA mldh O;oLFkk nyksaosQ ekè;e ls gh gksrh gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd ,d ny iz.kkfy;ksa esa Hkh lÙkk oSèkhdj.k dks vko';d ekuk x;kgSA fujaoqQ'k 'kkld le;≤ ij pqukoksa dk fn[kkok lÙkk oSèkhdj.k osQ midj.k osQ :i esa gh djrs gSaA vr%jktuhfrd ny lÙkk oSèkhdj.k osQ izeq[k ekè;e gh ugha gksrs oju~ lÙkk dh oSèkrk dk dk;Z fujUrj pyrk jgs bldhO;oLFkk Hkh djrs gSaA

lekt dk ,dhdj.k (Integration of Society)

jktuhfrd ny lewg ekaxksa dh larqf"V vkSj lkeatL; osQ }kjk ,d&lh ekU;rk,a ;k fopkjèkkjk mRiUu djrsgSa] ftlls lekt esa foHkktudkjh izo`fÙk;ksa dk 'kklu gksrk jgrk gSA blls lekt dk ,dhdj.k gksrk gSAlekt esa ,drk o n`<+rk LFkkfir gksrh gSA gj lekt esa vusd lewg o fgr gksrs gSaA budh vko';drk,ao ekaxsa ckj&ckj ,d nwljs osQ izfrowQy cudj ikjLifjd la?k"kZ mRiUu djrk gSA ijLij fojksèkh ekaxsa jktuhfrdO;oLFkk dks rksM+us dk dk;Z djus yxrh gSaA jktuhfrd ny] fojksèkh lewg ekaxksa esa pqukoh izfr;ksfxrk dhizfØ;k osQ }kjk rkyesy LFkkfir djus dk dk;Z djrs gSaA ny ,dhdj.k djus osQ lkFk gh lkFk ,drk cuk,j[kus dk dk;Z Hkh djrs gSaA

,ysu cky us nyksa osQ lkekftd ,dhdj.k osQ dk;Z dks egÙoiw.kZ crkrs gq, fy[kk gS] ¶jktuhfrd nyksa osQvR;fèkd egÙoiw.kZ dk;ks± esa ls ,d dk;Z jktuhfrd izfØ;k dks tksM+uk] ljy djuk vkSj fLFkj cukuk gSA

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jktuhfrd nyksa esa egÙke lekioR;Z izLrqr djus dh izo`fÙk gksrh gSA os foHkktu ugha djrs cfYd nyghu vkSjfeyh&tqyh ljdkjksa osQ leFkZdksa osQ ckotwn os lekt dks tksM+rs gSaA ny {ks=kh; fgrksa dks ,d&nwljs osQ djhcykrs gSa] HkkSxksfyd nwfj;ksa dk fuokj.k djrs gSa vkSj foHkDr djus okyh 'kklu lajpukvksa esa lkeatL; LFkkfirdjrs gSaA nyksa }kjk fd;k tkus okyk ;g tksM+us dk dk;Z jktuhfrd fLFkjrk esa egÙoiw.kZ dkjd gksrk gSA gjjktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd ny jktuhfrd lÙkk dh ryk'k esa vO;oLFkk osQ Hkhrj ls O;oLFkk dk fuekZ.kdj ysrs gSaA os vius }kjk izfrfufèkRo fd, tkus okys fgrksa dk foLrkj djuk pkgrs gSa vkSj bu fgrksa osQ chpijLij lkeatL; LFkkfir djrs gSaA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ vUrxZr fgrksa osQ ,d=khdj.k dk dk;Z Hkh ny gh djrsgSaA fgrksa dk izfrfufèkRo lqj{kk uyh (safety valve) dk lk izHkko j[krk gSA ;g fc[kjs] iSQys gq, fgrksa dksjktuhfrd izfØ;k esa lesV ykrs gSa vkSj mudh ekaxksa dks lUrq"V djus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA lHkh ny vius leFkZudk foLrkj djuk pkgrs gSaA ;g pquko yM+us okys izfr;ksxh nyksa rFkk jktuhfrd izfØ;k ij gkoh jgus okys ,dek=k ny] nksuksa osQ ckjs esa lgh gSA ,slk djus esa os u osQoy lekt osQ vUrxZr foHkktu dks izfrfcfEcr djrsgSa cfYd muesa mUgsa de djus dh izo`fÙk Hkh gksrh gSA vr% oqQy feykdj] jktuhfrd ny lekt osQ la;kstudk dk;Z Hkh djrs gSaA

ljdkj o turk dh lEioZQ dM+h (Link between Government and the People)

jktuhfrd nyksa dk ,d dk;Z ljdkj rFkk turk osQ chp lEioZQ LFkkfir djuk gSA os fuokZpd&lewg dkstkudkjh iznku djus] izf'kf{kr djus vkSj lfØ; cukus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA jktuhfrd :i ls vis{kkÑrfuf"Ø; yksxksa ls lEioZQ j[kus vkSj fofHkUu uhfr;ksa osQ izfr muesa ltxrk mRiUu djus o muls mu uhfr;ksadk leFkZu ikus osQ fy, os tu lEioZQ ekè;eksa rFkk LFkkuh; laxBuksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA os turk dks fØ;k'khycukus dk iz;Ru djrs gSaA os turk dh ekaxksa dks ljdkj rd rFkk ljdkj osQ fu.kZ;ksa dks turk rd ys tkrsgSaA bl rjg ny] ljdkj vkSj turk osQ chp eè;LFk dk dk;Z djrs gSaA ny turk dks lfØ; cukdj mudkleFkZu ikus dk dk;Z tu lHkkvksa] o£n;ksa] >.Mksa vkSj ,drklwpd vU; oLrqvksa }kjk vkxs c<+k;k tkrk gSA blizdkj ny] O;fDr vkSj ljdkj dks tksM+us okyh dM+h cu tkrs gSaA jktuhfrd tu lapkyu dk ;g igywlokZfèkdkjh 'kklu&O;oLFkkvksa osQ ,d ek=k nyksa osQ lEcUèk esa vkSj Hkh vfèkd lgh gSA bl izdkj dh O;oLFkkvksaesa ny] jktuhfrd tu lapkyu dk dk;Z djosQ gh lekt o ljdkj esa rkyesy cSBk, j[kuk gSA vr% jktuhfrdny] ljdkj o turk osQ chp lEioZQ LFkkfir djus dk izHkkoh lkèku jgrs gSaA

vkèkqfudhdj.k dk midj.k (Tools of Modernization)

fodkl'khy jkT;ksa dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa vkèkqfudhdj.k dh leL;k dk lkeuk djus osQ fy, ljdkjsa Hkhjktuhfrd nyksa dh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk dks Lohdkj djrh gSA bu jkT;ksa esa ijEijkxr lekt gksus osQ dkj.k tkrh;]èkk£ed] uLyh; rFkk vU; yxkoksa osQ [kpko izcy gksrs gSaa blosQ dkj.k jk"Vªh; ,drk o jk"Vªh; nf"Vdks.k dk fodklugha gks ikrk gSA lekt O;oLFkk dh ijEijkxrrk] jktuhfrd vkèkqfudhdj.k esa cM+h #dkoV cu tkrh gSA jktuhfrdny lÙkk esa vkus ij lÙkk esa cus jgus osQ fy, vkèkqfudhdj.k dh vko';drkvksa osQ egÙoiw.kZ iwjd o izsjdcu tkrs gSaA vk£Fkd o lkekftd fu;kstu osQ ekè;e ls ljdkjsa lekt dk uo fuekZ.k djrh gSa vkSj jktuhfrdny mudks vko';d leFkZu tqVkdj vkxs c<+us osQ lkèku tqVkrs gSaA

fodkl'khy jkT;ksa dh rjg gh fodflr jkT;ksa esa Hkh jktuhfrd ny vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ la;kstd jgrs gSaa gjjktuhfrd lekt esa jktuhfrd nyksa o ljdkjksa dk Hkfo"; bl ckr ij gh fuHkZj djrk gS fd os lekt dksvkèkqfudhdj.k osQ ekxZ ij dgka rd ys tkus esa liQy jgrs gSaA vusd fodkl'khy jkT;ksa esa ljdkjksa o jktuhfrdnyksa dh yksdrkfU=kd ifjfLFkfr;ksa] vkèkqfudhdj.k esa budh vliQyrk osQ gh dkj.k] vfèkuk;doknh cuk nh xbZgSA vr% jktuhfrd ny vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ midj.k osQ :i esa gj jktuhfrd lekt esa lfØ; jgrs gSaA

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yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ekbju ohuj us nyksa osQ bl dk;Z osQ lEcUèk esa Bhd gh fy[kk gS] ¶jktuhfrd nyksa dkHkfo"; bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS fd os vkSj mudh ljdkjsa jktuhfrd fodkl osQ ladV dk lkeuk djus esadgka rd liQy jgrh gSaA¸

tu lapkyu o lkSnsckth (Mobilization and Bargaining)gj txg jktuhfrd ny tu lapkyu dk dk;Z djrs gSaA ,dnyh; iz.kkfy;ksa esa rks tu lapkyu yksd iz'kkluosQ vfuok;Z vax osQ :i esa gh O;ofLFkr jgrk gSA bu O;oLFkkvksa esa tu lapkyu] turk rFkk ny osQ lnL;ksadks vuq'kkflr j[kus osQ ,d igyw osQ :i esa Hkh ns[kk tkrk gSA lseqvy ckuZl us bl lEcUèk esa mfpr ghfy[kk gS] ¶jktuhfrd ny] fo[kf.Mr lHkkvksa osQ jktuhfrd n`f"V ls vifj"Ñr o mnklhu yksxksa dks lkewfgdfØ;k osQ fy, lapkfyr djus dk ,d mTtoy vkfo"dkj gSA¸ blh rjg ,MoMZ 'khYl dh ekU;rk gS fd,dnyh; jktuhfr;ksa esa rks jktuhfrd rek'kk vfèkdka'k O;fDr;ksa osQ }kjk oSpkfjd lgefr osQ vkèkkj ij ghpyk;k tkrk gSA oSls fopkjèkkjk vfèkdrj vfHktuksa dks gh izHkkfor djrh gSA bl dkj.k tu lapkyu osQ fy,Hkh ny dk gh lgkjk ysuk iM+rk gSA

lHkh jktuhfrd lHkkvksa esa ernkrkvksa dk O;ogkj foosdiw.kZ ugha jgrk gSA ernkrkvksa dk cM+k Hkkx lkSnsckthizfØ;k (bargaining process) esa lfØ; ugha jgrk gSA ernkrkvksa dh rjiQ ls fofHkUu fgrksa esa rkyesy fcBkusdk dk;Z jktuhfrd ny gh djrs gSaa os vius leFkZdksa osQ fgrksa dh vfèkdre lqj{kk osQ fy, vU; laLFkkxrlajpukvksa ls lkSnsckth Hkh djrs gSaa ;g lkSnsckth vfèkdrj ljdkj osQ lkFk djuh gksrh gSA ljdkj fofHkUuekaxksa dk lalkèku djrh gS vkSj mudh fØ;kfUofr osQ fu.kZ; ysrh gSA ljdkj }kjk ekaxksa osQ lalkèku osQ le;jktuhfrd ny lfØ; jgrs gSa vkSj ifjfLFkfr osQ vuqlkj ysu&nsu dh lkSnsckth djrs gSaA

fojksèk o mPNsnu (Opposition and Subversion)jktuhfrd ny osQoy jpukRed dk;ks± rd gh lhfer ugha jgrs gSaA ihVj eoZQy dk dguk gS fd jktuhfrd nyosQoy laoSèkkfud ;k dkuwuh ifjfèk esa jgdj gh dk;Z ugha djrs gSaA vktdy jktuhfrd ny foi{k esa gksus ijfojksèk dh jktuhfr viukrs gSaA os ljdkj dks fu;af=kr djus o mlesa leUo; LFkkfir djus osQ dk;Z osQ fcYoqQyizfrowQy dk;Z Hkh djrs gSaA jktuhfrd izfr;ksfxrk dh ;FkkFkZrk osQ fy, foi{k vfuok;Z Hkh gSA blh dkj.k lHkh foèkkue.Myksa esa foi{k dks ekU;rk nsus dh izFkk gSA fczVsu esa foi{k dks ekU;rk gh ugha izkIr gS oju~ mldk lqfuf'prlaLFkkdj.k Hkh fd;k x;k gSA jktuhfrd nyksa dk foi{k osQ :i esa dk;Z ,d lqj{kk uyh dh rjg gksrk gSA tuvkanksyu o tu Økafr ls cpko dh O;oLFkk osQ fy, foi{k dk gksuk vko';d gSA

foi{kh nyksa osQ :i esa nyksa osQ dk;Z fodk;kZRed (dysfunctional) gh vfèkd jgrs gSaA uhfr fuèkkZj.k dh izfØ;kls gj Lrj ij fujk'kk o vlgefr dk Hkh mn~Hko gksrk gSA bu izo`fÙk;ksa dks os ny tks lÙkk esa vkus dh lEHkkoukugha j[krs gSa] fojksèk o tksM+&rksM+ esa iz;qDr djrs gSaA lokZfèkdkjh ny i¼fr;ksa esa izfr;ksxh nyksa dks dksbZ LFkkuugha fn;k tkrk gSA vr% ,slh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ;g ny Hkwfexr :i esa gh lfØ; jgrs gSaA blh rjg] yksdrkaf=kdjktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa Økafrdkjh ny Hkwfexr jgdj yksdra=k dks m[kkM+ isaQdus esa lfØ; jgrs gSaA bl rjgjktuhfrd ny izfr&laxBuksa (counter organization) osQ :i esa vkradoknh xqfjYyk xfrfofèk;ksa ls vkxs c<+djljdkjksa dks myVus osQ fy, "kM~;U=k o Økafr;ksa dk usr`Ro Hkh djrs gSaA

;g nyksa dh O;oLFkk fojksèkh xfrfofèk;ka gSaA ,sls ny] ljdkj dh detksfj;ksa dh [kkst djus] blosQ jktuhfrdo vk£Fkd ladVksa ls ykHk mBkus rFkk ljdkj osQ leFkZdksa dks foHkkftr dj mudks er&Hkz"V djus dk dk;ZHkh djrs gSaA bl izdkj os ,sls ekSdksa dh rkd esa jgrs gSa tc ljdkj dh fdlh dfBukbZ osQ {k.k esa riko~Qls lÙkk gfFk;k ysaA ^rhljs fo'o* osQ jkT;ksa esa vfèkdka'k ny yEch vofèk rd lÙkk esa u vk ikus osQ dkj.k,slh gh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA bu ns'kksa esa fujk'k jktuhfrd usrk nyksa dk lgkjk ysdj rksM+&iQksM+ rd osQ fy,vkxs c<+ tkrs gSaA ,sls yksxksa dks jktuhfrd nyksa esa ^laxBuh vL=k* (organizational weapon) izkIr gks tkrk

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gSA os bl vL=k dk iz;ksx usrkvksa dks cnyus osQ ctk; lEiw.kZ jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dks gh :ikUrfjr djus esagh djrs gSaA vr% jktuhfrd ny] mnkj foi{k ls ysdj mxz fojksèk o LFkkfir O;oLFkk dks m[kkM+ isaQdus osQfy, vkradoknh dk;Z Hkh djrs gSaA

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dh mijksDr lwph fdlh Hkh rjg ifjiw.kZ ugha dgh tk ldrhA jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Zbrus fofoèk gSa fd mudks lwphc¼ fd;k gh ugha tk ldrk gSA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh izÑfr] 'kklurU=k dk <kapk]jktuhfrd izfØ;k dh fo'ks"krk,a rFkk Lo;a nyksa dh lajpukvksa ls buosQ dk;Z fu;fer gksrs gSaA buosQ dk;ks± dkfo'ys"k.k djrs gq, U;weSu us Bhd gh fy[kk gS fd] ¶jktuhfrd ny fopkjksa osQ nyky gSa tks nyh; fl¼kUrksa dkfujUrj Li"Vhdj.k] O;oLFkhdj.k vkSj izlkj djrs jgrs gSaA os lkekftd fgr&lewgksa osQ izfrfufèk gksrs gSa tks O;fDrlekt o leqnk; osQ chp nwjh de djrs gSaA¸ jktuhfrd ny turk dks lkoZtfud iz'uksa vkSj leL;kvksa osQ izfrtkx:d cukrs gSaA ;g foi{k esa jgrs gq, ljdkj dks lpsr o mÙkjnk;h j[krs gSaA vkrrk;h ljdkjksa dks myVusrFkk Økafrdkjh vkanksyuksa dk usrRo djus dk dk;Z rd djus esa ny vkxs jgrs gSaA

fodflr o lqLFkkfir jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Z izfrekfur gks x, gSa] dUrq fodkl'khyjkT;ksa esa buosQ dk;Z vR;fèkd vfu'p; dh voLFkk esa gSaA bu ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd ny fofp=k ls fofp=k dk;Zdjrs gq, ik, x, gSaA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] prqFkZ vke pquko osQ ckn Hkkjr osQ ,d jkT; if'pe caxky esafeyh&tqyh ljdkj osQ ,d ?kVd ekDlZoknh lkE;oknh ny osQ ea=khx.k Lo;a gh ljdkj osQ fojksèk esa gM+rkyij cSB x, FksA vusd vÚhdh jkT;kas esa] jktuhfrd nyksa dh ,slh gh fofp=k Hkwfedk,a jgh gSaaA foèkku e.Myksaesa èkjuksa ls ysdj ¯glkRed izn'kZuksa rd esa jktuhfrd ny lfØ; ik, x, gSaA vr% jktuhfrd nyksa osQ mijksDrdk;Z] budh xfrfofèk;ksa dk ,d lkekU; fo'ys"k.k gh dgs tk ldrs gSaA

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dk ;g foospu Li"V djrk gS fd jktuhfrd nyksa dk gj jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esaosQUnzh; LFkku gksrk gSA os lHkh izdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z djrs gSaA jktuhfrd nyksaosQ fcuk vkèkqfud jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvkas dh dYiuk djuk dfBu gSA mnkjoknh iztkra=kh; laLFkkvksa esajktuhfrd ny fuf'pr :i ls fufgr gksrs gSa vkSj lokZfèkdkjh 'kkluksa esa nyksa ij fuHkZjrk lcls T;knk gksrhgSA ftu jkT;ksa esa ny ugha gksrs ;k ;gka rd fd ,d ek=k ny Hkh ugha gksrk] os vfuok;Z :i ls vuqnkjoknhgksrs gSa vkSj dgk tk ldrk gS fd os jktuhfrd n`f"V ls vfèkd vfLFkj gksrs gSaA ,sls jkT;ksa esa jktuhfrdny Hkwfexr (underground) jgrs gSaA rFkk lhfer vFkks± esa gh mijksDr dk;Z djrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny foghujktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh vfLFkjrk bl ckr dk izek.k gS fd jktuhfrd lektksa esa nyksa dh Hkwfedk,a vR;fèkdegÙo dh gksrh gSaA vr% vkèkqfud jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfrd ny vkèkqfudrk osQ i;kZ; ekus tkldrs gSaA dksbZ Hkh jkT; jktuhfrd nyksa osQ vHkko esa vkèkqfudrk osQ ekxZ ij rsth ls vkxs ugha c<+ ldrkgSA blh dkj.k t;izdk'k ukjk;.k }kjk izfrikfnr ny foghu yksdra=k dk fopkj lS¼kafrdrk ls vkxs ugha c<+ikrk gSA

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;ks± dks ysdj fo}kuksa esa fo'ks"k erHksn ugha gSA ekSf[kd nf"V ls lc izdkj dh ny iz.kkfy;ksaesa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Z ,d ls gh gksrs gSaA muesa ek=kk osQ vUrj gks ldrs gSa fdUrq izdkj osQ vUrj ughagksrs gSaA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dh izÑfr ny iz.kkyh osQ izdkj] lekt dh lewg O;oLFkk rFkk jktuhfrd izfØ;kdh izÑfr ls buosQ dk;ks±_ dk;Z djus dh fofèk;ksa rFkk dk;Z&'kSyh esa FkksM+k vUrj vo'; vkrk gS] fdUrq lkekU;:i esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ mijksDr dk;Z gj lekt O;oLFkk esa lEikfnr gksrs gSaA blh dkj.k vkèkqfud lektksaesa jktuhfrd nyksa dh ,d lw{e jktuhfrd O;oLFkk* (a miniature political system) ;k ,d fu.kZ; izfØ;k*(a decision making process) dgk tkrk gSA

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fjDr LFkkuksa dh iw£r djsa (Fill in the blanks)μ

1- jktuhfrd ny ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa dh vius leFkZdksa ,oa vke turk ls O;k[;k djrk gS-------------- osQ ckjs esa turk dks le>krk gSA

2- -------------- esa mBus okyh ek¡xksa dks ljdkj rd igq¡pkrk gSA

3- ny lÙkk esa cus jgus osQ fy, ;k lÙkk esa vkus osQ fy, --------- dh ij[k esa yxk jgrk gSA

4- jktuhfrd ny -------------- dh lEioZQ dh dM+h gksrs gSaA

5- jktuhfrd ny -------------- osQ vkèkqfudhdj.k esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA


• ny O;oLFkk dk vktdy O;kid vFkZ esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa nyksa dh la[;k] lajpuk]fopkjèkkjk] mudh ikjLifjdrk bR;kfn vusd y{k.kksa dks vkèkkj :i esa fy;k tkus yxk gSA

• yk ikyksEckjk us ny O;oLFkk osQ izdkj dk fuèkkZj.k djrs le; jktuhfrd nyksa osQ fuEufyf[kr y{k.kksadk lanHkZ vko';d ekuk gSμ

(1) jktuhfrd ny dh fo'ks"krk,a o y{k.k]

(2) nyksa osQ ikjLifjd lEcUèk]

(3) ny ;k nyksa dk lekt osQ vU; o`Ùkksa (sectors) ls lEcUèk] vkSj

(4) nyksa dh fØ;kUo;rk dks izHkkfor djus okys rÙoA

• ny O;oLFkkvksa dks bl vkèkkj ij oxhZÑr fd;k tk ldrk gSA yk ikyksEckjk rFkk ekblu ohuj us blhvkèkkj dks ysdj ny O;oLFkkvksa dh nks eksVh Jsf.k;ksa dk mYys[k fd;k gSA muosQ vuqlkj ny O;oLFkkvksadks nks izdkjμizfr;ksxh ny O;oLFkk,a o vizfr;ksxh ny O;oLFkk,aμdh ekuk tk ldrk gSA

• ,DlVhu dh ekU;rk gS fd ny O;oLFkkvksa dks] jktuhfr dh O;kid vkSj mlosQ vU; igyqvksa osQ izfrmudh vuqfØ;kRedrk osQ lUnHkZ esa gh le>k tk ldrk gSA blh rjg ny O;oLFkkvksa dks]lkekftd&lkaLÑfrd 'kfDr;ksa osQ jktuhfrd la;qDrd osQ lkèku osQ :i esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA

• lkjVksjh us Hkh O;oLFkkvksa osQ oxhZdj.k esa osQoy la[;k gh osQ vkèkkj dks Hkzkafriw.kZ dgk gSA mlus nyksaosQ oxhZdj.k esa] buosQ oSpkfjd iQklys] oSpkfjd mxzrk rFkk lÙkk dky ;k muosQ lÙkk esa vkus dhlEHkkouk dks è;ku esa j[kus dh ckr dgh gSA

• ny iz.kkyh osQ vFkZ o nyksa osQ ny&iz.kkfy;ksa esa oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa dk foospu djrs le; ;gckr Li"V gks tkrh gS fd ny O;oLFkk dk loZlEer vFkZ ugha fd;k tk ldrkA blh rjg ny O;oLFkkosQ oxhZdj.k osQ vkèkkjksa ij Hkh fo}kuksa esa i;kZIr erHksn fo|eku gSaA

• ,dnyh; i¼fr og O;oLFkk gS ftlesa osQoy ,d gh jktuhfrd ny dk vfLrRo jgrk gSA vfuok;Z :ils ljdkj ij mlh ny dk vfLrRo jgrk gSA vfèkdkjoknh rFkk lkE;oknh_ tSls ukth teZuh] iQkflLVbVyh] Lisu] lksfo;r :l] lkE;oknh phu vkfn esa ,slh O;oLFkk ik;h tkrh gSA

• tura=k lEiw.kZ turk dk 'kklu gS] fofHkUu oxks± dk ughaA

• ,dnyh; O;oLFkk ls turk esa foHkktu rFkk xqVcanh dk Mj Hkh [kRe gks tkrk gSA jk"Vªh; ,drk cuh jgrhgSA bl O;oLFkk esa fojksèkh ny dk vHkko jgrk gSA

• ysfdu bl i¼fr esa vusd =kqfV;k¡ Hkh ik;h tkrh gSaA ;g i¼fr viztkrkaf=kd gSA iztkra=k dk vkèkkjokn&fookn rFkk fopkjèkkjkvksa dk Vdjko gSA ysfdu ,dnyh; O;oLFkk esa fopkj dk cgqeq[kh fodkl ughagks ldrkA

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• ljdkj dh ,dkadh uhfr turk ij yknh tkrh gSA jk"Vªh; fgr vkfn vksV esa iM+ tkrk gS rFkk nyh; fgrdh izèkkurk gks tkrh gSA la{ksi eas] tura=k dk fouk'k gks tkrk gS vkSj ns'k dh mUufr vo#¼ gks tkrh gSA

• nks izeq[k nyksa esa cgqer ny lÙkk:<+ jgrk gS vkSj vYier fojksèkh ny dk dke djrk gSA bl i¼frdk loksZÙke mnkgj.k fczVsu rFkk la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk gSA ;g iz.kkyh iztkrkaf=kd gSA

• fojksèkh ny osQ gksus ls lÙkk:<+ ny fujaoqQ'k vkSj LosPNkpkjh ugha gks ikrkA

• bl i¼fr dk lcls cM+k nks"k ;g gS fd 'kklu ij cgqer ny dk ,dkfèkdkj gks tkrk gS] eaf=keaMydh rkuk'kkgh dh LFkkiuk gks tkrh gSA laln dh fLFkfr detksj iM+ tkrh gSA eaf=keaMy gk¡ esa gk¡feykusokyk ,d lHkk ek=k jg tkrk gS fuokZpdksa dks ernku dh Lora=krk ugha jg tkrh] D;kafd ckè;gksdj mUgsa nks esa ls fdlh ,d ny dks er nsuk gh iM+rk gSA

• cgqnyh; i¼fr mls dgrs gSa tgk¡ vusd jktuhfrd ny gksrs gSa vkSj ,d ls vfèkd ny izHkko'kkyh jgrsgSaA fdlh ,d ;k nks nyksa dh izèkkurk ugha jgrh cfYd lHkh ny led{k gksrs gSaA fdlh ,d ny dksfoèkkueaMy esa bruk izfrfufèkRo izkIr ugha gksrk fd og ljdkj cuk losQA dbZ ny feytqydj ljdkjdk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA la;qDr eaf=keaMy (Coalition Ministry) cuk;k tkrk gSA

• bl i¼fr dk lcls cM+k nks"k ;g gS fd blosQ varxZr cuk;h x;h la;qDr ljdkj vR;Ur vLFkk;h gksrhgSA iydksa esa ljdkj curh&fcxM+rh jgrh gSA

• izfrfufèk ljdkj dh liQyrk jktuhfrd nyksa osQ vfLrRo ij gh fuHkZj djrh gSA ;g iwjs ns'k dh turkdks fdlh lkekU; fl¼karksa osQ leFkZu esa ijLij feydj dke djus ;ksX; cukrh gSA

• jktuhfrd nyksa dk rhljk egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z 'kklu&vaxksa esa leUo; o ljdkj osQ fu;a=k.k dk gSA ,iLVhu(EPS-TEIN) us viuh iqLrd ¶iksfyfVdy ikVhZ”k bu oSLVuZ MseksozsQlht* esa nyksa osQ bl dk;Z dks lokZfèkdegÙo dk crkrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ¶ny jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa fu.kZ; ysus vkSj vius vkidks 'kkfey djusosQ mís'; osQ fy, laxBu o leUo; dh vko';drk osQ izfr vuqfØ;k gSA¸

• jktuhfrd nyksa dk ,d dk;Z ljdkj rFkk turk osQ chp lEioZQ LFkkfir djuk gSA os fuokZpd&lewgdks tkudkjh iznku djus] izf'kf{kr djus vkSj lfØ; cukus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA jktuhfrd :i ls vis{kkÑrfuf"Ø; yksxksa ls lEioZQ j[kus vkSj fofHkUu uhfr;ksa osQ izfr muesa ltxrk mRiUu djus o muls mu uhfr;ksadk leFkZu ikus osQ fy, os tu lEioZQ ekè;eksa rFkk LFkkuh; laxBuksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA


mPNà[ky % e;kZnkfoghu] e;kZnkvksa dks yka?kukA

er oSfHkU; % vyx&vyx fopkjA

mn~cq¼ % txuk] crkuk] tkx:d djukA


1- nyh; O;oLFkk dk D;k vFkZ gS\ O;k[;k dhft,A

2- nyh; O;oLFkk osQ oxhZdj.k dks Li"V djrs gq, blosQ izdkjksa dk foospu dhft,

3- nyh; O;oLFkk osQ dk;ks± dk o.kZu dhft,A

4- nyh; O;oLFkk osQ xq.kksa ,oa nks"kksa dk foospu dhft,A

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1. ljdkj osQ dk;ks± 2. jktuhfrd O;oLFkk 3. yksder 4. ljdkj vkSj turk

5. jktuhfrd O;oLFkkA






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bdkbZμ11% ncko lewg (Pressure Groups)


mís'; (Objectives)


11.1 ncko lewg dk vFkZ (Meaning of Pressure Groups)

11.2 jktuhfrd ny vkSj ncko lewg esa vUrj (Distinction between Political Parties and Pressure

Groups)

11.3 ncko lewg dh Hkwfedk (Role of Pressure Groups)





mís'; (Objectives)


ncko lewg dh Hkwfedk ,oa mlosQ vFkZ dks le>us esaA

ncko lewg vkSj jktuhfrd nyksa osQ chp vUrj dh O;k[;k djus esaA


ncko&lewg vkèkqfud yksdrU=k osQ vfHkUu vax gSA yksdrU=kh; ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ fodkl osQ lkFk&lkFkncko vFkok fgr lewgksa dk fodkl gqvk gSA izk;% lHkh fodflr vkSj vfodflr ns'kksa esa tgk¡ yksdrkaf=kdO;oLFkk gS ncko&lewg ns'k dh jktuhfr esa egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSA baxySaM vkSj Hkkjr tSls ns'kksa esa vktbudh Hkwfedk egÙoiw.kZ gks x;h gSA

ncko&lewg vesfjdh jktuhfrd&O;oLFkk dh nsu gSA ;|fi vesfjdh x.kra=k dh LFkkiuk osQ lkFk gh os iSnk gksx;s Fks ysfdu chloha lnh es budh Hkwfedk vfèkd egÙoiw.kZ gks x;hA vkt vesfjdk osQ jktuhfrd thou esa budkegÙo bruk vfèkd c<+ x;k gS fd ljdkj rFkk foèkk;d budh mis{kk ugha dj ldrsA fgr&lewgksa dk fodkliztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa chloha lnh osQ izkjEHk esa gs; n`f"V ls ns[kk tkrk FkkA mUgsa ,d cqjh 'kfDr ekuh tkrh Fkh vkSjiztkra=k osQ fy, ?kkrd le>k tkrk FkkA ysfdu vc fLFkfr cny x;h gS vkSj ncko rFkk fgr lewgksa dks vko';dcqjkbZ osQ :i esa Lohdkj fd;k tkus yxk gSA mUgsa jktuhfrd fØ;k'khyrk osQ fy, vko';d le>k tkrk gSA budkmís'; jktuhfrd nyksa dh Hkk¡fr lÙkk dks izkIr djuk ugha gksrk] oju~ lÙkk:<+ ny dh uhfr;ksa dks vius i{k esaizHkkfor djuk gksrk gSA ;s O;fDrxr laxBu (Private Organisation) gksrs gSa tks fo'ks"k lkekftd vk£Fkd vkSjO;kolkf;d fgrksa dh j{kk osQ fy, fØ;k'khy jgrs gSaA jktuhfrd {ks=k osQ uhfr&fuèkkZj.k vkSj iz'kklu ij fnu&izfrfnubudk izR;{k vkSj vizR;{k izHkko c<+rk tk jgk gSA vr% vkt osQ yksdrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa ncko fgr lewgksa dk vè;;uHkh yksdfiz; vkSj #fpdj fo"k; gks x;k gSA

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bdkbZ—11% ncko lewg


11-1 ncko lewg dk vFkZ (Meaning of Pressure Groups)

lekt esa fofHkUu izdkj osQ fgr ik;s tkrs gSa] tSlsμetnwj] Ñ"kd] m|ksxifr] f'k{kd O;olk;h vkfnA tc dksbZNksVk vFkok cM+k fgr laxfBr :i èkkj.k dj ysrk gS rc mls fgr&lewg (Interest Group) dgk tkrk gSA bllewg dk mís'; vius lnL;ksa osQ fofoèk lkekftd] vk£Fkd vkSj O;kolkf;d fgrksa dh j{kk djuk gksrk gSA tcdksbZ fgr&lewg vius mís';ksa dh iw£r osQ fy, ljdkj ls lgk;rk pkgus yxrk gS ;k vius lnL;ksa osQ fgrksa osQvuqowQy osQ fuekZ.k vkSj l'kkasèku osQ fy, foèkk;dksa dks izHkkfor djus yxrk gS rc mls ncko lewg (Pressure

Group) dgk tkrk gSA ek;ju fcuj us ncko lewg dh ifjHkk"kk nsrs gq, fy[kk gS fd ncko&xqV vFkokfgr&lewg ls gekjk vfHkizk; ,sls fdlh ,sfPNd :i ls laxfBr lewg ls gksrk gS tks ljdkj laxBu ls ckgj jgdjljdkjh vfèkdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr] ljdkj dh uhfr] blosQ iz'kklu rFkk blosQ fu.kZ; dks izHkkfor djus dk iz;Rudjrk gSA¸ bu lewgksa dks ncko&lewg ;k fgr&lewg blfy, dgk tkrk gS fd budk fuekZ.k fo'ks"k fgrksa dh j{kkosQ fy, gksrk gS vkSj ;s vius izfrfufèk;ksa osQ ekè;e ls foèkk;dksa osQ lkFk lEioZQ LFkkfir djrs gSa rFkk mu ijfdlh foèkk;d fo'ks"k osQ i{k vFkok foi{k ls ernku osQ fy, ncko Mkyrs gSaA

dkVZj ,oa gtZ (Carter and Herz) us Hkh fgr rFkk ncko&lewg osQ ckjs esa fy[kk gS fd ¶,d LorU=k lekt osQfgr lewgksa dks LorU=k :i ls laxfBr gksus dh vuqefr gksrh gS vkSj tc ;s lewg ljdkjh ;a=k vkSj izfØ;k ij izHkkoMkyus dk iz;Ru djrs gSa vkSj bl izdkj dkuwuksa] fu;eksa] ykblsal] djkjksi.k rFkk vU; foèkk;h vkSj iz'kkldh;dk;ks± dks vius vuqowQy <kyus dh ps"Vk djrs gSa] rks Li"V gh ;s fgr (interest) ncko&lewg (Pressure Groups)

esa cny tkrs gSaA vc fgr&lewgksa dh xfrfofèk;k¡ ljdkj ij ncko Mkyus dh gks tkrh gSA vksfMxkMZ (Odegard)

us Hkh fy[kk gS] ¶,d ncko&lewg ,sls yksxksa dk vkSipkfjd laxBu gS ftuosQ ,d vFkok leku mís'; ,oa LokFkZgksa vkSj tks ?kVukvksa osQ Øe dks] fo'ks"k :i ls lkoZtfud uhfr osQ fuekZ.k vkSj 'kklu dks blfy, izHkkfor djusdk è;ku djsa fd muosQ fgrksa dh j{kk vkSj o`f¼ gks losQA¸

fgr&lewg lekt esa ik;s tkus okys fo'ks"k fgrksa osQ laxBu gksrs gSa tks vius mís';ksa dh iw£r osQ fy,ljdkj ij ,slh fdlh Hkh uhfr dks viukus osQ fy, ncko Mkyrs gSa tks muosQ fgrksa osQ izfrowQy gksa rFkkvius fgrksa dh iw£r osQ fy, lekpkj&i=kksa] ipkZ] jsfM;ks] O;fDrxr lEioZQ rFkk vU; ekè;eksa osQ }kjkljdkj ij ncko Mkyrs gSa ftl dkj.k mUgsa ncko&lewg dgk tkrk gSA

fgr vFkok ncko&lewg ,sfPNd (voluntary) vkSj xSj&jktuhfrd (non-political) laxBu gksrs gSaA budh lnL;rkdk vkèkkj buosQ lnL;ksa osQ chp leku fgr dh psruk vkSj leku fgr dh of¼ osQ fy, iz;Ru gksrs gSA budk lEcUèkfdlh jktuhfrd ny osQ izR;{; :i ls ugha gksrk vkSj u ;s fdlh jktuhfrd ny osQ vax gksrs gSaA ijUrq ;s viusfgrksa dks ns[krs gq, fdlh&u&fdlh jktuhfrd ny ls viuk lEcUèk vo'; LFkkfir dj ysrs gSaA ncko&lewgjktuhfrd ny dh Hkk¡fr fdlh dk;ZØe osQ vkèkkj ij fuokZpdksa dks izHkkfor ugha djrs oju~ os fdUgha fo'ks"k elyksaesa #fp ysrs gSaA muosQ laxBu dk ekSfyd dkj.k lkekftd] vk£Fkd ;k O;kolkf;d gksrk gS] jktuhfrd ughaA fiQjHkh jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dk mís'; muesa jktuhfrd iwQV yk nsrk gSA vFkkZr~ ncko&lewg iw.kZr% jktuhfrdlaxBu ugha gksrs vkSj u os pquko osQ fy, vius mEehnokj gh [kM+k djrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny u gksrs gq, Hkh os nyksadh Hkk¡fr laxfBr gksrs gSa ftudh futh lnL;rk] mís';] laxBu] ,drk] lkèku vkSj izfr"Bk gksrs gSaA izÑfr mís';vkSj laxBu dh n`f"V ls jktuhfrd nyksa ls os ekSfyd :i ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny esa lHkh O;fDr dkjktuhfrd mís'; ugha gksrkA

jktuhfrd ny dks lHkh oxks± osQ ernkrkvksa dks O;kid leFkZu izkIr gksrk gS tcfd ncko&lewg dks osQoy ,dgh oxZ dkA jktuhfrd ny fuokZpu esa Hkkx ysrs gSa tcfd fgr&lewg fuokZpu esa Hkkx ugha ysrsA jktuhfrd ny

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foèkku&e.My osQ Hkhrj vkSj ckgj nksuksa txg dk;Z djrs gSa tcfd ncko&lewg osQoy foèkku&e.My osQ ckgj dkedjrs gSaA ,d ckj esa O;fDr ,d gh jktuhfrd ny dh lnL;rk izkIr dj ldrk gS tcfd ,d gh O;fDr ,dgh ckj esa dbZ ncko&lewgksa dk lnL; gks ldrk gS vFkkZr~ jktuhfrd nyksa dh vuU; (exclusive) lnL;rk osQfoijhr ijLij&O;kih (over-lapping) lnL;rk ncko&lewg esa ik;h tkrh gSA

jktuhfrd nyksa dk mís'; lÙkk dks izkIr djuk rFkk mlosQ ekè;e ls viuh uhfr;ksa vkSj

dk;ZØeksa dks ykxw djuk gksrk gS tcfd ncko&xqVksa dk mís'; lÙkk dks izkIr djuk

ugha] oju~ vius fgrksa dh j{kk djuk gksrk gSA

(1) ncko ;k fgr&lewg vius mís'; dh iw£r osQ fy, fofHkUu rjhdksa ls dk;Z djrs gSaA os vius ekfld]ikf{kd] lkIrkfgd rFkk nSfud i=k&if=kdk,¡ izdkf'kr djrs gSaA bu i=k&if=kdkvksa esa os vius fgrksa dksturk osQ le{k izLrqr djrs gSa vkSj muosQ i{k esa tuer dk fuekZ.k djosQ ljdkj dks fgrksa osQ vuq:iuhfr;k¡ cukus osQ fy, ckè; djrs gSaA

(2) mudk dk;Z djus dk nwljk rjhdk turk osQ lkFk lhèkk lEioZQ LFkkfir djus dk gS vkSj fdlh Hkh fo/s;dosQ leFkZu vFkok fojksèk osQ fy, turk dks izsfjr djuk gSA blosQ fy, os vYidkyhu vfHk;ku (Short

term campaign) vkSj nh?kZdkyhu vfHk;ku (Long-term campaign) pykrs gSaA vYdkyhu vfHk;kutuer dks fdlh Hkh foèks;d osQ i{k vFkok foi{k esa cukus osQ fy, vkSj nh?kZdkyhu fdlh Hkh leL;kosQ izfr turk osQ ewyHkwr n`f"Vdks.k dks vuqowQy cukus osQ mís'; ls viuk;k tkrk gSA izHkko'kkyh laxBu}kjk izsl] jsfM;ks] Vsyhfotu vkSj fo'ks"kKksa dh lsokvksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

(3) ncko&lewg ijks{k :i ls (indirectly) pquko esa Hkkx ysrs gSaA ;|fi mudk dksbZ mEehnokj pquko esa[kM+k ugha gksrk] fiQj Hkh os fo'ks"k jktuhfrd nyksa vkSj mEehnokjksa dks viuk leFkZu nsrs gSa] blosQfy, os pUnk nsrs gSa rFkk pquko vfHk;kuksa esa Hkkx ysus osQ fy, vius dk;ZdÙkkZ Hkh nsrs gSaA Hkkjr osQvfèkdka'k izeq[k jktuhfrd ny] tSlsμdk¡xzsl] dE;qfuLV vkSj tula?k vius etnwj vkSj Nk=k&laxBu dksekSosQ ij dke es ykrs ns[ks tkrs gSaA nwljh vksj muosQ ;s laxBu Hkh mEehnokj osQ p;u osQ lEcUèk esaizfrfufèkRo dh ek¡x djrs gSaA

(4) ncko&lewg dHkh&dHkh ljdkj ij ncko Mkyus osQ fy, gM+rky rFkk izn'kZuksa dk Hkh vk;kstu djrsgSaA Hkkjr es bl rjhosQ dks cgqr T;knk viuk;k tkrk gSaA [kkldj la?k lHkkvksa] gM+rkyksa rFkk izn'kZuksadk T;knk lgkjk yssrs gSaA

(5) dHkh&dHkh ncko&lewg ,sls foèks;dksa dks tks muosQ fgr osQ izfrowQy gksrs gSa] ikfjr u gksus nsus gsrq U;k;ky;osQ njokts Hkh [kV[kVkrs gSaA cSadksa osQ jk"Vªhdj.k vkSj izhohilZ osQ mUewyu ls lEcfUèkr vè;kns'kksa dksU;k;ky; esa pqukSrh bldk loksZÙke mnkgj.k gSA

(6) ncko vFkok fgr&lewgksa osQ dk;Z djus dk lcls vfèkd lqifjfpr rjhdk yksfcb±x (Lobbying) gSaAvesfjdk esa ;g rjhdk jktuhfrd thou dh egÙoiw.kZ laLFkk cu pqdh gSA izR;sd O;oLFkkfidk lnuosQ lkFk yxs gq, dejs vFkok cjkens dks ykWch vFkok izdks"B dgk tkrk gS] tgk¡ foèkk;d vodk'k osQle; esa vkdj cSBrs gSa vkSj ogk¡ ncko&lewgksa osQ izfrfufèk muls lEioZQ LFkkfir djrs gSa] rFkk mUgsa viusi{k esa izHkkfor djus dh ps"Vk djrs gSaA vfèkdka'k ncko&lewg vius oSèkkfud izfrfufèk;ksa osQ }kjk yksfcb±xdk;Z djkrs gSaA bl rjhosQ dks Hkz"Vkpkj dk rjhdk ekuk tkrk gS D;ksafd foèkk;dksa dks i{k vkSj foi{kesa er Mkyus osQ fy, dksf'k'k ;k fj'or rd nh tkrh gSA orZeku le; esa vesfjdk esa yksfcb±x dh i¼fresa ,d u;k fodkl gqvk gS] ftls xzkl :V~l yksfcb±x (Grass-route lobbying) dgrs gSaA bldk vfHkizk;

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;g gS fd ykWch foèkkf;dk lHkk osQ lnL;ksa dks izHkkfor djus osQ fy, muosQ foèkkulHkk&{ks=k osQ ernkrkvksals rkj] i=k vFkok VsyhiQksu vkfn djokrs gSaA vesfjdk es yksfcb±x osQ c<+rs gq, oqQizHkko dks jksdusosQ fy, dbZ dkuwu cuk;s x;s] fiQj Hkh ykWfc;k¡ ogk¡ osQ jktuhfrd thou esa dkiQh izHkko'kkyh gSA Hkkjresa ;|fi ykWch dk izpyu cgqr vfèkd ugha gS] fiQj Hkh m|ksxifr;ksa rFkk O;kolkf;;ksa osQ ncko&lewgbl rjhosQ dks viukus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA foèks;dksa osQ fuekZ.k] ykblsal nsus] fdlh foèks;d osQ i{k;k foi{k esa cksyus osQ fy, Hkkjr esa foèkk;dksa dks ?kwl nsrs gq, ;k muosQ lxs lEcfUèk;ksa dks ukSdfj;k¡nsrs gq, os ik;s x;s gSaA dbZ ckj ,sls ekeyksa dk laln~ vkSj foèkkulHkkvksa ;k muosQ ckgj inkZiQk'k Hkhgqvk gSA

ncko&lewgksa dks Hkz"Vkpkj dk vM~Mk dgk tkrk gSA os xyr <ax ls izHkko Mkyus dk rjhdk viukrs gSaA blosQ fy,os fo'kky èku&jkf'k [kpZ djrs gSa_ ?kwl vkSj fj'or nsrs gSa] foèkk;dksa dks rjg&rjg osQ ykyp nsrs gSaA vesfjdkosQ fgr&lewgksa osQ ckjs esa fy[krs gq, izks- oh- vks- dh- (V. O. Key) us dgk gS fd ¶;s fgr&lewg foèkk;dksa osQfy, vPNh&vPNh nkorksa dk vk;kstu djrs gSa] muosQ fy, u'khyh oLrq,¡ eqgSÕ;k djrs gSaA ;gh ugha] os foèkk;dksaosQ fy, nqjkpkjh fL=k;ksa dk izcUèk djrs gSa] ftUgsa ykWch dh rjiQ ls osru feyrk gSA¸ blh dkj.k vesfjdk esa ;geglwl fd;k tkus yxk gS fd ncko&lewgksa us ogk¡ jktuhfrd vuSfrdrk] Hkz"Vkpkj rFkk vU; izdkj dhvfu;ferrkvksa dks c<+kok fn;k gSA Hkkjr esa Hkh ncko&lewg dh cqjkb;k¡ Li"V gksus yxh gSaA ns'k esa vfèkdka'k gM+rkyvkSj izn'kZu bUgha osQ }kjk vk;ksftr fd;s tkrs gSa] ;s laln~ osQ lnL;ksa dks vuSfrd <ax ls izHkkfor djrs gq, ik;sx;s gSaA fiQj Hkh ncko&lewg vkèkqfud yksdrU=k osQ LokHkkfod vax cu pqosQ gSaA

ncko&lewg dh fo'ks"krk,¡ (Characteristics of Pressure Groups)

ncko&lewg viuh izÑfr ls fgr&lewgksa dh rjg u rks iw.kZr% vjktuhfrd gksrs gSa vkSj u gh nyksa dh rjg iw.kZr%jktuhfrd gksrs gSaA ncko&lewgksa osQ oqQN fof'k"V y{k.k gksrs gSa tks bUgsa vU; laxBuksa ls vyx djrs gSaA la{ksiesa ;s y{k.k fuEufyf[kr gSaμ

(1) vkSipkfjd laxBuμvkSipkfjd :i ls laxfBr O;fDr&lewgksa dks ncko&lewg dgk tkrk gSA O;fDr;ksaosQ fdlh Hkh lewg dks ncko&lewg ugha dgk tk ldrk D;ksafd ,sls laxBu dk vkSipkfjd gksuk t:jhgSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa lewg osQ fgrksa dh izkfIr osQ fy, vkSipkfjd <ax ls fuokZfpr ;k euksuhr O;fDr;ksa dhO;oLFkk blesa gksA vr% ncko&lewg osQ vius fu;e] lnL;rk 'kqYd] lfefr vkSj dk;Zdkfj.kh gksrh gSAbldk dk;Z jktuhfrd izfØ;k dks vius fgrksa dh iw£r osQ fy, fo'ks"k :i ls izHkkfor djus dk gSA vr%ncko&lewg dk izFke y{k.k bldk vkSipkfjd laxBu gSA

(2) fof'k"V Lofgrμncko&lewgksa osQ fuekZ.k dk eq[; vkèkkj fof'k"V&fgrksa dh izkfIr gksrk gSA fo'ks"k :ils is'ksoj lewg lkekU; fgr dk gh y{; j[krs gSaA ysfdu ,slk ns[kk tkrk gS fd mís';ksa vkSj Lofgrksadh fuf'pr gh O;fDr;ksa dks ncko&lewg esa vkc¼ djrh gSA tc rd O;fDr;ksa osQ lkeus Li"V] fuf'prfgr ugha gksaxs rc rd fdlh Hkh ncko&lewg dk fuekZ.k ugha gks ldrkA

(3) loZO;kih izÑfrμgj rjg dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa ncko&lewgksa dks ns[kk tk ldrk gSA loZlÙkkoknhO;oLFkkvksa esa Hkh ;s ik;s tkrs gSaA yksdrU=k esa ;s egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSaA lkE;oknh O;oLFkkvksaesa Hkh budk vfLrRo ik;k tkrk gSA gkykafd mudh xfrfofèk;k¡ cgqr xqIr gksrh gSaA jktuhfrd ny pqukoksaosQ le; gh lfØ; fn[kkbZ iM+rs gSaA vr% nks pqukoksa osQ chp dh vofèk esa ;s lewg ljdkj vkSj turkosQ vuqlkj osQoy ;g rF; fd ncko&lewg lkE;oknh jkT;ksa esa Hkh gksrs gSa budh loZO;kidrk dk izek.k gSA

(4) ,sfPNd lnL;rkμncko&lewg pw¡fd fo'ks"k fgrksa dh izkfIr osQ fy, laxfBr fd;s tkrs gSaA vr% oghO;fDr bldk lnL; curs gSa ftuosQ fgrksa dh flf¼ buosQ }kjk gksrh gSA iQyr% ncko&lewg dk lnL;cuus osQ fy, fdlh dks etcwj ugha fd;k tk ldrkA ,d O;fDr tc pkgs fdlh ncko lewg ls R;kx&i=k

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ns ldrk gSA blh fo'ks"krk osQ dkj.k ncko&lewg izfr}U}h jktuhfr osQ vkèkkj ij LrEHk cu tkrs gSa vkSjjktuhfr esa vke&turk dh lgHkkfxrk c<+ tkrh gSA

(5) jktuhfrd fØ;k mUeq[kμncko&lewg vius vki esa jktuhfrd laxBu ugha gksrs cfYd [kkl iz'u ijjktuhfrd fØ;k dks izHkkfor djus dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA os u rks pqukoksa esa mEehnokj [kM+k djrs gSa vkSju gh jktuhfrd laxBu cukrs gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa 'kklu ls ckgj jgdj vius fgrksa osQ vuqowQy ljdkjdks izHkkfor djrs gSaA

(6) vfuf'pr dk;Zdkyμncko&lewg LFkk;h ugha gksrsA vr% ;g curs vkSj fcxM+rs jgrs gSaA fgriw£r osQckn ;s lekIr gks tkrs gSaA ysfdu oqQN is'ksoj ncko&lewg LFkk;h :i ls cus jgrs gSaA jk"Vªh; Lrj ijfofHkUu ns'kksa esa VsªM&;wfu;u bldk mnkgj.k gSA fdUrq vfèkdka'k lewg fgr izkfIr osQ ckn lekIr gks tkrs gSaA

ncko lewgksa dks Hkz"Vkpkj dk vM~Mk D;ksa dgk tkrk gS\

11-2 jktuhfrd ny vkSj ncko lewg esa vUrj (Distinction between PoliticalParties and Pressure Groups)

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ lkFk lcls ?kfu"B lEcUèk ncko lewg dk gksrk gSA nksuksa ,d nwljsij brus fuHkZj gSa fd vius mís';ksa dh iw£r esa mUgsa ,d&nwljs dk lg;ksxh gksdj dke djuk iM+rk gSA ysfdubldk vFkZ ;g ugha fd nksuksa ,d nwljs osQ fcuk dke ugha dj ldrsA ifjfLFkfro'k dHkh&dHkh nksuksa esa lg;ksxvkSj dHkh&dHkh fojksèk Hkh ns[kk tkrk gSA oqQN ncko lewg ,d ls vfèkd nyksa osQ lkFk viuk lEcUèk LFkkfirdjrs gSaA vr% lekurkvksa osQ ckotwn jktuhfrd ny vkSj ncko lewg esa vUrj ns[ks tk ldrs gSaA la{ksi esa bunksuksa osQ chp fuEufyf[kr vUrj gS%μ

(d) mís'; lEcUèkh igyk vUrj ncko lewgksa vkSj jktuhfrd nyksa esa ik;k tkrk gSA ncko lewg osQ mís';fof'k"V Li"V vkSj osQoy futh ykHk osQ fy, gksrs gSaA nwljh vksj jktuhfrd nyksa osQ mís'; lkekU; gksrsgaS ftldk lEcUèk lEiw.kZ lekt ls gksrk gSA

([k) dk;Z&{ks=k lEcUèkh nwljk vUrj Hkh bu nksuksa esa ik;k tkrk gSA ncko lewgksa dk dk;Z&{ks=k fof'k"V vkSjleqfpr gksrk gS tcfd jktuhfrd nyksa dk lkekU; vkSj O;kidA ncko lewgksa dk lEcUèk ekuo thouosQ fdlh [kkl igyw ls gh gksrk gS tcfd nyksa dk ekuo thou dh lEiw.kZ xfrfofèk;ksa ls gksrk gSA

(x) lnL;rk lEcUèkh rhljk vUrj Hkh bu nksuksa osQ chp ik;k tkrk gSA ,d gh le; esa ,d O;fDr vusdncko lewgksa dk lnL; gks ldrk gS tcfd ,slh gh fLFkfr esa ,d O;fDr vusd jktuhfrd nyksa dklnL; ugha gks ldrkA

(?k) jktuhfrd izfØ;k osQ ncko&lewg Lo;a vax ugha gksrsA ysfdu ny blh izfØ;k osQ vuqlkj vfèkdkj izkIrdjus dh ps"Vk djrs gSaA os osQoy fu.kZ; izfØ;k dks izHkkfor djrs gSaA nyksa dh rjg Lo;a fu.kkZ;d ughacursA

(M+) pqukoksa ls lhèkk lEcUèk jktuhfrd nyksa dk gksrk gS ncko&lewgksa dk ughaA bl izdkj ncko&lewg dk dksbZviuk fuokZpu&{ks=k ugha gksrkA ysfdu jktuhfrd nyksa dk mís'; lÙkk izkIr djuk gksrk gSA vr% pqukoksaesa os Hkkx ysdj vius izR;kf'k;ksa dks fot;h cukuk pkgrs gSaA

(p) laxBu dks ysdj Hkh ncko&lewg vkSj jktuhfrd nyksa esa vUrj gSA jktuhfrd ny jk"VªO;kikh gksrs gSaA

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ysfdu cgqr de ncko&lewgksa dk Lo:i jk"VªO;kih gksrk gSA nwljh vkSj oqQN ncko&lewg jktuhfrd nyksals Hkh vfèkd O;kid&laxBu okys gksrs gSa tcfd oqQN jktuhfrd ny {ks=kh; vFkok LFkkuh; Lrj rd ghlhfer jgrs gSaA

bu vUrjksa osQ ckotwn ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyuk xyr gS fd nksuksa esa lEcUèk ugha gSA ,slk ekuk tkrk gS fd ncko&lewgksadk :i vR;Ur laxfBr vkSj mudh Hkwfedk lekt esa izHkkodkjh gksrh gS rks jktuhfrd ny Hkh muosQ le{k ckSusyxrs gSaA

iQkbuj us bl lEcUèk esa Bhd gh fy[kk gS fd ¶tgk¡ fl¼kUr vkSj laxBu esa jktuhfrd ny nqcZy gksxsa ogk¡ ncko&lewgcuk;saxs] tgk¡ ncko&lewg 'kfDr'kkyh gksaxs ogk¡ jktuhfrd ny detksj gksaxs vkSj tgk¡ jktuhfrd ny 'kfDr'kkyh gksaxsogk¡ ncko&lewg nck fn;s tk;saxsA¸1 iQkbuj dk ;g dFku ik'pkR; yksdra=kksa ij gh ykxw gksrk gS tgk¡ jktuhfrd nyvkSj ncko&lewg nksuksa gh fodflr gSaA fodkl'khy jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa vkSj ncko&lewgksa dk'kfDr'kkyh laxBu ugha ik;k tkrkA vr% bu ns'kksa esa nksuksa osQ chp dksbZ vUrj ugha fd;k tk ldrkA

ncko&lewgksa dk oxhZdj.k (Classification of Pressure groups)

la[;kRed n`f"V ls vfèkd vkSj izÑfr esa fofHkUurk osQ dkj.k ncko&lewgksa dk oxhZdj.k djuk ,d eqf'dy dkeyxrk gSA oxhZdj.k osQ fuf'pr vkèkkjksa esa ncko&lewgksa dh izÑfr dks tkuuk lpeqp dfBu gSA fiQj Hkh bu lewgksaosQ y{;] laxBu dh izÑfr] vfLrRo dh vofèk] dk;Z {ks=k vkSj fuekZ.k osQ izsjd rÙoksa osQ vkèkkj ij ncko&lewgksadk oxhZdj.k vusd fo}kuksa osQ }kjk fd;k x;k gSA mi;qZDr vkèkkjksa ij ncko&lewg osQ oqQN oxhZdj.k bl izdkjgSaμ

1- dkyZ izsQMfjd dk oxhZdj.kμizsQMfjd us ncko lewgksa dks nks oxks± esa foHkkftr fd;k gSμ(d) lkekU;ncko&lewg&lkekU; fgrksa dks vkèkkj ekudj pyus okys lewgksa dks mlus bl Js.kh esa j[kk gSA ([k) fof'k"Vncko&lewgμfdlh [kkl ;k fo'ks"k fgr dh izkfIr osQ fy, dke djus okys ncko lewgksa dks mlus nwljh Js.khesa j[kk gSA

2- vkWe.M dk oxhZdj.kμvkWe.M us ncko lewgksa dk oxhZdj.k lajpukRed :iksa vkSj fgr lapkj.k osQ vk/kjij fd;k gSA bu nksuksa vkèkkjksa ij mlus ncko&lewg dks fuEufyf[kr pkj oxks± esa j[kk gSA

(d) laLFkkRed ncko lewg (Institutional Pressure groups)μbl oxZ esa vkWe.M us mu lewgksa dks j[kkgS tks fdlh jktuhfrd ny ;k laxBu osQ vUrxZr xzqi osQ :i esa dke djrs gSaA vfrfjDr lewgksa osQ :iesa ;s lsuk vkSj vlSfud lsok esa ik;s tkrs gSaA deZpkfj;ksa osQ bu lewgksa dk mís'; lkekftd vkSjjktuhfrd fgrksa dh iw£r djuk gksrk gSA ;s jktuhfrd] lkekftd] iz'kklfud ;k èkk£ed dk;ks± osQ vykokfgr Lo:ihdj.k dk Hkh dke djrs gSaA vYifodflr ;k vfodflr ns'kksa esa ,sls lewgksa dh la[;k dkiQhde gksrh gS] ysfdu fodflr ns'kksa esa vfèkd la[;k esa ik;s tkrs gSa vkSj izHkkodkjh <ax ls fgr Lo:ihdj.kdk Hkh dk;Z djrs gSaA

([k) izn'kZukRed ;k peRedkfjd ncko&lewg (Anomic Pressure Groups)μ,sls ncko&lewgksa dksvkWe.M us vkdfLd ;k peRdkfjd O;ogkj ls ;qDr ekuk gS D;ksafd ;s izn'kZuksa vkanksyuksa] jSfy;ksa] naxksabR;kfn osQ :i esa izdV gksdj vpkud vius izHkko dk foLrkj djrs gSaA laxfBr o fu;af=kr gksus osQ ckotwn;s jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa ckèkk mRiUu djus ;k mls cny nsus dh {kerk j[krs gSaA Úkal] bVyh] ySfVuvesfjdh] ns'kksa rFkk oqQN vjc ns'kksa esa ,sls ncko&lewg vfèkd izHkko'kkyh gSaA

(x) vleqn;Red ncko&lewg (Non-associational Pressure Groups)μjDr lacaèk] èkeZ ;k oxZ ijijEijkxr <ax ls vkèkkfjr ncko lewg bl oxZ esa j[ks tkrs gSaA bu lewgksa esa vkWe.M us iSrd tkrh; èkk£edo jDr lEcUèkh lewgksa dks LFkku fn;k gSA budh fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd fgr lkèkus dk dke os fujarj ugha djrscfYd vko';drkuqlkj le;≤ ij djrs gSaA ,sls lewgksa dh lajpuk,¡ curh fcxM+rh jgrh gSa vkSj cgqr

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de laxfBr gks ikrh gSaA fofoèkrk ls Hkjs vkèkqfud lektksa esa budk izHkko cgqr lhfer gksrk gSA

(?k) leqn;kRed ncko&lewg (Associational Interst Groups)μfo'ks"k O;fDr;ksa osQ fgrksa dk izfrfufèkRodjus okys ,sls lewgksa dk laxBu vkSipkfjd :i ls gksrk gSA Jfed la?k] O;kikfjd la?k tSls lewg blosQmnkgj.k gSaA ,sls lewg vius lnL;ksa osQ fgrksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrs gSaaA jktuhfrd O;oLFkk }kjk budhdk;Z'kSyh dks ekU;rk iznku dh tkrh gSA ,sls lewg mu lHkh ns'kksa esa ik;s tkrs gSa tgk¡ la?k cukus dkvfèkdkj yksxksa dks lafoèkku }kjk izkIr gksrk gSA

3- CykS.My dk oxhZdj.kμCykS.My us fuekZ.k osQ izsjd rÙoksa osQ vkèkkj ij ncko&lewgksa dk oxhZdj.k fd;kAftu lewgksa dh LFkkiuk osQ tM+ esa O;fDr;ksa osQ lkekftd lEcUèk gksrs gSa mUgsa mlus lkaiznkf;d lewg dgk gS vkSjftu lewgksa dh LFkkiuk osQ ihNs fdlh [kkl y{; dh izsj.kk gks mUgsa mlus lkgp;Z lewg dgk gSA izFke lewg dksiqu% CykS.My us :f<+xr vkSj izFkkxr rFkk nwljs dks laj{k.kkRed vkSj mRFkkukRed mioxkZs± esa ck¡Vk gSA oqQy feykdjCykS.My dk oxhZdj.k fuEufyf[kr gSA

(d) lkEiznkf;d ncko&lewg (Communal Pressure Groups)% lkekftd lEcUèkksa osQ dkj.k CykS.My osQvuqlkj ,sls ncko&lewgksa dk fuekZ.k gksrk gSA bu lEcUèkksa ls lkewfgd ,drk dh Hkkouk fodflr gksrhgS] iQyr% dkykUrj esa yksx Lo;a ,sls lewgksa esa c¡èk tkrs gSaA ;s vkSipkfjd vkSj vukSipkfjd nksuksa :iksaesa laxfBr gksrs gSaA CykS.My us ,sls lewgksa dks fuEufyf[kr nks miHkkxksa esa ck¡Vk gSμ

(i) izFkkxr lewg (Customary Groups)% ftu lewgksa osQ lnL;ksa osQ O;ogkj vkSj dk;Z i¼fr esalkekftd jhfr&fjokt eq[; Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSa mUgsa CykS.My us izFkkxr lewg dgk gSA tkfr;ksavkSj tutkfr;ksa osQ ,sls lewg izFkkxr lewgksa osQ vPNs mnkgj.k gSaA

(ii) laLFkkRed lewg (Institutional Groups)% oqQN laLFkkvksa osQ lnL;ksa osQ ,d lkFk jgus lslkekftd lEcUèkksa osQ vkykok muesa jkxkRed lEcUèk LFkkfir gks tkrs gSaA CykS.My us ,sls lewgksadks laLFkkRed dgk gSA lSfud dY;k.k ifj"knsa] deZpkjh laj{k.k ifj"knsa bR;kfn blosQ mnkgj.k gksldrs gSaA

([k) la?kkRed ;k lkgp;Z lewg (Associatioanl Groups)% CykS.My osQ vuqlkj ,d [kkl y{; dh izkfIrosQ fy, lewgksa dks bl oxZ esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA ,sls lewg fuf'pr y{; ls eqDr gksrs gSa ftlosQ }kjkjktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa lekt dh ek¡xkssa dk izos'k gksrk gSA ;s lewg ek¡xksa osQ lkFk pyrs gSa vkSj vkS|ksfxdfodkl osQ lkFk budh la[;k esa o`f¼ gksrh gSA CykS.My us ,sls lewgksa dks iqu% nks mioxks± esa ck¡Vk gSA

(i) laj{k.kkRed lewg (Protective Groups)% ,sls lewgksa dk mís'; fof'k"V gksrs gq, Hkh O;kidvkSj lkekU; gksrs gSaA ;s vius lnL;ksa osQ lkekU; fgrksa dh j{kk djrs gSaA O;kolkf;d vkSj Jfedla?kksa dks blosQ vUrxZr j[kk tk ldrk gSA

(ii) mRFkkukRed lewg (Promotional Groups)% tc fdlh [kkl n`f"Vdks.k osQ izpkj }kjk lektdks fodflr djus dk y{; j[kdj lewgksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkrk gS rks mUgsa mRFkkukRed lewgdgk tkrk gSA xks&j{kk] ukjh&Lora=krk] fu%'kL=khdj.k vkfn y{;ksa dh izkfIr osQ fy, fu£er lewgksadks bl dksfV esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA

4- jkcVZ lh- cksu dk oxhZdj.k% cksu us lkekU; izÑfr vkSj mís';ksa osQ vkèkkj ij ncko&lewgksa dks nks oxks± esack¡Vk gSA ,d dks mlus ifjfLFkfr&tU; lewg vkSj nwljs dks vfHko`fÙktU; lewg dgk gSA bu nksuksa izdkj osQ lewgksadk laf{kIr foospu fuEufyf[kr gSμ

(d) ifjfLFkfrtU; lewg (Situational Groups)% ,sls ncko&lewg eq[; :i ls vius lnL;ksa dh j{kk vkSjlqèkkj ls lEcfUèkr gksrs gSaA bu lewgksa dk mís'; lkekftd vkSj vk£Fkd n`f"V ls vius lnL;ksa dh fLFkfrdks lqèkkjuk gSA

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cksu dk dguk gS fd bu ncko lewgksa dk fdlh [kkl fopkjèkkjk ls fof'k"V lacUèk ugha gksrkA ;s izÑfrls fof'k"V gksrs gSa vkSj vius lnL;ksa osQ fgrksa dh o`f¼ vkSj j{kk dk Hkh mís'; j[krs gSaA budh dk;Zi¼froSèkkfud gksrh gSA

([k) vfHko`fÙktU; lewg (Attitudinal Groups)% ,sls lewg oqQN ewY;ksa osQ izfr lkekU; :i ls fu"Bk j[krsgSaA ;s 'kkafriw.kZ lqèkkjksa ;k dHkh&dHkh Økafrdkjh rjhdksa ls lekt esa O;kid ifjorZu ykuk pkgrs gSaA ;slewg ifjfLFkfrtU; lewgksa ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA budk dk;ZØe dkyc¼ gksrk gSA de&ls&de le; esa viusy{; dks izkIr djus osQ fy, ljdkj dks etcwr djus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA pw¡fd bu lewgksa osQ mís';vYidkyhu gksrs gSa] vr% ;s rst xfr dh rduhdksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA

jkcVZ lh- csu }kjk fd;k x;k ncko&lewg dk oxhZdj.k lkekU; gksrs gq, Hkh ncko&lewgksa dh izÑfr] laxBu] mís';ksavkSj dk;Z fofèk dks le>us esa lgk;d yxrk gSA

11-3 ncko lewgksa dh Hkwfedk (Role of Pressure Groups)

,slk ns[kk tkrk gS fd ncko&lewgksa dh dksbZ ,d rjg dh dk;Zfofèk ugha gksrh gSA os vusd rjg oQh rduhdksa dkiz;ksx fd;k djrs gSaA lkèkkj.kr% ljdkjh izfØ;k dh lajpuk rFkk izpfyr ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ }kjk ncko lewgksa osQ ekè;els iz;ksx esa yk;h tkus okyh izfofèk;ksa dk fu;eu gksrk gSA ,d gh ncko&lewg fofHkUu ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa fofHkUu izdkjoQh rduhdksa dk mi;ksx dj ldrk gSA ;gk¡ ,d ckr cgqr gh è;ku nsus ;ksX; gS fd ncko lewg ftl fofèk dksvius y{;ksa dh izkfIr esa vfèkd lgk;d ekurk gS] mlh rduhd dk og iz;ksx djrk gSA vkerkSj ij ncko lewgftu rduhdksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSa os fuEufyf[kr gSμ

1- vuqu; (Persuation) 2- lkSnsckth (Bargaining) 3- izR;{k dkjZokbZ (Direct Action)

ncko&lewgksa osQ }kjk dk;Z djus dh fofèk;k¡ muosQ laxBu osQ Lo:i] usrkvksa osQ }kjk vuqu; djus dh {kerk]inkfèkdkfj;ksa vkSj deZpkfj;ksa dk rknkRE;] lnL;ksa dh lkewfgd dk;ks± esa fgLlsnkjh vkSj lewg dh foÙkh; fLFkfr osQ}kjk Hkh fuèkkZfjr gksrh gSA tSls ncko lewg dks lkSnsckth osQ T;knk volj feyrs gSa tcfd NksVs vkSj lkèkughu lewgdks ;k rks vuqu; rd gh lhfer jguk iM+rk gS ;k izR;{k dkjZokbZ djuh iM+rh gSA

vkèkqfud jktuhfrd izfØ;k esa ncko lewgksa dh fo'ks"k Hkwfedk ,oa egÙo gSA izk;% lHkh iztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esancko&lewg ik;s tkrs gSaA dkyZ ts- izsQMfjd us bu lewgksa dks ^ny osQ ihNs lfØ; tu* (The living public

behind the party’s) dgk gSA fdUrq ,d ,slk Hkh le; Fkk tc bu ncko lewgksa dks vuSfrd ekuk tkrk Fkk vkSjmUgsa ?k`.kk dh n`f"V ls ns[kk tkrk FkkA ykWch 'kCn dks gs; n`f"V esa ns[kk tkrk Fkk vkSj bls èkks[kk] Hkz"Vkpkj] cqjkbZbR;kfn dk izrhd ekuk tkrk FkkA

fdUrq le; us djoV yh vkSj yksdra=k osQ fodkl osQ lkFk&lkFk ncko lewgksa osQ egÙo dks Hkh Lohdkj fd;k tkusyxkA vkt bUgsa yksdra=k osQ fy;s u osQoy vko';d gh ekuk tkrk gS cfYd O;fDr osQ fgrksa dk j{kd Hkh le>ktkrk gSA jkT; dks foèkk;h dk;ks± ij ncko lewgksa dk izHkko fnu&izfrfnu c<+rk tk jgk gSA bUgsa foèkkueaMy osQ ihNslHkk eaMy (Legislature behind a legislature) dgk tkrk gSA iQkbuj us ncko lewgksa dks vKkr lkezkT; (The

Anonymous Empire) dgk gSA la{ksi esa bu lewgksa dh c<+rh gqbZ Hkwfedk rFkk egÙo osQ fuEufyf[kr dkj.k gSaμ

1- yksdrkaf=kd izfØ;k dh vfHkO;fDr% ncko lewgksa dks yksdra=k dh vfHkO;fDr dk lkèku ekuk tkrkgSA yksdra=k dh liQyrk osQ fy;s LoLFk tuer rS;kj djuk t:jh gS rkfd fof'k"V uhfr;ksa dk leFkZu;k fojksèk fd;k tk losQA tuer dks f'kf{kr djus osQ vk¡dM+s ,df=kr djus rFkk fofèk fuekZrkvksa osQ iklvko';d lwpuk,¡ igq¡pkdj ncko lewg vius y{; dh izkfIr osQ fy, iz;kl djrs gSaA

2- iz'kklu osQ fy, lwpuk ,d=k djus okyk laxBu% ncko lewgksa dk egÙo 'kklu osQ fy, lwpuk,¡,df=kr djus okys laxBu osQ :i esa Hkh gSA gj ns'k esa ljdkj rFkk iz'kklu osQ ikl vko';d lwpuk,¡

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i;kZIr ek=kk esa gksuh pkfg,A bu lwpukvksa osQ fcuk mfpr uhfr dk fuekZ.k ugha fd;k tk ldrkA 'kkludh lwpukvksa osQ xSj ljdkjh nku osQ :i esa ncko lewg egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSaA

3- iz'kklu dks izHkkfor djus okyk laxBu% ncko lewg vktdy ,d ,slh laLFkk osQ :i esa ifjo£rrgks pqosQ gSa tks 'kklu dks ,d [kkl lhek rd izHkkfor djrh gSaA ncko lewg brus 'kfDr'kkyh vkSjlaxfBr gks pqosQ gSa fd ;s vius LokFkZ vkSj fgr osQ fy, 'kklu O;oLFkk ij mi;ksxh izHkko Mky ldrs gSaA

4- ljdkj dh fujaoqQ'krk dks lhfer djus okyk laxBu% vkèkqfud 'kklu O;oLFkk esa osQUnzh;dj.k dhizo`fÙk c<+us osQ dkj.k lkjh 'kfDr;k¡ osQUnz osQ gkFkksa esa bdV~Bh gksrh tk jgh gSa fdUrq ;s ncko&lewgvius izHkko vkSj 'kfDr;ksa }kjk osQUnzh; fujaoqQ'krk dks lhfer djrs gSaA bl izdkj osQUnz 'kfDr;ksa dknq#i;ksx ugha dj ldrkA

5- iz'kklu vkSj lekt esa larqyu LFkkfir djus okyk laxBu% ncko lewg vius izHkko vkSj vfLrRo}kjk fofHkUu fgrksa esa larqyu LFkkfir djrs gq, fdlh ,d lÙkk dks vR;fèkd izHkko'kkyh gksus ls jksdrsgSaA O;kikjh] fdlku] etnwj] foèkkFkhZ] fL=k;k¡] tkfr vkSj èkk£ed leqnk; lHkh vius&vius fgrksa dh j{kkdjuk pkgrs gSa vkSj bl izdkj bu lewgksa dh izfr;ksfxrk vkSj mifLFkfr ls iz'kklu vkSj lekt esa larqyuLFkkfir gksrk gSA ;g larqyu futh LokFkks± dh o`f¼ ij vaoqQ'k dk dke djrk gSA vr% fofHkUu nckolewg lekt esa larqyudÙkkZ osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gSaA

bl izdkj ncko lewgksa dk egÙo vR;ar O;kid gksrk tk jgk gSA vkèkqfud yksdrkaf=kd lekt esa ;s ncko lewg'kkldksa dks cuus vkSj fcxkM+us dh Hkwfedk Hkh vnk dj jgs gSaA os lÙkk:<+ ny dks euekuh djus ls jksdrs gSa vkSjlekt esa jktuhfrd igjsnkj dk dk;Z djrs gSaA lpeqp ncko lewg vkt dh O;kogkfjd jktuhfrd osQ O;kogkfjdvax cu pqosQ gSa ftUgsa lekIr ugha fd;k tk ldrkA



1- ncko lewgksa dk mís'; osQoy futh ykHk osQ fy, gksrk gS tc --------- osQ mís'; dk lEcUèklEiw.kZ lekt osQ fy, gksrk gSA

2- ,d gh le; esa dksbZ O;fDr vusd jktuhfrd nyksa dk lnL; ugha cu ldrk tcfd dksbZO;fDr ,d gh le; esa ,d ls vfèkd --------- dk lnL; cu ldrk gSA

3- pqukoksa ls lhèkk lEcUèk --------- dk gksrk gSA

4- ncko lewgksa dk egRo 'kklu osQ fy, lwpuk,¡ ,df=kr djus okys --------- osQ :i esa Hkh gSA

5- ncko lewg --------- esa larqyu LFkkfir djus okys laxBu osQ :i esa Hkh dk;Z djrs gSaA


lekt esa fofHkUu izdkj osQ fgr ik;s tkrs gSa] tSlsμetnwj] Ñ"kd] m|ksxifr] f'k{kd O;olk;h vkfnAtc dksbZ NksVk vFkok cM+k fgr laxfBr :i èkkj.k dj ysrk gS rc mls fgr&lewg (Interest Group)

dgk tkrk gSA bl lewg dk mís'; vius lnL;ksa osQ fofoèk lkekftd] vk£Fkd vkSj O;kolkf;d fgrksadh j{kk djuk gksrk gSA tc dksbZ fgr&lewg vius mís';ksa dh iw£r osQ fy, ljdkj ls lgk;rk pkgusyxrk gS ;k vius lnL;ksa osQ fgrksa osQ vuqowQy la'kks/u osQ fy, foèkk;dksa dks izHkkfor djus yxrk gSrc mls ncko lewg (Pressure Group) dgk tkrk gSA

fgr vFkok ncko&lewg ,sfPNd (voluntary) vkSj xSj&jktuhfrd (non-political) laxBu gksrs gSaA budhlnL;rk dk vkèkkj buosQ lnL;ksa osQ chp leku fgr dh psruk vkSj leku fgr dh o`f¼ osQ fy, iz;Rugksrs gSaA budk lEcUèk fdlh jktuhfrd ny ls izR;{k :i ls ugha gksrk vkSj u ;s fdlh jktuhfrd ny

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osQ vax gksrs gSaA ijUrq ;s vius fgrksa dks ns[krs gq, fdlh&u&fdlh jktuhfrd ny ls viuk lEcUèk vo';LFkkfir dj ysrs gSaA

jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ lkFk lcls ?kfu"B lEcUèk ncko lewg dk gksrk gSA nksuksa ,dnwljs ij brus fuHkZj gSa fd vius mís';ksa dh iw£r esa mUgsa ,d&nwljs dk lg;ksxh gksdj dke djuk iM+rkgSA ysfdu bldk vFkZ ;g ugha fd nksuksa ,d nwljs osQ fcuk dke ugha dj ldrsA ifjfLFkfro'k dHkh&dHkhnksuksa esa lg;ksx vkSj dHkh&dHkh fojksèk Hkh ns[kk tkrk gSA

mís'; lEcUèkh igyk vUrj ncko lewgksa vkSj jktuhfrd nyksa esa ik;k tkrk gSA ncko lewg osQ mís';fof'k"V Li"V vkSj osQoy futh ykHk osQ fy, gksrs gSaA nwljh vksj jktuhfrd nyksa osQ mís'; lkekU; gksrsgSa ftldk lEcUèk lEiw.kZ lekt ls gksrk gSA

dk;Z&{ks=k lEcUèkh nwljk vUrj Hkh bu nksuksa esa ik;k tkrk gSA ncko lewgksa dk dk;Z&{ks=k fof'k"V vkSjleqfpr gksrk gS tcfd jktuhfrd nyksa dk lkekU; vkSj O;kidA ncko lewgksa dk lEcUèk ekuo thouosQ fdlh [kkl igyw ls gh gksrk gS tcfd nyksa dk ekuo thou dh lEiw.kZ xfrfofèk;ksa ls gksrk gSA

jktuhfrd izfØ;k osQ ncko&lewg Lo;a vax ugha gksrsA ysfdu ny blh izfØ;k osQ vuqlkj vfèkdkj izkIrdjus dh ps"Vk djrs gSaA os osQoy fu.kZ; izfØ;k dks izHkkfor djrs gSaA nyksa dh rjg Lo;a fu.kkZ;d ughacursA

laxBu dks ysdj Hkh ncko&lewg vkSj jktuhfrd nyksa esa vUrj gSA jktuhfrd ny jk"VªO;kih gksrs gSaAysfdu cgqr de ncko&lewgksa dk Lo:i jk"VªO;kih gksrk gSA nwljh vksj oqQN ncko&lewg jktuhfrd nyksals Hkh vfèkd O;kid&laxBu okys gksrs gSa tcfd oqQN jktuhfrd ny {ks=kh; vFkok LFkkuh; Lrj rd ghlhfer jgrs gSaA

vkèkqfud jktuhfrd izfØ;k esa ncko lewgksa dk fo'ks"k egÙo gSA izk;% lHkh iztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa ncko&lewgik;s tkrs gSaA

fdUrq ,d ,slk Hkh le; Fkk tc bu ncko lewgksa dks vuSfrd ekuk tkrk Fkk vkSj mUgsa ?k`.kk dh n`f"Vls ns[kk tkrk FkkA

fdUrq le; us djoV yh vkSj yksdra=k osQ fodkl osQ lkFk&lkFk ncko lewgksa osQ egÙo dks Hkh Lohdkjfd;k tkus yxkA vkt bUgsa yksdra=k osQ fy;s u osQoy vko';d gh ekuk tkrk gS cfYd O;fDr osQ fgrksadk j{kd Hkh le>k tkrk gSA jkT; dks foèkk;h dk;ks± ij ncko lewgksa dk izHkko fnu&izfrfnu c<+rk tk jgkgSA bUgsa foèkkueaMy osQ ihNs lHkk eaMy (Legislature behind a legislature) dgk tkrk gSA

ncko lewgksa dks yksdra=k dh vfHkO;fDr dk lkèku ekuk tkrk gSA yksdra=k dh liQyrk osQ fy;s LoLFktuer rS;kj djuk t:jh gS rkfd fof'k"V uhfr;ksa dk leFkZu ;k fojksèk fd;k tk losQA

ncko lewgksa dk egÙo 'kklu osQ fy, lwpuk,¡ ,df=kr djus okys laxBu osQ :i esa Hkh gSA gj ns'k esaljdkj rFkk iz'kklu osQ ikl vko';d lwpuk,¡ i;kZIr ek=kk esa gksuh pkfg,A

ncko lewg vktdy ,d ,slh laLFkk osQ :i esa ifjo£rr gks pqosQ gSa tks 'kklu dks ,d [kkl lhekrd izHkkfor djrh gSaA ncko lewg brus 'kfDr'kkyh vkSj laxfBr gks pqosQ gSa fd ;s vius LokFkZ vkSjfgr osQ fy, 'kklu O;oLFkk ij mi;ksxh izHkko Mky ldrs gSaA

vkèkqfud 'kklu O;oLFkk esa osQUnzh;dj.k dh izo`fÙk c<+us osQ dkj.k lkjh 'kfDr;k¡ osQUnz osQ gkFkksa esa bdV~Bhgksrh tk jgh gSa fdUrq ;s ncko&lewg vius izHkko vkSj 'kfDr;ksa }kjk osQUnzh; fujaoqQ'krk dks lhfer djrsgSaA bl izdkj osQUnz 'kfDr;ksa dk nq#i;ksx ugha dj ldrkA

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ncko lewg vius izHkko vkSj vfLrRo }kjk fofHkUu fgrksa esa larqyu LFkkfir djrs gq, fdlh ,d lÙkkdks vR;fèkd izHkko'kkyh gksus ls jksdrs gSaA O;kikjh] fdlku] etnwj] fo|kFkhZ] fL=k;k¡] tkfr vkSj èkk£edleqnk; lHkh vius&vius fgrksa dh j{kk djuk pkgrs gSa vkSj bl izdkj bu lewgksa dh izfr;ksfxrk vkSjmifLFkfr ls iz'kklu vkSj lekt esa larqyu LFkkfir gksrk gSA


izfofèk % fofHkUu fofèk;k¡ vFkok rduhosaQA

vuqu; % izkFkZuk djukA


1- ncko lewg dk D;k vFkZ gS\ le>kb;sA

2- jktuhfrd ny vkSj ncko lewg esa vUrj Li"V dhft,A

3- ncko lewg dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk esa D;k Hkwfedk gS\ Li"V dhft,A

4- ncko lewgksa dks ¶foèkku eaMy osQ ihNs foèkku lHkk eaMy¸ (Legislature behind a legislature) dgktkrk gSA D;ksa\ Li"V dhft,A


1. jktuhfrd ny 2. ncko lewg laxBuksa 3. jktuhfrd nyksa 4. laxBu

5. iz'kklu vkSj lektA






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bdkbZμ12% çfrfufèkRo dh jktuhfr vkSj lgHkkfxrk


bdkbZμ12% çfrfufèkRo dh jktuhfr vkSj lgHkkfxrk(Politics of Representation and Participation)


mís'; (Objectives)


12-1 çfrfufèkRo ç.kkyh dk fodkl vkSj fl¼kar (Development and Theory of Representation

System)

12-2 lgHkkfxrk vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Participation and Election System)

12-3 fczVsu&vesfjdk&Úkal vkSj fLoV~tjySaM esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Representation and

Election System in UK, USA, France and Switzerland)





mís'; (Objectives)


çfrfufèkRo ç.kkyh osQ fodkl vkSj fl¼kar dh O;k[;k djus esaA

fczVsu] vesfjdk] izQkal vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa izfrfufèkRo iz.kkyh vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk dh foospuk esaA


vkèkqfud dky esa Lora=k vkSj çtkrkaf=kd ns'kksa dh ç.kkyh dk vkèkkj çfrfufèkRo gSA çkphu dky esa jkT;NksVs&NksVs gksrs Fks vkSj vfèkdka'k jkT; dk Lo:i jktra=kh; FkkA vr% bu jkT;ksa osQ 'kklu&lapkyu esa turkdk dksbZ fo'ks"k gkFk ugha jgrk FkkA çk;% jktk vkSj mlosQ }kjk fu;qDr deZpkjh 'kklu dk lapkyu djrs FksAxzhl ;k oS'kkyh& tSls NksVs&eksVs jkT; esa gh lEHko gSA vkèkqfud jkT; çk;% {ks=k rFkk tula[;k esa dkiQh cM+sgksrs gSaA bldh fo'kkyrk osQ dkj.k jkT; osQ çR;sd ukxfjd dk çR;{k :i ls 'kklu&dk;Z esa Hkkx ysuk vlEHkogks tkrk gSA blfy, çfrfuè;kRed çtkrU=k (Representative Democracy) ç.kkyh dk vkfo"dkj gqvk gSA blrjg osQ jkT; esa turk vius çfrfufèk;ksa dks pqurh gS vkSj os çfrfufèk dk lapkyu djrh gSa vr% çfrfufèk;ksaosQ pquus osQ vfèkdkj dks eq[;r% fuokZpu dk vfèkdkj dgrs gSaA ;g ukxfjdksa dk çeq[k vfèkdkj gks x;k gSArkRi;Z ;g fd fuokZpu&O;oLFkk dh dYiuk eq[;r% vkèkqfud gSA fo'kky vkèkqfud çtkrkaf=kd jkT;ksa osQ dkj.kbldk tUe gqvkA

la{ksi esa vkèkqfud ;qx esa fuokZpu ,d vR;Ur egÙoiw.kZ jktuhfrd çfØ;k gSA gj çfrfuè;kRed ljdkj esafuokZpdksa rFkk fuokZpu&{ks=kksa dk laxBu vkSj fuokZpu çfØ;k dkiQh egÙoiw.kZ ç'u gks x;s gSaA bUgs vkèkqfudçtkrkfU=kd i¼fr dk vkèkkj dguk vfr'k;ksfDr ugha gksxhA

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12-1 çfrfufèkRo ç.kkyh dk fodkl vkSj fl¼kar (Development and Theory ofRepresentation System)

çfrfufèkd ç.kkyh dk fodkl (Growth of the Representation System)%&

ek.VsLD;w (Montesqieu) osQ fopkj esa fo'kq¼ çfrfufèk dh dYiuk vkèkqfud gSA çkphu dky osQ yksxksa dksfo'kq¼ çfrfufèk dh dYiuk ugha FkhA jktk gh dkuwu cukrk FkkA ;fn dHkh lewg ,df=kr gksrk Hkh Fkk rks ogturk dk gksrk Fkk mlosQ çfrfufèk;ksa osQ ughaA :lks (Rousseau) dk Hkh dguk gS fd çfrfufèkRo dh dYiukvkèkqfud gSA bldh mRifÙk dk dkj.k ljdkjksa dh LosPNkpkfjrk FkhA fiQj Hkh dgk tk ldrk gS fd çkphuçtkrkfU=kd jkT;ksa esa bldh FkksM+h cgqr 'kq:vkr gks pqdh FkhA ysfdu eè;dkyhu ;qx esa ;g Li"V :i lsn`f"Vxkspj gksus yxhA tc dqN jktkvksa dks èku dh vko';drk gksrh Fkh] rks os djkjksi.k osQ lEcUèk esa eU=k.kkysus osQ fy, dqN tu&çfrfufèk;ksa dks vkeafU=kr djrs FksA çfrfufèk;ksa osQ lewg us èkhjs&èkhjs çfrfufèk laLFkk dk:i xzg.k dj fy;kA ftls baXySaM esa laln (Parliament)] Úkal esa LVsVl tujy (Estates General) rFkk tkikuesa Mk;V (Diet) dgk tkrk FkkA bu laLFkkvksa rFkk jktkvksa osQ chp lfn;ksa rd la?k"kZ pyrk jgk] jktkvksa dh'kfDr {kh.k gksus yxh rFkk çfrfufèk laLFkkvksa dh 'kfDr c<+us yxhA 1213 bZ- esa bl çdkj dh lHkk cqyk;hA1256 bZñ esa cSjuksa osQ fot;&lÙkk lkbeu&Mh ekaViQksMZ (Simon de-Montford) us laln~ dh cSBd cqyk;h ftlesalkeUrksa] iknfj;ksa vkSj dkmf.V;ksa osQ çfrfufèk;ksa osQ vfrfjDr 21 uxjksa (Boroughs) ls Hkh nks&nks çfrfufèkvkeafU=kr gq,A igyh ckj laln dh çfrfuè;kRed çd`fr dks bruk O;kid vkSj ØkfUrdkjh :i fn;k x;kA1295bZñ esa ,MoMZ çFke us laln~ dh cSBd cqyk;hA ;g bfrgkl esa vkn'kZ laln~* (Model Parliament) osQ ukels fo[;kr gS] D;ksafd 400 O;fDr;ksa dh bl lHkk esa çk;% lHkh çeq[k oxks±&oSju] iknjh] ukbV] uxj vkfn dksçfrfufèkRo feykA blosQ i'pkr~ fczfV'k O;oLFkk dk og ,d LFkkuh; vkSj vfuok;Z vax cu x;hA rRi'pkr~V~;wMj vkSj LVqvVZ dky esa laoSèkkfud rFkk jktuSfrd Økafr;k¡ pyrh jgha ftlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i laln~ vfèkd'kfDr'kkyh rFkk çfrfuè;kRed curh x;ha vBkjgoha 'krkCnh esa lezkV~ ,d laoSèkkfud çèkku ek=k jg x;k vkSjlaln~ iw.kZ lkoZHkkSe gks x;hA mUuhloha rFkk orZeku 'krkCnh esa ;g fodkl iw.kZ gks x;kA

baXySaM esa 'kq: ls gh laln~ dk :i va'kr% çfrfuè;kRed (Representative) jgk gS] D;ksafd uxjksa vkSj lkeUrksaosQ çfrfufèk fdlh&u&fdlh :i esa pqus tkrs FksA baXySaM osQ fy, çfrfufèkRo dk fl¼kar dksbZ u;k fl¼kar ughaFkkA laln ls iwoZ LFkkuh; laLFkkvksa esa bldk ç;ksx gksus yxk FkkA ;g dguk xyr gksxk fd çfrfufèkRo i¼frdk mn; teZuh osQ taxyks esa vkSj fodkl lSDlu ;qx osQ baXySaM esa gqvk ftls ckn esa lalnh; laLFkkvksa esa bldkç;ksx gksus yxk FkkA eè;;qxhu laln dh lnL;rk vfèkdkj dh vis{kk dfBu vkSj nq%[knk;h Fkh] dSn vkSj gR;kdk Hk; cuk jgrk Fkk] lnL;rk fdlh osQ flj ij tcjnLrh e<+h tkrh FkhA vr% lPph çfrfuè;kRed ljdkjdh LFkkiuk orZeku dky esa gqbZA ysfdu bldh uhao o`gr~ lHkk esa dkmUVh vkSj ckSjksa dks çfrfufèkRo nsus osQ lkFkiM+ pqdh FkhA blosQ mn; dk dkj.k Lora=krk ;k Lo'kklu osQ çfr çse ugha] cfYd jktkvksa dh dj çkIr djusdh 'kfDr dk fojksèk FkkA

baXySaM dh Hkk¡fr vU; ns'kksa esa çfrfufèkd laLFkkvksa dh LFkkiuk dh rFkk 'kfDr gLrkUrfjr djus osQ fy, la?k"kZçkjEHk gqvkA Úkal dh xkSjoiw.kZ Økafr (Glorious Revolution) us çfrfuè;kRed ç.kkyh dh LFkkiuk dh fn'kkesa ,d egku la?k"kZ fd;kA vejhdh mifuos'kksa us ^fcuk çfrfufèkRo osQ dj ugha* (No taxation without

representation) dk ukjk yxk;k rFkk vUr esa yksdra=k çfrfuè;kRed ljdkj dh LFkkiuk esa liQy gq,A fo'oosQ vU; ns'kksa esa Hkh çfrfufèkd laLFkkvksa dh LFkkiuk osQ fy, vkUnksyu gq,A bldk ifj.kke ;g fudyk fdyksdrU=kh; rFkk vfèkuk;doknh ns'kksa esa leku :i ls çfrfuèkkRed ç.kkyh viuk;h tk jgh gSA

izkphu rFkk eqxydkyhu Hkkjr esa njckj izFkk osQ vUrxZr tkxhjnkjksa rFkk lkeUrksa dks vkeaf=kr fd;k tkrk Fkk]

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ysfdu mUgsa izfrfufèk dk LFkku izkIr ugha FkkA 1857 bZ- osQ foæksg osQ ckn fczfV'k ljdkj us Hkh eglwl fd;kfd Hkkjrh;ksa osQ lg;ksx osQ fcuk 'kklu pykuk vlEHko gSA vr% Hkkjrh; ifj"kn~ vfèkfu;e 1861 osQ }kjkxouZj&tujy rFkk xouZjksa dh ifj"knksa esa Hkkjrh;ksa dks LFkku fn;k x;kA iqu% 1892 bZ- esa Hkkjrh; ifj"kn~ vfèkfu;e}kjk Hkkjrh;ksa dh la[;k esa o`f¼ dh x;h rFkk ijks{k fuokZpu iz.kkyh dh O;oLFkk dh x;hA ekysZ&fe.Vks lqèkkj]1909 bZú osQ }kjk Hkkjrh;ksa osQ izfrfufèkRo dks c<+k fn;k x;k rFkk eqlyekuksa osQ fy, i`Fkd fuokZpu dh O;oLFkkdh x;hA ekW.Vsx;w&psEliQksMZ lqèkkj] 1919 bl fn'kk esa ,d izeq[k dne FkkA bldk y{; Øe'k% mrjnk;h 'kkludh LFkkiuk FkkA 'kklu osQ gLrkarfjr (Transfered) Hkkx dks izfrfufèk;ksa osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h eaf=k;ksa osQ gkFk esalkSai fn;k x;kA bl vfèkfu;e dh ,d izeq[k fo'ks"krk ;g Fkh fd lkEiznkf;d rFkk oxhZ; fgrksa osQ izfrfufèkRoij vfèkd cy fn;k x;kA 1935 bZú osQ Hkkjr ljdkj vfèkfu;e us izfrfufèkd laLFkkvksa dh tM+ dks iwjk etcwrdj fn;kA fuokZfpr izfrfufèk;ksa dh la[;k cgqr c<+k nh x;hA izkUrksa esa fuokZfpr izfrfufèk;ksa osQ izfr mÙkjnk;heaf=ke.Myh; ljdkjksa dh LFkkiuk gqbZA ;g igyk ekSdk Fkk tcfd Hkkjr esa o`gr~ :i ls pquko gqvk vkSj lclscM+k ny dk¡xzsl us blesa lfØ; Hkkx fy;kA vUr esa] LorU=k Hkkjr osQ lafoèkku osQ fuekZ.k gsrq lafoèkku lHkk(Constituent Assembly) dk laxBu gqvkA blosQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko vizR;{k jhfr ls gqvk FkkA fiQj Hkhbl lHkk eas lHkh oxks±] tkfr;ksa jktuhfrd nyksa rFkk fgrksa dks leqfpr izfrfufèkRo izkIr FkkA LorU=krk&izkfIr osQiwoZ rd] izfrfufèkRo rFkk fuokZpu dh fo'ks"krk Fkh fd os lhfer Fks izfrfufèk;ksa osQ pquko dk vkèkkj o;Lderkfèkdkj ugha Fkk rFkk pquko dk vkèkkj lkEiznkf;d rFkk oxhZ; izfrfufèkRo FkkA ysfdu LorU=k Hkkjr esa fuokZpudks iw.kZ iztkrkfU=kd cuk fn;k x;k gSA bldk vkèkkj vlhfer o;Ld erkfèkdkj gS izfrfufèk;ksa dks fo'ks"k LFkkurFkk vfèkdkj izkIr gS rFkk izfrfufèkd laLFkkvksa dks izeq[kr% fofèkfuekZ.k ,oa dfri; vU; {ks=kksa esa Hkh vko';dvfèkdkj fn;s x;s gSaA

Hkkjr esa izfrfuè;kRed iz.kkyh osQ fodkl dh dgkuh fczfV'k 'kklu dh LFkkiuk ls izkjEHk

gksrh gSA

çfrfufèkRo osQ fl¼kar (Theories of Representation): çfrfufèkRo osQ lEcUèk esa nks çfriQy fl¼kUrksa dkçfriknu fd;k x;k gS& vkfn‘ çfrfufèkRo rFkk vkns'kghu çfrfufèkRoA

vkfn"V izfrfufèkRo (Instructed Representation)% vkfn"V izfrfufèkRo dk vFkZ gS fd izfrfufèk fuokZpdksaosQ vèkhu gSA mldh futh bPNk dqN ugha gSA og fuokZpdksa dh bPNk dks vfHkO;Dr djrk gSA ;g fdlh izdkjdk la'kksèku fuokZpdksa dh vkKk ls yk ldrk gSA izfrfufèk dk ;g :i vkt iqjkuk iM+ x;k gSA fiQj Hkh dqN,sls izfrfufèk gksrs gSa tks ekfyd dh bPNk osQ varxZr gh dqN dj ldrs gSa tSls fons'kksa esa jktnwr] vUrjkZ"Vªh;lEesyuksa esa fofHkUu jk"Vªksa osQ izfrfufèk&izfrfufèkRo osQ bl fl¼kar dks vekU; Bgjk;k x;k gS] D;ksafd izfrfufèk;ksadks u rks foosdiw.kZ vkns'k gh miyCèk gksrs gSa vkSj u rks fuokZpdks dh okLrfod bPNk dk irk vklkuh lsyxuk lEHko gSA blosQ vykok fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ dk;Z vkt brus isphnk] dfBu rFkk o`gn gks x;s gSa fd dksbZizfrfufèk gj dne ij fuokZpdksa }kjk funsZf'kr ugha gks ldrk gSA nzqrxfr ls ifjokj esa gksus okyh ?kVukvksa rFkkleL;kvksa osQ dkj.k izfrKkvksa ij vVy jguk fdlh Hkh izfrfufèk osQ fy, lEHko ugha gSA blosQ vykok orZekufuokZpu iz.kkyh osQ vUrxZr vkfn"V izfrfufèkRo dk fl¼kUr O;kogkfjd ugha nh[kkbZ nsrk gSA vkèkqfud ;qx esapquko dh vkèkkj i¼fr gSA ernkrk fdlh izfrfufèk&fo'ks"k dks ugha cfYd jktuhfrd nyksa dks er nsrs gSaA nyviuh uhfr;ksa dks ernkrkvksa osQ le{k j[krs gSaA fot;h ny viuh uhfr;ksa dks dk;kZfUor djrk gS] u fdernkrkvksa dh uhfr;ksa dksA ernkrkvksa dh dksbZ ,d uhfr Hkh gks ldrh gSA fiQj izfrfufèkx.k nyh;&laxBu osQvUrxZr pquko yM+ ldrs gSa vkSj nyh; uhfr;ksa dks ykxw djus dh izfrKk djrs gSaA ;g fdlh Hkh izfrfufèk dh

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'kfDr osQ ckgj dh ckr gS fd og fdlh ny dh uhfr dks O;fDrxr :i ls ykxw djsA vr% ;g O;kogkfjdugha fn[kkbZ nsrk fd dksbZ izfrfufèk fuokZpdksa osQ vUrxZr gh vius dk;Z&{ks=k dks lhfer j[ksA var esa dksbZ Hkhfoosd'khy O;fDr ml fLFkfr esa izfrfufèk gksuk pkgsxk tc osQoy fuokZpdksa osQ vkns'kkuqlkj mls pyuk iM+sA vkfn"VizfrfufèkRo osQ fl¼kar dk ykLdh us xyr rFkk yhcj us ^Û;k;fo:¼ vlaxr vkSj voSèkkfud** dgk gSA

vkns'kghu izfrfufèkRo (Uninstructed Representation) : vkns'kghu izfrfufèkRo dk vFkZ gS fd izfrfufèkx.kfuokZpdksa osQ vfHkdÙkkZ (Agent) ugha gSa] os fuokZpdksa osQ vèkhuLFk ugha gS rFkk osQoy muosQ vkns'k osQ vuqlkjdk;Z ugha djrs gSa tSlk fd Åij dgk x;k gSA lS¼kfUrd rFkk O;kogkfjd nksuksa n`f"Vdks.kksa ls ;g lEHko ughagS fd dksbZ izfrfufèk lnk fuokZpdksa osQ vkns'k osQ vuqlkj ;k fuokZpdksa osQ le{k dh x;h izfrKkvksa osQ vuqlkjdk;Z djsA vr% vkèkqfud ;qx esa vkfn"V izfrfufèkRo dk vekU; fl¼kar fl¼ gks x;k gS vkSj vkns'kghu fl¼kUrdks ekU;rk iznku dh x;h gSA

inkofèk % izfrfufèk;ksa osQ dk;kZofèk osQ lEcUèk esa dksbZ fuf'pr fu;e ugha gS fofHkUu ns'kksa esa fofHkUu vofèk;kaviuk;h x;h gSaA tgk¡ rd O;oLFkkfidk lHkkvksa osQ yksdfiz; lnuksa dk iz'u gS mudk dk;Z&dky Hkkjr] fczVsurFkk dukMk esa 5 o"kZ] vesfjdk esa 2 o"kZ vkSj iwoZ lksfo;r la?k] LohMu rFkk tkiku esa 4 o"kZ gS f}rh; lnuksosQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk dk;Z&dky vesfjdk rFkk vkLVªsfy;k esa 6 o"kZ] nf{k.k vÚhdk esa 10 o"kZ] Úkal esa 9 o"kZrFkk lksfo;r :l esa 4 o"kZ rFkk fczVsu esa vkthou gSA fofHkUu dk;Zofèk;ksa osQ vkSfpR; osQ i{k esa dksbZ BkslrdZ nsuk dfBu gSA Hkkjrh; lafoèkku lHkk (Indian Constitunt Assembly) dh la?kh; lafoèkku&lfefr (Union

Constitution Committee) us yksdlHkk osQ fy, 4 o"kZ oQk dk;Z&dky fuf'pr fd;k Fkk] ysfdu izk:i lfefr(drafting Committee) us bls c<+kdj 5 o"kZ dj fn;kA bldk dkj.k ;g cryk;k x;k fd lalnh; iz.kkyhesa izFke o"kZ] fdlh ea=kh osQ 'kklu dk;Z dk Kku izkIr djus esa yx tkrk gS rFkk vfUre o"kZ lkekU; fuokZpudh rS;kjh esa yx tkrk gSA iQyr% nks o"kZ le; cpsxk tks lqfu;ksftr iz'kklu osQ fy, vR;Ur vYi vofèkgSA MkWú osQú ohú jko osQ 'kCnksa esa izk:i lfefr }kjk nh x;h O;k[;k mruh gh vlUrks"ktud gS ftruk fdvuko';dA pkj vkSj ikap o"kZ esa dksbZ fo'ks"k vUrj ugha gS] ysfdu lfefr }kjk mi;qZDr O;k[;k drbZ Bhdugha gSA tkWu LVqvVZ fey us izfrfufèk;ksa dh vofèk dks fuf'pr djus osQ fy, ;qfDrlaxr fl¼kUr dh O;k[;kdh gS ^^,d vksj rks lnL; osQ in dh vofèk bruh yEch ugha gksuh pkfg, tks mls viuk mÙkjnkf;Ro gh Hkqykns ;k tks vius dÙkZO;ksa dks cgqr ujeh ls xzg.k djs vkSj O;fDrxr LokFkks± dh n`f"V ls mudk ikyu djs vFkokvius fopkjksa osQ lkFk mu lEiw.kZ esy feykiksa dh vis{kk djs ftuosQ fo"k; esa og muls lger gks ;k fHkUuer j[krk gks ;g izfrfufèk ljdkj osQ yksxksa es ls ,d gSA nwljh vksj mlosQ in dh vofèk ,slh gksuh pkfg,fd mls ,d dk;Z }kjk fujh{k.k ;ksX; u cuk;s vfirq mlosQ dk;ZØe }kjk fujh{k.k ;ksX; Bgjk;sA fu"d"kZr%izfrfufèk dh vofèk u rks cgqr yEch pkfg, vkSj u cgqr NksVh ghA lkFk gh] mlosQ dk;Z dh vofèk mlosQdk;Z dh izÑfr osQ vuqdwy gksuh pkfg,A

izfrfufèk;ksa dh ;ksX;rk,a (Qualifications of Representatives): izfrfufèk;ksa dks fof'k"V rFkk mÙkjnkf;Roiw.kZdk;Z djus iM+rs gSaA mUgsa tfVy rFkk isphnk dkuwu dk fuekZ.k djuk iM+rk gSA lkFk gh] mUgsa bl ckr dk è;kuj[kuk iM+rk gS fd igys ns'k dk 'kklu&lapkyu LoPN rFkk dq'ky rjhosQ ls gks vkSj lkekU; fgr dh o`f¼gksA vr% ;g vko';d gS fd izfrfufèk ;ksX;] n{k] dk;Zdq'ky rFkk ns'klsoh gksaA

rkRi;Z ;g gS fd izfrfufèk;ksa dk xq.kkRed (Qualitative) i{k Å¡pk gksA blfy, tkWu LVqvVZ fey izfrfufèk;ksaosQ fy, dfri; Å¡ph ;ksX;rk,¡ fuèkkZfjr dj nsus osQ i{k esa FksA Hkkjrh; lafoèkku lHkk (Constituent Assembly)

esa dbZ izeq[k lnL;ksa us ;g lq>ko fn;k Fkk fd O;oLFkkfidk lHkk dh lnL;rk osQ fy, dfri; fof'k"V ;ksX;rk,afuèkkZfjr dh tkuh pkfg,A vkjú vkjú fnokdj dk dguk Fkk fd geyksx ,slk foèkk;d pkgrs gSa tks osQoy,d izfrfufèk ugha gks] cfYd ,slk izfrfufèk ugha gks] cfYd ,slk izfrfufèk gks tks fofèk&fuekZ.k dj losQ rFkktks nwjn'khZ gksaA blh izlax esa MkWú jktsUæ izlkn us dgk Fkk fd eS foèkkueaMyksa osQ lnL;ksa osQ fy, dfri;

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;ksX;rk,¡ fuèkkZfjr djus osQ i{k esa gw¡A ;g vthc&lk fn[kkbZ nsrk gS fd dkuwu osQ iz'kkldksa osQ fy, Å¡ph ;ksX;rkfuèkkZfjr djsa] ysfdu tks bldk fuekZ.k djrs gSa muosQ fy, fuokZpu gksus osQ vfrfjDr dqN ughaA

osQú Vhú 'kkg us Hkh ;g O;Dr fd;k Fkk fd O;kid :i ls iQSyh fuj{kjrk osQ iQyLo:i foèkku&eaMyksa esavf'kf{kr O;fDr;ksa osQ pqus tkus dk Mj gSA vr% foèkkueaaMy osQ fy, f'kf{kr gksuk vfuok;Z dj nsuk pkfg,Aysfdu izfrfufèk;ksa ij bl izdkj dh fdlh rjg dh e;kZnk yxkuk viztkrkaf=kd nh[k iM+rk gSA ysfdu dfri;lkekU; e;kZnk,¡ yxk;h tk ldrh gS%μ mez] ukxfjdrk] vijkèk] ekufld fLFkfrA

fofHkUu ns'kksa osQ izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fy, fuèkkZfjr ;ksX;rkvksa dks è;ku esa j[krs gq, muosQ fy, fuEukafdr ;ksX;rkvko';d le>h tkrh gS&

(i) ukxfjdrk (Citizenship) % lkèkkj.kr% ns'k dk ukxfjd gh izfrfufèk gks ldrk gSA ukxfjdksa dk izfrfufèkin osQ fy, izR;k'kh osQ :i esa [kM+k gksuk mudk ,d izeq[k jktuhfrd vfèkdkj gSA izR;sd ukxfjd dks ;gvfèkdkj izkIr jgrk gSA pkgs og tUetkr (by birth) ;k iathd`r (by registration) ;k vaxhÑr (by

naturalization) ukxfjd gks] fons'kh ukxfjd dks ;g vfèkdkj izkIr ugha gS D;ksafd lEHko gS os in dk nq:i;ksxfuth LokFkZ ;k viuh ekrHkfe osQ LokFkZ osQ fy, dj ldrs gSaA ysfdu ns'k osQ ukxfjdksa ls ,slh vk'kk ugha dh tkldrhA mlosQ vykok ns'k osQ ukxfjd gh ns'k&fgr dh ckr vfèkd vPNh rjg ls lksp ldrs gSa rFkk ns'k dh leL;kvksavkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa ls Hkyh&Hkk¡fr voxr jgus osQ dkj.k vfèkd vPNs dkuwuksa dk fuekZ.k dj ldrs gSaA

(ii) vk;q (Age): vfèkdka'k lafoèkku esa izfrfufèk;ksa dh vk;q dk mYys[k feyrk gSA Hkkjrh; lafoèkku esa yksdlHkkosQ lnL;ksa osQ fy, U;wure vk;q 25 o"kZ rFkk jkT; lHkk osQ lnL;ksa osQ fy, 30 o"kZ fuf'pr dh x;h gSA vesfjdkesa Hkh izFke rFkk f}rh; lnuksa osQ lnL;ksa osQ fy, Hkh Øe'k% mi;qZDr U;wure vk;q fuf'pr gSA Hkkjr ljdkjvfèkfu;e 1935 osQ }kjk rks mPp lnuksa osQ U;wure vk;q 25 o"kZ fuf'pr dh x;h FkhA la{ksi esa] O;oLFkkfidklHkk osQ lnL;ksa osQ fy, lkèkkj.kr% U;wure vk;q fuèkkZfjr dj nh tkrh gSA vk;q dh U;wure lhek dks izk;%mPp j[kk tkrk gSA dkj.k ;g gS fd fofèk&fuekZ.k osQ fy, vuqHkoh rFkk ifjiDo O;fDr;ksa dh vko';drkAf}rh; lnuksa osQ lnL;ksa dh U;wure vk;q izk;% vfèkd mPp j[kh tkrh gS D;ksafd mPp lnu dk dk;Z dk;Zfofèk;ksaij vfèkd xaHkhjrkiwoZd fopkj djuk rFkk mUgsa fuEulnu osQ mÙksftr ,oa {kf.kd vkos'kksa ls cpkuk gSA

(iii) vkokl (Residence): dbZ ns'kksa esa izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fy, vkokl dh ;ksX;rk dh x;h gSA vejhdh izfrfufèklHkk osQ lnL; osQ fy, ;g vko';d gS fd og ftl jkT; ls fuokZfpr gksrk gks] ml jkT; dk fuoklh gksAysfdu {ks=kh; fu;e (locality rule) osQ fodkl osQ dkj.k izR;k'kh dks mlh fuokZpu {ks=k dk fuoklh gksuk pkfg,AblosQ foijhr Hkkjr esa vkokl dks vfuok;Z ugha cuk;k x;kA fliQZ ,d {ks=k dk fuoklh nwljs {ks=k ls gh ughacfYd ,d jkT; dk fuoklh nwljs jkT; ls Hkh [kM+k gks ldrk gSA fiQj Hkh] lkèkkj.kr;k vLFkkuh; O;fDr Hkhfdlh {ks=k ls izfrfufèk&ny osQ fy, izR;k'kh osQ :i esa [kM+k gks ldrk gSA

(iv) lEifÙk (Property): dbZ ns'kksa esa lEifÙk dks izfrfufèk dh ;ksX;rk ekuk tkrk gSA ftl O;fDr osQ iklfuth lEifÙk gksrh gS] mls dkuwu&fuekZ.k osQ fy, i;kZIr le; feyrk gSA lkFk gh pquko esa ?kweus&fiQjus vkSjvius&vius fopkj dks izdkf'kr djus osQ fy, mlosQ ikl i;kZIr lkèku jgrk gS blosQ vykok lEifÙk dh j{kkosQ fy, og jkT; dk HkDr gksrk gSA fcuk ikfjJfed osQ gh turk dh lsok djrk gS] ysfdu lEifÙk dh ;ksX;rkdk èkhjs&èkhjs yksi gks jgk gSA izxfr'khy iztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa esa ;g yxHkx lekIr gks x;k gSA

vkèkqfud dky esa jktuhfrd lerk osQ fl¼kUr dks viuk;k x;k gSA vr% èkuoku vkSj fuèkZu lHkh dks lekujktuhfrd vfèkdkj izkIr gSaA

(v) in (Office): cgqr ls jkT; esa ;g caèku yxk fn;k x;k gS fd dqN fo'ks"k inksa ij vklkuh ls O;oLFkkfidkdk lnL; ugha gks ldrs gSaA mnkgj.kLo:i] Hkkjr esa dksbZ Hkh O;fDr] tks ljdkjh ;k fdlh ykHk osQ in ijgks foèkkue.My dk lnL; ugha gks ldrk gSA l;qDr jkT; vesfjdk esa rks d;Zikfydk dk lnL; ;kuh ea=khx.k

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dkaxzsl osQ lnL; ugha gks ldrs gSaA bl caèku dk ,d dkj.k gS fd dk;Zikfydk osQ lnL; O;oLFkkfidk osQ lnL;gks tk;sa rks os futh LokFkZ osQ fy, dkuwu dk fuekZ.k djsaxsA

(vi) ikxyiu ;k fnokfy;k (Mentally unfit or Insolent): Hkkjrh; lafoèkku ;g izfrcUèk yxkrk gS fddksbZ Hkh O;fDr tks U;k;ky; }kjk ikxy ;k fnokfy;k djkj ns fn;k x;k gks] og laln~ ;k foèkku&e.My dklnL; ugha cu ldrkA

(vii) pquko nqjkpj.k (Election Malpractices): fuokZpu osQ fy, U;k;iw.kZ vkpj.k vkSj fu;eksa dk ikyuvko';d gSA tks izR;k'kh pquko esa bu fu;eksa dks Hkax djrk gSA mls v;ksX; ?kksf"kr dj fn;k tkrk gSA pqukonqjkpj.k dk fuèkkZj.k ,d Lora=k U;k;ky; djrk gSA

(viii) èkeZ (Religion)% dbZ ns'kksa esa èkeZ dks Hkh izfrfufèk dh ;ksX;rk ekuh x;h gSA baXySaM esa LFkkfir fxjtk?kjosQ vfèkdkjh] eU=kh vkSj jkseu dSFkksfyd ppZ osQ iknjh yksdlHkk osQ lnL; ugha gks ldrs vkSj ikfdLrku esa,d eqlyeku gh jk"Vªifr gks ldrk gSA

(ix) vuqHko (Experience): ykLdh dk dguk Fkk fd osQoy vuqHkoh O;fDr dks gh O;oLFkkfidk osQ pqukoesa [kM+k gksus dh vuqefr feyuh pkfg,A fdlh Hkh izfrfufèk dks LFkk;h laLFkkvksa esa dke djus dk de&ls&derhu o"kZ dk vuqHko vo'; gksuk pkfg,A

Hkkjrh; lafoèkku esa yksd&lHkk ,oa jkT; lHkk osQ çfrfufèk;ksa dh U;wure vk;q D;k fuèkkZfjr dhxbZ gS\

izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fo'ks"kkfèkdkj (Privileges of the Representatives): izR;sd ns'k esa ogka osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dksdqN fo'ks"kkfèkdkj izkIr jgrk gSA mUgsa lafoèkku osQ izfr J¼k vkSj fu"Bk j[kus osQ rFkk drZO; dk J¼kiwoZdikyu djus dh 'kiFk ysuh iM+rh gSA mUgsa foèkkulHkk rFkk mlosQ ckgj fopkj vfHkO;Dr dh iw.kZ LorU=krk jgrhgSA Hkk"k.k nsus osQ fo:¼ mu ij dksbZ dk;Zokgh ugha dh tk ldrhA lnu osQ vfèkos'ku osQ le; esa mUgsalkèkkj.kr% fxjÝrkj ugha fd;k tk ldrkA izfrfufèk;ksa dks fu;fer :i ls okf"kZd ;k ekfld osru rFkk vU;izdkj osQ HkÙks feyrs gSaA

izfrfufèk;ksa osQ dÙkZO; (Duties of the Representatives): vkèkqfud dky osQ izfrfufèk lEiw.kZ jk"Vª dkizfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA os fdlh ny tkfr oxZ ;k lewg dk izfrfufèk ugha gksrk gSA ;|fi og fdlh tkfr lewg{ks=k ;k oxZ osQ leFkZu ls pquk tkrk gS] fiQj Hkh pqus tkus osQ ckn og iwjs jk"Vª dk izfrfufèk cu tkrk gSA mlsladqfpr fgr dk ugha] cfYd lEiw.kZ jkT; dk izfrfufèk gS vkSj jkT;&dk;Z gh mldk dÙkZO; gSA og viusfuokZpdksa osQ vkns'kksa ls ckè; ugha vkSj u vius dk;ks± osQ fy, og fuokZpdksa osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h gh gS îzfrfufèkvius foosd ls dk;Z djrk gSA og vius fuokZpdksa dh eukso`fÙk dks è;ku esa j[krk gSA ysfdu bldk vFkZ ;gugha fd gj cky osQ fy, mudh lgefr ysrk gS] cfYd og vius dk;Z osQ fo"k; esa iw.kZ LorU=k gSA oLrqr%izfrfufèk;ksa dks vius foosd osQ vuqlkj dk;Z djuk pkfg,A** bl lEcUèk esa Cywa'kyh us dgk gS fd izfrfufèkog gS tks vius oSèkkfud vfèkdkjksa dh lhek esa yksxksa osQ cnys viuh LorU=k fu.kZ; 'kfDr osQ vuqlkj dk;Zdjus osQ fy, fuokZfpr fd;k x;k gSA mls dk;Z vkSj fu.kZ; dh iw.kZ LorU=krk gksuh pkfg,A ;fn dksbZ izfrfufèkvius foosd vkSj fopkj 'kfDr ls dk;Z u dj osQoy fuokZpdksa dh lgefr ls dk;Z djrk gS rks og okLroesa izfrfufèk ugha gSA yksdfgr osQ fy, mls foosd ls dk;Z ysuk pkfg,A

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12-2 lgHkkfxrk vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Participation and Election System)

jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk (Political Participation): jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk og xfrfofèk gS ftlosQ varxZrfdlh ns'k osQ ukxfjd lkoZtfud uhfr;ksa (Public Policies) vkSj fu.kZ;ksa (Decisions) osQ fuekZ.k] fu:i.k vkSjdk;kZUo;u dh çfØ;k esa lfØ; :i ls Hkkx ysrs gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ;g tulkèkkj.k vkSj jktuhfrKksa osQ chp laidZdh çfØ;k gSA

rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa tulkèkkj.k vkSj jktuhfrKksa osQ laidZ dk eq[; çfreku lsokfFkZokn* (Clientelism) osQ:i esa O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA bl ekU;rk osQ vuqlkj] fodkl'khy ns'kks esa usrkvksa (Leaders) vkSj tulkèkkj.k(Public) dk lacaèk laj{kd (Patron) vkSj lsokFkhZ (Client) osQ lacaèkksa dk :i èkkj.k dj ysrk gSA eryc ;g fdusrk vius çHkko dk ç;ksx djosQ vius leFkZdksa dks lqj{kk dh Hkkouk (Sense of Security) çnku djrs gSa] vkSjljdkj dh vksj ls mUgsa dqN cqfu;knh lqfoèkk,¡ (Basic Amenities)μ tSls fd fctyh] ikuh] jk'ku dkMZ] Ldwy]vLirky] bR;kfnμmiyCèk djkus dh O;oLFkk djrs gSaA blosQ cnys esa muosQ leFkZd muosQ tyls&tqywl] jSfy;ksa]bR;kfn esa lfEefyr gksus vkSj pquko osQ le; mUgsa oksV nsus dks rS;kj jgrs gSaA bl rjg okLro esa tulkèkkj.k vkSjNksVs&cM+s usrkvksa osQ chp laj{kd&lsokFkhZ dh Jà[kyk cu tkrh gSA blosQ ekè;e ls jktuhfrd {ks=k osQ çHkko'kkyhyksxksa dks rjg&rjg osQ fo'ks"kkfèkdkj (Privileges)μtSls fd dksVk] ifeZV] ykblsal] lfClMh vkSj BsosQ (Contracts)μforfjr fd, tkrs gSaA ,sls yksx vius dikik=kksa osQ leFkZu osQ cy ij lÙkk osQ nykyksa (Power Brokers) dh HkwfedkfuHkkrs gSaA bl rjg vfèkdka'k jktuhfrd xfrfofèk NksVs&cM+s usrkvksa vkSj muosQ leFkZdksa osQ chp ysus&nsu dk lkSnkcu tkrh gS ftlls Hkz"Vkpkj dks c<+kok feyrk gSA

^lsokfFkZokn* dk fopkj vusd fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa vuqHko osQ vkèkkj ij çLrqr fd;k x;k gSA Jhyadk esa jkT; lalkèkuftu latkrh; lewgksa (Ethnic Groups) osQ usrkvksa dh igq¡p osQ fy, vius çHkko dk ç;ksx djrs gSaA muosQ vuq;k;hu osQoy muosQ laxBu esa lfEefyr gksrs gSa] vkSj mudh lHkkvksa esa Hkh cM+h la[;k esa mifLFkr gksrs gSa] cfYd pqukoesa Hkh lc&osQ&lc mUgsa ,d&lkFk oksV nsrs gSaA Hkkjr esa jktuhfrKksa osQ lsokFkhZ tkfr (Caste)] èkeZ (Religion)] {ks=k;k O;olk; (Vocation) osQ vkèkkj ij mUgsa pquko esa ftrokrs gSaA bUgsa cksypky vkSj i=kdkfjrk dh Hkk"kk esa muosQôksV cSad* dgk tkrk gSA tgka fuèkZurk vkSj lkekftd fo"kerk brus foLr`r Lrj ij iQSyh gks] fgr lewg vkSjjktuhfrd ny brus detksj gksa] ogka ;fn jktuhfrK vius vlkèkkj.k O;fDrRo vkSj tksM+&rksM+ dh {kerk osQ cyij fdUgha fo'ks"k lewgksa dk ;Fks"V leFkZu tqVk ysa rks blesa vk'p;Z dh dksbZ ckr ugha gksuh pkfg,A

lgkjk e#LFky ls yxs vfèkdka'k vÚhdk esa Lokèkhurk&vkanksyu osQ nkSjku tu&lgHkkfxrk dks i;kZIr çksRlkgu fn;kx;kA ijarq Lokèkhurk osQ ckn ;g ço`fÙk yqIr gks xbZA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] 1983 esa ukbthfj;k osQ vke pquko esa osQoy,d&pkSFkkbZ ernkrkvksa us ernku fd;kA blosQ ckn rks ogka lSfud 'kklu gh LFkkfir gks x;kA lSfud 'kklu us blekewyh lgHkkfxrk dks Hkh pyus ugha fn;kA

ysfVu vejhdk esa tks vkfFkZd fodkl gqvk] mlosQ ifj.kkeLo:i ,d 'kgjh eè; oxZ (Urban Middle Class)

vkSj loZgkjk oxZ (Proletariat) mHkjdj lkeus vk;kA ijarq bu ns'kksa esa :f<+oknh (Conservative) vkSj vfHktkroxhZ;(Aristocratic) fof'k"V oxks± us bu u, oxks± dks jktuhfrd çfØ;k esa Hkkx ysus dk volj gh ugha fn;kA vfèkdka'kysfVu vejhdh ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd vfLFkjrk dk okrkoj.k jgk_ osQoy dksLVkjhdk vkSj osustq,yk blosQ viokn FksAtgka xqVra=kks (Oligrachies) us lSfud 'kklu dks pqukSrh nh] ogka fuEu eè;oxks± vkSj dkexkj oxks± osQ yksdfç;vkanksyu mHkj dj lkeus vk,A vts±Vhuk esa 1944 ls 1955 rd osQ nkSj esa ;qvku isjksa osQ lÙkkoknh 'kklu(Authoritarian Regime) us bu oxks± dks jktuhfrd çfØ;k esa lfEefyr djus dk ç;kl fd;kA

ysfVu vejhdk osQ cgqr cM+s fgLls esa lSfud vfèkduk;dra=k (Military Dictatorship) dk yack nkSj pykAdgha&dgha bls tu&leFkZu çkIr Fkk_ dgha ,slk ugha FkkA ijarq 1980 osQ n'kd osQ var rd vkrs&vkrs çk; laiw.kZysfVu vejhdk esa vlSfud 'kklu (Civil Regimes) LFkkfir gks x,A dqN Hkh gks] ysfVu vejhdh yksdra=kksa dks

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vkt Hkh Hkkjh eqækLiQhfr] Hkkjh ½.k vkSj foLr`r fuèkZurk dk lkeuk djuk iM+ jgk gS ftuosQ ihNs cqtqZvk vkSjlSfud fof'k"V oxks± dh fo'kky Nk;k e¡Mjk jgh gSA

rhljh nqfu;k osQ dqN lkE;oknh ns'kksa us tuxfr'khyu (Mass Mobilization) osQ ekè;e ls vkfFkZd lao`f¼(Economic Growth) çkIr djus dk ç;Ru fd;kA tu&xfr'khyu og çfØ;k gSA ftlesa dksbZ yksdfç; usrk cgqrcM+s tu&lewg dks lacksfèkr djosQ mUgsa fdlh egku~ mís'; dh flf¼ osQ fy, xfreku djrk gS_ muosQ eu esa çsj.kkvkSj mRlkg dk lapkj djrk gS ftlls os vius usrk osQ funsZ'kksa osQ vuq:i dk;Z djus osQ fy, viuh 'kfDr;ksa dks,dtqV dj ysrs gSaA lkE;oknh ns'kksa us lektoknh mís';ksa dh flf¼ osQ fy, etnwjksa vkSj fdlkuksa dks xfreku djusij fo'ks"k è;ku fn;kA phu] fo,ruke vkSj D;wck esa ;gh j.kuhfr (Strategy) viukbZ xbZA dbZ xSj&lkE;oknh ns'kksaesaμtSls fd Hkkjr] Jhyadk vkSj rat+kfu;k esa Hkh dqN lektoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ osQ fy, tu&xfr'khyu dh çfØ;kviukus dk ç;Ru fd;k x;kA

bèkj czkthy] rkboku] nf{k.kh dksfj;k vksj baMksusf'k;k tSls fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa lÙkkoknh 'kkldksa (Authoritarian

Rulers) us vius&vius ns'k esa vkS|ksxhdj.k vkSj vkèkqfudhdj.k dks c<+kok nsus osQ fy, yksxksa dks jktuhfrdlgHkkfxrk ls nwj j[kk rkfd ogka cgqjk"Vªh; fuxeksa (Multinational Corporations) dks jktuhfrd fLFkjrk dkokrokj.k rFkk vuq'kkflr vkSj lLrh Je&'kfDr miyCèk gks losQA ijarq nf{k.kh dksfj;k vkSj rkboku tSls ghfodkl'khy ns'kksa osQ Lrj ls Åaps mBdj fodflr ns'kksa dh Js.kh esa vk x,] ogka jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk dh ekaxfiQj ls cyorh gks xbZA

xkuZj osQ 'kCnksa esa] ernku dk vkèkqfud n`f"Vdks.k ;g gS fd ;g ,d in ;k d`R; gS] tks jkT; }kjkosQoy ,sls yksxksa dks iznku fd;k tkrk gS] tks lkoZtfud fgr osQ fy, lokZfèkd ;ksX;rk osQ lkFk iz;qDrdjus ;ksX; le>k tkrk gS vkSj ;g izkd`frd vfèkdkj ugha gS tks Hksn&Hkko osQ fcuk lHkh ukxfjdksa dksizkIr gksA

fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Election System)

izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k fuokZpu (Direct and Indirect election): lkèkkj.kr% fuokZpu osQ nks :i gSa&

(i) izR;{k fuokZpu (Direct Election), rFkk

(ii) vizR;{k ;k ijks{k fuokZpu (Indirect Election)A

izR;{k fuokZpu mls dgrs gSa tgka ernkrk vius izfrfufèk;ksa dks Lo;a fuokZfpr djrs gSaA os izfrfufèk;ksa osQ pqukoesa Lo;a er nsrs gSaA blosQ foijhr vizR;{k iz.kkyh esa ernkrk izfrfufèk;ksa osQ pquko esa Lo;a Hkkx ugha ysrs gSaA cfYddqN ,sls yksxksa dks pqurs gSa] tks blosQ cnys esa izfrfufèk;ksa dk fuokZpu djrs gSa vFkkZr~ izfrfufèk;ksa dk fuokZpuernkrk }kjk fuokZfpr ,d fuokZpd&eaMy (Electroal Collage) }kjk gksrk gS Lo;a ernkrk }kjk ughaA bl izdkjvizR;{k vkSj nwljh ckj fuokZpd&eaMy dk lnL; izfrfufèk;ksa dk fuokZpu djrs gSaa mnkgj.kLo:i Hkkjr esa yksdlHkk rFkk jkT; dh foèkku lHkkvksa osQ lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu izR;{k iz.kkyh ls gksrk gSA blosQ foijhr jkT;&lHkk vkSjjkT; dh foèkku&ifj"kn osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko vizR;{k iz.kkyh ls gksrk gSA

izR;{k fuokZpu osQ xq.k vkSj nks"k (Mertis and Demerits of Direct election): izR;{k fuokZpu iz.kkyh yxHkxloZekU; iz.kkyh gSA ;g yksdrU=k osQ fl¼kUrksa osQ vuwdwy gSA yksdlÙkk turk esa fufgr gSA izR;{k iz.kkyh osQ vUrxZrgh turk dks bl 'kfDr dks vfHkO;Dr djus dk okLrfod volj feyrk gSA izR;{k iz.kkyh izfrfufèk;ksa vkSjfuokZpdksa esa ?kfu"B lEcUèk iSnk djrh gSA mEehnokj Lo;a fuokZpdksa osQ ikl tkrs gSa muls er nsus dh izkFkZuk djrsgSa vkSj ernkrkvksa dh tkudkjh izkIr djrs gSaA os izfrfuf/ pqus tkus osQ ckn mÙkjnkf;Ro dk Hkh vuqHko djrs gSaA

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turk dks Hkh pquko esa izR;{k :i ls Hkkx ysus osQ dkj.k jktuhfrd izf'k{k.k izkIr gksrk gSA mlesa jktuhfrd psruk,oa lkoZtfud dk;ks± osQ lEiknu dh Hkkouk mRiUu gksrh gSA turk vius mÙkjnkf;Roksa ,oa vfèkdkjksa osQ izfr tkx:dgksrh gSA lkFk gh izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fuokZpu esa izR;{k :i ls Hkkx ysus osQ dkj.k turk dk 'kklu&lapkyu esa izR;{k:i esa Hkkx ysus dk volj izkIr gksrkA blosQ vfrfjDr turk jktuhfrd nyksa rFkk izfrfufèk;ksa ij vadq'k Hkh j[krhgSA ;fn fuokZfpr izfrfufèk vius nkf;Ro dks ugha fuHkk ikrs gSa] rks vkxkeh pquko esa turk mUgsa iqu% fuokZfpr ughadj ldrh gSA vr% izfrfufèk;ksa dks lkoZtfud fgr dks c<+kus osQ fy, ,oa turk dh vkdka{kkvksa dh iwfrZ osQ fy,dqN&u&dqN vo'; djuk pkfg,A

ysfdu bldk eryc ;gh ugha fd izR;{k fuokZpu iz.kkyh ,dne nks"kjfgr gSA bl iz.kkyh esa vusoQ nks"k ik;stkrs gSaA vkt fuokZpdksa dh la[;k cgqr vfèkd gks x;h gSA ftlosQ dkj.k fuokZpu dk;Z tfVy rFkk dfBu gkstkrk gSA blosQ fy, cgqr yEch&pkSM+h O;oLFkk djuh iM+rh gSA rFkk jkT; dk cgqr cM+k Hkkx bl ij [kpZ gksrktkrk gSA izfrfufèk;ksa osQ n`f"Vdks.k ls Hkh O;oLFkk cgqr gh [kphZyh gS] D;kasfd ernkrkvksa dh cgqr cM+h la[;kls mUgsa lEidZ LFkkfir djuk iM+rk gSA lkFk gh ;g mÙkstukiw.kZ gksrk gSA bles cgqr ls jktuhfrK èkeZ] tkfr]lEiznk; vkfn dh nqgkbZ nsdj ernkrkvksa dks cgdkrs gSaA vr% cqf¼eku ,oa ;ksX; O;fDr fuokZpu osQ >a>V esaugha iM+uk pkgrs gSaA iQyr% v;ksX; ,oa LFkk;h O;fDr èku] okd pkrq;Z ,oa ldh.kZ fopkjksa dk lgkjk ysdjpquko esa izk;% fot;h gks tkrs gSaA

vizR;{k fuokZpu osQ xq.k vkSj nks"k (Merits and Demerits of Indirect Election): izR;{k fuokZpu osQ nks"kksadks ns[krs gq, fo}ku vizR;{k fuokZpu iz.kkyh dk leFkZu djrs gSaA mudk dguk gS fd vizR;{k i¼fr osQ vUrxZr;ksX; rFkk okaNuh; O;fDr;ksa dk fuokZpu laHko gSA izR;{k fuokZpu esa vf'kf{kr rFkk mÙkjnk;h turk ernku esa Hkkxysrh gSaA blosQ foijhr vizR;{k iz.kkyh esa dfri; pqus gq, O;fDr Hkkx ysrs gSa tks lkèkkj.k turk ls vfèkd cqf¼ekurFkk mÙkjnk;h gksrs gSaA lkFk gh mudh la[;k Hkh de gksrh gSA blfy, mUgsa {kf.kd vkos'k esa mHkkjk ugha tk ldrkgSA fuokZpu esa [kpZ dh ek=kk Hkh de gks tkrh gSA jktuhfrd nyksa dh mxzrk Hkh blls ?kVrh gSA fiNM+s ns'kksa osQfy, vizR;{k iz.kkyh Hkh dkiQh mi;qDr fl¼ gqbZ gSA cM+s ns'k osQ fy, Hkh bl O;oLFkk dk leFkZu fd;k tkrk gSAysfdu vizR;{k iz.kkyh esa xq.k dh vis{kk nks"k vfèkd gSA ;g i¼fr yksdrU=k osQ fl¼kUrksa osQ fo:¼ gSA ernkrkvksarFkk izfrfufèk;ksa esa dksbZ fo'ks"k lEcUèk ugha jg tkrk gSA ernkrk ns'k dh jktuhfr ,oa 'kklu esa fnypLih ysukde dj nsrs gSaA u rks os vius vfèkdkjksa ,oa dÙkZO;ksa osQ izfr tkx:d gks ldrs gSa] vkSj u rks 'kklu ij fu;U=k.kdk gh dke djrs gSaA jktuhfrd nycfUn;k¡ Hkh de ugha gksrhA vesfjdk osQ jk"Vªifr osQ pquko osQ vkèkkj ij ;gvuqHko izkIr fd;k x;k gS fd vizR;{k fuokZpu osQoy uke&ek=k dk jg tkrk gSA vUr esa] fuokZpd&eaMy osQlnL;ksa dh la[;k de jgus osQ dkj.k ?kwl[kksjh ,oa Hkz"Vkpkj dh lEHkkouk c<+ tkrh gSA

fuokZpu {ks=k (Electoral Constituency): eq[;r% izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fuokZpu osQ fy, nks izdkj osQ fuokZpu&{ks=k gksrs gSa%&

(d) ,dlnL; fuokZpu&{ks=k (Single Member Constituency) rFkk

([k) cgqlnL; fuokZpu&{ks=k (Multiple Member Constituency)A

,d lnL; fuokZpu {ks=k izFkk osQ vUrxZr lkjs ns'k dks mrus gh fuokZpu&{ks=kksa esa ck¡V fn;k tkrk gSA futh izfrfufèk;ksadks fuokZpu dh vko';drk gksrh gS] tSls&;fn yksd&lHkk osQ 500 lnL; gSa rks iwjs ns'k dks 500 {ks=kksa esa ck¡V fn;ktk;xk vkSj izR;sd {ks=k ls ,d izfrfufèk dk fuokZpu gksxkA blosQ izfrdwy cgq&lnL; fuokZpu&{ks=k osQ vUrxZrns'k dks dbZ cM+s&cM+s fuokZpu {ks=kksa esa ck¡Vk tkrk gS vkSj izR;sd {ks=k esa ,d ls vfèkd izfrfufèk fuokZfpr gksrs gSaA

vkèkqfud ;qx esa ,d lnL; fuokZpu&{ks=k vfèkd yksdfiz; gS D;ksafd vR;fèkd ljy gS] izfrfufèk;ksa vkSj ernkrkvksaosQ chp fudV lacUèk LFkkfir gks tkrk gS] izfrfufèk;ksa esa mÙkjnkf;Ro dh Hkkouk iSnk gksrh gS] fuokZpu esa [kpZ degksrk gSA

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vYila[;dksa osQ izfrfufèkRo dh iz.kkfy;k¡ (Methods of Minority Representation): iztkrU=k turk dk'kklu gSA turk vius izfrfufèk;ksa }kjk 'kklu dks pykrh gSA blosQ fy, og izfrfufèk;ksa dk fuokZpu djrh gSAiztkrU=k rHkh turk dk 'kklu gks ldrk gS tc izfrfufèk;ksa osQ fuokZpu esa iwjh turk dh bPNk izyf{kr gksrh gksAcgqer osQ vkèkkj ij pqus x;s izfrfufèk lgh ernkrkvksa dh bPNk dks vfHkO;Dr ugha djrs gSaA lkèkkj.k cgqer dhizFkk osQ varxZr 51 ernkrkvksa dks 'kklu&dk;Z esa izfrufèkRo ugha fey ikrk gS tcfd 49 ernkrkvksa dks oLrqr%dksbZ izfrfufèkRo ugha feyrk gSA vr% bl vYila[;d oxZ dks 'kklu dk;Z esa dSls izfrfufèkRo fn;k tk; lnk ls,d xgu ,oa fopkj'khy leL;k jgh gS] ts- ,l- fey us Hkh dgk gS fd ;fn cgqla[;d oxks± dks 'kklu djus dkizkd`frd vfèkdkj gS rks vYila[;d oxks± dks Hkh bl ckr dk leku vfèkdkj gS fd mldh ckr lquh tk;A

vYila[;d oxZ jk"Vª dk ,d Hkkx gksrs gq, Hkh cgqla[;d tulewg ls fHkUu gksrk gSA bl fHkUurk osQ vkèkkj ijvkfFkZd] èkkfeZd] lkEiznkf;d vkfn dkj.k gksrs gSaA bu vYila[;d oxks± dks leqfpr izfrfufèkRo nsus osQ ckn ghlPpk iztkrU=k gks ldrk gSA vU;Fkk iw.kZ yksdlÙkk 'kklu&lapkyu esa ifjyf{kr ugha gks ldrh gS] vYila[;dksadks mfpr izfrfufèkRo nsus osQ mís'; ls vusd iz.kkfy;ksa dh ppkZ dh x;h gS&

(1) vkuqikfrd izfrfufèkRo (Proportional Representation)

(2) lhfer ernku izFkk (Limited Vote System)

(3) ,dy ernku izFkk (Cumulative Vote system)

(4) i`Fkd fuokZpu izFkk (Separate Electorate System)

(5) lqjf{kr LFkku&;qDr fuokZpu izFkk (Joint Electorate in the Reservation of Seates)] rFkk

(6) is'kkxr izfrfufèkRo (Professional of Occupational Representation)

12-3 fczVsu] vesfjdk] Úkal vkSj fLoV~tjyS.M esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk(Representation and Election System in Britain, America, France andSwitzerland)

fczVsu lcls iqjkuk çtkrkaf=kd ns'k gSA vr% fuokZpu vkSj çfrfufèkRo O;oLFkk dk fodkl lcls igys fczVsu esagh gqvk gSA vfHkle;ksa ij vkèkkfjr fodkl osQ iQyLo:i ftl dkWeu lHkk esa yksdra=khdj.k igys gqvk] mlhdh udy vU; ns'kksa osQ }kjk çFke lnu osQ :i esa dh xbZ gSA 1949 osQ çfrfufèkRo fu;e osQ vuqlkj fczfV'kdkWu lHkk dk pquko xqIr ernku }kjk gksrk gSA fczVsu esa ftl fuokZpu i¼fr dk ç;ksx gksrk gS mls lkèkkj.kcgqer ij vkèkkfjr ,dlnL;h; fuokZpu O;oLFkk dgk tkrk gSA pquko ifj.kke lkèkkj.kr% cgqer i¼fr osQvkèkkj ij gksrs gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ftl mEehnokj dks lcls vfèkd er çkIr gksrk gSA mls gh fot;h ?kksf"krfd;k tkrk gSA dkWeu lHkk dk ;g pquko lkekU;r% ik¡p o"kZ osQ fy, gksrk gS] ysfdu chp esa Hkh blosQ eè;kofèkpquko t:jr osQ vuqlkj gksrs jgrs gSaA

bl fuokZpu&i¼fr dh lcls eq[; fo'ks"krk ;g gS fd ernkrkvksa vkSj lnL;ksa osQ chp lhèkk lEidZ curk gSA [kpZde gksrs gSa vkSj LFkkuh; çfrHkk dks çksRlkgu feyrk gSA fczVsu dh blh fuokZpu i¼fr dk Js; gS fd blus baXySaMosQ f}nyh; i¼fr dks fodflr fd;k tlesa ,d ikVhZ lÙkk esa jgrh gS vkSj nwljk fojksèkh ny osQ :i esaA

dqN vkykspd bl i¼fr esa =kqfV Hkh <¡w<+rs gSaA çR;{k pquko osQ iQyLo:i çkIr erksa dh la[;k osQ vuqikresa nyksa osQ mEehnokj fot;h ugha gksrs gSaA dHkh&dHkh ns'k esa ftl ny osQ ernkrkvksa dk cgqer gksrk gS] oghvYier esa vk tkrk gSA jkEts E;ksj us Hkh bl ç.kkyh dks pquko dk fod`r :i ekuk gS vkSj dgk gS fdpquko ,d çdkj ls tqvk gS ftldk çfrdwy çHkko nyh; usrkvksa ij iM+rk gSA iQyr% bl fuokZpu i¼fresa lqèkkj ykus osQ fy, le;≤ ij vusd lq>ko fn;s x;s gSaA ,dy laØe.kh; er fofèk osQ lkFk vkuqikfrdçfrfufèkRo ç.kkyh dks viukus dk lq>ko fn;k x;k gSA dqN yksxksa us lap;h erç.kkyh (Cumulative Vote

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System) rFkk lhfer er ç.kkyh (Restrictive Vote System) dks Hkh viukus dk lq>ko fn;k gSA ysfdu ;slHkh lq>ko fczfV'k lanHkZ esa nks"keqDr ugha gS vkSj buosQ viukus ls fczVsu dh f}nyh; i¼fr lekIr gks tk;xhftldk çfrdwy vlj ogk¡ dh jktuhfrd fLFkjrk ij iM+sxkA iQyr% fczVsu osQ yksx orZeku fuokZpu vkSjçfrfufèkRo dh O;oLFkk dks mi;qDr ekurs gSa vkSj lpeqp fo'o osQ vfèkdka'k ns'kksa us blh fczfV'k i¼fr dksviuk;k gSA bl vkèkkj ij pqus tkus osQ ckotwn çfrfufèk;ksa dk n`f"Vdks.k ges'kk jk"Vªh; gksrk gS vkSj os viusdks laiw.kZ ns'k dk çfrfufèk ekurs gSaA

vesfjdk esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Representation and Election System in U.S.A.):

vesfjdk Hkh ,d yksdrkaf=kd ns'k gS ftldk fyf[kr lafoèkku vkèkqfud thfor lafoèkkuksa esa lcls iqjkuk gSA vr%çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu dks ogk¡ Hkh cgqr egÙo fn;k x;k gSA lHkh egÙoiw.kZ laoSèkkfud fudk;ksa dk pqukovesfjdk esa gksrk gSA jk"Vªifr] mijk"Vªifr] dk¡xzsl osQ nksuksa lnu (çfrfufèk lHkk vkSj lhusV) rFkk jkT;ksa esa xouZjturk }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA orZeku le; esa jk"Vªifr dk O;ogkj esa çR;{k pquko pkj o"kZ osQ fy, turk }kjkgksrk gSA çfrfufèk lHkk vesfjdh ernkrkvksa }kjk çR;{k :i ls pquh tkrh gSA lhusV dk fuekZ.k jkT;ksa dh lekurkladh.kZ fl¼kUr ij gksrk gS vkSj mlosQ Hkh lnL; fuf'pr dksVk osQ vuqlkj jkT;ksa }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA 1913 lsiwoZ lhusV osQ bu lnL;ksa dk pquko ijks{k :i ls çR;sd jkT; dh foèkkf;dk }kjk gksrk FkkA ysfdu lafoèkku osQl=kgosa la'kksèku osQ vuqlkj vc bu jkT;ksa osQ ukxfjd çR;{k :i esa bUgsa pqurs gSaA çfrfufèk lHkk dk xBu jkT;ksadh tula[;k osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gS vkSj fuokZpu çR;{k rFkk o;Ld erkfèkdkj osQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gSA lafoèkkuosQ mUuhloha la'kksèku }kjk çR;sd L=kh dks Hkh ernku dk vfèkdkj çnku fd;k x;k gSA fuokZpu vkSj çfrufèkRodh bl O;oLFkk ls ;gh fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fd ekSfyd :i ls laçHkqrk ogk¡ dh turk esa fuokl djrh gSAbldh Li"V ppkZ lafoèkku dh çLrkouk esa gSA vesfjdk lafoèkku dks x.kra=k Hkh dgk tkrk gS D;ksafd jkT; dkçèkku ;kuh jk"Vªifr dk pquko lhèks turk }kjk gksrk gSA

Úkal esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Representation and Eelction System in France): Úkal esaØkafr osQ le; gh Lora=krk] lekurk vkSj Hkzkr`Ro osQ tks ukjs lkjh nqfu;k dks fn;s x;s ftlosQ xHkZ esa fuokZpuvkSj çfrfufèkRo O;oLFkk fufgr gS] prqFkZ x.kra=k esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu dk lHkh O;oLFkk,¡ fczfV'k çfrekuij vkèkkfjr FkhA ysfdu iape x.kra=k esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkk dk Lo:i cny tkus ls blesa dqN ifjorZu vk;kgS ysfdu ewy :i ls turk dks gh lHkh vfèkdkj gSA fcuk fdlh HksnHkko osQ lHkh Úkalhlh ukxfjdksa dks ernkudk vfèkdkj gSA

Úkal esa jk"Vªifr rFkk laln~ osQ nksuksa lnuksa (jk"Vªh; lHkk vkSj lhusV) dk fuokZpu gksrk gSA jk"Vªifr turk }kjk pquktkrk gSA blfy, Úkal ,d x.kra=k gSA jk"Vªh; lHkk osQ lnL;ksa dk pquko O;kid] çR;{k] leku vkSj xqIr ernkuosQ vkèkkj ij gksrk gSA lHkh O;Ld ukxfjdksa dks erkfèkdkj çkIr gSA iwjs ns'k dks leku fuokZpu {ks=kksa esa ck¡V fn;k tkrkgS vkSj çR;sd {ks=k ls ,d çfrfufèk pquk tkrk gSA nwljh vksj lhusV osQ lnL;ksa dk pquko O;kid ijks{k erkfèkdkj osQvkèkkj ij gksrk gSA Úkal osQ çknsf'kd foHkkxksa vkSj çoklh ukxfjdksa dk çfrufèkRo Hkh blh lnu esa gksrk gSA

fLoV~tjySaM esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk (Representation and Election System in Switzerland):

fLoV~tjySaM esa çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu O;oLFkk dk Lo:i fczVsu] vesfjdk] vkSj Úkal ls fHkUu gSA blosQ vykokvkt Hkh fLoV~tjySaM esa çR;{k çtkra=k osQ :i ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA Lohl la?kh; lHkk f}lnukRed gS ftlesa çFkelnu dks jk"Vªh; lHkk (National Council) dgk tkrk gS tks Lohl turk dk çfrfufèkRo djrh gSA jkT; lHkk(Council of States) dks f}rh; lnu dgk tkrk gS tks dSaVuksa dk çfrfufèkRo djrk gSA blesa çR;sd dSaVu osQ nksvkSj çR;sd v¼Z dSaVu ls ,d çfrfufèk fy;s tkrs gSaA

çFke lnu ;kuh jk"Vªh; lHkk dk xBu turk osQ }kjk fuokZfpr çfrfufèk;ksa }kjk gksrk gSA çR;sd Lohl ukxfjd tks20 o"kZ dk gks pqdk gS ernku esa Hkkx ysrk gSA pquko xqIr ernku }kjk gksrk gSA ysfdu fczVsu] vesfjdk] Úkal

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vkSj Hkkjr dh rjg ogk¡ lkèkkj.k cgqer ij vkèkkfjr ,d lnL;h; fuokZpu ç.kkyh }kjk pquko ugha gksrkA blosQpquko osQ fy, vkuqikfrd çfrfufèkRo ç.kkyh {ks=k esa yk;h tkrhA çR;sd dSaVu ,d fuokZpu {ks=k gksrk gS ftlesaçfrfufèk;ksa osQ pquko osQ fy, fofHkUu ny vius&vius mEehnokjksa dh lwph çLrqr djrs gSaA bl çdkj mEehnokjO;fDrxr :i ls ugha cfYd lkeqnkf;d :i ls [kM+s gksrs gSA çR;sd lwph esa mrus gh uke gksrs gSa ftrus ml dSaVuosQ LFkku gksaA ernkrk mrus er nsus dk vfèkdkjh gksrk gS ftrus lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu ml dSaVu ls gksrk gSA fdUrqvkuqikfrd çfrfufèkRo i¼fr dk ç;ksx osQoy mUgha dSaVuksa esa fd;k tkrk gS tgk¡ ,d ls vfèkd lnL;ksa dk pqukogksrk gSA ftu dSaVuksa ls osQoy ,d lnL; fuokZfpr gksrk gS ogk¡ lkèkkj.k ç.kkyh }kjk ernku gksrk gSA

blesa dksbZ 'kd ugha fd fuokZpu vkSj çfrfufèkRo dh vkuqikfrd ç.kkyh esa Hkh vusd nks"k gSaA ysfdu vfèkdka'kfo}kuksa dh èkkj.kk gS fd Úkal vkSj bVyh dh rjg bl i¼fr osQ cqjs urhts fLoVtjySaM esa ns[kus dks ugha feyrsAlpeqp bl ç.kkyh us fLoV~tjySaM osQ çfrfufèkRo vkSj fuokZpu esa U;k; dh çofÙk dks mRlkfgr fd;k gS vkSj tuerlaxzg osQ nks"kksa dks lekIr fd;k gSA



1- --------------------------------- lcls iqjkuk çtkrkaf=kd ns'k gSA

2- fuokZpu vkSj çfrfufèkRo O;oLFkk dk fodkl lcls igys ------------------------- esa gqvkA

3- orZeku esa vejhdh jk"Vªifr dk çR;{k pquko ---------------------- osQ fy, turk }kjk gksrk gSA

4- Úkal osQ iape x.kra=k esa ewy :i ls lHkh vfèkdkj ------------------------- dks gh gSA

5- vkt Hkh --------------------------- esa çR;{k çtkra=k osQ :i ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA


:lks (Rousseau) dk Hkh dguk gS fd çfrfufèkRo dh dYiuk vkèkqfud gS bldh mRifÙk dk dkj.k ljdkjksadh LosPNkpkfjrk FkhA fiQj Hkh dgk tk ldrk gS fd çkphu çtkrkfU=kd jkT;ksa esa bldh FkksM+h cgqr 'kq:vkrgks pqdh FkhA ysfdu eè;dkyhu ;qx esa ;g Li"V :i ls n`f"Vxkspj gksus yxhA tc dqN jktkvksa dks èkudh vko';drk gksrh Fkh rks os djkjksi.k osQ lacUèk esa eU=k.kk ysus osQ fy, dqN tu&çfrfufèk;ksa dks vkefU=krdjrs FksA çfrfufèk;ksa osQ lewg us èkhjs&èkhjs çfrfufèk laLFkk dk :i xzg.k dj fy;kA ftls baXySaM esa laln(Parliament)] Úkal esa LVsV~l tujy (Estates General) rFkk tkiku esa Mk;V (Diet) dgk tkrk FkkA

1213 bZñ esa bl çdkj dh lHkk cqyk;hA 1256 bZñ esa cSjuksa osQ fot;&lÙkk lkbeu&Mh ekaViQksMZ (Simon de-Montford) us laln~ dh cSBd cqyk;h ftlesa lkeUrksa] iknfj;ksa vkSj dkmf.V;ksa osQ çfrfufèk;ksa osQ vfrfjDr21 uxjksa (Boroughs) ls Hkh nks&nks çfrfufèk vkeafU=kr gq,A

1295 bZ- esa ,MoMZ çFke us laln~ dh cSBd cqyk;hA ;g bfrgkl esa vkn'kZ laln~* (Model Parliament)osQ uke ls fo[;kr gS] D;ksafd 400 O;fDr;ksa dh bl lHkk esa çk;% lHkh çeq[k oxks±&oSju] iknjh] ukbV] uxjvkfn dks çfrfufèkRo feykA blosQ i'pkr~ fczfV'k O;oLFkk dk og ,d LFkkuh; vkSj vfuok;Z vax cu x;hA

vBkjgoha 'krkCnh esa lezkV~ ,d laoSèkkfud çèkku ek=k jg x;k vkSj laln~ iw.kZ lkoZHkkSe gks x;hA mUuhloharFkk orZeku 'krkCnh esa ;g fodkl iw.kZ gks x;kA

baXySaM esa 'kq: ls gh laln~ dk :i va'kr% çfrfuè;kRed (Representative) jgk gS] D;ksafd uxjksa vkSjlkeUrksa osQ çfrfufèk fdlh&u&fdlh :i esa pqus tkrs FksA baXySaM osQ fy, çfrfufèkRo dk fl¼kUr dksbZ u;kfl¼kar ugha FkkA

vr% lPph çfrfuè;kRed ljdkj dh LFkkiuk orZeku dky esa gqbZA ysfdu bldh uhao o`gr~ lHkk esa dkmUVh

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vkSj ckSjksa dks çfrfufèkRo nsus osQ lkFk iM+ pqdh FkhA blosQ mn; dk dkj.k Lora=krk ;k Lo'kklu osQ çfr çseugha] cfYd jktkvksa dh dj çkIr djus dh 'kfDr dk fojksèk FkkA

Úkal dh xkSjoiw.kZ Økafr (Glorious Revolution) us çfrfuè;kRed ç.kkyh dh LFkkiuk dh fn'kk esa ,degku la?k"kZ fd;kA vejhdh mifuos'kksa us ^fcuk çfrfufèkRo osQ dj ugha* (No taxation without

repersentation) dk ukjk yxk;k rFkk vUr esa yksdrU=kh çfrfuè;kRed ljdkj dh LFkkiuk esa liQy gq,A

LorU=k Hkkjr osQ lafoèkku osQ fuekZ.k gsrq lafoèkku lHkk (Constituent Assembly) dk laxBu gqvkA blosQizfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko vizR;{k jhfr ls gqvk FkkA fiQj Hkh bl lHkk eas lHkh oxks±] tkfr;ksa jktuhfrd nyksa rFkkfgrksa dks leqfpr izfrfufèkRo izkIr FkkA LorU=krk&izkfIr osQ iwoZ rd] izfrfufèkRo rFkk fuokZpu dh fo'ks"krkFkh fd os lhfer Fks izfrfufèk;ksa osQ pquko dk vkèkkj o;Ld erkfèkdkj ugha Fkk rFkk pquko dk vkèkkjlkEiznkf;d rFkk oxhZ; izfrfufèkRo FkkA ysfdu LorU=k Hkkjr esa fuokZpu dks iw.kZ iztkrkfU=kd cuk fn;k x;kgSA bldk vkèkkj vlhfer o;Ld erkfèkdkj gS izfrfufèk;ksa dks fo'ks"k LFkku rFkk vfèkdkj izkIr gS rFkkizfrfufèkd laLFkkvksa dks izeq[kr% fofèk fuekZ.k ,oa dfri; vU; {ks=kksa esa Hkh vko';d vfèkdkj fn;s x;s gSaA

vkfn"V izfrfufèkRo dk vFkZ gS fd izfrfufèkRo fuokZpdksa osQ vèkhu gSA mldh futh bPNk dqN ugha gSA ogfuokZpdksa dh bPNk dks vfHkO;fDr djrk gSA ;g fdlh izdkj dk la'kksèku fuokZpdksa dh vkKk ls yk ldrkgSA izfrfufèk dk ;g :i vkt iqjkuk iM+ x;k gSA fiQj Hkh dqN ,sls izfrfufèk gksrs gSa tks ekfyd dh bPNkosQ varxZr gh dqN dj ldrs gSa tSls fons'kksa esa jktnwr] vUrjkZ"Vªh; lEesyuksa esa fofHkUu jk"Vªksa osQizfrfufèk&izfrfufèkRo osQ bl fl¼kar dks vekU; Bgjk;k x;k gS] D;ksafd izfrfufèk;ksa dks u rks foosdiw.kZ vkns'kgh miyCèk gksrs gSa vkSj u ghs fuokZpdks dh okLrfod bPNk dk irk gh vklkuh ls yxkuk lEHko gSA

vkns'kghu izfrfufèkRo dk vFkZ gS fd izfrfufèkx.k fuokZpdksa osQ vfHkdÙkkZ (Agent) ugha gSa] os fuokZpdksa osQvèkhuLFk ugha gSa rFkk osQoy muosQ vkns'k osQ vuqlkj dk;Z ugha djrs gSaA lS¼kfUrd rFkk O;kogkfjd nksuksanf"Vdks.kksa ls ;g lEHko ugha gS fd dksbZ izfrfufèk lnk fuokZpdksa osQ vkns'k osQ vuqlkj ;k fuokZpdksa osQ le{kdh x;h izfrKkvksa osQ vuqlkj dk;Z djsA vr% vkèkqfud ;qx esa vkfn"V izfrfufèkRo dk vekU; fl¼kar fl¼ gksx;k gS vkSj vkns'kghu fl¼kUr dks ekU;rk iznku dh x;h gSA

tgka O;oLFkkfidk lHkkvksa osQ yksdfiz; lnuksa dk iz'u gS mudk dk;Z&dky Hkkjr] fczVsu rFkk dukMk esa 5o"kZ] vesfjdk esa 2 o"kZ vkSj iwoZ lksfo;r la?k] LohMu rFkk tkiku esa 4 o"kZ gS f}rh; lnuks osQ izfrfufèk;ksadk dk;Z&dky vesfjdk rFkk vkLVªsfy;k esa 6 o"kZ] nf{k.k vÚhdk esa 10 o"kZ] Úkal esa 9 o"kZ rFkk lksfo;r:l esa 4 o"kZ rFkk fczVsu esa vkthou gSA

Hkkjrh; lafoèkku lHkk (Indian Constituent Assembly) dh la?kh; lafoèkku&lfefr (Union Constitution

Committee) us yksdlHkk osQ fy, 4 o"kZ dk dk;Z&dky fuf'pr fd;k Fkk] ysfdu izk:i lfefr (drafting

Committee) us bls c<+kdj 5 o"kZ dj fn;kA bldk dkj.k ;g cryk;k x;k fd lalnh; iz.kkyh esa izFkeo"kZ] fdlh ea=kh osQ 'kklu dk;Z dk Kku izkIr djus esa yx tkrk gS rFkk vfUre o"kZ lkekU; fuokZpu dhrS;kjh esa yx tkrk gSA iQyr% nks o"kZ le; cpsxk tks lqfu;ksftr iz'kklu osQ fy, vR;Ur vYi vofèk gSA

izfrfufèk;ksa dks fof'k"V rFkk mÙkjnkf;Roiw.kZ dk;Z djus iM+rs gSaA mUgsa tfVy rFkk isphnk dkuwu dk fuekZ.kdjuk iM+rk gSA lkFk gh] mUgsa bl ckr dk è;ku j[kuk iM+rk gS fd igys ns'k dk 'kklu&lapkyu LoPNrFkk dq'ky rjhosQ ls gks vkSj lkekU; fgr dh o`f¼ gksA vr% ;g vko';d gS fd izfrfufèk ;ksX;] n{k]dk;Zdq'ky rFkk ns'k lsoh gksaA

vfèkdka'k lafoèkku esa izfrfufèk;ksa dh vk;q dk mYys[k feyrk gSA Hkkjrh; lafoèkku esa yksdlHkk osQ lnL;ksaosQ fy, U;wure vk;q 25 o"kZ rFkk jkT; lHkk osQ lnL;ksa osQ fy, 30 o"kZ fuf'pr dh x;h gSA

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vkèkqfud dky esa jktuhfrd lerk osQ fl¼kUr dks viuk;k x;k gSA vr% èkuoku vkSj fuèkZu lHkh dks lekujktuhfrd vfèkdkj izkIr gSaA

Hkkjr esa dksbZ Hkh O;fDr] tks ljdkjh ;k fdlh ykHk osQ in ij gks foèkkue.My dk lnL; ugha gks ldrkgSA la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk esa rks dk;Zikfydk dk lnL; ;kuh ea=khx.k dkaxzsl osQ lnL; ugha gks ldrs gSA blcUèku dk ,d dkj.k gS fd dk;Zikfydk osQ lnL; O;oLFkkfidk osQ lnL; gks tk;sa rks os futh LokFkZ osQ fy,dkuwu dk fuekZ.k djsaxsA

izR;sd ns'k esa ogka osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dks fo'ks"kkfèkdkj izkIr jgrk gSA mUgsa lafoèkku osQ izfr J¼k vkSj fu"Bkj[kus osQ rFkk drZO; dk J¼kiwoZd ikyu djus dh 'kiFk ysuh iM+rh gSA mUgsa foèkkulHkk rFkk mlosQ ckgjfopkj vfHkO;Dr dh iw.kZ LorU=krk jgrh gSA Hkk"k.k nsus osQ fo:¼ mu ij dksbZ dk;Zokgh ugha dh tk ldrhAlnu osQ vfèkos'ku osQ le; esa mUgsa lkèkkj.kr% fxjÝrkj ugha fd;k tk ldrkA izfrfufèk;ksa dks fu;fer :ils okf"kZd ;k ekfld osru rFkk vU; izdkj osQ HkÙks feyrs gSaA


x.kra=k % fuokZfpr jk"Vªkè;{k okyk ns'k

fod`r % fdlh Hkh oLrq vFkok tho dk fcxM+k ,oa Hk;kud :iA


1- fczfV'k] vejhdh] izQkalhlh vkSj fLol osQ lanHkZ eas izfrfufèkRo osQ fl¼karksa dh O;k[;k dhft,A

2- fczVsu] izQkal vkSj vesfjdk esa ernku O;ogkj dk foospuk dhft,A

3- fczVsu] vesfjdk] izQkal ,oa fLoV~tjyS.M dh pquko i¼fr ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A

mÙkj Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self Assessment)

1- fczVsu 2- fczVsu 3- 4 o"kZ 4- turk

5- fLoV~tjyS.M


iqLrosaQ 1- rqyukRed jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk] fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjhjksM] fnYyhA




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bdkbZ—13% jktuhfrd ny


bdkbZμ13% jktuhfrd ny (Political Parties)


mís'; (Objectives)


13.1 jktuhfrd ny% vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk vkSj egÙo (Political Party : Meaning, Definition and Importance)

13.2 ;w-osQ] ;w-,l-,- vkSj Úkal esa jktuhfrd ny (Political Party in UK, U.S.A. and France)

13.3 phu esa dE;qfuLV ikVhZ dh Hkwfedk (Role of Communist Party in China)

13.4 ;w-,l-,] ;w-osQ] vkSj Úkal esa fgr lewg vFkok ncko lewg (Interests groups or Pressure Groupin USA, UK and France)





mís'; (Objectives)


jktuhfrd ny osQ vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk vkSj egÙo dks le>us esa_

;w-osQ] ;w-,l-,- vkSj Úkal esa jktuhfrd nyksa dh fLFkfr vkSj phu esa dE;qfuLV ikVhZ dh Hkwfedk dk foospudjus esaA

;w-osQ-] ;w-,l-, vkSj izQkal esa fgr lewgksa dh O;k[;k djus esaA


jktuhfrd ny iztkrU=k dh vkèkkjf'kyk gSA nksuksa esa vR;Ur ?kfu"B lEcUèk gSA nyksa osQ fcuk iztkrU=k thfor ughajg ldrk gSA bUgsa ¶iztkrU=k dk izk.k¸ dgk tkrk gSA os 'kklu O;oLFkk osQ ,d vfHkUu vax gSaA mUgsa ljdkj dk^prqFkZ vax* (Fourth organ of the Government) dgk x;k gSA oLrqr% jktuhfrd nyksa osQ vHkko esa yksdrU=klEHko ugha gks ldrkA blfy, yksdrU=kh; 'kklu dks nyh; 'kklu (Party Government) dgk x;k gSA izfrfufèkiztkrU=k osQ fodkl ls nyksa dh vfuok;Zrk vR;fèkd c<+ x;h gSA izfrfufèk;ksa dk pquko turk djrh gSA ysfdutc rd jktuhfrd ny ugha gksxk rc rd turk ;g ugha le> ik;sxh fd og fdls viuk izfrfufèk pqus vkSjfdls ughaA os vius ny osQ mEehnokj dks pquko esa [kM+k dj turk dks ;g ekSdk nsrs gSa fd og viuk ;ksX; izfrfufèkpqusA jktuhfrd ny ugha jgs rks ernkrk viuk er fcuk lksp&fopkj osQ fdlh dks Hkh ns nsaxsA blfy, iQkbuj usdgk gS fd jktuhfr ny vewÙkZ ernkrkvksa dks ewÙkZ :i nsrs gSaA mlh osQ 'kCnksa esa] nyksa osQ fcuk ernkrk ;k rks uiqaldgks tk;saxs ;k fouk'kdkjh] tks ,slh vlEHko uhfr;ksa dk vuqxeu djsaxs ftlls jktuhfr ;U=k èoLr gks tk;saxsA ykWosyosQ dFkukuqlkj fdlh egku~ jk"Vª esa lEiw.kZ turk }kjk ljdkj dh èkkj.kk fuLlansg ,d eux<+Ur dYiuk gS] D;ksafd

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tgk¡ erkfèkdkj foLr`r gS] ogk¡ nyksa dk vfLrRo fuf'pr gS vkSj fu;U=k.k okLrfod :i esa ml ny osQ gkFkksa esagksxk ftldk cgqer gksxkA ¶bl flyflys esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk eq[; dk;Z fuokZpd e.My dks izHkkfor djuk]fuokZpu esa izR;k'kh [kM+k djuk] vius mís';ksa ,oa dk;ZØeksa dk izpkj djuk rFkk fuokZpu esa thrdj ljdkj dkfuekZ.k djuk gSA¸ bl izdkj ;fn jktuhfrd ny laxfBr u gks rks izfrfufèkewyd ljdkj dk pyuk dfBu gksxkAblfy, jktuhfr nyksa dks ^vn`'; ljdkj* (Invisible Government) dgk x;k gSA eSdkboj osQ 'kCnksa esa]¶jktuhfrd nyksa osQ vHkko esa u rks fl¼kUrksa dh laxfBr vfHkO;fDr gh gks ldrh gS vkSj u uhfr;ksa dk mfprfodkl gh vkSj u fu;fU=kr :i ls jk"Vªh; pquko osQ oSèkkfud mik;ksa vFkok ekU; laLFkkvksa dk lgkjk gh fy;k tkldrk gS ftlosQ }kjk jktuhfrK viuh 'kfDr dks cuk;s j[kus ;k izkIr djus dk iz;Ru djrs gSaA¸ bl izdkj iztkrU=kdks O;kogkfjd cukus osQ fy, jktuhfrd nyksa dk vfLrRo vfuok;Z gSA

13-1 jktuhfrd ny% vFkZ] ifjHkk"kk vkSj egÙo (Political Party : Meaning,Definition and Importance)

lkèkkj.k cksypky dh Hkk"kk esa O;fDr;ksa osQ fdlh Hkh lewg dks tks ,d leku mís'; dh izkfIr osQ fy, dk;Zdjrk gS] ny dgrs gSaA ;fn ml ny dk mís'; jktuhfrd gks rks mls jktuhfrd ny dgrs gSaA ;g vius fopkjksadk izpkj dj turk dks viuk vuq;k;h cukrk gS rFkk vius gh fopkjksa osQ vuqlkj ljdkj dk fuekZ.k djukpkgrk gSA lekt esa ,sls vU; laxBu Hkh gksrs gSa_ tSlsμèkkfeZd laxBu] O;kogkfjd laxBu] tkrh; laxBu]lkaLÑfrd laxBu bR;kfnA ysfdu bUgsa jktuhfrd ny ugha dgk tk ldrk gS_ D;ksafd budk mís'; jktuhfrdugha gksrk gSA ;s ljdkj dk fuekZ.k djuk ugha pkgrs gSa] vfirq osQoy fo'ks"k oxZ dk fgr pkgrs gSaA vr%jktuhfrd ny dk vk'k; ukxfjdksa osQ ,sls lewg ls gS tks lkoZtfud iz'uksa osQ fo"k; esa leku fopkj j[krkgS vkSj jktuhfrd bdkbZ osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gq, viuh dfYir uhfr dks foLrkj nsus osQ fy, 'kklurU=k dksgLrxr djuk pkgrk gksA

ifjHkk"kkμbldh ifjHkk"kk,¡ vusd fo}kuksa us nh gSaμ

,MeaM coZQμ¶jktuhfrd ny mu euq";ksa dk ,d lewg gS tks oqQN fuf'pr fl¼karksa osQ vkèkkj ij ftuesa oslger gSa] vius la;qDr iz;Ruksa ls jk"Vªh; fgr dks vkxs c<+kus osQ fy, laxfBr jgrs gSaA¸ ;gk¡ coZQ us rhuvko';d rÙoksa ij tksj fn;k gSμ(d) mís'; jk"Vªh; fgr dk lkèku] ([k) fl¼kar vkSj (x) laxBu dks nyosQ vfLrRo osQ fy, vko';d ekuk tkrk gSA

eSDl oscjμ¶jktuhfrd ny LosPNk ls cuk;k gqvk og laxBu gS tks 'kklu 'kfDr dks vius gkFk esa ysuk pkgrkgS vkSj bldks gLrxr djus osQ fy, og izpkj vkSj vkUnksyu dk lgkjk ysrk gSA bl 'kklu 'kfDr dks viusgkFk esa ysus osQ ihNs ,d mís'; gks ldrk gS tks ;k rks oLrqfu"B y{; dh izkfIr gks ;k O;fDrxr LokFkZ gks;k nksuksaA¸

eSdkbojμ¶jktuhfr ny og leqnk; gS ftldk laxBu fdlh fo'ks"k fl¼kar ;k uhfr osQ leFkZu osQ fy, gqvkgks] tks lkafoèkkfud mik;ksa dk lgkjk ysdj bl fl¼kar vFkok uhfr dks ljdkj dk vkèkkj cukus dk iz;Rudjrk gksA¸

yhdkWdμjktuhfrd ny laxfBr ukxfjdksa osQ ml leqnk; dks dgrs gSa tks bdV~Bs feydj ,d jktuhfrd bdkbZosQ :i esa dke djrs gSaA muosQ fopkj lkoZtfud iz'uksa ij ,d tSls gksrs gSa vkSj os ,d lkekU; mís'; dh iwfrZosQ fy, ernku dh 'kfDr dk iz;ksx djosQ ljdkj ij viuk vkfèkiR; LFkkfir djuk pkgrk gSA

fxyØkbVμ¶jktuhfrd ny O;fDr;ksa osQ ml leqnk; dks dgrs gSa ftlosQ lnL;ksa osQ jktuhfrd fopkj ,d lsgksrs gSa tks ,d jktuhfrd bdkbZ dh rjg dke djosQ ljdkj dks fu;af=kr djus dh ps"Vk djrs gSaA¸

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xsVsyμ¶jktuhfrd ny izk;% laxfBr ukxfjdksa osQ ,sls leqnk; gSa tks jktuhfrd bdkbZ osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gSavkSj vius ernku dh 'kfDr dk iz;ksx dj ljdkj dks fu;af=kr djuk rFkk viuh lkekU; uhfr dh iwfrZ djukpkgrs gSaA¸

jktuhfrd nyksa dk egÙo (Importance of Political Parties)

jktuhfrd ny iztkrU=k esa f'k{kk osQ lkèku gSaA ;s turk dks fofHkUu izdkj ls jktuhfrd f'k{kk iznku djrs gSaA ;sturk dks lkoZtfud iz'uksa ,oa leL;kvksa osQ izfr tkx:d jgus dh f'k{kk nsrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny turk osQ le{kgj leL;k osQ fofHkUu rFkk fojksèkh igyqvksa dks j[krs gSa ftlls turk dks jktuhfrd leL;kvksa dk Kku izkIr gksrkgS] mueas jktuhfrd psruk vkrh gS] turU=k dh liQyrk osQ fy, ,d LoLFk vkSj psru'khy jktuhfrd okrkoj.kdh vko';drk gSA ,slk okrkoj.k osQoy jktuhfrd ny gh dk;e dj ldrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny iztkrU=k osQvko';d rÙo tuer osQ fuekZ.k esa Hkh lgk;d gksrs gSaA ;s tuer dk fuekZ.k] izdk'ku] fodkl bR;kfn djrs gSaAernku vkSj fuokZpu osQ le; os jkT; osQ ukxfjdksa dks jktuhfrd lgk;rk iznku djrs gSaA muesa 'kklu osQ izfrtkx:drk mRiUu djrs gSaA vkSj mldks jktuhfrd dÙkZO;ksa dk cksèk djkrs gSaA

iztkrU=k esa fofHkUu fojksèkh nyksa dk vfLrRo blfy, Hkh vfuok;Z gS fd lÙkk:<+ ny dh foiQyrk osQ ckn os lÙkk dkslaHkkyus osQ fy, vkxs c<+ tk,A cgqer ny dk 'kklu pyrk gS rFkk fojksèkh ny mldh vkykspuk dj mls lpsr djrkgSA jktuhfrd ny fofHkUu LokFkks±] fgrksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA turk bUgha nyksa osQ ekè;e ls viuh dfBukb;ksa dksljdkj rd igq¡pkrh gSA bl izdkj turk rFkk turk osQ chp ny dM+h dk dke djrs gSaA ;s ljdkj rFkk turk osQchp lkeatL; LFkkfir djrs gSaA ;g rHkh gks ldrk gS tc ljdkj dh bPNk ljdkj tkus rFkk mlosQ eqrkfcd dk;Zdjus dk iz;kl djs vkSj ljdkj dh bPNk ls turk vius dks voxr j[ksA jktuhfrd ny turk vkSj ljdkj osQchp lkeatL;iw.kZ fLFkfr cuk;s j[kus esa ,d dM+h dk dke djrs gSaA blosQ vfrfjDr jktuhfrd nyksa osQ }kjk turkljdkj ij fu;U=k.k j[krh gSA iztkrU=k esa ;fn ljdkj ij turk dk fu;U=k.k u jgs rks iztkrU=k liQy ugha gks ldrkAfu;U=k.k dks O;kogkfjd :i nsus dk loksZÙke ekè;e jktuhfrd ny gh gSaA

iztkrU=k dh liQyrk dh ,d izeq[k oS;fDrd LorU=krk dh j{kk gSA mldh iwfrZ dk eq[; lkèku jktuhfrd nygSaA fojksèkh jktuhfrd ny 'kklu ny dks fu;fU=kr dj ns'k dks ,d ny dh fujaoqQ'krk ls cpkrk gSA nyksa osQ ekè;els gh turk leqfpr :i ls vius fojksèk dh vfHkO;fDr dj ldrh gSA izks- ykWLdh osQ 'kCnksa esa] jktuhfrd nyns'k esa rkuk'kkgh ls gekjh j{kk djus osQ loksZÙke lkèku gSaA¸ ykMZ czkbl us Hkh dgk gS fd ¶dksbZ Hkh LorU=k ns'kblosQ fcuk ugha jg ldrk gSA¸

vUr esa] jktuhfrd ny izfrfufèk ewyd i¼fr osQ fy, loZFkk vfuok;Z gSA fdlh Hkh izdkj dh 'kklu O;oLFkk D;ksau gks] nyksa osQ vHkko esa ljdkj dk lqxe lapkyu ugha gks ldrk gSA vè;{kkRed i¼fr dh ljdkj gks ;klalnkRed i¼fr dh_ iw¡thoknh O;oLFkk gks ;k lektoknh] iztkrU=k gks ;k vfèkuk;drU=k] ljdkj osQ vkèkkjjktuhfrd ny gh gSaA esfj;V us rks nyksa dks ljdkj dh ¶iwjd laLFkk¸ dgk gS_ D;ksafd os vfèkdkfj;ksa osQ pquko]lkoZtfud uhfr osQ fuèkkZj.k rFkk ljdkj osQ lapkyu vkSj bldh vkykspuk djus esa lgk;rk iznku djrs gSaA nyksadh bl egÙoiw.kZ fLFkfr osQ ckotwn ekDlZoknh fopkjdksa dk dguk gS fd lkE;okn dh voLFkk esa u rks jkT; jgsxkvkSj u jktuhfrd ny ghA jktuhfrd nyksa dk vfLrRo fofHkUu oxks± rFkk LokFkks± osQ dkj.k gSaA vkt osQ loksZn;oknhHkh nyfoghu ljdkj (Partyless Government) dh ppkZ djrs gSaA ysfdu ;s fopkjèkkjk,¡ ftl vkn'kZ lkekftdvoLFkk dh ckr djrh gSa og iw.kZr% dkYifud gSA Hkfo"; esa tks oqQN gks] de&ls&de vkèkqfud iztkrU=k esajktuhfrd ny izk.kok;q osQ leku gSaA

jktuhfrd nyksa dks ¶iztkra=k dk izk.k¸ vkSj ljdkj dk ^prqFkZ vax* dgk tkrk gSA

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13-2 ;w-osQ-] ;w-,l-,- vkSj Úkal esa jktuhfrd ny (Political Party in UK, U.S.A.and France)

fczVsu esa jktuhfrd ny (Political Parties in Britian)

jktuhfrd ny fczfV'k 'kklu&iz.kkyh dh fo'ks"k cqfu;kn dk ewykèkkj gSA ;g dguk vuqfpr u gksxk fd fczfV'klafoèkku osQ fodkl esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk Hkh laxBu gqvk vkSj erkfèkdkj osQ izlkj osQ lkFk&lkFk ;g laxBuvfèkdkfèkd tfVy] lqn`<+ ,oa vuq'kkluc¼ gksrk x;kA fczfV'k 'kklu dh lalnh; fo'ks"krkvksa osQ liQy lapkyuesa jktuhfrd nyksa dk eq[; gkFk gS vke pquko] eaf=keaMy dk xBu ,oa dk;Zdkj.kh] laln~ dh dk;Zokfg;ksa dklapkyu] ljdkjh uhfr;ksa dk fuèkkZj.k] turk dk 'kklu ij fu;a=k.k vkfn lalnh; fo'ks"krkvksa dh vfHkO;fDr nyh;O;oLFkk osQ ekè;e ls gh gksrk gSA ogk¡ lkezkKh dh ljdkj (Her Majesty’s Government) ny dh ljdkj gSvkSj fojksèkh ny lkezkKh dk fojksèkh ny (Her Majesty’s Opposition) gSA baXySaM esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk ;|fidksbZ oSèkkfud vfLrRo ugha gSA rFkkfi muosQ vHkko esa vaxzsth 'kklu&O;oLFkk dk leLr Lo:i gh cny tk,xkvkSj bldh vusd ijEijk,¡ rFkk vfHkle; u"V gks tk;¡xhA

ts¯uXl us Bhd gh dgk gS fd ¶;fn fczfV'k lafoèkku dk lgh losZ fd;k tk; rks ;gh dguk iM+sxkfd og nyksa ls izkjEHk gksrk gS vkSj nyksa esa lekIr gks tkrk gS vkSj izkjEHk rFkk lekfIr osQ chp esaHkh jktuhfrd nyksa dk gh foospu gksrk gSA¸

fczfV'k jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Z (The Functions of British Political Parties): fczfV'k jktuhfrd nyksa dk

egÙo muosQ rjg&rjg osQ dk;ks± osQ dkj.k gSaA ;s ns'k osQ jktuhfrd thou esa vusd mi;ksxh dk;Z djrs gSaA

ernkrkvksa dh nwjh dks de djukμjktuhfrd ny lkjs ns'k osQ ernkrkvksa dks ,d lw=k esa tksM+rs gSaA osernkrkvksa osQ chp dh nwjh dks ck¡Vrs gSaA ernkrkvksa dh vikj la[;k osQ dkj.k mudk ,d&nwljs dks tkuukvlEHko gSA muosQ vyx&vyx fopkj gksrs gSa] os vyx&vyx er nsrs gSaA ;s vlaxfBr jgrs gSa ftl dkj.kjk"Vª osQ jktuhfrd thou ij mudk dksbZ izHkko ugha iM+rk gSA ysfdu] jktuhfrd nyksa us ernkrkvksa dks laxfBrfd;k gS] fuf'pr fl¼kUr rFkk dk;ZØe muosQ lkeus j[kdj mUgsa fofHkUu lewgksa esa laxfBr fd;k gSA jktuhfrdnyksa us mudks ,drk iznku dh gS rFkk muosQ jktuhfrd izHkko dks c<+k;k gSA

lnL;ksa dh cgkyh vkSj mnklhurk dks nwj djukμizR;sd jktuhfrd ny osQ lnL; gksrs gSaA vfèkdre lnL;rkgh ny dh rkdr dh igpku gSA lHkh ny vfèkd&ls&vfèkd er thrus dk iz;Ru djrs gSaA lnL;ksa dk izeq[k dk;ZgS_ turk dh mnklhurk dks nwj djukA lnL; turk esa mRlkg Hkjrs vkSj mUgsa jktuhfr esa Hkkx ysus osQ fy, mdlkrsgSaA

turk dks f'k{kk nsukμjktuhfrd nyksa dk ,d izeq[k dk;Z turk dks jktuhfrd f'k{kk nsuk gSA bl dk;Z dks nydh LFkk;h 'kk[kk,¡ djrh gSa vkSj osQUnzh; ny mudk bl dk;Z esa lgk;rk igq¡pkrk gSA jk"Vªh; usrkvksa] lHkkvksa] jsfM;ks]Vsfyfotu vkfn osQ }kjk jktuhfrd ny turk dks f'kf{kr djrs gSaA ;gh f'k{kk iztkra=k dk vkèkkj gSA

uhfr fuf'pr djukμjktuhfrd nyksa dk ,d vU; dk;Z uhfr fuèkkZfjr djuk gSA izR;sd ny dh viuh&viuhuhfr gksrh gS vkSj ml uhfr dks ykxw djus osQ fy, dk;ZØe gksrk gSA ny dh 'kk[kk,¡ 'kksèk&dk;Z djosQ uhfr osQlEcUèk esa lykg nsrh gSa vkSj jk"Vªh; vfèkos'kuksa }kjk ny dh uhfr dks vfUre LohÑfr nh tkrh gSA

izoDrkvksa] usrkvksa rFkk mEehnokjksa dk p;uμizR;sd ny izoDrkvksa] usrkvksa vkSj mEehnokjksa dk p;u(Selection of Spokesmen, Leaders and Candidates) djrk gSA izoDrkvksa vkSj usrkvksa osQ fcuk dksbZ ny ugha

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py ldrk gS] D;ksafd usrkvksa osQ O;fDrRo ls izHkkfor gksdj turk ny dk vuqlj.k djrh gS] ny osQ loksZPpusrk dk rks bruk vfèkd egÙo gS fd mlosQ O;fDrRo ij gh pquko yM+k tkrk gSA dgk Hkh tkrk gS] ¶turk fdlhny dks ugha cfYd Hkkoh izèkkueaf=k;ksa dks er nsrh gSA¸

vuq'kklu dk ikyu djokukμjktuhfrd nyksa dk ,d egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z ;g Hkh gS fd os ny osQ lnL;ksa rFkk nydh lgk;rk ls pqus x;s laln lnL;ksa dks vuq'kkflr j[ksa rFkk mUgsa ny dh uhfr vkSj dk;ZØe ls fopfyr u gksusnsaA vuq'kklu dks cuk;s j[kus osQ fy, ny osQ vius ;a=k gksrs gSa tSlsμlaln esa ny lpsrd lnL;ksa ij fuxjkuh j[krsrFkk jkLrk crykrs gSaA

jktuhfrd mÙkjnkf;Roμjktuhfrd nyksa dk loZizeq[k dk;Z jktuhfrd mÙkjnkf;Ro dks <ksuk gSA bl fo'ks"k uhfrdks viukrs gSa ftldh LohÑfr turk }kjk feyrh gSA os pquko dky osQ ml uhfr dks dk;Z:i nsus dh izfrKk djrsgSaA lÙkk esa vkus ij os mlosQ fy, dkuwu cukrs rFkk iz'kkldh; vkSj oSnsf'kd uhfr;ksa dk lapkyu djrs gSaA yksdlHkkesa cgqer izkIr ny osQ ;a=kksa rFkk laln osQ lnuksa osQ usrkvksa ls lEcUèk LFkkfir dj ljdkj ls viuh uhfr dk vuqlj.kdjokrk gSA ;fn laln esa ljdkj osQ fojksèkh ny (His Majesty’s Opposition) osQ :i esa vkrk gS rks mldkmÙkjnkf;Ro cny tkrk gS ftls og ljdkj dh vkykspuk] fojksèk rFkk lq>ko }kjk iwjk djrk gSA

fczVsu esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk vH;qn; ,oa fodkl (Growth and Development ofParties in Britain)izkjEHkμbaXySaM osQ nks jktuhfrd nyksa dk bfrgkl cgqr iqjkuk gSA iUnzgoha 'krkCnh esa bldk chtkjksi.k gqvkA jktxíhosQ nks nkosnkj&yadkLVkj vkSj ;kdhZLVks osQ chp >xM+k 'kq: gqvkA tkxhjnkj lkear Hkh nksuksa nkosnkjksa dks lgk;rkdjus osQ dkj.k nks xqVksa eas c¡V x;sμyadkfLVª;u vkSj ;kfdLV xqVA ysfdu ;s xqV jktuhfrd ny ugha FksA LVqvVZ dkyesa jktk vkSj laln osQ chp la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvkA jktk osQ leFkZd oSQosfy;lZ (Cavalliers) vkSj laln osQ leFkZdjkm.MgsM~l (Roundheads) dgyk;sA fiQj] pkYlZ f}rh; us 1679 bZ- esa ,sDlDywtu fcy (Exclusion Bill)

dks ysdj tc laln dks Hkax dj fn;k] rks fcy osQ leFkZdksa us laln dks cqykus dh izkFkZuk dh_ mUgsa isfV'kulZ(Petitioners) dgk x;k vkSj ftUgksaus bldk fojksèk fd;k mudks ,ckSjlZ (Abborrers) dh laKk nh x;hA ysfdubu laxBuksa dks Hkh xqV gh dguk vfèkd lgh gksxk rFkk jktuhfrd ny dh laKk vuqi;qDr gksxhA vkèkqfud vFkZesa jktuhfrd nyksa dk tUe Vksjht (Torries) vkSj fàx (whigs) nyksa osQ fodkl osQ lkFk gqvkA fàx vkSj Vksjhny Øe'k% jkm.MgsM~l vkSj oSQosfy;lZ osQ mÙkjkfèkdkjh FksA fàx jktk dh 'kfDr ij fu;U=k.k yxkus osQ i{kesa Fks vkSj Vksjh jktk dk ijekfèkdkj j[kus osQ i{k esa FksA 1688 bZ- ls yxHkx 150 o"kZ rd nksuksa ny ckjh&ckjhls 'kklu lapkyu djrs jgsA

vuqnkj ny vkSj mnkj ny dk vH;qn;μlu~ 1832 bZ- osQ lqèkkj&vfèkfu;e osQ i'pkr~ nyksa osQ ukeksa esa ifjorZugqvk vkSj vuqnkj (conservatives) vkSj mnkj (Liberal) uke ls fo[;kr gqvkA vuqnkj ny Vksjh ny dkmÙkjkfèkdkjh Fkk vkSj mnkj ny fàx ny dkA ;s ny chloha lnh osQ izFke pj.k rd ns'k dh jktuhfr ij Nk;s jgsA19oha 'krkCnh esa bu nyksa dk fodkl fMtjSyh vkSj XySMLVksuμtSls jktuhfrKksa osQ usr`Ro esa gqvkA nksuksa nyksa esaekSfyd lS¼kafrd erHksn FksA vuqnkj ny :f<+okn dk iks"kd Fkk vkSj jktk osQ ijekfèkdkjksa] ykWMZ&lHkk dh 'kfDr;ksa]lkezkT;okn rFkk iw¡thokn dks v{kq..k j[kuk pkgrk FkkA mnkjny mnkjokn ij vkèkkfjr Fkk vkSj izxfr'khy lqèkkjksa osQi{k eas Fkk] tSls erkfèkdkj dk foLrkj] vk;jySaM dk LojkT;] ykWMZ&lHkk dk lqèkkj vkfnA

etnwj ny dk vH;qn;μchloha lnh esa nyksa dh fLFkfr esa ifjorZu gqvkA etnwj ny dk vH;qn; rFkk mnkj nydh foyhurk bl lnh dh izeq[k ?kVuk gSA O;kolkf;d Økafr osQ dkj.k baXySaM esa ,d vU; laxfBr oxZ iSnk gqvketnwj oxZA dy&dkj[kkuksa esa dke djus okys bu Jfedksa us Jfed&la?kksa (Trade Unions) dh LFkkiuk dhA 1900esa fczfV'k VªsM ;wfu;u dkaxzsl us ,d etnwj&izfrfufèk lfefr (Labour Representative Committee) dk fuekZ.kfd;k ftldk mís'; Fkk laln osQ fuokZpu esa etnwjksa osQ fgrksa osQ leFkZdksa dk leFkZu djukA blh ls Jfed nydk tUe gqvkA izFke fo'o&;q¼] rd bl ny dk dksbZ egÙo ugha jgkA izk;% ny osQ lnL; mnkj ny dk leFkZu

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djrs FksA ysfdu ;q¼ osQ ckn mnkj ny dh 'kfDr {kh.k gksus yxh vkSj etnwj ny mldk LFkku ysus yxkA izFke ckj1923 bZ- esa bl ny us ljdkj cuk;hA fiQj 1929 bZ- vkSj 1945 bZ- esa ;g lÙkk:<+ gqvkA bl izdkj mnkj ny djhc&djhclekIr gks x;k vkSj nks jktuhfrd ny v[kkM+s esa jg x;sμvuqnkj ny vkSj etnwj nyA

1982 esa etnwj ny osQ oqQN mxzoknh usrkvksa us ny ls vyx gksdj ,d u;s ny lkekftd yksdrkaf=kd ny(Social Democratic Party) dh uhao Mkyh ftlus 1983 osQ pquko esa mnkj ny ls xBcUèku dj pquko esa Hkkxfy;k vkSj lkr LFkkuksa ij fot;h gqvkA

twu] 1983 dk yksdlHkk pqukoμ;g pquko xzsV fczVsu esa chaloha lnh dh egÙoiw.kZ jktuhfrd ?kVuk gSA1900 bZ- esa lSfylcjh pquko thrdj yxkrkj nks ckj izèkkuea=kh gqvkA blh izdkj 1983 esa Jherh FkSpj pqukothrdj yxkrkj nks ckj izèkkuea=kh cuhA blosQ iwoZ osQoy ,d ckj lÙkk:<+ ny fojksèkh ny ls 146 LFkkuksa ls* vkxsjgk gSA bl ckj ;g 145 LFkkuksa ls vkxs jgkA f}rh; egk;q¼ osQ ckn dh ;g ¶lcls cM+h pqukoh fot;¸ (Biggest

poll Victory) FkhA

pquko&naxy esa rhu izfr}U}h eq[; Fksμvuqnkj ny] etnwj ny vkSj mnkj&lkekftd yksdrkaf=kd ny xBcUèku(Libral Social Democratic Party Alliance)A ernku osQ osQUnzh; O;fDrRo FksμekxZjsV FkSpj vkSj ekbosQyiwQVA pquko ¶FkSpjokn cuke lektokn¸ osQ chp FkkA yksdfiz; eq[; ukjk Fkkμ¶eSxh dks oksV nks¸ (Vote for

Maggie)A FkSpj us ,su ekSosQ dk bLrseky dj le; ls ,d o"kZ iwoZ gh pquko djk fn;kA mldk izpkj o"kks± dkdk;Zdky cgqr mRlkgo¼Zd ugha jgk FkkA ns'k dh vkfFkZd gkyr esa fxjkoV vk;h FkhA csdkjh if'peh ns'kksa esalcls vfèkd fczVsu esa c<+h FkhA vkS|ksfxd mRiknu 10 izfr'kr ?kV x;k FkkA VSDl vkSj ljdkjh [kpZ esa deh ughavk;h FkhA ;ksa eqnzkLiQhfr (inflation) dh nj 4-6 izfr'kr rd uhps x;h] ysfdu turk dh fnDdrsa dkiQh c<+ xbZFkhaA ?kjsyw ekeyksa esa FkSpj us <hyh&<kyh uhfr viuk j[kh FkhA fons'kh ekeyksa esa baXySaM] vesfjdk dk fiNyxqvkcu x;k FkkA fopkj&ernku (Opinion Poll) esa osQoy 26% yksxksa us FkSpj osQ i{k esa er fn;k FkkA ysfduvtsZ.Vkbuk dks gjkdj iQkdySaM }hi ij dCtk dj FkSpj us vf}rh; lkgl dk dke fd;k vkSj dBksj ,oa'kfDr'kkyh O;fDrRp dk ifjp; fn;kA turk esa mldh yksdfiz;rk c<+hA mlus lw>cw> ls dke fy;k vkSj ekSdkls iQk;nk mBk;kA eè;kofèk pquko dh ?kks"k.kk dj fojksèkh i{k dks mlus ekr ns nhA

6 twu] 1983 osQ pquko esa 42 djksM+ ernkrkvksa esa ls 70 izfr'kr ernkrkvksa us ernku fd;kA vuqnkj ny dhvizR;kf'kr fot; gkfly gqbZ yksdlHkk osQ 650 LFkkuksa esa vuqnkj ny dks 397 LFkku] etnwj ny dks 209 LFkkuvkSj mnkj&lektoknh yksdrkaf=kd ny xBcUèku dks 21 LFkku izkIr gq,A vuqnkj ny dks oqQy erksa osQ 43 izfr'kr]etnwj ny dks 29 izfr'kr vkSj xBcUèk dks 26 izfr'kr izkIr gq,A ;ksa vuqnkj ny osQ izkIr erksa esa fxjkoV gqbZ D;ksafdfiNys pquko esa mls Øe'k% 46 izfr'kr vkSj 44 izfr'kr er izkIr gq, FksA ysfdu etnwj ny vkSj xBcUèku osQchp erksa osQ foHkktu osQ dkj.k mls cgqr vfèkd LFkku izkIr gq,A etnwj ny dks lcls cM+h pir yxhA f}rh;egk;q¼ osQ ckn bruh n;uh; gkyr mldh dHkh ugha gqbZ FkhA xBcUèku nwljs uEcj ij vkus dh mEehn dj jgkFkkA ysfdu mls Hkh fujk'kk gh gkFk yxhA izkIr erksa osQ vuqlkj mldk LFkku rhljk rks jgk gh] lkFk&lkFk mls LFkkucgqr de izkIr gq, vkSj mlosQ vfèkdka'k usrk Hkh gkj x;sA bl fLFkfr ls fujk'k gksdj muosQ usrk jk; tsfUdUl(Roy Jenkins) vkSj MsfoM LVhy (David Steel) us ;g Hk; O;Dr fd;k fd turk esa blls {kksHk vkSj Øksèk c<+sxkAmUgksaus blh lanHkZ esa pquko&O;oLFkk esa la'kksèku ykus vkSj vkuqikfrd izfrfuf/Ro (proportional representation)

dks viukus dh ek¡x dhA fiQj Hkh 1920 osQ ckn mnkj ny dks igyh ckj bruk vfèkd er feyk FkkA etnwj nyosQ usrk ekbZosQy iwQV (Micchcal Foot) us bl pquko dks ,d ^nq[kkUr ?kVuk* (tragedy) dh laKk nhA

;g pquko jkT;okn (Statism) vkSj O;fDrokn (Individualism) osQ chp FkkA etnwj ny us yksxksa dks jkT; osQusrRo esa lqugjk Hkfo"; ykus dk oknk fd;k ftlesa csdkjh vkSj e¡gxkbZ lekIr gks tk;xhA blosQ fy, mlus ,drjiQkvkf.od fu%'kL=khdj.k (Uniateral nuclear disarmament) dk opu fn;k D;ksafd ,slk dj gh ns'k dh vkfFkZdgkyr esa lqèkkj yk;k tk ldrk FkkA tu lsokvksa dh lqfoèkkvksa vkSj etnwj laxBuksa osQ n`<+hdj.k ij tksj fn;k ftl

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nwljh vksj nf{k.k iaFkh vuqnkj ny us vkfFkZd {ks=k esa O;fDr dh ftEesnkjh ij tksj fn;k ftls vHkh rd jkT; usnck;k gSA mlus csdkjh] e¡gxkbZ vkfn vkfFkZd leL;kvksa dks pquko dk eqík ugha cuk;k D;ksafd ifjokj vkSjy?kq&m|ksx tSlh NksVh bdkb;ksa dks c<+kok nsdj bUgsa vklkuh ls nwj fd;k tk ldrk gSA

igyh ckj ?kjsyw uhfr dh vis{kk fons'kh uhfr us pquko osQ eqís osQ :i ls vfèkd egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk;hA etnwjny us ,drjiQk vkf.od fu%'kL=khdj.k vkSj ukVks (Nato) rFkk vkfFkZd ;wjksfi;u la?k (Economic European

Community) ls fudyus dh ?kks"k.kk dhA ysfdu FkSpj us oSnsf'kd ekeys osQ vUrxZr ns'k dh lqj{kk vkSj iQkdySaMdh thr dks eq[; eqík cuk;kA iQkdySaM dh thr us FkSpj dks ,d dBksj 'kklu vkSj n`<+&izfrK usrk osQ :i esaizLrqr fd;kA mldh vizR;kf'kr thr dk ;gh dkj.k cukA vizR;kf'kr csdkjh vkSj eanh ls fojksèkh i{k dks oqQNHkh enn ugha feyhA

vuqnkj ny dh fot; dk eq[; dkj.k mlosQ usrk FkSpj osQ O;fDrRo dk ,d n`<+ ladYi] dBksj vkSj 'kfDr'kkyh*'kkld osQ :i dk fu[kkj Fkk] ,d ,slk O;fDrRo tks vius ladYiksa dks Ñr :i* (change thoughts into action)

ns ldrk Fkk] ns'k dh lqj{kk dh ckxMksj dks lEHkky ldrk Fkk vkSj ftlosQ ikl ns'k dh leL;kvksa dks lqy>kusdh {kerk* (Competence) FkhA fojksèkh i{k dh gkj dk eq[; dkj.k mudh udkjkRed Nfo (negative image)

Fkh] nwljh vksj tcfd FkSpj dh ldkjkRed Nfo muosQ lkeus FkhA etnwj ny ls nks o"kZ iwoZ oqQN mxzoknh usrkvksaus bLrhiQk nsdj lektoknh yksdrkaf=kd ny (S.D.P) dh LFkkiuk dh Fkh vkSj mUgksaus mnkjny ls xBcUèku dj etnwjny osQ erksa dks ck¡V fy;kA etnwj ny ;ksa Hkh vUn:uh eueqVkoksa vkSj yM+kbZ&>xM+ksa osQ dkj.k detksj iM+ x;kFkkA fiQj mlosQ usrk ekbosQy iwQV osQ ûje* (moderate) O;fDrRo us mls usrk&foghu cuk fn;k FkkA turk dhutj esa iwQV FkSpj dk fodYi ugha cu losQA vr% blesa dksbZ vk'p;Z ugha fd vuqnkj ny dks vizR;kf'kr fot;feyhA

fczfV'k jktuhfrd nyksa osQ mís'; vkSj laxBu (Aims and Organisation of BritishPolitical Parties)

fczfV'k jktuhfrd nyksa osQ mís'; rFkk laxBu esa fHkUurk gSA bldh oxZ&izÑfr ls budk mís'; fuèkkZfjr gksrk gSAvuqnkj ny èkfud oxZ dk izfrfufèk gksus osQ dkj.k :f<+oknh] etnwj ny Jfed oxks± dk j{kd gksus osQ dkj.kizxfroknh rFkk mnkj ny eè;e oxZ dk usr`Ro djus osQ dkj.k lqèkkjoknh gSA ;g dgk tkrk gS fd ;fn LorU=krk(Liberty)] lekurk (Equality) vkSj HkzkrRo (Fraternity) dk ns'kksa osQ chp forj.k fd;k tk; rks baXySaM Lora=krkdk Úkal lekurk dk rFkk vesfjdk HkzkrRo dk gdnkj gksxkA iqu% ;fn bu rÙoksa dks fczfV'k jktuhfrd nyksa osQ chpck¡Vk tk; rks mnkj ny dks LorU=krk] vuqnkj ny dks HkzkrRo rFkk Jfed ny dks lekurk izkIr gksxhA

etnwj ,oa vuqnkj ny osQ laxBu esa oqQN lS¼kfUrd Hksn gSaA vuqnkj ny esa usrk loZ'kfDr'kkyh gksrk gSAvkSipkfjd :i ls fdlh osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h ugha gksrk] ,d ckj usrk fuokZfpr gks tkus ij bPNki;ZUr usrk cusjg ldrk gS efU=keaMy dk fuekZ.k LorU=k :i ls djrk gS] rFkk uhfr;ksa dk fuèkkZj.k ogh djrk gSA blosQ foijhretnwj ny esa usrk dh vis{kk ny dk egÙo vfèkd gksrk gSA nyh; lEesyu ny dh uhfr fuèkkZfjr djrk gS rFkkvèkhuLFk laxBuksa dks vkns'k nsrk gSA blosQ vfrfjDr nyksa osQ lalnh; lkoZtfud laxBuksa osQ lEcUèk esa Hkh Hksn gSAetnwj ny osQ lalnh; laxBu dks ny osQ lkoZtfud laxBu osQ vèkhu le>k tkrk gS tcfd vuqnkj ny esalkoZtfud laxBu dks lalnh; laxBu osQ vèkhuA ijUrq nksuksa nyksa esa ;s Hksn osQoy lS¼kafrd gSa] O;ogkj esa muesaO;kid lekurk ik;h tkrh gSA

(d) vuqnkj ny osQ mís'; (Objectives of Conservative Party): vuqnkj ny :f<+oknh laxBu gSA ;g izkphu

izFkkvksa rFkk ijEijkvksa dk leFkZd gSA cVZ lkSjhlu us dgk Hkh gS fd vuqnkj ny osQ uke ls izkphu ijEijkvksa vkSjiwoZHkkfo;ksa (Traditions and precedents) dk cksèk gksrk gSA ;g ny pkgrk gS fd baXySaM esa lezkV dh lÙkk v{kq..kcuh u jgsA jk"Vªh; ,drk jgs] ppZ dk vkfèkiR; jgs vkSj O;fDrxr lEifÙk ij jkT; dk vfèkdj u jgsA blfy,

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jktrU=k vkfn iqjkuh ^laLFkkvksa dh vkykspukvksa dk ;g ny fojksèk djrk gS vkSj jktk dks jkT; dk izrhd cuk;sj[kus osQ i{k esa gSA ;g ny iw.kZ jk"Vªh;rk dk leFkZd gSA iw¡thokn] O;fDrxr lEifÙk rFkk izkbosV m|ksx&èkUèkksa dklaj{k.k bl ny dk mRÑ"V mís'; gSA ysfdu ;g ;kn j[kuk pkfg, fd ;g ny ijEijkoknh Hkys gh gS] izfrfØ;koknhdnkfi ughaA bls izxfr&fojksèkh dguk xyr gksxkA ifjorZu rFkk izxfr dk ;g fojksèk ugha cfYd ;g lkoèkkuh lsvkSj 'kuS% 'kuS% ifjorZu pkgrk gSA ykMZ lsfly osQ 'kCnksa esa ¶vuqnkj ny Hkh lqèkkjoknh gS ij lkoèkkuh osQ lkFkA¸;g ny lHkh oxks± osQ fgrlkèku osQ fy, iw¡thokn esa ifjorZu ykuk pkgrk gS og ;g Hkh pkgrk gS fd iztkrU=kdh j{kk gks vkSj jkT; lkekftd lsokvksa dh fodkl&o`f¼ dh vksj vxzlj gksrk jgsA vkS|ksfxd {ks=k esa jkT; osQgLr{ksi osQ fo#¼ og ny ugha cfYd csdkjh dks nwj djus osQ mís'; ls x`g&m|ksxksa osQ laj{k.k dks izksRlkgu nsrkgSA bèkj ny osQ ;qod lnL; Jfed ny dks Hkh izxfr'khy cukus ij tksj nsus yxs gSaA lu~ 1947 bZ- osQ vkS|ksfxdvkKki=k (Industrial Charter) uked ys[k esa osQUnzh; fu;kstu (Central Planning) dh vko';drk dks Lohdkjfd;k x;kA lu~ 1949 bZ- esa bl ny us viuh uhfr funsZ'kd if=kdk ¶fczVsu osQ fy, ;gh ekxZ (The Right Road

for British) esa ;g izfrKk dh fd ns'k esa lHkh dks jkstxkj feysxk vkSj 'kklu yksd&dY;k.kdkjh lsokvksa dh vksjvxzlj gksxkA 1955 bZ- esa pquko ?kks"k.kk&i=k esa blus LorU=k m|ksx rFkk LorU=k O;kikj ij tksj fn;kA bl izdkj;g ny ,d izfrxkeh laxBu ugha jg x;k gS] cfYd ;g ijEijk rFkk izxfr dk leUo; djrk gSA bl ny osQ leFkZdeq[;r% èkfud yksx gSa] ysfdu eè;e oxZ vkSj Jfed oxZ osQ yksxksa ls Hkh budks leFkZu feyrk gSA Hkwfe&leL;kesa ;g ny vfèkd #fp j[krk gS] blfy, bls nsgkrh ny (Rural Party) Hkh dgk tkrk gSA

ny dk laxBuμny laxBu dks nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμ(d) lalnh; laxBu rFkk ([k) lkoZtfud laxBuA

(d) lalnh; laxBuμlalnh; laxBu osQ vUrxZr loZizFke ny osQ usrk (Leader) dk LFkku vkrk gSA vuqnkjny osQ usrk dks vikj 'kfDr izkIr gSA og ny dh uhfr dk fuèkkZj.k djrk gS] lalnh; inkfèkdkfj;ksa rFkk eaf=keaMyosQ lnL; dks Lo;a pqurk gS] laln osQ ckgj ny osQ inkfèkdkfj;ksa dks euksuhr djrk gS vkSj ny dk osQUnzh; dk;kZy;mlosQ vèkhu jgrk gSA vuqnkj ny esa usrk dk fdruk egÙo gS vkSj mls fdruk lEeku fn;k tkrk gS] bldk vuqeku1947 esa ny osQ izèkku }kjk dgs x;s bu 'kCnksa ls pyrk gS] ¶mldh (usrk dh) lÙkk LorU=k fuokZpu o mlosQleFkZdksa osQ fo'okl ij vkèkkfjr gSA jk"Vªh; laxBu }kjk ikfjr izLrko mlosQ ikl lwpukFkZ o mlosQ ekxZ&n'kZu osQfy, Hksts tkrs gSa] ijUrq dksbZ Hkh izLrko pkgs fdruk gh tksjnkj D;ksa u gks] uhfr&lEcUèkh iz'uksa osQ fo"k; esa mlij dksbZ izfrcUèk ugha yxk ldrkA ;gh gekjs fy, vuqowQy gSA ;gh mu egkiq#"kksa dh Ükà[kyk osQ fy, vuqowQyjgk gS ftuosQ usrRo osQ pyus esa ge xkSjo dk vuqHko dj jgs gSaA ;|fi ny dh uhfr osQ fuekZ.k dk mls ,dkfèkdkjizkIr gS] ijUrq vU; lnL;ksa dh bPNkvksa rFkk fopkjksa dh og vogsyuk ugha djrkA ,d ckj usrk pqu fy, tkusij bPNki;ZUr og bl in ij cuk jgrk gS tc rd mldk LokLF; vFkok mlosQ fo#¼ nyh; vlarks"k mls inR;kxdjus ij foo'k u dj ns vFkok mldk nsgkUr u gks tk;A tc vuqnkj ny fojksèkh ny osQ :i esa dk;Z djrk gSrFkk usrk Nk;k eaf=keaMy (Shadow Cabinet) dk LosPNk ls fuekZ.k djrk gSA blosQ vfrfjDr og ,d dk;Zlfefr(Executive Committee) dh fu;qfDr djrk gS ftlosQ lnL; lalnh; ny dh O;kolkf;d lfefr;ksa osQ vè;{kgksrs gSaA izR;sd lnu osQ ny esa lk/kj.k lnL;ksa dk ,d laxBu gksrk gS ftls 1922 bZ- dk laxBu (1922

Committee) dgk tkrk gSA ny osQ lHkh lnL; blosQ lnL; gksrs gSaA bldh lkIrkfgd cSBdksa eas O;kolkf;dlfefr;k¡ fjiksVZ izLrqr djrh gSa] lpsrd vkxkeh lIrkg osQ dk;ZØe dh ?kks"k.kk djrk gS rFkk ny ,oa ljdkjhuhfr;ksa ij fopkj fd;k tkrk gSA ;gk¡ laxBu izfr o"kZ 1 vè;{k] 2 mikè;{k] 2 lfpo rFkk 1 dks"kkè;{k pqurkgSA bldh ,d dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr gksrh gS ftlesa mi;qZDr inkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ vfrfjDr 12 vU; lnL; gksrs gSaA nydk ,d lpsrd (whip) gksrk gS tks lnL;ksa dks 'kkluc¼ j[krk gSA ykMZ&lHkk esa bldh egÙoghu lkafoèkkfudfLFkfr rFkk vuqnkj ny osQ vR;f/d cgqer osQ dkj.k nyh; laxBu egÙoghu gSA bl lnu esa vuqnkj lnL;ksa dk,d laxBu gksrk gS tks LorU=k vuqnkj ykMZl (Independent Unionist Peers) dgykrk gSA bldh dbZ lfefr;k¡gksrh gSaA lnu esa ny dk ,d lpsrd (whip) gksrk gSA

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([k) lkoZtfud laxBuμvuqnkjny osQ lkoZtfud laxBu osQ f'k[kj ij jk"Vªh; la?k (The National Union of

Conservative and Unionist Association) gSA blosQ izeq[k dk;Z fuokZpu {ks=kksa esa nyh; la?kksa dh LFkkiuk] nyosQ lHkh laxBuksa osQ chp lEioZQ LFkkfir djuk rFkk ny osQ osQUnzh; dk;kZy; ls ?kfu"B lEcUèk cuk;s j[kuk gSA ,dvè;{k] ,d lHkkifr] rhu milHkkifr rFkk nks lfpo blosQ inkfèkdkjh gksrs gSaA jk"Vªh; la?k dk ,d okf"kZd lEesyugksrk gS ftlesa osQUnzh; ifj"kn osQ lnL; fuokZpu {ks=kh; la?kksa osQ izfrfufèk rFkk izR;sd fuokZpu {ks=kh; la?k vkSj osQUnzh;la?k osQ izkekf.kd ,tsaV rFkk laLFkkid Hkkx ysrs gSaA lEesyu osQUnzh; ifj"kn osQ izfrosnu rFkk izLrkoksa ij fopkjdjrk gSA jk"Vªh; la?k dh ,d izcUèkd lfefr gksrh gS ftls osQUnzh; ifj"kn (Central Council) dgrs gSaA ;g okf"kZdlEesyu dk laf{kIr :i gSA bldh lnL;rk yxHkx 2000 gSA bldh cSBd o"kZ esa ,d ckj gksrh gS] ij fo'ks"k cSBdHkh cqykbZ tk ldrh gSA ;g jk"Vªh; la?k osQ inkfèkdkfj;ksa dks pqurh gS] dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr osQ izfrosnu ij fopkjdjrh gS rFkk jk"Vªh; la?k osQ fu;eksa esa la'kksèku ykrh gSA jk"Vªh; la?k dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr (Executive Committee)

gksrh gS ftldh lnL; la[;k yxHkx 150 gksrh gSA ny osQ lalnh; rFkk lkoZtfud laxBuksa osQ izeq[k inkfèkdkjh;k izfrfufèk blosQ lnL; gksrs gSaA blosQ izeq[k dk;Z gSaμjk"Vªh; la?k osQ inkfèkdkfj;ksa osQ pquko osQ fy, ukeksa dklq>ko nsuk] fdlh fuokZpu&{ks=kh; la?k dh dk;Zdkfj.kh ifj"kn }kjk izsfjr fdlh erHksn vFkok fookn dk fu.kZ; djuk]vko';drk iM+us ij jk"Vªh; ijke'kZnkrk lfefr;ksa dh LFkkiuk djuk] ijke'kZnkrk lfefr;ksa osQ izfrosnu ij fopkjdjuk] okf"kZd lEesyu rFkk osQUnzh; ifj"kn dks viuh dk;Zokfg;ksa ij fjiksVZ nsuk vkSj osQUnzh;&ifj"kn dh cSBdksa osQvUrdkZy esa mlosQ dk;ks± dks lEiUu djukA lkekU; mís'; lfefr (General Purposes Committee) ,d NksVkfudk; gS ftlesa 57 lnL; gksrs gSaA ;g dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr dks fn;s x;s vfèkdkjksa dks NksM+dj jk"Vªh; la?k osQloZ&lkèkkj.k rFkk vlkèkkj.k dk;ks± dks lEiUu djrhA dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr dks ijke'kZ nsus osQ fy, 8 eq[; jk"Vªh;ijke'kZnkrk lfefr;ksa (National advisory Committee) dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k gS tks fofHkUu fo"k;ksa ls lEcfUèkrgSa] tSlsμjktuhfrd f'k{kk] efgyk ny osQ ;qod lnL;] Jfed la?k] LFkkuh; iz'kklu] izpkj rFkk izoDrk] vuqnkjvè;kidksa osQ la?k rFkk fo'ofo|ky;ksa esa nyh; lnL;ksa osQ la?kA dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr vko';drk iM+us ij bl izdkjdh vU; lfefr;ksa dh LFkkiuk dj ldrh gSA

baXySaM rFkk osYl dks nyh; laxBu osQ gsrq 12 izkUrksa (Areas) esa ck¡V fn;k x;k gSA izR;sd izkarh; laxBuksa dk izèkkugksrk gSA izèkku osQ vfrfjDr] vè;{k] oqQN miizèkku] dks"kkè;{k rFkk 2 lfpo blosQ inkfèkdkjh gksrs gSaA bldhosQUnzh; ifj"kn dks izkUrh; ifj"kn (Area Council) dgrs gSa tks fuokZpu {ks=kksa rFkk lnL;ksa osQ izLrkoksa ij fopkjdjrh gSA izkUrh; ifj"kn dh cSBdksa osQ vUrdkZy esa bldh dk;Z&lfefr dk;Z djrh gSA lfefr oqQN ijke'kZnkrklfefr;ksa dh LFkkiuk djrh gSA

lkoZtfud laxBu dh vkèkkjHkwr bdkbZ fuokZpu {ks=kh; la?k (Constituency Association) gSA izR;sd fuokZpu&{ks=kosQ fy, ny osQ lnL;ksa dk ,d laxBu gksrk gSA izR;sd la?k esa ,d vè;{k] ,d izèkku rFkk rhu miizèkku gksrsgSaA la?k dh ,d okf"kZd cSBd gksrh gSA bldh dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr gksrh gS ftldk vè;{k {ks=kh; izèkku rFkk lfpo{ks=kh; ,tsaV gksrk gSA fuokZpu {ks=kh; la?k dk mís'; vius {ks=k esa ny osQ leFkZdksa] fl¼karksa rFkk lnL;ksa dk fodkldjuk gSA nyh; laxBu osQ fy, izR;sd fuokZpu {ks=k dks okMks± esa foHkkftr dj fn;k tkrk gS vkSj izR;sd okMZ dksCykWdks esa tks oqQN ?kjksa dk lewg gksrk gSA ny esa ;qodksa rFkk ckydksa osQ i`Fkd laxBu gSaA

ny dk ,d osQUnzh; dk;kZy; gksrk gSA ;g ny osQ usrk osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA dk;kZy; dks pykus osQ fy, ,dizèkku lapkyd gksrk gSA dk;kZy; osQ 6 foHkkx gSaA blosQ vU; laxBu gSaμvuqnkj jktuhfrd osQUnz rFkk vuqnkjvuqlaèkku foHkkxA osQUnzh; dk;kZy; dh Hkk¡fr izkar esa Hkh ,d izkarh; dk;kZy; gksrk gS tks osQUnzh; dk;kZy; osQ ,d,tsaV osQ vèkhu gksrk gSA

([k) mnkj ny osQ mís'; (Objectives of Liberal Party): mnkj ny vkt ,d e`rizk; laxBu gSA mUuhloha

lnh esa jk"Vª osQ jktuhfrd thou ij mldk izcy izHkko FkkA bl ny osQ lafoèkku dh izLrkouk esa dgk x;k

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gS fd ¶mnkj ny dk mís'; ,d ,sls LorU=k ,drkiw.kZ lekt dh jpuk djuk gS ftlesa izR;sd ukxfjd dks

LorU=krk] lEifÙk vkSj lqj{kk izkIr gks rFkk dksbZ Hkh nfjnzrk] vKkurk vFkok csjkstxkjh dk nkl ugha gksxkA¸

vkSipkfjd :i ls ny dk xBu 19oha 'krkCnh esa gqvkA ysfdu] tSlk fd mnkjokfn;ksa dk dguk gS] bl ny

dk vfLrRo x`g&;q¼ vkSj Lof.kZe Økafr osQ le; ls pyrk vk jgk gS vkSj ;g fàx (Whigs) dk mÙkjkfèkdkjh

gSA blosQ bfrgkl osQ ckjs esa csyh dk dguk gS fd ¶foxr rhu 'krkfCn;ksa eas fàx ny vFkok mnkjoknh ny

dbZ igyqvksa ls xqtj pqdk gSA dHkh ;g èkfudksa dk ny jgk gS rks dHkh ;g ny nfyrksa dk laj{kd jgk gS_

dHkh blus 'kkafr dk ny vkSj dHkh dBksj izfrdkj djus okys ny dk :i èkkj.k fd;k gS] dHkh vkfFkZd fu;kstu

dk i{kiks"k.k jgk gS] dHkh ;g lkezkT;okn dk ny jgk gS] rks dHkh blus osQoy NksVs ls baXySaM dk leFkZu

fd;k gSA lkèkkj.kr% lfg".kqrk leFkZd jgk gS] ijUrq oqQN vofèk cM+h fodV vlfg".kqrk dh Hkh jgh gSA¸

ysfdu vkt mldh 'kfDr {kh.k gks x;h gS vkSj etnwj ny us mldk LFkku ys fy;k gSA okLro esa] mnkj ny

lSfud viQljksa dh ,d iQkSt gS ftlesa i;kZIr lSfudksa dk vHkko gSA orZeku jktuhfrd izo`fÙk ls ;g vk'kk

dh tkrh gS fd fudV Hkfo"; esa baXySaM osQ jktuhfrd {ks=k ls ;g ny iw.kZr% cfg"Ñr gks tk;xkA bl ny osQ

eq[; mís'; fuEufyf[kr gSaμ

(i) mnkj ny gj {ks=k esa LorU=krk dk iks"kd gSA èkkfeZd rFkk jktuhfrd LorU=krk dk blus lnSo leFkZu

fd;k gSA O;kid erkfèkdkj rFkk yksdfiz; laizHkqrk osQ fy, blus la?k"kZ fd;k gSA

(ii) bl ny us lnSo 'kklu dh vksj ls izfrcUèk yxkus dk fojksèk fd;k gS vkSj ;FksPNkpkfjrk uhfr (Laissez

faire) dk leFkZu fd;k gSA

(iii) mnkjoknh lektokn dk fojksèk djrs gSa vkSj iw¡thokn esa i;kZIr lqèkkj ykuk pkgrs gSaA

(iv) ;|fi os lektoknh ugha gSa] fiQj Hkh nks ekxks± ls os lektokn dh LFkkiuk dk iz;Ru djrs gSaA izFke]

ftu m|ksxksa dks jkT; vius gkFk esa ys ldrk gS] mudk os lekthdj.k pkgrs gSa_ f}rh;] os lkekftd

lg;ksx osQ fl¼kar dks viukrs gSaA

(v) iw¡thokn esa lqèkkj ykus osQ fy, os lEifÙk osQ foLrkj (Diffusion) osQ i{kikrh gSa] vFkkZr~ os pkgrs gSa

fd lHkh m|ksxksa esa Jfedksa dks ykHk esa fgLlk feysA bl mís'; dh iwfrZ osQ fy, os m|ksxksa dk

iztkrU=khdj.k pkgrs gSaA

(vi) mnkjoknh u rks iw.kZr% LorU=k m|ksx&èkaèkksa okys jkT; esa fo'okl j[krs gSa vkSj u iw.kZ lektho`Qr jkT;

esaA cfYd os] ,d feyh&tqyh O;oLFkk LFkkfir j[kuk pkgrs gSa ftlesa nksuksa fufgr gksaA

(vii) mnkjoknh lkezkT;okn ds fojksèkh gSa rFkk ujeoknh oSnsf'kd uhfr esa fo'okl djrs gSaA

laxBuμmnkjoknh ny ds laxBu ds ckjs esa dgk tkrk gS fd ;g lsukuk;dksa dk ,d ,slk ny gS ftlesa i;kZIr

lSfudksa dk vHkko gSA 'kq: esa blesa dbZ oxks± ds lnL; Fks tSls is'ksoj O;kikjh eè;e oxZ ds ukxfjd] NksVs&NksVs

nqdkunkj oqQN èkfud o`Q"kd] uxj ds Jfed vkfnA ysfdu vkt bls u rks cgqla[;d oqQyhu oxZ dk leFkZu

izkIr gS vkSj u Jfed oxZ dk ghA pw¡fd blus iw¡thokn vkSj lektokn ds chp dk ekxZ viuk j[kk gS blfy,

;g èkfud vkSj Jfed nksuksa esa ls fdlh dks Hkh vius i{k esa dj ldus esa vleFkZ gSA vkt yksd&lHkk esa

bl ny dh fLFkfr ux.; gks x;h gSA 1966 ds pquko esa mls dsoy 12 LFkku izkIr gq, FksA nyh; laxBu dk

tgk¡ rd iz'u gS_ mnkjoknh ny dk ,d jk"Vªh; laxBu gS ftls jk"Vªh; mnkjoknh la?k (National Liberal

Federation) dgrs gSaA bl laxBu dh izfro"kZ ,d cSBd gksrh gSA ftls mnkjoknh okf"kZd lEesyu (Liberal

Annual Assembly) dgk tkrk gSA ;g lEesyu ny (Liberal RDP Alliance) osQ :i esa pquko yM+dj mlus

26 izfr'kr er izkIr fd;k vkSj 21 LFkkuksa ij fot; izkIr dhA

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(x) etnwj ny (The Labour Party): etnwj ny baXySaM esa loZgkjk oxZ osQ vkUnksyu dk jktuhfrdewrZLo:i gSA ;g vkS|ksfxd ØkfUr dk iQy gS rFkk chloha 'krkCnh dh tkr gSA bldh LFkkiuk 1900 bZ- esa gqbZvkSj 1922 bZ- osQ lkekU;&fuokZpu osQ i'pkr~ ns'k dk lcls cM+k f}rh; ny ekuk tkus yxk gSA bl ny osQmís'; fuEufyf[kr gSa%

(i) ;g ,d lektoknh ny gS ftldk è;s; gS fd ¶mRiknu osQ leLr lkèkuksa ij loZlkèkkj.k dk vkfèkiR;gksuk pkfg, rFkk izR;sd lsok dk fu;U=k.k vkSj yksdfiz; 'kklu vPNh iz.kkyh }kjk gksuk pkfg,A¸

(ii) Jfed ny lkekftd lekurk (Social Equality) dk izcy leFkZd gSA og lekt esa lerk rFkk ,drkiSnk djuk pkgrk gSA ;g leku f'k{kk] leku lEifÙk rFkk leku jktuhfrd] vk£Fkd ,oa lkekftdlqvolj dk i{kikrh gSA bl mís'; dh iw£r osQ fy, ;g iw¡thoknh <k¡ps dks cnyuk pkgrk gS rFkkiztkrU=kkRed midj.kksa dk lgkjk ysrk gSA

(iii) etnwjksa dh rjg Ñ"kdksa dh fLFkfr esa Hkh ny lqèkkj pkgrk gSA

(iv) Jfed ny lalnh; iz.kkyh ls 'kkfUriwoZd 'kuS&'kuS% orZeku lkekftd <k¡ps esa ifjorZu ykus dh dkeukdjrk gSA ;g 'kkluk:<+ gksdj jk"Vª dh dk;Z O;oLFkk ij iw.kZ izHkko Mkyuk pkgrk gSA blosQ fy, o`grrFkk egÙoiw.kZ m|ksxksa dk jk"Vªh;dj.k i{k/j gS vkSj 'kklu dks vk£Fkd {ks=k esa gLr{ksi dj ,dkfèkdkjrFkk csdkjh dks nwj djus dh ckr Hkh djrk gSA

(v) vUrjkZ"Vªh; ekeyksa esa ;g ny lkezkT;okn dk fojksèkh rFkk mifuos'kksa dks Lo'kklu nsus osQ i{k esa gS blny dk vfUre mís'; gS] lalkj esa fo'o lektoknh ljdkj (Socialist Commonwealth) dh LFkkiukdjukA rRdky ;g ny vUrjkZ"Vªh; laxBu_ tSlsμla;qDr jk"Vªla?k (Union of Nations) rFkk mlosQlg;ksxh vax dks lqn`<+ cukuk pkgrk gSA ;g vkf.od ceksa dh ijh{kk (Test) dk fojksèkh gSA

etnwj ny osQ lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj mldk mís'; ¶gkFk vkSj efLr"d osQ dk;Z djus okys Jfedksa dks O;olk;ksa lsiwjk ykHk fnykuk tgk¡ rd laHko gks losQ mRiknu] forj.k o fofue; osQ lkèkuksa dh lk>snkjh osQ vkèkkj ij mldkvfèkd&ls&vfèkd vkSfpR;iw.kZ forj.k djuk rFkk izR;sd O;ogkj dh lsokvksa esa lEHkor% vPNk ls vPNk yksdfiz;iz'kklu o fu;U=k.k dh O;oLFkk djuk gSA¸

ny dk laxBuμetnwj ny osQ laxBu dks Hkh nks Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gSμlalnh; laxBu rFkklkoZtfud laxBuA

lalnh; laxBuμlaln esa etnwj ny osQ usrk dh fLFkfr vuqnkj ny osQ usrk dh fLFkfr ls oqQN fHkUu gSA ;|fiusrk dks gh uhfr fuèkkZj.k dk vfèkdkj gS] ijUrq mls nyh; lEesyu rFkk dk;Z lfefr osQ funsZ'ku esa dk;Z djukiM+rk gSA 1947 esa bVyh dh dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr osQ izèkku ykWLdh us fy[kk Fkk] ljdkj dh vksj ls cksyus dk vkidksdksbZ vfèkdkj ugha gSA¸ oLrqr% ns[kus esa ;g vkrk gS fd tc etnwj ny lÙkk:<+ jgrk gS rc usrk dh fLFkfr etcwrjgrh gSA ftl le; ny fojksèk i{k esa jgrk gS ml le; usrk dh fLFkfr oqQN nqcZy jgrh gSA usrk dh fLFkfr tksgks ;g Li"V gS fd vius in osQ fy, laln esa rFkk mlosQ ckgj vius vuq;kf;;ksa osQ fo'okl rFkk leFkZu ij fuHkZjjgrk gSA

yksd&lHkk rFkk ykMZ&lHkk esa etnwj ny osQ lnL;ksa osQ lewg dks lalnh; etnwj ny (Parlimentary Labour

Party) dgrs gSaA fojksèk i{k esa jgus ij lalnh; ny izfro"kZ viuk usrk miusrk rFkk eq[; lpsrd pqurk gSAizfri{k esa jgus ij ;g ,d dk;Z lfefr dk laxBu djrk gSA ftlosQ lnL; lalnh; ny dk izèkku] mi&izèkku]eq[; lpsrd] mPp lnu esa ny dk eq[; lpsrd rFkk izèkku vkSj yksd&lHkk osQ 12 lnL; rFkk ,d JfedykMZ gksrs gSaA izfr lIrkg bldh cSBd gksrh gSA lalnh; ny oqQy lalnh; fo"k; lfefr;ksa dh Hkh LFkkiuk djrkgSA fo'ks"k egÙo osQ foèks;dksa dks vè;;u djus osQ fy, fo'ks"k lfefr;ksa dh LFkkiuk dh tkrh gSA blosQ vfrfjDrizns'kksa ls lEcfUèkr ekeyksa ij fopkj djus osQ fy, izknsf'kd lfefr;k¡ rFkk etnwj la?kksa ls lEcfUèkr ekeyksa

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ij fopkj djus osQ fy, etnwj osQ la?kksa osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk lewg (Trade Union Group M. Ps.) gksrk gSAblosQ vykok oqQN vukSipkfjd lewg (Informal groups) Hkh lalnh; ny esa gksrs gSa_ tSlsμ^Jfed la?kh; lewg*rFkk ^ckei{kh; lewg*A

lkoZtfud laxBuμetnwj ny dh lnL;rk osQ nks vkèkkj gSaμO;fDrxr rFkk la?kkrfjr (Affilatied)A 16 o"kZls vfèkd voLFkk osQ O;fDr ny osQ lnL; cu ldrs gSaA la?kkrfjr lnL;ksa esa Jfed la?k] lgdkjh lfefr;k¡]lektoknh lewg] O;olk;h laxBu vkfnA ny osQ f'k[kj ij nyh; lEesyu gksrk gS tks ny osQ dk;Z dk funsZ'ku,oa fu;a=k.k djrk gSA bldh cSBd o"kZ esa ,d ckj gksrh gSA okLro esa ;g ny dk foèkkueaMy gSA lalnh; nyblosQ vèkhuLFk gSa ny dh dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr rFkk lalnh; ny lEesyu osQ le{k viuh ok£"kd fjiksVZ izLrqrdjrs gSa] ftu ij lEesyu fopkj&foe'kZ djrk gSA ny dh ,d dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr (National ExecutiveCommittee) gksrh gS tks nyh; lEesyu osQ fu;a=k.k vkSj funsZ'ku esa ny dk iz'kklu djrh gSA gcZVZ eksfjlubl lfefr dh lsfodk gS ijUrq lEesyu dk usr`Ro djuk rFkk mls fdl fn'kk esa pyuk pkfg,] bl fn'kk esamls ijke'kZ nsuk lfefr dk drZO; gSA¸ lkèkkj.kr;k lEesyu }kjk dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr osQ fuekZ.k ,oa izLrkoksadk vuqeksnu gksrk jgk gSA lfefr fd oqQy 28 lnL; gksrs gSaA izfr ekg bldh de ls de ,d cSBd gksrhgS lfefr vius dk;ks± dks ik¡p milfefr;ksa dh lgk;rk ls djrh gSa tks vyx&vyx fo"k;ksa ls lEcfUèkr gSAtSlsμlaxBu] vUrjkZ"Vªh; lEcUèk] jk"Vªe.My] uhfr rFkk izpkj] vkSj foÙk rFkk lkekU; mís';A blosQ vfrfjDr,d vU; milfefr dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k gS ftls fuokZpu lEcUèkh milfefr dgrs gSaA

izkUrh; laxBu gsrq baXySaM dks 9 {ks=kksa esa foHkkftr fd;k x;kA izR;sd {ks=k rFkk osYl] LdkVySaM vkSj mÙkjhvk;jySaM osQ fy, ,d&,d {ks=kh; ifj"kn~ dk laxBu fd;k x;k gSA izkUrksa osQ vUrxZr lHkh {ks=kh; laxBu rFkkny osQ la?kkrfjr lnL; blosQ lnL; gksrs gSaA bldh cSBd o"kZ esa ,d ckj gksrh gSA ;g bl cSBd esa viuhdk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr dk fuokZpu djrh gSA izR;sd fuokZpu&{ks=k esa ny dk ,d laxBu gksrk gS ftldks {ks=kh;la?kdgrs gSaA izR;sd fuokZpu&{ks=k dks okMks± esa ck¡Vk tkrk gSA izR;sd okMZ esa ,d lfefr gksrh gSA fuokZpu {ks=k okMZlaxBu la?kkrfjr leqnk;h dk la?k gksrk gS tks lcls fuEu Lrj ij nyh; laxBu dh ,d izcUèkd lfefr gksrhgS tks fdlh Hkh O;fDr dks ny vFkok laxBu ls fudky ldrh gSA izcUèkd lfefr ,d dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefrdk pquko djrh gSA bldh cSBd izfrekg gksrh gSA ;g oqQN milfefr;ksa dk laxBu djrh gSA izR;sd fuokZpu&{ks=k

esa ;qod la?k dh LFkkiuk dh tkrh gSA

etnwj ny osQ osQUnzh; dk;kZy; VªkaliksVZ gkml (Transport House) dgk tkrk gSA ;g jk"Vªh; dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr

osQ vèkhu gksrk gSA blesa 77 foHkkx gksrs gSaA ;g ,d lfpo osQ funsZ'ku esa dk;Z djrk gSA

lkE;oknh ny (Communist Party)μvuqnkj] mnkj rFkk etnwj nyksa dh vis{kk baXySaM esa lkE;oknh ny Hkh

gSA ysfdu vfLrRo ux.; gSA bldh lnL;&la[;k fliZQ 40 gtkj gSA 1950 bZ- osQ pquko esa 90 gtkj er feys

vkSj vHkh rd laln esa fliZQ pkj lkE;oknh lnL; gq, gSaA bldh uhfr izsaQp lkE;oknh ny ls feyrh&tqyrh

gSA ekDlZ bldk nk'kZfud gS vkSj ozsQefyu bldk funsZ'kdA ;g turU=k esa fo'okl ugha djrkA ;g oxZ&;q¼

rFkk Jethfo;ksa osQ vfèkuk;dRo (Dictatorship of the Proletariat) dk leFkZd gSA blus Jfed la?kksa esa ?kqlus

dh dksf'k'k dh gSA ysfdu etnwj ny osQ dkj.k bls vliQyrk gh gkFk yxh gSA izQkal vkSj bVyh lkE;okfn;ksa

osQ leku bls fou"Vdkjh rjhdksa dks viukus dk volj dHkh ugha fey ldkA

vesfjdk esa jktuhfrd ny (Political Parties in America)

vesfjdk esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk mn~Hko vkSj fodkl (Rise and Development of Political Parties

in the U.S.A.): xSj lkafoèkkfud fLFkfrμiztkrU=k osQ vUrxZr 'kklu&O;oLFkk osQ nks Ïksr gksrs gSaμlkafoèkkfud

(constitutional) rFkk xSj lkafoèkkfud (Extra-Constitutional)A 'kklu osQ liQy lapkyu esa nksuksa igyqvksa

dk leku egRo gSA nksuksa vfHkUu gSa rFkk nksuksa ,d&nwljs osQ iwjd gSaA ;fn lafoèkku 'kklu dks <k¡pk iznku djrk

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gS rks xSj&lkafoèkkfud vax ekal vkSj jDr iznku dj mls xfr'khy ,oa dk;Zdkjh cukrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny 'kklu

osQ xSj lkafoèkkfud igyw osQ vkn'kZ mnkgj.k gSa vkSj iztkrU=k osQ fy, jktuhfrd ny vo';EHkkoh gSa] thounkf;uh

'kfDr gSaA ysfdu mUgsa lkafoèkkfud ekU;rk iznku ugha dh tkrh gS] tcfd rkuk'kkgh jkT;ksa esa mUgsa dkuwuh fLFkfr

nh tkrh gSA fiQj Hkh lafoèkku osQ ijs mudh iSnkb'k gks tkrh gS_ euq"; dh izÑfr rFkk vko';drk jktuhfrd

ny osQ fodkl dks vfuok;Z cuk nsrh gSaA la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk esa Hkh jktuhfrd nyksa dh lafoèkku&fuekZrkvksa

us vis{kk dh_ ;gk¡ rd fd mUgksaus budk [kqysvke fojksèk fd;kA ysfdu vk'kk liQyhHkwr u gks ldhA ¶mUgksaus

ftl f'kyk dks vLohdkj dj fn;k Fkk] ogh f'kyk 'kklu&i¼fr dk izeq[k dksuk cu x;hA¸ vkt jktuhfrd

ny vesfjdk osQ thou osQ vfHkUu vax cu x;s gSa_ os lkafoèkkfud laLFkkvksa dks vkdkj&izdkj ,oa lathork iznku

djrs gSaA

lafoèkku&fuekZrkvksa dk n`f"Vdks.kμvejhdh lafoèkku osQ fuekZrk ny&O;oLFkk esa fo'okl ugha djrs FksA os

nyksa dks 'kadk dh n`f"V ls ns[krs FksA bruk gh ugha] os ,slh 'kklu O;oLFkk dk fuekZ.k djuk pkgrs Fks tks jktuhfrd

nyksa dh xqVcfUn;ksa ls ijs gksA mudk fo'okl Fkk fd jktuhfrd nycUnh ls jk"Vªh; ,drk dks vk?kkr igq¡prk

gS] D;ksafd jktuhfrd ny dyg] iwQV] Ny&diV bR;kfn cqjh izo`fÙk;ksa dks izksRlkfgr djrs gSaA mUgsa Hk; Fkk fd

nyh; Hkkouk osQ fodkl ls muosQ uotkr iztkrU=k dk vfLrRo foifÙkxzLr gks tk,xkA esfMlu us nycUnh dh

HkRlZuk djrs gq, dgk Fkk fd ¶,d laxfBr la?k esa nyokn dks rksM+us vkSj mls fu;af=kr djus dh vius&vki

,d izo`fÙk gksrh gS vkSj bl izo`fÙk dk vfèkdkfèkd fodkl gksuk pkfg,A¸ ok¯'kxVu Hkh jktuhfrd nyksa dk

izcy fojksèkh FkkA mlus vius fonkbZ&Hkk"k.k (Farewell Address) esa vejhdh turk dks ¶ny&Hkkouk osQ

fou"Vdkjh izHkko¸ (The baleful effects of the spirit of party) osQ fo#¼ psrkouh nh vkSj mls nckus osQ fy,

¶,d:i tkxj.k¸ (Uniform, Vigilance) dk ukjk fn;kA mlus dgk Fkkμ¶nyxr fo}s"k esa lHkh osQ fy, cqjkbZ

vkSj gkfu fNih gqbZ gSA vr% izR;sd cqf¼eku O;fDr dk ;g lgt drZO; gS fd og ,slh Hkkoukvksa dk neu

djs vkSj muls cpsA nyxr fo}s"k ls yksdfiz; laLFkk,¡ {kh.k gksrh gSa vkSj iz'kklu esa nqcZyrk vkrh gSaA ;g (nyh;

Hkkouk) lekt dks vkèkkjjfgr fo}s"k vkSj >wBh vkdka{kkvksa ls m}sfyr djrh gS] mlosQ ,d Hkkx dks nwljs Hkkx

osQ izfr 'k=kqrk osQ fy, mHkkjrh gSa ,oa le;≤ ij fonzksg vkSj naxs dk dkj.k curh gSA¸

isQMjfyLV vkSj ,.Vh isQMjfyLVμ;|fi fiQykMsfYiQ;k lEesyu osQ izfrfufèkx.k jktuhfrd nyksa osQ izcy fojksèkh

Fks] fiQj Hkh lEesyu esa nyksa dk vaoqQj iwQV pqdk FkkA izfrfufèkx.k nyh; vkèkkj ij foHkkftr gksus yxs Fks] Hkys

gh mUgksaus dHkh ,slk vuqHko ugha fd;kA lEesyu esa izfrfufèkx.k nks xqVksa esa foHkkftr Fksμla?koknh vkSj la?k&fojksèkh

(Federalist and Anti-Pederalist)A la?koknh la?k&ljdkj dks 'kfDr'kkyh cukuk pkgrs Fks vkSj jkT;ksa dks

vèkhuLFk bdkb;k¡A blosQ foijhr la?k&fojksèkh jkT;&ljdkjksa dks 'kfDr'kkyh cukus osQ i{k esa FksA lafoèkku osQ

vuqleFkZu osQ le; Hkh ;s xqV cus jgsA la?koknh xqV us jkT; lEesyuksa esa lafoèkku dk leFkZu fd;k tcfd la?k&fojksèkh

xqV us fojksèkA ysfdu lafoèkku vuqleFkZu osQ lkFk la?k fojksèkh xqV lnk osQ fy, lekIr gks x;kA

fjifCydUl dk vkxeuμok¯'kxVu osQ nksuksa xqVksa us erHksn dks nwj djus dk iz;Ru fd;kA efU=keaMy esa nksuksa

xqVksa osQ usrkvksa&tsiQlZu vkSj gsfeYVu dks mlus LFkku fn;k_ ysfdu oLrqr% 'kklu ij la?koknh dk gh fu;U=k.k

jgkA izkjEHk esa turk us ,d Loj ls ljdkj dk leFkZu fd;k] ysfdu èkuh&oxZ osQ i{k esa gsfeYVu osQ O;ogkj

ls fojksfèk;ksa dk ,d ,slk oxZ [kM+k gqvk tks tsiQlZu osQ usr`Ro esa laxfBr gq, FksA ;s fjifCydu (Republican)

dgykus yxsA ok¯'kxVu osQ i'pkr~ ,sMEl (Adams) osQ jk"Vªifr&dky esa la?koknh xqV esa iwQV gks x;h rFkk 1798

bZ- esa ,fy;u vkSj lsfMlu ,sDV (Alien and Sedition Act) us mUgsa vyksdfiz; cuk fn;kA iQyLo:i 1800

bZ- osQ fuokZpu esa la?koknh xqV dks eq¡g dh [kkuh iM+h vkSj tsiQlZu osQ usrRo esa fjifCydu xqV us fot; izkIr dhA

fjifCydu xqV dh loksZPprkμfjifCydu xqV ukxfjdksa osQ izkÑfrd vfèkdkj ij tksj nsrk Fkk tcfd la?koknh

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xqV LorU=krk dh vis{kk O;oLFkk ijA tsiQlZu osQ ckn esfMlu rFkk equjks jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gq, tks fjifCydu

FksA 1824 bZ- rd blh xqV dk 'kklu jgkA la?koknh xqV èkhjs&èkhjs lekIr gksus yxk] ;gk¡ rd fd 1820 esa mlus

viuk izR;k'kh jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, [kM+k Hkh ugha fd;kA bl rjg ;g ny lnk osQ fy, lekIr gks x;kA 1800

ls 1824 bZ rd osQ dky dk fdlh izdkj dh xqVcUnh osQ vHkko osQ dkj.k bfrgklKksa us ^mÙke Hkkoukvksa dk

lqugyk fnu* (Golden Age of Good Feelings) dgk gSA

orZeku fjifCydu vkSj MseksozsQfVd ny dk tUeμdksbZ Hkh ny u rks lnk osQ fy, lÙkk:<+ gh jg ldrk gSvkSj u mldh ,drk gh cuh jg ldrh gSA vr% fjifCydu xqV Hkh nks Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr gks x;kA us'kuyfjifCydu (National Republicans), ftls fàx (Whigs) Hkh dgrs gSa vkSj MseksozsQfVd fjifCydu(Democratic Republicans), ftls fliZQ MseksozsQV (Democrat) Hkh dgk tkrk gSA fàx vuqnkj Fks rFkk MseksozsQV~lmnkjA 1828 bZ- esa MseksozsQfVd ny lÙkk:<+ gqvkA mldk usrk tSDlu (Jackson) jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gqvkA 1840 rdMseksozsQfVd lÙkk:<+ jgsA ysfdu nkl&izFkk osQ iz'u us nksuksa nyksa dks tM+ ls fgyk fn;kA MseksozsQfVd ny dh fLFkfrnqcZy gks x;h] fiQj Hkh mldk vfLrRo cuk jgkA fàx ny dk rks tM+ ls uk'k gks x;k vkSj mlosQ HkXuko'ks ijorZeku fjifCydu ny (Republican Party) dk tUe gqvkA bl izdkj ekSfyd fjifCydu ny osQ vo'ks"k ijorZeku nksuksa jktuhfrd nyksa dk mn~Hko gqvkμfjifCydu ny vkSj MseksozsQfVd nyA

1860 osQ ckn fodklμ1860 bZ- esa fjifCydu ny osQ gkFk esa 'kklu&lÙkk vkbZ vkSj ydu jk"Vªifr fuokZfprgqvkA 1861 ls 1885 bZ- rd fjifCydu ny 'kklu esa vk;kA x`g&;q¼ osQ i'pkr~ nksuksa nyksa esa eq[; varjvk;kr&fu;kZr rFkk flDdk&lEcUèkh uhfr osQ lEcUèk esa FkkA fjifCydu ny mDr vk;kr&fu;kZr dj rFkk laj{kduhfr osQ i{k esa Fkk rFkk MseksozsQfVd ny vk;kr&fu;kZr dj dks ?kVkus osQ i{k esa FkkA vk£Fkd uhfr osQ vfrfjDrnksuksa nyksa esa dksbZ fo'ks"k vUrj ugha FkkA vUr esa MseksozsQfVd ny us Fkd dj bl iz'u dks vius IysViQkWeZ lsgVk fn;kA

1912 bZ- esa nyh; O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu vk;kA fjifCydu ny esa vkUrfjd fonzksg gqvkA iQyLo:i MseksØsfVdizR;k'kh foYlu jk"Vªifr fu;qDr gqvkA 19oha 'krkCnh dk iz'u vk;kr&fu;kZr fookn dk iz'u u jgk cfYdla;qDr&jkT; dk ;q¼ ls lEc¼ iz'u eq[; iz'u cu x;kA foYlu fiQj ls pquk x;k_ ;q¼ lekIr gks x;k vkSjjk"Vªla?k (Leage of Nations) osQ vuqleFkZu dk iz'u flusV osQ lkeus vk;kA flusV us bl lfUèk dks vLohdkjdj fn;kA MseksozsQfVd ny vyksdfiz; gks x;kA iQyr% 1920 bZ- esa mldh djkjh gkj gqbZ vkSj fjifCydu nyfot;h gqvk_ ysfdu bl ny osQ 'kklu&dky esa vk£Fkd ladV dh leL;k iSnk gqbZ ftls og lqy>k ugha ldkAMseksozsQfVd ny us ubZ uhfr (New Deal) dh ?kks"k.kk dh ftlus turk dks vkd£"kr fd;kA 1932 bZ- esaMseksozsQfVd ny dk izR;k'kh MkW- :tosYV jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gqvkA bl ny us f}rh; fo'o&;q¼ dk lkeuk fd;kAbl ny dk 'kklu 20 o"kks± rd jgkA 1952 bZ- esa fjifCydu ny iqu% izHkqRo esa vk;k vkSj vkblugkoj jk"Vªifrin ij vklhu gqvkA 1960 bZ- rd bl ny dk àkbV gkml ij vfèkdkj jgkA 1960 osQ fnlEcj osQ fuokZpu esafjifCydu izR;k'kh fuDlu dks gjkdj MseksozsQfVd izR;k'kh osQusMh jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gqvkA vr% 'kklu iqu%MseksozsQfVd ny osQ gkFk esa pyk vk;kA 1964 bZ- esa oSQusMh iqu% jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gqvkA dk;Z&dky iwjk djusosQ igys gh oSQusMh dh gR;k dj nh x;hA mi&jk"Vªifr tkWulu jk"Vªifr osQ in ij vklhu gq,A 1964 bZ- osQfuokZpu esa tkWulu us fjifCydu izR;k'kh xksYMokVj (Goldwater) dks gjk;kA 1968 esa fuDlu us tks fjifCyduny osQ Fks jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gq,A iqu% 1977 esa esdxouZ dks gjkdj fuDlu nwljh ckj jk"Vªifr pqus x;sAdkykUrj esa fuDlu osQ R;kx&i=k nsus osQ ckn dkVZj jk"Vªifr gq,A fiQj fjifCydu ny osQ tktZ cq'k jk"Vªifr gq,A1992 osQ pquko esa MseksozsQV fcy DyVu tktZ cq'k dks gjkdj jk"Vªifr fuokZfpr gq, rRi'pkr~ tktZ MCY;w cq'k rFkkcjkd vksckek vejhdk osQ jk‘ªifr cusA bl izdkj xr lkS o"kks± esa fjifCydu vkSj MseksozsQfVd nyksa osQ chp 'kkludk myV&isQj gksrk jgk gSA

jktuhfrd nyksa dk laxBu (Organization of Political Parties): la;qDr&jkT; esa ny&laxBu osQ nks Li"V

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Hkkx gSa] ysfdu nksuksa Hkkxksa esa ikjEifjd lEcUèk gSaμ(d) LFkk;h laxBu (Permanent Organization) tksfijkfeM osQ vkdkj&lk gSA blesa lrg ls pksVh rd fofHkUu Lrjksa ij ny &lfefr;k¡ gSa] tSlsμLFkkuh;] dkm.Vh]jkT; rFkk jk"Vª dh lfefr;k¡A ([k) lkef;d ;k vLFkk;h laxBu (Periodic or Temporary Organization),ftlesa ny osQ izkFkfed laxBu (Party Primaries) rFkk lEesyu (Party Convention) mYys[kuh; gSaA os o"kZesa ,d ckj ;k mlls Hkh vfèkd le; osQ vUrj ij feyrs gSa vkSj ny&laxBuksa ls lEcfUèkr egÙoiw.kZ iz'uksadk fu.kZ; djrs gSaA

(d) LFkk;h laxBu (Permanent Organization)

(i) LFkkuh; laxBuμmi{ks=kh; (Precinct) ernku ftyk ny dk lcls fuEu laxBu gSA izk;% 100 ls 500ernkrk ,d {ks=k esa jgrs gSaA vkt djhc 1,25,000 {ks=k la;qDr&jkT; esa gSa ;g ernku bdkbZ osQ nyh;laxBu dk ,d vè;{k gksrk gS tks ernkrkvksa ls lEcUèk dk;e j[krk gSA foHkkxh; (mi{ks=kh;) laxBuksaosQ mQij uxjksa esa okMZ&lfefr;k¡ (Ward Committees) vkSj xzke&lfefr;k¡ (Village Committees)gksrh gSa tks foHkkxh; laxBuksa osQ dk;ks± dk leUo; djrh gSaA uxjksa esa okMZ&lfefr;ksa osQ mQij uxj lfefr;k¡(City Committees) gksrh gSa tks okMZ vkSj foHkkxh; laxBuksa dks funsZf'kr djrh gSaA

(ii) dkm.Vh laxBuμmi;qZDr fuEu Lrjh; ny laxBuksa osQ mQij dkm.Vh&osQUnzh; lfefr;k¡ (County CentralCommittees) gksrh gSaA ;s uhps osQ laxBuksa esa leUo; LFkkfir djrh gSa] dkm.Vh ljdkj ls lEcfUèkrleL;kvksa esa gkFk c¡Vkrh gSa rFkk jkT;&osQUnzh; lfefr ls lEcUèk LFkkfir djrh gSaA iwjs ns'k esa yxHkx 3,000dkmf.V;k¡ gSa vkSj izR;sd esa nyksa osQ futh laxBu gSaA

(iii) jkT; laxBuμjkT;ksa esa izR;sd ny dh jkT;&osQUnzh; lfefr (State Central Committee) gksrh gSA ;gjkT; osQ vUrxZr leLr nyh; ;U=kksa dk fujh{k.k djrh rFkk jkT; osQ inksa osQ fy, pquko yM+rh gSAjkT;&lfefr osQ lnL;ksa dk fuokZpu ftyk ;k uxj&lfefr;ksa vkSj oqQN jkT;ksa esa izkbejh vFkok jkT;lEesyuksa }kjk gksrk gSA izR;sd ny dh 20 jkT; lfefr;k¡ gSaA

jk"Vªh; laxBuμizR;sd ny osQ LFkk;h laxBu osQ 'kh"kZ ij jk"Vªh; lfefr (National Committee) gksrh gSA blesaizR;sd jkT; ls nks izfrfufèk vkrs gSaμ,d iq#"k rFkk ,d L=khA budk fuokZpu jk"Vªh; lEesyu osQ izfrfuf/;ksa ;kjkT; lEesyuksa }kjk gksrk gSA fjifCydu jk"Vªh; lfefr dk lnL; rFkk jkT;&lfefr dk vè;{k Hkh gksrk gSAjk"Vªh; lfefr eq[;r% jk"Vªifr&in osQ fy, ny osQ izR;k'kh }kjk uketn O;fDr dks ny dk vè;{k fu;qDrdjrh] jk"Vªh; lEesyu dk vk;kstu djrh rFkk ny osQ inkfèkdkfj;ksa dks pqurh gSA bl lfefr dk ,d vè;{kgksrk gS ftldh lfefr jk"Vªifr in dk izR;k'kh euksuhr djrh gSA mldh ,d dk;Zdkfj.kh lfefr (ExecutiveCommittee) Hkh gksrh gSA lfefr Lo;a jk"Vªifr osQ fuokZpu esa Hkkx ysrh gS] ijUrq flusV rFkk izfrfufèk lHkk osQlnL;ksa osQ fuokZpu osQ fy, nks mi&lfefr;k¡ fu;qDr djrh gSa] tSlsμSenatorial Campaign Committee rFkkCongressional Compaign Committee.

([k) vLFkkbZ laxBu (Periodic Organization): nyksa osQ dfri; laxBu fliZQ lkef;d gksrs gSaA mudk ;glaxBu fo'ks"k mís'; osQ fy, gksrk gS rFkk mldh iw£r osQ i'pkr~ os lekIr gks tkrs gSaA izk;% izR;sd nks o"kZ ijnyksa dk jkT;&lEesyu (State Conventions) gksrk gS ftlesa jk"Vªh; lEesyu osQ izfrfufèk;ksa dk fuokZpu ny osQjkT; ?kks"k.kk&i=k dh LohÑfr vkfn dk;Z gksrs gSaA blh rjg jk"Vªh; Lrj ij Hkh pkj o"kZ osQ i'pkr~ izR;sd ny dkjk"Vªh; lEesyu gksrk gSA blosQ izfrfufèk jkT; vkSj {ks=kh; lEesyuksa vkSj ny lfefr;ksa ;k oqQN jkT;ksa osQ jk"VªifrosQ fuokZpu osQ fy, fu£er izkFkfed lfefr;ksa }kjk pqus tkrs gSaA jk"Vªh; lEesyu dk izeq[k dk;Z jk"Vªifr&in osQfy, mEehnokj pquuk gSA

jktuhfrd nyksa osQ dk;Z (Functions of Political Parties): jktuhfrd nyksa osQ vHkko esa iztkrkaf=kd ljdkj

vlEHko gSA Lora=k ljdkj osQ fy, jktuSfrd ny vfuok;Z gSaA vesfjdk esa Hkh jktuhfrd ny 'kklu osQ vkèkkjij cu x;s gSaA os vusd egÙoiw.kZ dke djrs gSaA

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(i) ,dhdj.k (Integration) dh 'kfDrμjktuhfrd ny jk"Vªh; ,drk osQ lkèku gSa] os iwjs jk"Vª dks è;kuesa j[krs gq, turk osQ lkeus viuk dk;ZØe izLrqr djrs gSaA blh dk;ZØe dks iwjk djus osQ fy, os 'kkluosQ fofHkUu vaxksa ij vfèkdkj izkIr djus dh ps"Vk djrs gSaA izk;% ,d gh ny ,d le; esa 'kklu dhfofHkUu 'kk[kkvksa ij fu;a=k.k izkIr dj ysrk gSA lEiw.kZ ns'k dks ,drk osQ lw=k esa ck¡èk nsrk gS rFkk ,dmís'; dh iw£r osQ fy, mls funsZf'kr djrk gSA blosQ vfrfjDr la;qDr jkT; esa fofHkUu tkfr;ksa] èkeks±]laLÑfr;ksa ,oa O;olk;ksa osQ yksx fuokl djrs gSaA jktuhfrd ny muesa ,drk LFkkfir djus esa lhesaV dkdke djrs gSaA

(ii) 'kfDr&i`FkDdj.k] larqyu ,oa vojksèk osQ fl¼karksa dks O;kogkfjd :i nsuk (separation of

powers)μvesfjdk esa jktuhfrd ny 'kfDr osQ i`FkDdj.k fl¼kUr rFkk vojksèk vkSj larqyu fl¼kardks O;kogkfjd :i nsrs gSaA vesfjdk esa oSfèkd :i ls 'kklu osQ fofHkUu vaxksa dks ,d&nwljs ls vyx rFkkLora=k cuk;k x;k gSA lkFk gh os ,d&nwljs dks fu;af=kr Hkh djrs gSaA vxj bu fl¼karksa dks dkiQh nwj rdykxw fd;k tk; rks 'kklu VqdM+s&VqdM+s gks tk;saxsA ysfdu jktuhfrd ny 'kklu dks bl vkifÙk ls cpkrsgSaA 'kklu osQ vaxksa ij vfèkdkj izkIr dj jktuhfrd ny muosQ chp lg;ksx iSnk djrs gSaA blosQ vfrfjDr'kklu dh lHkh 'kk[kk,¡ izk;% ,d le; esa ,d jktuhfrd ny }kjk mís';ksa dh iw£r osQ fy, dk;Z djrh gSaAvr% larqyu vkSj vojksèk dh lkafoèkkfud tfVyrk nwj gks tkrh gS rFkk 'kklu lqxe :i ls pyrk gSAjktuhfrd ny gh O;oLFkkfidk vkSj dk;Zikfydk dks tksM+us dh ,d egRoiw.kZ dM+h dk dke djrs gSa] tSlsμjk"Vªifr vius ny osQ ekè;e ls foèks;dksa dks izHkkfor djrk gSA

(iii) fofHkUu lEHkkoukvksa rFkk mEehnokjksa dh la[;k dks de djukμiztkrU=k dks thfor j[kus osQ fy,fofHkUu fopkjksa rFkk fojksèkksa esa leUo; (Co-ordination) vko';d gSA jktuhfrd ny turk osQ fofHkUufopkjksa rFkk fgrksa osQ chp nwjh dks de djrs gSa rFkk mUgsa foLr`r èkkjk osQ :i esa ,d fuf'pr Lo:i iznkudjrs gSa rFkk la?k vkSj jkT;&ljdkjksa osQ lkeus lEHkkoukvksa dh la[;kvksa dks ?kVk nsrs gSaA blh izdkj osfuokZpdksa osQ lkeus mEehnokjksa dh la[;k dks Hkh de djrs gSa ftlls fuokZpdksa dks Hkkoh 'kkldksa osQ pqukoesa lgwfy;r gksrh gSA

(iv) jktuhfrd f'k{kk vkSj psru dk lkèkuμvU; iztkrkaf=kd ns'kksa dh rjg vesfjdk esa Hkh jktuhfrd nyturk dks jktuhfrd&f'k{kk nsrs gSa rFkk ernkrkvksa esa jktuhfrd tkx:drk iSnk djrs gSaA bl dk;Z dksny izpkj }kjk djrs gSaA vesfjdk esa ny ns'kkUrj&okfl;ksa osQ izÑfrdj.k (Naturalization of Immi-

grants) dk Hkh dk;Z djrs gSaA

(v) mÙkjnkf;Ro dk LFkkuh;dj.kμjktuhfrd nyksa dk izeq[k dk;Z mÙkjnkf;Ro dk LFkk;hdj.k (Localization

of responsibility) gSA bldk vFkZ ;g gksrk gS fd tks ny 'kklu esa jgrk gS mls 'kklu&lEcUèkh fdlh dk;ZosQ fy, mÙkjnk;h Bgjk;k tk ldrk gSA dksbZ inkfèkdkjh vius ny osQ izfr mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA vkSj og ny turkosQ izfrA pw¡fd fdlh fuf'pr ny dks mÙkjnk;h Bgjk;k tk ldrk gS] blfy, og ny lEHkor% U;k;iw.kZ O;ogkjdjus dk iz;Ru djrk gSA mÙkjnkf;Ro fliZQ cgqer ny dk gh ugha gS cfYd vYier ny dk Hkh gSA fojksèkh nydk drZO; gS fd og 'kklu ny dh jpukRed vkykspuk djsA

(vi) fuokZpd e.My ;kstuk dks liQy cukukμla;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa jktuhfrd ny fuokZpu&e.Mydh ;kstuk (Electoral College Plan) dks liQy cukrs gSaA vxj ny u jgs ;k vfèkd ny jgs rks vfèkdrjfuokZpuksa dk fu.kZ; izfrfufèk&lHkk dks gh djuk iM+rk gSA ysfdu fliZQ nks nyksa osQ dkj.k fdlh&u&fdlhny dks Li"V cgqer izkIr gks tkrk gSA

(vii) larqyu dk lkèkuμjktuhfrd ny iztkrU=k esa larqyu (balance) dk dke djrs gSaA vesfjdk esa f}&nyh;izFkk osQ dkj.k jktuhfrd nyksa dk ;g dk;Z cgqr egÙoiw.kZ gks tkrk gSA vxj fliZQ ,d ny jgs rks lksfo;r:l dh rjg nyh; rkuk'kkgh dk Hk; gS vkSj ;fn ukxfjdksa osQ vusd jktuhfrd xqV gks tk;¡ rks 'kklu

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osQ èoa'k gks tkus dk Hk; gSA ysfdu vejhdh turk bu Nksjksa osQ chp dk jkLrk viukrh gSA f}&nyh;izFkk }kjk rkuk'kkgh rFkk vjktdrk ls NqVdkjk ik;k tkrk gSA

(viii) lkekftd ,oa ekuoh; dk;ZμvUr esa] vesfjdk osQ jktuhfrd ny oqQN lkekftd rFkk ekuoh; dk;Zdjrs gSaA cktkj] u`R;] laxhr] fidfud vkfn }kjk os turk dk eu cgykrs rFkk muesa jktuhfrd psrukHkjrs gSaA ny osQ usrk 'kklu dks ekuoh; Lo:i iznku djrs gSaA fo'ks"kdj LFkkuh; usrk inkfèkdkfj;ksa dksturk dh bPNkvksa rFkk vko';drkvksa dh tkudkjh djkrs gSaA bl izdkj ny osQ tfj;s vusd O;fDr;ksadks 'kklu esa lgk;rk feyrh gSA

izQkal esa jktuhfrd ny (Political Parties in France)

izQkalhlh ny dk laxBu

(Pattern of French Party Organisation)

{ks=kh;

uksVμizR;sd ny dk laxBu yxHkx blh izdkj gSA

izQkal osQ izeq[k jktuhfrd ny vkSj mudk laxBu (Important Political Parties ofFrance and their organisation)

bl le; izQkal osQ jktuhfrd thou esa fuEufyf[kr izeq[k jktuhfrd ny gSaμ

1- lkE;oknh ny (The Communist Party)

2- lektoknh ny (The Socialist Party)

3- yksdfiz; x.krU=koknh vkUnksyu (Movement Republican Popular M.R.P.)

4- okeiaFkh x.krU=koknh la?k (Union of Republican Leftists),

5- Lora=krk&leFkZd x.krU=koknh ny (Republican Party of Liberty)A

lkE;oknh ny (Communist Party)μlkE;oknh ny dh LFkkiuk 1920 bZ- esa gqbZ FkhA ;g izQkal dk bl le;lcls vfèkd lqlaxfBr ny gSA bldh LFkkiuk osQ ckn gh bldk laxBu c<+rk x;kA 1924 bZ- esa lkE;oknh nyx.krU=k osQ 24 izfrfufèk pSEcj vkWiQ fMiqVht esa FksA prqFkZ x.krU=k esa bl ny dk dkiQh izlkj gqvkA 1946 bZ-esa us'kuy ,lsEcyh esa lkE;oknh ny osQ oqQy 190 izfrfufèk Fks] ysfdu mlosQ ckn èkhjs&èhjs bl ny dh 'kfDr?kVrh x;hA 1955 bZ- esa us'kuy ,lsEcyh esa oqQy 98 lkE;oknh lnL; jg x;sA iape x.kra=k dh LFkkiuk osQ cknny dk vfLrRo m[kM+&lk x;kA 1958 bZ- osQ pquko esa jk"Vªh; lHkk esa lkE;oknh ny osQ oqQy 22 lnL; fuokZfprgks losQA blls Li"V gS fd bl le; lkE;oknh ny dkiQh {kh.k gks x;k gSA

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vU; ns'kksa osQ lkE;oknh nyksa dh rjg izQkal osQ lkE;oknh ny dk Hkh mís'; iw¡thoknh O;oLFkk dk vUr djukgSA lkE;oknh ny oxZ la?k"kZ esa fo'okl djrk gSA izQkal dk lkE;oknh ny Økafr }kjk mRiknu osQ lkèkuksa dkjk"Vªh;dj.k osQ i{k esa gSA ny dk laxBu lqn`<+ gS rFkk nyh; lnL; dBksj vuq'kklu dk ikyu djrs gSaA ns'kosQ etnwj rFkk fdlku oxks± osQ yksx vfèkdrj bl ny osQ lnL; gSaA ysfdu etnwj ls vfèkd fdlku oxZ osQyksx lkE;ny esa vfèkd fu"Bk j[krs gSaA

lektoknh ny (The Socialist Party)μ;g izQkal dk nwljk egÙoiw.kZ ny gSA bl ny dh LFkkiuk 1905 bZ-esa gqbZ FkhA ml le; Øe'k% la;qDr lektoknh ny osQ uke ls fo[;kr FkkA bldk mís'; lekt esa lektokndh LFkkiuk djuk FkkA bl ny esa nks er osQ lnL; FksA oqQN yksxksa dk er Fkk fd lekt esa 'kkafriw.kZ <ax lslektokn dh LFkkiuk dh tk;A nwljs er osQ yksx ekDlZoknh fopkjksa osQ leFkZd FksA èkhjs&èkhjs nksuksa fopkjèkkjkvksaosQ yksxksa esa [kkbZ iM+rh x;hA izFke fo'o;q¼ osQ ckn ny esa lkE;oknh fopkjèkkjk osQ yksx vyx gks x;s vkSj1920 bZ- esa lkE;oknh ny blls vyx gks x;kA

lkE;oknh ny {ks=kh; vkèkkj ij laxfBr gSA ns'k osQ NksVs&NksVs foHkkx_ tSls] dE;wu ls ysdj jk"Vªh; iSekus rdblosQ laxBu gSaA bl ny dk mís'; turkfU=kd iz.kkyh dks dk;e j[krs gq, dY;k.kdkjh jkT; dh LFkkiuk djukgSA bl ny osQ cgqr&ls lnL; jkT; osQ deZpkjh rFkk LowQy osQ vè;kid gSaA etnwj oxZ osQ yksx bldh {kerkij fo'okl ugha djrs gSaA bl ny dk vkn'kZ gS fd cM+s m|ksxksa dk Øe'k% jk"Vªh;dj.k dj fy;k tk,] lektesa èku dk foHkktu U;k;ksfpr gksA lkFk gh] lkekftd dY;k.k lEcUèkh fu;e cukuk rFkk yksxksa dksvf/d&ls&vfèkd lkekftd lqj{kk dh miyfCèk djkuk bldk mís'; gSA

yksdfiz; x.krU=k vkUnksyu (Republican Popular Movement)μfl¼kar dh n`f"V ls izQkal osQ okei{kh;rFkk nf{k.ki{kh; nyksa osQ chp dk laxBu gSA ;g ny mUuhloha 'krkCnh osQ oSQFkksfyd èkeZ dh fopkj&èkkjk lsizHkkfor gSA bldk xBu f}rh; fo'o;q¼ osQ ckn gqvkA ;g izQkal dk ,d izeq[k ny gS] ysfdu ;g ny viusdks ,d jktuhfrd ny ugha ekudj ,d vkUnksyu ekurk gSA prqFkZ x.krU=k esa bl ny dk dkiQh izHkko FkkAysfdu iape x.krU=k esa bldk og LFkku ugha jg x;k tks prqFkZ x.kra=k esa FkkA ;g ny {ks=kh; vkèkkj ij laxfBrgS rFkk jk"Vªh; iSekus ij bldk dkiQh izHkko Hkh gSA

yksdfiz; x.krU=koknh vkUnksyu mnkj iw¡thokn rFkk lkewfgd lkE;okn nksuksa dk fojksèkh gSA bl rjg ;g eè;oxhZny gSA O;fDr osQ O;fDrRo esa fo'okl j[krk gSA ;g 'kfDr'kkyh vUrjkZ"Vªh;rk] O;fDr Lokra=;] ifjokjksa dklaj{k.k rFkk iztkrkaf=kd iz.kkyh v{kq..k cuk;s j[kus osQ i{k esa gSaA

okeiaFkh x.kra=koknh ny (Union of Republican Leftists)μbZlk dh chloha 'krkCnh osQ vkjEHk esa LFkkiukgqbZ FkhA r`rh; x.krU=k osQ vUr rd bl ny dk dkiQh cksyckyk FkkA [kkldj nks fo'o&;q¼ksa osQ vUrdky esabl ny dk fof'k"V LFkku FkkA f}rh; fo'o&;q¼ dky esa bldk dkiQh iru gqvk gSA 1951 bZ- esa jk"Vªh; ifj"kn~esa bl ny dks oqQy 76 LFkku feysA bl ny osQ leFkZd NksVs&NksVs fdlku] O;kikjh rFkk vU; eè;e oxZ osQyksx gSaA ;g ny okei{kh; rFkk nf{k.ki{kh; nyksa osQ fl¼karksa esa lUrqyu dk iz;kl gSA ;g ny O;fDr Lokra=;dk leFkZd gSA ekDlZoknh fopkjèkkjk vkSj mnkjokj dk ;g fojksèk djrk gSA oS;fDrd lEifÙk rFkk LorU=krk dks;g ny v{kq..k cuk;s j[kuk pkgrk gSA

Lora=krk leFkZd x.kra=koknh ny (Republican Party of Liberty)μÚkal dk izeq[k :f<+oknh ny gSA blosQvfrfjDr vU; izeq[k :f<+oknh nyksa esa jSyh vkWiQ nh izsaQp ihiqy (Railly of the French People) rFkk ihtsaV,.M lks'ky ,Dlu ikVhZ (Peasant and Social Action Party) gSaA ;s ny eq[;r% nf{k.ki{kh; ny gSaA bu nyksaesa eq[;r% m|ksxifr] iw¡thifr] èkuh rFkk oqQN eè;e oxZ osQ yksx gSaA ;g ny lektokn osQ dV~Vj fojksèkh gSaA

bu nyksa osQ vfrfjDr ,d vU; izeq[k ny dk mn; iape x.krU=k osQ lkFk gqvk gSA bl ny dk uke ;wfu;uvkWiQ nh U;w fjifCyd (Union of the New Republic) gSA bl ny osQ laLFkkid nxkWy gSaA ;g nxkWy }kjk

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1947 bZ- esa LFkkfir jSyh vkWiQ nh iszaQp ihiqy (Raily of the French People) dk u;k :i gSA mPp eè;eoxZ osQ yksx blosQ leFkZd gSaA 1958 bZ- esa ;g ns'k cgqer ny dk fo'okl ik=k cu x;kA bl ny osQ leFkZuij jk"Vªifr ikfEib;w pqus x;s FksA bl ny us Úkal dh ny&i¼fr dks u;h fn'kk nh gSA nxkWy dh fopkjèkkjkbl ny dk n'kZu gSA oLrqr% Úkal esa nxkWyoknh vkUnksyu dk ;g laxBukRed Lo:i gSA ;g nf{k.kiaFkh rFkkjk"Vªoknh ny gSA bls mPp dksfV] èkfud rFkk is'ksoj yksxksa dk leFkZu fo'ks"k :i ls izkIr gSA

13-3 phu esa dE;qfuLV ikVhZ dh Hkwfedk (Role of Communist Party in China)

phuh x.kjkT; esa lkE;oknh ny dk dk;Z ,oa egÙo (Functions and Importance of the CommunistParty in the Chinese Republic): vkèkqfud ;qx esa 'kklu&lÙkk osQ ihNs okLrfod 'kfDr jktuhfrd ny gSAos 'kklu :ih xkM+h dks pykus osQ fy, b±èku dk dke djrs gSaA os lekt osQ vk£Fkd rFkk jktuhfrd igyqvksaij bl izdkj Nk x;s gSa fd mUgsa vn`'; ljdkj (Invisible Government) dgk tk jgk gSA ;g fLFkfr gjizdkj dh 'kklu&O;oLFkk esa ikbZ tkrh gS pkgs og vfèkduk;drU=k gks ;k iztkra=kA iztkra=k osQ fy, rks osvo';EHkkoh gSa gh] lkFk&lkFk vfèkuk;drU=k osQ fy, Hkh budk vfLrRo vfuok;Z gSA fliZQ vUrj ;g gS fdljdkj osQ Lo:i osQ vuqlkj muosQ laxBu rFkk dk;ks± dh izo`fÙk osQ vuqlkj ifjorZu gks tkrk gSA Hkkjr rFkkfczVsu tSls iztkraf=kd ns'kksa ls phuh x.kra=k esa ny dk cgqr vfèkd egÙo gSA og ns'k dk okLrfod 'kkldgSA lkE;oknh phu esa fdlh Hkh ns'k ls vfèkd] lkE;oknh ny dks laoSèkkfud ekU;rk iznku dh xbZ gSA 'kkluij mlosQ izHkqRo (Domination) vkSj usr`Ro (Vanguardship) dks dkuwuh ekU;rk iznku dh xbZ gSA lafoèkkuesa Li"V 'kCnksa esa bls Økafr dk vxqvk] ns'k dk 'kkld vkSj lkaLÑfrd Økafr dk gfFk;kj djkj fn;k x;k gSAvc ny dk vè;{k gh lc oqQN gks x;k gS_ jkT; osQ vè;{k dk in lekIr gks x;k gSA ny dk vè;{k ns'kdk okLrfod 'kkld gksrk gSA iwoZ lksfo;r lkE;oknh ny dh Hkk¡fr gh phuh lkE;oknh ny Hkh lekt vkSj 'kkludk iFk&izn'kZu ,oa funsZ'ku djrk gSA lafoèkku esa dgk x;k gS fd ¶phu dk lkE;oknh ny ns'k osQ usr`Ro dkosQUnz gSA¸ ;g turk dk ekxZn'kZd rFkk lHkh lkoZtfud laxBuksa ,oa laLFkkvksa dk ewy osQUnz gSA ny vius lkèkkj.kdk;ZØe osQ fo"k; esa ?kks"k.kk djrk gS fd ¶ny dks leLr tkrh; laxBu osQ loksZPp Lo:i dks èkkj.k djusosQ ukrs ns'k&thou osQ usrk ,oa ân; osQ :i esa Bhd fn'kk dh vksj dk;Z djus osQ fy, vo'; iz;Ru djukpkfg,A¸ rkRi;Z ;g gS fd phu osQ lkE;oknh ny dks ns'k rFkk lekt osQ usrk ,oa ân; osQ :i esa Lohdkjfd;k x;k gSA

iwoZ lksfo;r lkE;oknh ny dh Hkk¡fr phuh lkE;oknh ny dks Hkh Økafr dk fu;U=kd ,oa j{kd] izsjd] vkn'kZ,oa f'k{kd] vxz.kh laxBu] loZgkjk Ñ"kd oxZ dk ekxZ&n'kZd] ekvksokn dk izpkjd ,oa ns'k dk okLrfod'kkld ekuk tkrk gSA ny osQ dk;ks± dk laf{kIr fooj.kμ

(i) Økafr dk fu;ark ,oa j{kdμphu osQ lkE;oknh ny osQ dk;ks± dks ge nks ,sfrgkfld Hkkxkas esa ck¡V ldrsgSaμ1949 bZ- dh Økafr ls iwoZ vkSj ([k) Økafr osQ cknA 1949 bZ- osQ iwoZ lkE;oknh ny dk mís'; Fkk]Økafr ykukA phu Hkz"V ,oa iw¡thokn oqQvksfUrkaxh 'kklu osQ iSjksa rys rckg vkSj cjckn gks jgk FkkAlkE;oknh ny Økafr ykus esa yxHkx rhl o"kks± osQ fujUrj laxBu rFkk ;q¼ osQ i'pkr~ liQy gqvkA ØkafrosQ i'pkr~ lkE;oknh ny dk izeq[k dk;Z gks x;k] Økafr dh j{kk djukA ns'k osQ vUnj iw¡thifr rFkkns'k osQ ckgj iw¡thoknh ns'k lkE;oknh Økafr dks oqQpy nsuk pkgrs FksA lkE;oknh ny us muosQ fo#¼ ltxizgjh osQ :i esa dk;Z fd;kA ;|fi Økafr dh lqj{kk dk [krjk Vy x;k gS] fiQj Hkh lkE;oknh ny dk;g izeq[k dk;Z gS fd lkE;oknh phu dh vkUrfjd rFkk ckgjh 'k=kqvksa ls j{kk djsaA

(ii) izsjd] vkn'kZ ,oa f'k{kdμphu dk lkE;oknh ny ,d iszjd gS] vkn'kZ gS rFkk f'k{kd gSA Økafr osQiwoZ phu vk£Fkd] lkekftd rFkk vU; {ks=kksa esa fiNM+k gqvk FkkA mls mUur ns'kksa dh Js.kh esa ykusosQ fy, dfBu ifjJe rFkk egku~ R;kx djuk FkkA ;g ifjJe vkSj R;kx lkE;oknh ny dks gh djukFkkA ny dks turk esa R;kx] mRlkg rFkk mÙkjnkf;Ro dh Hkkouk mitkuk FkkA ;g rHkh lEHko Fkk tcfdny Lo;a vkn'kZ mifLFkr djsa rFkk turk dks f'kf{kr djsa vkSj mlosQ fy, f'k{kk nsA izk:i&lafoèkku

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osQ izfrosnu esa ny osQ lnL;ksa osQ mÙkjnkf;Ro dh ppkZ djrs gq, dgk x;k gS fd ny dh fof'k"V fLFkfrosQ dkj.k ny osQ lnL;ksa dks jkT; osQ vUrxZr dksbZ fo'ks"kkfèkdkj izkIr ugha gksxk_ vfirq mUgsa blosQmÙkjnkf;Ro dk Hkh ogu djuk iM+sxkA ny osQ lnL;ksa dks lafoèkku rFkk dkuwu dk vuqlj.k djrs gq,turk osQ le{k ,d vkn'kZ izLrqr djuk gksxkA blosQ vfrfjDr ny dk ,d izeq[k dk;Z gS] turk dksekDlZokn] ysfuuokn rFkk ekvksokn dh f'k{kk nsukA bu jktuhfrd fl¼karksa osQ vkns'kksa dk izpkj nydk eq[; dk;Z gSA lkaLÑfrd Økafr (Cultural Revolution) osQ ekè;e ls ny us tuleqnk; ij i;kZIrekufld izHkko Mkyk gSA

(iii) vxz.kh laxBuμphu dk lkE;oknh ny ns'k esa ik;s tkus okys vU; laxBuksa rFkk jktuhfrd nyksa dksusr`Ro iznku djrk gSA uo iztkrU=k ;qod la?k phuh lkE;oknh ny dk izeq[k vax gSA phu esa vU; nyksadks Hkh jktuhfrd ekU;rk iznku dh xbZ gSA iwoZ lksfo;r :l dh Hkk¡fr phu dk lkE;oknh ny ,dek=k jktuhfrd ny ugha gSA vr% vU; jktuhfrd nyksa dk vfLrRo lkE;oknh ny ls i`Fkd ekuk tkrkgS tcfd iwoZ lksfo;r :l esa lHkh laxBuksa dks lkE;okn ny osQ vax osQ :i esa dk;Z djuk iM+rk FkkAysfdu bldk vFkZ ;g ugha fd phu esa lkE;oknh ny osQ vfrfjDr vU; laxBuksa rFkk nyksa dk okLrfodi`Fko~Q vfLrRo gSA la;qDr ekspkZ osQ uke ij vU; laxBuksa rFkk nyksa dks lkE;oknh ny osQ usr`Ro rFkkfunsZ'ku esa dk;Z djuk iM+rk gSA vU; nyksa dk vfLrRo uke ek=k gSA

(iv) la;qDr ekspkZ dk usr`Ro (Leadership of the United Front)μphu osQ lafoèkku esa turk osQiztkrkaf=kd la;qDr ekspsZ (People’s Democratic United Front) dh lkafoèkkfud O;oLFkk dh ppkZ dhxbZ gSA lafoèkku dh izLrkouk esa ;g dgk x;k gS fd ;g la;qDr ekspkZ jkT; osQ mís';ksa dh izkfIr rFkk'k=kqvksa ls mudh lqj{kk osQ gsrq ,d la?k"kZ dk lapkyu djsxk rFkk leLr turk dks mlosQ fy, laxfBrvkSj izksRlkfgr djsxkA la;qDr ekspkZ esa Jfed oxZ osQ vfrfjDr vU; iztkrkaf=kd oxZ] ny rFkk tulaxBu jgsaxsA mldk usr`Ro loZgkjk oxZ osQ gkFk esa gksxkA ;g Jfedksa] fdlkuksa rFkk vU; oxks± osQ chpo`gr~ lg;ksx ij vkèkkfjr gksxkA bl la;qDr ekspsZ dk usr`Ro oLrqr% lkE;oknh ny osQ gkFk esa gksxk rFkkogh bldk ekxZn'kZu djsxkA

(v) izpkjdμlkE;oknh fl¼kar osQ vuqlkj ;g vko';d gS fd turk osQ fnekx esa 'kklu dh ekU;rkvksa,oa vkn'kks± dks Hkjk tk; rFkk mUgsa ns'k osQ osQUnzh; usr`Ro dk iDdk vuq;k;h cuk fn;k tk,A phu esaekDlZokn] ysfuuokn rFkk ekvksokn osQ fl¼kUrksa dks ges'kk turk osQ fny esa owQV&owQVdj Hkjs tkus dhdksf'k'k dh tkrh jgh gSA bl dk;Z dk mÙkjnkf;Ro lkE;oknh ny dks lkSaik x;k gSA ny turk dks f'k{kknsrk gS rFkk blosQ fy, lHkh dBksj ,oa vfèkuk;doknh lkèkuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gSA og phuh jk"Vªh;rk dhn<+ Hkkouk] iw¡thokn osQ fo#¼ ?k.kk rFkk lkE;okn osQ izfr HkfDr dk izpkj djrk gSA

(vi) izs"kd dM+hμny turk rFkk vU; lewgksa vkSj laxBuksa dk lacaèk ns'k osQ usr`Ro ls LFkkfir djrk gSAizk:i&lafoèkku osQ izfrosnu esa dgk x;k gS fd lkE;oknh ny osQ lnL; tu&lewg ls ?kfu"B lacaèkLFkkfir djsaxs rFkk leLr iztkrkaf=kd nyksa] lewgksa vkSj lEiw.kZ turk osQ lkFk fey&tqydj dk;Z djsaxsAos ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa] mís';ksa rFkk dk;ks± osQ fo"k; esa turk dks lwpuk nsaxs rFkk mudh Li"V O;k[;kturk osQ le{k izLrqr djsaxsA bl izdkj ny lapkj&lkèku osQ :i esa dk;Z djsxkA

(vii) vUrjkZ"Vªh; dk;Zμphuh lkE;oknh ny dk vUrjkZ"Vªh; egÙo Hkh gSA ;g fo'o Økafr rFkk fo'olkE;oknh lekt esa fo'okl djrk gSA mldk ,d izeq[k mís'; vU; ns'kksa ls Hkh iw¡thokn dk uk'kdj lkE;okn dh LFkkiuk djuk gS blosQ fy, vU; ns'kksa esa Økafrdkjh dk;ZdÙkkZvksa dk laxBu LFkkfirdjrk gS rFkk foèoaldkjh izo`fÙk dks izksRlkfgr djrk gSA fNis :i ls og vU; ns'kksa osQ leku fopkjokys O;fDr;ksa dks gfFk;kj nsrk gS vkSj mUgsa rksM+&iQksM+ osQ dk;ks± dk izf'k{k.k nsrk gSA Hkkjr] cekZ]b.Mksusf'k;k vkfn ns'k phuh lkE;oknh ny osQ bl uhfr osQ f'kdkj gq, gSaA vUrjkZ"Vªh; iSekus ij leku

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fopkj okys vU; ns'kksa osQ lkE;oknh nyksa ls lEioZQ LFkkfir dj i`Fko~Q lkE;oknh vUrjkZ"Vªh; laxBuksa osQfuekZ.k dh lnk dksf'k'k djrk jgk gSA xqIr :i ls og dbZ ns'kksa osQ lkE;oknh nyksa ,oa laxBuksa dkiFk&izn'kZu djrk gSA

(viii) okLrfod 'kkldμphuh lkE;oknh ny osQ egÙo dk fu.kkZ;d dkj.k ;g gS fd og ns'k dk okLrfod'kkld gSA ik'pkR; ns'kksa osQ nyksa dh Hkk¡fr og ljdkj dk fuekZ.kdÙkkZ] ikyudÙkkZ] rFkk lapkyd rksgS gh] blosQ vfrfjDr og 'kklu ls bruk ?kqyfey x;k gS fd ny rFkk ljdkj dks ,d&nwljs ls vyxdjuk eqf'dy gSA ny 'kklu ij bl rjg Nk x;k gS fd og ns'k dk okLrfod 'kkld cu x;k gSAiwoZ lksfo;r la?k dh Hkk¡fr phu esa Hkh 'kkld vkSj lkE;oknh ny esa vR;fèkd lfUudVrk (Inter-

looking relationship between Party and Government) gSA ny osQ usrk gh 'kklu osQ fo'ks"k inksaij jgrs gSaA 'kklu dk izR;sd foHkkx lkE;oknh ny osQ usrk vkSj lnL;ksa ls ifjiw.kZ gSA ny dh uhfrgh 'kklu dh uhfr gSA lkE;oknh ny dk iksfyr C;wjks 'kklu dh uhfr dks fuèkkZfjr djrk gS] ljdkjhfoHkkxksa rFkk vfèkdkfj;ksa dks funsZ'k nsrk gS vkSj mu ij fu;U=k.k j[krk gSA fl¼karr% ljdkj dkuwu cukrhgS] vKfIr;k¡ fudkyrh gS] oSnsf'kd lEcUèk dk funsZ'ku djrh gS] 'kklu dks fu;fU=kr djrh gS rFkklSU;cy dks laxfBr djrh gSa vkSj mls vkns'k nsrh gS_ ysfdu O;ogkjr% ny gh bu lHkh dk;ks± dks djrkgSA ljdkj osQ vax osQoy jcj LVkEi dk dk;Z djrs gSaA fdlh Hkh fo"k; osQ lEcUèk esa vfUre fu.kZ;ny gh ysrk gS vkSj mlh osQ vkns'kkuqlkj lHkh inkfèkdkjh viuk dk;Z djrs gSaA

phu osQ lkE;oknh ny osQ vfèkuk;dRo dh O;k[;k fuEufyf[kr :iksa esa dh tk ldrh gSμ

izFke] ny rhu rjhdksa ls 'kklu dks fu;fU=kr djrk gSA igyk rjhdk ;g gS fd ljdkj osQ foèkkf;dh]iz'kkldh; rFkk U;kf;d laxBuksa osQ vfèkdka'k lnL; ny osQ lnL; gksrs gSaA bu lnL;ksa ij ny osQ lnL;ksadk fu;U=k.k gksrk gS vkSj os mlh funsZ'kkuqlkj dk;Z djrs gSaA nwljk rjhdk ;g gS fd vke rkSj ij nyosQ }kjk foèkkf;dh vkSj iz'kkldh; vkns'kksa vkSj uhfr;ksa dh ?kks"k.kk gksrh jgrh gS ftldk ikyu iz'kkluosQ vaxksa rFkk inkfèkdkfj;ka dks djuk iM+rk gSA rhljk rjhdk ;g gS fd ny vius fofHkUu laxBuksa rFkkvaxksa osQ }kjk tks ns'k osQ dksus&dksus rFkk gj {ks=k esa O;kIr gSa] 'kklu osQ leLrjh; vaxksa dks fu;fU=krdjrk gSA bl lacaèk esa VkWx us dgk gS fd ¶osQUnz osQ <k¡ps ij gh ny dk 'kklu lacaèk fuEu Lrjksa esanqgjk;k x;k gSA blh izdkj vkilh lacaèk] izkUrh;] uxj] xzke] 'kgjkas o xzkeh.k ftyksa osQ Lrj ij n`f"Vxkspjgksrs gSaA tgk¡ ny dk usr`Ro djus okys ljdkjh inksa ij egÙoiw.kZ dk;Z djrs gSaA¸ rkRi;Z ;g gS fd iz'kkluosQ loksZPp Lrj ls ysdj fuEurj rd ny dk lekukUrj laxBu ik;k tkrk gS vkSj ny dk leLrjh; laxBuiz'kklu osQ led{k fudk; ij fu;a=k.k j[krk gS rFkk mls funsZf'kr djrk gSA ny osQ lnL; gh led{kLrj osQ iz'kkldh; fudk; osQ inkfèkdkjh cu tkrs gSaA mnkgj.kLo:i] loksZPp Lrj ij ekvksRls rqax lkE;oknhny dh osQUnzh; lfefr rFkk iksfyr C;wjks dk vè;{k Fkk rFkk ny osQ lfpoky; dk izeq[k Hkh Fkk vkSj blizdkj ny rFkk 'kklu osQ loksZPp f'k[kj ij ,d gh O;fDr FkkA ny osQ iksfyr C;wjks osQ vU; lnL; Hkh 'kkluosQ fofHkUu vaxksa osQ izeq[k gSaA fuEu Lrj ij Hkh blh izdkj ny osQ izeq[k lnL; leLrjh; iz'kkldh; fudk;osQ Hkh inkfèkdkjh gksrs gSaA

f}rh;] phu x.kjkT; osQ 'kklu osQ fofHkUu vaxksa esa dHkh erHksn ugha ns[kk tkrk gSA ;|fi 'kklu osQ izR;sdLrj ij LorU=k ,oa fuokZfpr dk;Zikfydk] foèkkuikfydk rFkk U;k;ikfydk dk laxBu fd;k tkrk gS] fiQj HkhleLrjh; iz'kkldh; fudk;ksa ;k fofHkUu Lrjksa osQ iz'kkldh; fudk;ksa esa fdlh ckr osQ fy, erHksn ns[kus dksugha feyrk gSA bl izdkj loZlEefr phuh 'kklu&O;oLFkk dh mYys[kuh; fo'ks"krk gSA bl ^loZlEefr* dk,dek=k dkj.k ;g gS fd 'kklu osQ lHkh vaxksa ij lkE;oknh ny dk fu;a=k.k gSA ny gh ;g fuf'pr djrkgS fd D;k djuk gS] dc djuk gS] oSQls djuk gS vkSj fdlosQ }kjk djuk gSA

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r`rh;] ;fn ljdkj esa dksbZ dh izHkkodkjh fLFkfr gS rks mldk dkj.k ;g ugha gS fd og ljdkj esa fdlh mPpin ij vklhu gS] vfirq bldk dkj.k ny esa mldh izHkko'kkyh fLFkfr gSA phuh x.kjkT; dk okLrfod 'kkldny dk vè;{k gSA mlosQ ckjs esa dgk tk ldrk gS fd ¶dgha Hkh bruh NksVh oLrq dh bruh cM+h Nk;k ughans[kh tkrh gSA¸ phuh x.kjkT; osQ HkwriwoZ vè;{k ekvks&Rls&rqax dh fLFkfr loZfofnr gSA os ns'k osQ loZ'kfDr'kkyhO;fDr FksA bldk ,dek=k dkj.k Fkk fd os ny osQ vè;{k FksA 1975 osQ lafoèkku esa x.kjkT; osQ vè;{k dkin lekIr dj fn;k x;kA ny dk vè;{k gh losZlokZ jg x;kA 1983 ls ny vkSj x.kjkT; osQ vè;{kvyx&vyx O;fDr gSaA

prqFkZ] ;|fi vU; nyksa osQ vfLrRo dks Hkh phu esa ekU;rk nh xbZ gS rFkkfi okLrfodrk ;g gS fd 'kklu ijlkE;oknh ny dk ,dkfèkdkj gSA ,dnyh; osQ dkj.k lkE;oknh ny dks fojksèk rFkk vkykspuk dk lkeuk ughadjuk iM+rk gSA

lkE;oknh ny dh fo'ks"krk,¡ (Characteristics of the Communist Party): phu esa izFke ckj 1 tqykbZ]1921 bZ- dks lkE;oknh ny dh LFkkiuk gqbZA izkjaHk esa lhfer :i ls bls Jfedksa dk leFkZu izkIr gqvkA1921 esa gh ^lu;kr lsu* dks nf{k.k phu dk izèkku 'kkld ?kksf"kr fd;k x;kA mlus lkE;oknh fl¼karksa osQvkèkkj ij gh oqQvksfeUrkax ny dk laxBu fd;kA lu;kr lsu osQ ckn P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd osQ gkFk oqQvksfeUrkaxdk usrRo vk x;kA og lkE;okfn;ksa dh mxz fopkjèkkjk dk dV~Vj fojksèkh FkkA mlus nf{k.k okeiaFkh ny dk laxBufd;kA oqQvksfeUrkax dh dk;Zikfydk us 1957 bZ- esa lkE;okfn;ksa dks vius ny ls iFko~Q dj fn;k rFkk oqQvksfeUrkaxfojksèkh vusd lkE;oknh usrkvksa dks ejok MkykA èkhjs&èkhjs lkE;oknh ny dk Lora=k :i ls fodkl gksus yxkvkSj mlus oqQvksfeUrkax 'kklu osQ fo#¼ vkokt mBkuh 'kq: dj nhA oqQN usrkvksa us feytqy dj ,d ykylsuk (Red Army) dk fuekZ.k fd;kA lkE;oknh ny dh uhfr;ksa dks Li"V :i ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;kA 1927bZ- rd phu esa lkE;oknh dkiQh 'kfDr'kkyh gks x;s vkSj ny dk laxBu n`<+ gks x;kA ekvksRls&rqax osQ usr`Rous ny dks ,d uohu cy fn;kA 1967 esa phu&tkiku ;q¼ osQ le; lkE;okfn;ksa rFkk oqQvksfeUrkaxksa us la;qDrekspkZ cukdj tkiku dk eqdkcyk fd;k_ ysfdu ;g vfèkd fnuksa rd dk;e ugha jg ldkA D;ksafdP;kax&dkbZ&'ksd lkE;okfn;ksa ij cgqr fnuksa rd fo'okl ugha j[k ldkA iw¡thoknh ns'kksa dh lgk;rk ls og tkikuls ;q¼ djrk jgkA egk;q¼ dh lekfIr osQ ckn phu iqu% P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd osQ gkFk esa vk x;kA tkiku }kjkphu dks NksM+rs gh pqWrsg osQ usr`Ro esa lkE;okfn;ksa us mlosQ oqQN Hkkx ij viuk izHkko tekuk vkjEHk dj fn;k]oqQN le; osQ fy, P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd rFkk lkE;okfn;ksa dk mÙkjh phu ij vfèkdkj gks x;kA 1949 esa ?kksj ;q¼osQ ckn lkE;okfn;ksa us ns'k dh 'kklu lÙkk ij viuk vfèkdkj tek fy;k vkSj P;kax&dkbZ&'ksd ns'k NksM+djiQkjekslk Hkkx x;kA 1 vDVwcj] 1949 bZ- dks ekvksRls&rqax osQ usr`Ro esa phu dks ,d x.kjkT; ?kksf"kr dj fn;kx;kA bl izdkj phu ij lkE;oknh ny dk 'kklu LFkkfir gks x;kA phu x.kjkT; dh nyh; O;oLFkk dhfo'ks"krkvksa dk vfHkizk; blh ny dh fo'ks"krkvksa ls gSA

(1) ,dnyh; O;oLFkkμ;ksa rks phu esa cgqnyh; i¼fr dks jktuhfrd ekU;rk iznku dh xbZ gS vkSj ns'kesa vusd ny gSa] fiQj Hkh oLrqr% ns'k esa ,dnyh; O;oLFkk gh gSA vU; ny fliZQ ukeek=k osQ gSaAlkE;oknh ny gh ,dek=k izHkkodkjh fLFkfr esa gSA pw¡fd lkE;oknh ,dek=k loZgkjk oxZ osQ vfLrRo rFkkfgr dks Lohdkj djrs gSa] blfy, os ,dny esa gh fo'okl djrs gSa tks loZgkjk oxZ dks usr`Ro iznkudjs rFkk mlosQ fgrksa dh j{kk djsA

(2) mís';μphuh lkE;oknh ny fuf'pr fl¼karksa ij vkèkkfjr gS rFkk blosQ fuf'pr mís'; gSaA ;g nyekDlZokn&ysfuuokn] ftldh O;k[;k ekvksRls&rqax }kjk dh xbZ gS] osQ fl¼karksa dk vuqlj.k djrk gSA¶lkezkT;okn vkSj loZgkjk oxZ dh Økafr osQ ;qx esa ysfuuokn gh ekDlZokn gSA¸ ekvksRls&rqax us ekDlZvkSj ysfuu osQ fl¼karksa dh O;k[;k u;s :i ls dh gSA ekvks us viuh iqLrd û;k iztkrU=k* (On

the New Democracy) esa dgk gS fd ¶phuh Økafr dh ,sfrgkfld izfØ;k dks nks Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr

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djuk gksxkA igyk iztkrkaf=kd Økafr vkSj nwljk lkE;oknh ØkafrA vc izkphu jhfr dh Økafr lEHko ughaftls iw¡thifr oxZ ;k iw¡thifr vfèkuk;d'kkgh osQ vUrxZr iw¡thifr lekt dh LFkkiuk djsA ;gh uohujhfr dh Økafr gS ftldk usr`Ro loZgkjk oxZ djsxkA blosQ igys LVst dk è;s; gksxk fd uohuiztkrU=kkRed lekt (A New Democratic Society) vkSj ¶lHkh Økafrdkjh oxks± dh la;qDr vfèkuk;d'kkghosQ vèkhu jkT; dh LFkkiuk¸ (A State under the joint dictatorship of all revolutionary classes)Abl lEcUèk esa ykbu cktZj dk Hkh dFku mYys[kuh; gSμ ¶ekvks dk fopkj gS fd leLr izxfr'khyoxks±] lkezkT;oknh lkeUr'kkgh vkSj ukSdj'kkgh rÙoksa dks NksM+dj] Økkafrdkfj;ksa osQ lg;ksx }kjk fey&tqydj nks fLFkfr okyh Økkafr ykbZ tk ldrh gSA ,slk lEesyu osQoy izko~Q lektoknh fLFkfr esa gh lEHkogSA bl fLFkfr osQ ckn èkhjs&èkhjs lektoknh vfèkuk;dokn dh LFkkiuk gksxhA bl izdkj ekvksRls&rqaxcM+h lkoèkkuh ls izkphu lkekftd O;oLFkk ls ¯glkRed foPNsn dh vuko';drk dks fl¼ djrk gSvkSj blosQ fojksèk dh lEHkkouk dks de dj nsrk gSA¸

mi;qZDr 'kfDr;ksa ls ;g Li"V gksrk gS fd ekvksRls&raqx cqtZqvk oxks± osQ vfrfjDr vU; oxks± dksfeyk&tqyk dj ,d lk>k (coalition) ;k la;qDr ekspkZ (United front) dh LFkkiuk djrk gSA bl ekspsZosQ eq[; lgdkjh gksaxs loZgkjk vkSj Ñ"kd oxZA ysfud usr`Ro dh vfUre ckxMksj loZgkjk oxZ osQ gkFkesa jgsxhA bl ekspZs osQ vfèkuk;dokn dks ekvksRls&rqax us tuoknh&iztkrkfU=kd vfèkuk;d (People’s

Democratic Dictatorship) dgdj lacksfèkr fd;kA laØe.k dky esa bl ekspsZ osQ usr`Ro esa lektoknus lkezkT;oknh&lkeUr'kkgh&ukSdj'kkgh (Imperialist-Feudalist-Bureaucratic) dks lekIr fd;k rFkklektokn dh LFkkiuk dk iz;kl fd;kA ekvks us loZgkjk oxZ osQ vfrfjDr Ñ"kd oxZ dks Hkh leqfpregÙo fn;k gSA og ¯glkRed rjhosQ ls fo'o esa Økafr ykus osQ i{k esa gS rFkk lEiw.kZ fo'o esa lkE;okndh LFkkiuk djuk pkgrk gSA

phu dk lkE;oknh ny ekvks&Rls&rqax osQ mi;qZDr fl¼kUrksa dk vuqlj.k djrk gSA mldk mís';lkezkT;okn] lkeUrokn rFkk ukSdj'kkgh O;oLFkk dks lekIr djuk loZgkjk oxZ osQ vfèkuk;dRo dks lqn`<+cukuk] lkE;oknh O;oLFkk dh n`<+ LFkkiuk ,oa mls fodklksUeq[k cukuk vkSj ns'k esa rFkk fo'o esalkE;okn dks fot;h cukuk gSA

(3) nyh; loksZPprkμiwoZ lksfo;r :l dh Hkk¡fr phuh 'kklu&O;oLFkk nyh; loksZPprk osQ fl¼kUr ijvkèkkfjr gSA lkE;oknh ny ns'k vkSj lekt dk vxz.kh ,oa iFk&izn'kZd gSA vU; lHkh laLFkk,¡ oLrqr%blh osQ usr`Ro esa laxfBr gksrh rFkk dk;Z djrh gSaA ns'k dk okLrfod 'kkld lkE;oknh ny gh gSAiz'kklu osQ lHkh vaxksa ij bldk iw.kZ fu;U=k.k jgrk gS rFkk os iw.kZ fu;U=k.k eas dk;Z djrs gSaA

(4) eksuksfyfFkd ny (Monolithic Party)μ¶eksuksfyfFkd ny dh ,drk dks O;Dr djus dh mfDr gSftldk iz;ksx vfèkuk;doknh nyksa osQ fy, fd;k tkrk gSA êksuksfyfFkd* dk vFkZ gksrk gS ,d gh BksliRFkj dk cuk gqvk [kEHkkA lksfo;r lkE;oknh ny dh Hkk¡fr phuh lkE;oknh ny dks eksuksfyfFkd nydgk tkrk gSA ;g iw.kZr% osQfUnzr rFkk ,d:i laxfBr gSA blosQ lnL; dBksjre vuq'kklu esa c¡èks gq,gSaA ;g Bksl gSA blesa xqVcUnh rFkk LorU=krk dk dksbZ LFkku ugha gSA bldk Bksliu bPNk rFkk dk;Zdh ,drk esa fufgr gSA rkRi;Z ;g gS fd phuh lkE;oknh ny cgqr laxfBr vuq'kkluc¼ lqn`<+ rFkkLohÑr gSA

(5) lnL;rkμiztkrkfU=kd ns'kksa esa ny osQ lnL; dh vfèkdrk ny dh yksdfiz;rk dk |ksrd gSA vr%vf/d&ls&vfèkd O;fDr;ksa dks ny dk lnL; cuk;k tkrk gSA ysfdu phuh lkE;oknh ny ,d cUnlHkk (Close Society) gSA bldh lnL;rk dks cgqr lhfer j[kk tkrk gS ftlls ny esa ,drk rFkkvuq'kklu cuk jgsA bldh lnL;rk lkèkkj.k ckr ugha gSA osQoy Jfed oxZ osQ iq=k gh] dfBukb;ksa vkSjvko';drkvksa osQ ykMys gh vdFkuh; d"V lgu djus okyksa osQ cPps gh vkSj vikj ifjJe'khy oxZ

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,sls ny osQ lnL; gksus dh {kerk j[krs gSaA ny dh lnL;rk izkIr djus dh izfØ;k cgqr dfBu gSAblosQ ckjs esa ykbu cktZj dk dguk gS fd ¶phuh lkE;oknh ny ftldh lnL; la[;k orZeku dkyesa 50 ls 60 yk[k osQ djhc gS vkSj tks fo'o osQ fdlh Hkh ,d le:i tula[;k dh lcls cM+h la[;kdks fu;af=kr djrh gS] laHkor% iwoZ lksfo;r :l dks NksM+dj lcls vfèkd fo'kky jktuhfrd ny gSA¸

1921 esa phuh lkE;oknh ny dh LFkkiuk gqbZA blosQ mijkUr mldh lnL; la[;k fujarj c<+rh tk jgh gSA 1927rd bldh oqQy lnL; la[;k 59 gtkj gks x;hA phu&tkiku ;q¼ osQ le; bldh yksdfiz;rk vfèkd c<+ xbZvkSj 1941 esa blosQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k vkB yk[k gks xbZA 1945 esa f}rh; fo'o;q¼ dh lekfIr osQ le; nyosQ lnL;ksa dh la[;k c<+dj ckjg yk[k gks xbZA oqQvksfeUrkax ls blosQ la?k"kZ ls mxzrk osQ lkFk&lkFk bldhyksdfiz;rk esa rsth ls o`f¼ gksuh yxhA ;g la[;k 1947 esa 27 yk[k] 1950 esa 58 yk[k vkSj 1954 esa 60 yk[kgks xbZA 1956 esa jk"Vªh; dk¡xzsl osQ vfèkos'ku osQ le; bldh lnL;ksa dh la[;k 107 yk[k osQ yxHkx fn[kykbZxbZ FkhA 1959 esa ;g la[;k 131 yk[k vkSj 1961 esa 170 yk[k gks xbZA bl izdkj phuh lkE;oknh ny vfèkdO;kid rFkk yksdfiz; gksrk x;k gSA iwoZ lksfo;r lkE;oknh ny dks NksM+dj ;g fo'o dk lcls cM+k rFkkizHkko'kkyh jktuhfrd laxBu gSA nyh; lnL;ksa dk eq[; LikoZQ Iyx ;ax dE;qfuLV yhx (Young Communist

League) gSA ny osQ lnL; eq[;r% uo;qod gSaA

phuh lkE;oknh ny dh lnL;rk izkIr djuk cgqr dfBu gSA Hkyh&Hkk¡fr tk¡p dj rFkk izf'k{k.k nsdj gh fdlhdks lnL; cuk;k tk ldrk gSA osQoy deZB rFkk fo'oluh; O;fDr;ksa dks gh lnL;rk iznku dh tkrh gSA lnL;cukrs le; dkiQh lkoèkkuh j[kh tkrh gSA osQoy os gh O;fDr lnL; gks ldrs gSa tks lkE;okn osQ fl¼karksa esan`<+ fo'okl j[krs gksaA 1941 esa ekvks&Rls&rqax us ?kks"k.kk dh Fkh fd ¶ny osQ lHkh fl¼kar vkSj O;ogkj dh,drk ij fuHkZj ekDlZokn&ysfuuokn dh fopkjèkkjk dk vfuok;Z :i ls vuq'khyu djsaxsA¸

nyh; lafoèkku dh èkkjk 1 esa ny dh lnL;rk dh pkj 'krs± fn[kkbZ xbZ gSaμ

(i) leLr lnL; ny osQ dk;ZØeksa o lafoèkku dks Lohdkj djrs gSaA

(ii) lnL;rk osQ fy, fuèkkZfjr pUnk Hkqxrku djuk iM+sxkA

(iii) ny }kjk fn;s x;s fu.kZ;ksa dks mUgsa Lohdkj djuk iM+rk gSA

(iv) lnL; dks ny osQ fdlh laxBu ls lacafèkr gksuk vfuok;Z gS ,oa mlosQ }kjk crk, x;s dk;ks± dks lEiUudjuk iM+rk gSA

1969 osQ nyh; lafoèkku osQ vuqlkj ¶dksbZ Hkh phuh etnwj] xjhc] fdlku fuEu eè;e oxhZ; fdlku] ØkafrdkjhlSfud ;k dksbZ Økafrdkjh rÙo tks 18 o"kZ dh mez izkIr dj pqdk gks ny dk lnL; cu ldrk gSA

lkE;oknh ny osQ izR;kf'k;ksa dks vius jftLVªs'ku dh dbZ 'krks± dks Lohdkj djuk iM+rk gS tks bl izdkj gSμ

(i) nyh; mís'; lkE;okn osQ ns'kksa esa LFkkf;Ro dks le>uk pkfg,A

(ii) vkthou lkE;okn osQ fy, dk;Z djus dk n`< ladYi djuk pkfg,A

(iii) lkE;oknh ny osQ Lo:i o ny&fuekZ.k osQ fy, ysfuu rFkk LVkWfyu osQ fl¼karksa dks ekuuk pkfg,A

(iv) vius LokFkZ dks yksdfgr osQ fy, U;ksNkoj djus dh Hkkouk j[kuh pkfg,A

(v) vius ny osQ usrkvksa dh vkKk dk ikyu djuk ok nyh; vuq'kklu dks Lohdkj djuk pkfg,A

(vi) tu&lkekU; dks ny dh uhfr le>kuk pkfg, turk dh lPph lsok djuh rFkk erksa osQ ewY; dksle>uk pkfg,A

(vii) Loxr =kqfV;ksa dks vkykspuk }kjk fujkdj.k djus dk iz;kl djuk pkfg,A

(viii) ekDlZ o ysfuu rFkk ekvks osQ fl¼kar dk Hkyh&Hkk¡fr vè;;u djuk pkfg,A

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(6) iztkrkaf=kd osQUnzoknμphuh lkE;oknh ny dk laxBu iztkrkaf=kd osQUnzokn osQ fl¼kar ij vkèkkfjr gSAlafoèkku osQ vuqPNsn 5 esa ;g fy[kk gqvk gS fd ¶jk"Vªh; tu&dk¡xzsl LFkkuh; tu&dk¡xzsl vkSj jkT; osQvU; lHkh vax iztkrU=kh; osQUnzokn dk iz;ksx djrs FksA¸ ekvks&Rls&rqax us viuh iqLrd lfEefyr ljdkj(On Coalition Government) esa fy[kk gS fd ¶phu esa jktuhfrd iz.kkyh ,d gh lkFk iztkrkaf=kd vkSjosQfUnzr gS vFkkZr~ iztkrU=k osQ vkèkkj ij osQfUnzr iFk&izn'kZu osQ vèkhu gksus osQ dkj.k iztkrU=kh; gSA¸ bldkvFkZ ;g gS fd izR;sd fuEu Lrj dh ny&laLFkk vius mPp Lrj dh ny&laLFkk dk fuokZpu djrh gS]ysfdu izR;sd fuEu laxBu vius mPp laxBu osQ vèkhu gksrk gS vkSj blosQ vkns'kkuqlkj gh dksbZ dk;Zdj ldrk gS ny osQ lHkh vax fuokZfpr gksrs gSa] ny dh izR;sd fuEuLrjh; 'kk[kk viuh mPp 'kk[kk osQizfr mÙkjnk;h gksrh gS rFkk mlosQ vkns'kkuqlkj dk;Z djrh gSA

(7) la;qDr&ekspkZ (Joiont front)μphuh lkE;oknh Økafr dk usr`Ro osQoy Jfed oxZ osQ gkFk esa ugha lkSairsgSa cfYd Jfedksa rFkk vU; leku oxks± dks feykdj ,d la;qDr ekspkZ dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa rFkk mlhosQ dèkksa ij Økafr dh j{kk rFkk lektokn dh LFkkiuk dk Hkkj lkSairs gSA la;qDr&ekspsZ esa iw¡thifr]lkeUroknh rFkk ukSdj'kkgh oxks± osQ yksxksa dks LFkku ugha fn;k x;k gSA la;qDr ekspsZ dk vfUre lkE;oknhny djrk gSA ekspsZ osQ fofHkUu oxks± rFkk fgrksa dks izfrfufèkRo iznku djus osQ fy, fofHkUu jktuhfrdnyksa rFkk laxBuksa osQ vfLrRo dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gS] ysfdu bu NksVs nyksa ;k laxBuksa dks lkE;oknhny osQ usr`Ro esa dk;Z djuk iM+rk gSA

13-4 ;w-osQ-] ;w-,l-,- vkSj Úkal esa fgr lewg vFkok ncko lewg (Interest Groupor Pressure Group in UK, USA and France)

fczVsu esa ncko lewg (Pressure Groups in U.K.): vU; ns'kksa dh Hkk¡fr baXySaM esa Hkh ncko lewg ik;s tkrsgSa] ysfdu budh la[;k vkSj budk ncko vesfjdh ncko lewgksa ls de gSA baXySaM osQ ncko lewg ny osQ vUnjgh lfØ; izHkko Mkyrs gSaA vuqnkj ny vkSj etnwj ny nksuksa esa ls izR;sd ls dksbZ&u&dksbZ xqV lEc¼ jgrkgSA mnkgj.k osQ fy, Jfed la?k lkèkkj.kr% etnwj ny ls vkSj Ñ"kd ny lkèkkj.kr% vuqnkj ny ls lEcUèkj[krs gSaA fczVsu esa ncko&lewg osQ fodflr ugha gksus dk ,d dkj.k ;g Hkh gS fd ogk¡ futh foèks;dksa dhlekU;r% mis{kk dh tkrh gS vkSj muosQ ikfjr gksus dh lEHkkouk de gksrh gSA vr% ncko lewg nyksa osQ vUnjgh viuk izHkko izn£'kr djrs gSa rFkk vn`'; :i ls vius dk;Z djok fy;k djrs gSaA ;s ,d ekè;e osQ :ils dke djrs gSa] ftlosQ tfj;s turk osQ fo'ks"k fgrksa osQ ckjs esa ljdkj dks lwpuk izkIr gksrh gSA

fczVsu osQ ncko lewgksa dks nks oxks± esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμfgr (Interest Groups) vkSj oSpkfjd lewg (Ideas

Groups) fgr lewgksa dks iqu% nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμmRiknd lewg (Producer Groups) vkSj miHkksDrklewg (Consumer Groups)A mRiknd lewg esa nks gtkj ls Åij fu;kstd la?k (Employer Association)

ik;s tkrs gSaA vfèkdka'k fu;kstd la?k fdlh cM+s la?k osQ :i esa laxfBr gksrs gSaA 1965 esa fczfV'k m|ksx ifjla?k(Confederation of British Industries) dh LFkkiuk gqbZ tks m|ksxksa ls lacafèkr cM+s&cM+s jk"Vªh; la?kksa dksfeykdj cuk gSA fczfV'k m|ksx la?k (Confederation of British Industries), fczfV'k fu;kstd ifjla?k (British

Employer Confederation) vkSj fczfV'k jk"Vªh; la?k (National Association of British Manufactures)

eq[; ncko lewg gSa tks fczfV'k m|ksx ifjla?k dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA ifjla?k ,d cgqr cM+k laxBu gS] tks viuslnL;ksa dks O;olk;h] f'k{kk] fu;kZr vkfn ls lacfèkr ijke'kZ nsrk gSA

mRiknd lewgksa esa ,sls Hkh lewg vkrs gSa tks fofHkUu is'kksa osQ }kjk cuk;s tkrs gSa tSlsμfczfV'k esfMdy ,lksfl,'ku]fczfV'k MsUVy ,lksfl,'ku vkfn mRikndksa osQ la?k dh Hkk¡fr etnwjksa osQ la?k Hkh ik;s tkrs gSaA etnwj la?k NksVsvkdkj ls ysdj cgqr cM+s vkdkj rd osQ gksrs gSaA etnwj la?kksa esa lcls cM+k la?k VªkUliksVZ ,oa tujy ;wfu;u

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(Transport & General Work’s Union) gSaA vfèkdka'k etnwj la?k jk"Vªh; etnwj la?k ls lEcfUèkr gSa] ftlVsªM ;wfu;u dk¡xzsl (Trade Union Congress) dgrs gSaA fdlkuksa osQ Hkh la?k gaS ftUgsa us'kuy iQkjelZ ;wfu;u(National Farmers Union) vkSj us'kuy ;wfu;u vkWiQ ,xzhdYpjy ooZQlZ (National Union of Agricultural

Workers) dgrs gSaA

mRikndksa dh rqyuk esa miHkksDrk lewg ugha osQ cjkcj laxfBr gSA fiQj Hkh muosQ oqQN 'kfDr'kkyh lewg ekStwngSa] tSls vkWVkseksckby ,lksfl,'ku (Automobile Association) vkSj jkW;y ,s'kksfl;u Dyc (Royal Association

Club)A vfèkdka'k miHkksDrk la?k vHkh 'kq:vkr dh fLFkfr esa gSA LFkkuh; Lrj ij f'k{kk] LokLF;] cky&dY;k.kvkfn osQ lacaèk esa ,sls lewg ik;s tkrs gSaA

oSpkfjd lewg (Ideas Groups) fgr lewg ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA os HkkSfrd iQk;ns osQ fy, ugha] cfYd oqQN fopkjksadk c<+kok nsus osQ fy, clk, tkrs gSaA muosQ lkeus oqQN vkn'kZ jgrs gSa] ftudh izkfIr osQ fy, os laxfBr gksrsgSa rFkk iz;kl djrs gSaA tSls us'kuy dEisu iQkj n ,cksfy'ku vkWiQ osQfiVy ifu'kesaV (National Compaign

for the Abolition of Capital Punishment) ,d vkn'kZ ls izsfjr FkkA mlh izdkj vfÚdu C;wjks vkSj vfÚdudkmfUly osQ lnL; esa tkfr&foHksn osQ fojksèk osQ fy, dk;e fd;s x;s gSaA buosQ ikl LVkWiQ ugha osQ cjkcj jgrkgS vkSj budh vkenuh dk tfj;k Hkh ux.; gSA

fczVsu osQ ncko lewg foèkku eaMy osQ tfj, viuk izHkko ugha tek ikrs gSaA os izk;% iz'kkldh; foHkkxksa vkSjlfefr;ksa osQ ekè;e ls dke djrs gSaA izk;% ,slk ns[kk tkrk gS fd O;ogkj esa fczfV'k efU=kifj"kn dkuwu dksvfUre :i nsus ls igys gh leLr laxfBr izHkko'kkyh xqVksa ls ijke'kZ dj ysrk gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy, etnwjny dh ljdkj us tc dks;ys dh [knkuksa] ok;qekxZ rFkk jsyekxZ dk jk"Vªh;dj.k fd;k rks mlus bu m|ksxksa osQJfed lewgksa rFkk izcUèkdksa ls igys lykg&e'kfojk dj fy;kA ;fn dkuwu ikfjr Hkh gks tkrk gS vkSj nckolewg mls vius fgrksa esa eksM+ nsus esa vliQy gksrs gSa rks mudk vxyk dne mu ijke'kZnkrk lfefr;ksa ij izHkkoMkyuk gksrk gS tks izR;sd ljdkjh foHkkx osQ lkFk lEc¼ gksrh gSA iz'kkldh; foHkkxksa rFkk lfefr;ksa esa buosQlq>koksa ij xEHkhj :i ls fopkj fd;k tkrk gSA iz'kkldh; foHkkx ls lEcfUèkr xqVksa dks lkoZtfud :i ls LohdkjHkh dj ysrs gSa Je ea=kky; le;≤ ij ekfydksa osQ la?kksa] Jfed la?kksa rFkk fgrksa ls lEcfUèkr vU; la?kksadh funsZf'kdk izdkf'kr djrk gS] ftlls mudk vfèkÑr izpkj gksrk gSA bu xqVksa ls ljdkj rFkk futh laLFkkunksuksa gh ijke'kZ djrs gSaA ijke'kZnkrk lfefr;ksa ;k muosQ lnL;ksa osQ ekè;e ls Hkh ijke'kZ gksrk gSA le;≤ij Lej.k&i=kksa dk lgkjk fy;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj vkSipkfjd ijke'kZ rFkk vukSipkfjd uSfrd lEioZQ osQ }kjkikjLifjd fopkj&foe'kZ fu;fer :i ls pyrk gSA osQ- lh- gh;j us bl fo"k; ij fVIi.kh nsrs gq, dgk gSfd 'kk;n gh ,slk dksbZ dk;Z gksrk gksxk ftl ij dksbZ lfefr bl ns'k esa fcuk fdlh la?k fgr&lewg vFkokizHkkod xqV osQ izfrfufèk;ksa ls fopkj djrh gksxhA

la{ksi esa] vesfjdk osQ foijhr baXySaM esa xqV laln dh vis{kk iz'kklu ij lkèkkj.kr% vfèkd ncko Mkyrs gSaALFkkuh; ,oa 'kklu osQ Lrj ij ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd mldh bdkb;k¡ ,d xqV cukdj nyksa vkSj ljdkj osQdk;ZØeksa dks izHkkfor djrh gSA dkmUVh ifj"knksa dk la?k rFkk LdkWVySaM dh dkmUVh ifj"knsa blosQ mnkgj.k gSaAbl rjg osQ ncko lewg cgqr de ns'kksa esa ik;s tkrs gSaA oqQN fo}kuksa] tSlsμlseqvy chvj dk dguk gS fdvktdy fczVsu esa ncko lewg vesfjdk ls vfèkd rkdroj gSa] pw¡fd fczVsu esa ,dkRed ljdkj gS vkSj nwljsegk;q¼ osQ ckn ls yksd&dY;k.kdkjh jkT; fu;af=kr vFkZO;oLFkk ykus osQ fy, opuc¼ gS] blfy, bl ns'k esancko&lewg ljdkj ls vfèkd&ls&vfèkd fj;klrsa ysus dh fLFkfr esa gSA deks± vkSj uhfr;ksa osQ fuèkkZj.k esa vfèkdizHkko ik;k tkrk gSA blesa 'kd ugha fd os brus etcwr ugha gSa fd ljdkjh foHkkxkas dks fu;af=kr dj losQ ysfdufoHkkxksa dh uhfr;ksa ij os ges'kk izHkko Mkyrs gSaA

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fczfV'k ncko lewgksa dk vlj dHkh&dHkh bruk vfèkd ik;k tkrk gS fd mlls tufgr dks [krjk fn[kkbZ nsus

yxrk gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy, 1958 rd us'kuy iQkjelZ ;wfu;u dk Ñf"k ea=kky; ij cgqr T;knk izHkko Fkk]

ftlosQ pyrs ljdkj ,slh vU;&ewY; uhfr dks viuk;s jgh] tks vke yksxksa osQ fgrksa osQ f[kykiQ FkhA

ewY;&uhfr esa fdlh izdkj osQ ifjorZu osQ fy, la?k rS;kj ugha FkkA blesa 'kd ugha fd le;≤ ij ljdkj

'kfDr'kkyh xqV lewgksa osQ izHkko dks jksdus dh dksf'k'k djrh jgh gSA fiQj Hkh xqV lewgksa dh ek¡x osQ vkxs

ljdkj dks izk;% >qduk gh iM+rk gSA

vesfjdk esa ncko&lewg (Pressure Groups in U.S.A)

la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa ncko&lewgksa us ns'k dh lfØ; jktuhfr esa ftl izdkj ;ksxnku fn;k gS] og fo'o esa

vU;=k dgha ugha feyrk gSA ;gk¡ lpeqp esa mUgksaus vn`';&lkezkT; (Anonymous Empire) dk :i ys fy;k

gSA bl ns'k esa fgr&lewg dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa dks O;fDrxr :i ls cgqr vfèkd izHkkfor djrs gSaA ;gha ij lcls

igys ^ykWfcbax* (Lobbying) dh izFkk vkjEHk gqbZA blh izfØ;k osQ nkSjku izR;sd foèks;d osQ i{k vFkok foi{k

esa ernku djus osQ fy, lnL;ksa ij ncko Mkyk tkrk gSA baXySaM] Hkkjr] dukMk tSls ns'kksa dh rqyuk esa vesfjdh

fgr&lewg cgqr vfèkd 'kfDr'kkyh vkSj rkdroj gSA bu ns'kksa osQ foijhr mudk lEcUèk 'kklu vkSj foèkkueaMy

nksuksa ls izR;{k :i ls jgrk gSA mUgsa vius izHkko osQ fy, jktuhfrd nyksa dk lgkjk ugha ysuk iM+rk gS mYVs

nyksa osQ usrk gh mudk lg;ksx ikus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA

fxziQhFk us vesfjdh ncko&lewgksa dks pkj oxks± esa ck¡Vk gSμO;kikfjd] Ñf"k&lEcUèkh] Je&lEcUèkh rFkk

cqf¼thohA ;g oxhZdj.k vc iqjkuk iM+ x;k gSA vktdy rjg&rjg osQ u;s xqV&lewg iSnk gks x;s gSa mudh

la[;k cM+h rsth ls c<+ jgh gSA vc u osQoy o`gr~ fgrksa ls lEcfUèkr ncko&lewg gh jg x;s cfYd rjg&rjg

osQ fgrksa dh j{kk osQ fy, u,&izdkj osQ xqV iSnk gks x;sA mnkgj.k osQ fy, o;kso`¼ksa dk viuk xqV gS ljdkjh

deZpkfj;ksa oQk vyx gS] uhxzks vuqnkj fopkj okys miHkksDrkvksa vUrjkZ"Vªh; lg;ksxokfn;ksa vkSj ns'kHkDrksa us vius

xqV cuk,a gSaA O;kolkf;d vkèkkj ij rjg&rjg osQ xqVksa dk fuekZ.k gqvk gS] odhyksa] MkWDVjksa vkSj f'k{kdksa osQ

vius&vius fgr&lewg gSaA blh izdkj O;kikfj;ksa vkSj Ñ"kdksa esa Hkh rjg&rjg osQ xqV iSnk gks x, gSaA etnwj

xqVksa esa rks vusd izfr}U}h xqVksa us tUe fy;k gSA 'kgjh vkSj nsgkrh fgrksa dh j{kk osQ fy, Hkh xqVksa dk fuekZ.k

fd;k x;k gSA bl izdkj vkt vesfjdk esa vufxur ncko&lewg ik;s tkrs gSaA budh la[;k bruh vfèkd gS

fd mudh iwjh lwph rS;kj dj ikuk eqf'dy gSA

fiQj Hkh cM+s xqV&lewg eq[;r% vk£Fkd fgrksa ls lacfUèkr gSa] [kkldj O;kikj lsA budk lEcUèk fofuekZ.k]

ifjogu] fctyh vkSj xSl dh lsok,¡] [knkuksa vkSj oqQN gn rd Ø;&foØ; lsok m|ksxksa vkSj Ñf"k ls lEcfUèkr

gSaA FkksM+s esa] O;kolkf;d oxZ etnwj vkSj Ñf"k ls lEcfUèkr gS] ysfdu vius&vius vk£Fkd fgrksa dh j{kk osQ

fy, cM+s iSekus ij ncko&lewgksa dh LFkkiuk fd;s gq, gSaA mngkj.k osQ fy,] Ñ"kd ncko&lewgksa esa us'kuy xst]

vesfjdu iQkje C;wjks isQMjs'ku] iQkjelZ] ,tqosQ'ku ,.M dksvksijsfVo ;wfu;u] VhusUVl~ ,.M 'ks;j dkilZ ;wfu;u

vkfn xqVksa osQ uke fy;s tk ldrs gSaA blh rjg Jfedksa osQ Hkh vusd la?k ;k xqV gSa ftuesa izeq[k vesfjdu

isQMjs'ku vkWiQ yscj] dk¡xzsl vkWiQ n baMfLVª;y vkxsZfuts'ku rFkk fofHkUu jsy etnwj laxBu gSaA

ncko lewgksa dk ,d nwljk cM+k oxZ ns'kHkDr vkSj lektlsoh laxBuksa dk gS tSls MkWVlZ vkWiQ vesfjdu fjoksY;q'ku

(Daughters of American Revolution), vesfjdu fytUl (American Legions) osVjul vkWiQ iQkWju oklZ

(Vetarns of Foregin Wars), rFkk usoh yhx (Navy League) vkfnA rhljk oxZ lqèkkjd xqVksa dk gSa]

tSlsμohesUl fØf'p;u VsEisjsl ;wfu;u (Women’s Christian Temperence Union), us'kuy flfoyt l£olst

(National Civil Services), fjiQkeZ yhx (Reform League), yhx vkWiQ ohesUl oksVlZ (League of Women’s

Voters) vkfnA

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tSlk fd Åij dgk tk pqdk gS] vesfjdk esa cM+s vkSj NksVs ncko&lewgksa rFkk fgr&lewgksa dh la[;k vufxurgSaA muosQ LoHkko rFkk mís'; fHkUu&fHkUu gSaA os uSfrd ekuo&dY;k.k osQ mís'; dks ysdj jktuhfrd rFkk vk£Fkdfgrksa dh izkfIr osQ fy, dk;e fd;s x;s gSaA

rduhdμvkerkSj ij lHkh ns'kksa esa ncko&lewgksa }kjk viuk, xbZ rduhosaQ ,d leku gksrh gSA fiQj Hkh ns'k]dky vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa osQ vuqlkj os fo'ks"k izdkj oQh rduhd Hkh viukrs gSaA vesfjdk esa ncko&lewgksa }kjkviuk;s x, rduhd dbZ izdkj osQ gSaA

ncko&lewgksa dk igyk rduhdh fuokZpuksa ls Hkkx ysdj ns'k dh jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djuk gSA os izfrfufèk;ksaosQ pquko esa lfØ; Hkkx ysrs gSaA viuh bPNk osQ vuqlkj mEehnokjksa dk p;u djkuk vkSj mUgsa fot;h cukukmudk ,d eq[; dke gSA vesfjdk esa ;g dk;Z bruk O;kid vkSj bruh rRijrk ls fd;k tkrk gS fd fgr&lewg;g fpUrk ugha djrs fd mudk mEehnokj fjifCydu gS ;k MseksozsQVA mEehnokj fdlh Hkh ny dk gks] ftllsmudk fgr lèkrk gks] mls fgr&lewg pquko esa enn djrs gSaA mEehnokjksa dks pquko esa fot;h cukuk ncko&lewgdh lnL; la[;k vkSj mlosQ izHkko ij fuHkZj djrk gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] vejhdh Jfed la?k vius vkdkjvkSj lnL;&la[;k osQ dkj.k fdlh Hkh lnL; dks fot;h cukus dh {kerk j[krk gS] ftldh lgkuqHkwfr etnwjksaosQ izfr gksA fuokZfpr lnL; vkerkSj ij fo'ks"k ncko&lewg osQ izHkko esa dke djrs gSaA vxys pquko dks Hkhè;ku esa j[kdj mls ,slk djuk iM+rk gSA

vefjdh ncko&lewgksa dk blls Hkh cM+k rduhdh ykWch (Lobby) rS;kj djuk gSA ykWch dh i¼fr vesfjdh'kklu&O;oLFkk dh fo'ks"k nsu gSA igys ykSch 'kCn ls Hkz"Vkpkj] nqjkxzg] csbZekuh tSls voxq.kksa ls Hkjs gq, xUnxhosQ NksVs&NksVs lewg tkrs Fks] ysfdu vc ykWch vesfjdh 'kklu&i¼fr dh ,d ekU; vkSj lEekfur O;oLFkkcu x;h gSA bls vc cqjs n`f"Vdks.k ls ugha ns[kk tkrk gSA bl O;oLFkk osQ vUrxZr ncko&lewg vius ,ts.V~ldks èku nsdj jktèkkuh esa blfy, NksM+ nsrs gSa fd os muosQ fgrksa osQ laj{k.k osQ fy, vk¡dM+s rS;kj djsa vkSjizfrfufèk;ksa dks dk¡xzsl esa cksyuss osQ fy, rS;kj djsa vkSj izfrfufèk;ksa osQ cksyus osQ fy, lkexzh rS;kj djsaA ,ts.V~ldks ^ykWfcLV* (Lobbyst) dgk tkrk gSA pw¡fd vfèkdka'k foèkk;d cksyus osQ fy, Lo;a lkexzh tqVkus dk d"Vugha mBkuk pkgrs gSa blfy, muosQ }kjk ykWfcLV dh lgk;rk yh tkrh gSA u, izfrfufèk;ksa dks ykWfcLV f[kyk&fiykdj rFkk vU; lqfoèkk,¡ nsdj vius i{k esa djus dk fujUrj iz;kl djrs jgrs gSaA lHkh egÙoiw.kZ xqV viuhykWfc;k¡ ok¯'kxVu esa pykrs gSaA ;wukbVsM LVsV~l psEcj vkWiQ dkWelZ dh ykWch rks mlosQ jk"Vªh; dk;kZy; dk ,dfoHkkx gS] tks cM+s iSekus ij pyk;h tkrh gSA oqQN ykWfc;k¡ LFkk;h gksrh gS oqQN vLFkk;hA osQoy egÙoiw.kZncko&lewg gh jk"Vªh; Lrj :i ls laxfBr ykWfc;k¡ j[krs gSaA NksVs&NksVs fgr lewg osQoy le;≤ ij t:jrosQ vuqlkj ykWch pykrs gSaA izR;sd ykWch esa lkèkkj.kr% de&ls&de ,d foèkk;h dk;Z lEcUèkh ,ts.V] vkSjvuqlaèkku dk;Z djus okys oqQN n{k deZpkjh gksrs gSaA bu ykWch izpkjdksa ij nwj&nwj ns'k esa iSQys gq, xqVksa dksfuHkZj jguk iM+rk gSA ykWch izpkjd jktuhfr esa cgqr gh egÙoiw.kZ LFkku j[krs gSaA os foèks;dksa dh cM+h la[;kdh tk¡p&ij[k djrs gSa] os dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa dks le>krs gSa fd fdl foèks;d dks ikfjr djus esa fdlh fo'ks"ky{; dh izkfIr gks ldrh gS vkSj muls lEcfUèkr foèks;dksa dks ikfjr djus ls fdl izdkj vke turk dkdY;k.k gks ldrk gSA ykWch izpkjd dk ;g ,d eq[; dke gS fd og dk¡xzsl dks ,slk vuqHko djk;s fd ftufoèks;dksa dk mldk laxBu ikfjr djkuk pkgrk gS] mlosQ ihNs lEiw.kZ ¶turk¸ gSA osQoy fj'or] eqÝr iklvkSj pquko esa [kpZ ls gh dkWxzsl osQ lnL;ksa dks izHkkfor ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA mUgsa lkspus ij etcwj fd;ktkrk gS fd ykWch izpkjd tks pkgrk gS] turk Hkh ogh pkgrh gSA bl izdkj ykWch izpkjd dk eq[; dkevius xqV osQ fgr esa tufgr dks gh cnyuk gSA

dk¡xzsl dks izHkkfor djus osQ fy, ykWch izpkjd izR;{k vkSj ijks{k lkèkuksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA os Lo;a rks dk¡xzslosQ lnL;ksa dks izHkkfor djrs gh gSa] lkFk gh mu ij ijks{k :i ls izHkko Mkyus dk Hkh iz;kl djrs gSaA mnkgj.kosQ fy, os dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa ls bl <ax ls vihy djrs gSa fd os fdlh foèks;d osQ fo#¼ er nsa D;ksafd og

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lkE;oknh vFkok lektoknh gS vkSj blfy, xSj vesfjdh gSA os ;g iz;Ru djrs gSa fd yksder dks vius i{kesa rS;kj djsa ftlls ernkrkvksa dk ncko lnL;ksa ij iM+saA

ykWch dh i¼fr osQ fodkl osQ dkj.k gh fgr lewgksa dks ernkrkvksa dk laxfBr lewg dgk tkus yxk gSAjktuhfrd nyksa osQ izHkko esa ßkl gksus osQ dkj.k ernkrkvksa ij ncko&lewgksa dk izHkko iM+k gSA vc izk;% pqukoosQ le; vkSj mlosQ ckn Hkh nksuksa osQ O;ogkj dks cgqr oqQN bu xqVksa osQ ekè;e ls le>k tk ldrk gSApquko&vfHk;ku esa nyh; izR;k'kh fofHkUu xqVksa dk leFkZu ikus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA ;g Bhd gh dgk x;kgS fd ¶jktuhfrd ny vc ftl vkokt dks lqurs gSa] og turk dh vksj ls cksyus dk nkok djus okysjktuhfrd usrkvksa dh vkokt dh vis{kk lewgksa vkSj izHkkod xqVksa dh vkokt gSA ;g vkokt ok¯'kxVu rdHkh igq ¡prh gSA dkj.k ;g gS fd dk¡xzsl osQ lnL; nyksa }kjk pqus tkrs gSa] ijUrq ernku esa os lkèkkj.kr% nydh vis{kk xqVksa dh vkokt ij vfèkd è;ku nsrs gSaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd ykWfc;k¡ vkSj muosQ xqV foèkk;h dk;ks±vkSj inksa ij fu;a=k.k djus yxrs gSaA ykWLdh us Bhd gh bu xqVksa vkSj ykWfc;ksa dk ¶dk¡xzsl osQ ihNs ,d izdkjdh dk¡xzsl¸ dgk gSA1 ;g dguk xyr ugha gS fd izHkkod xqV vkSj ykWfc;k¡ foèkkue.My osQ rhljs LFkku osQ:i esa dke djus yxs gSaA

izHkkod xqVksa dh rhljh dk;Zfofèk lfefr;ksa osQ ekè;e ls dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa dks izHkkfor djuk gSA os dk¡xzsl lnL;dks ;g fo'okl fnykus dk Hkjld iz;Ru djrs gSa fd mUgsa mlosQ fuokZpu {ks=k dk iwjk leFkZu izkIr gS vkSjveqd fofèk ikfjr gksus vFkok #dus ls mlosQ fuokZpdksa dks leku ykHk gksxk] rFkk os lc ;gh pkgrs gSa] ftldhodkyr xqV dj jgk gSA bl dfBu dk;Z dks os cM+h prqjkbZ ls djrs FksA dHkh&dHkh rks ncko&lewg vius okafNrfoèks;d dk izk:i Hkh Lo;a rS;kj djrs gSa vkSj lEc¼ lfefr esa mls izLrqr djosQ mlh dks lnu esa vfxzedk;Zokgh osQ fy, Hkstrs gSaA pw¡fd izHkkod xqV vfèkdkfj;ksa ls eèkqj lacaèk cuk;s j[krs gaS blfy, foèks;d osQizk:i dks rS;kj djus dk dke Hkh os mUgha ls ysrs gSaA lfefr;ksa dh cSBdksa osQ le; os dkiQh rRij jgrs gSavkSj lnL;ksa dks f[kyk&fiykdj rFkk vU; rjhdksa ls vius i{k esa djus dk iz;kl djrs jgrs gSaA

ncko&lewg dh vfUre egÙoiw.kZ rduhd yksder dk fuekZ.k djuk gSA os tSlk pkgrs gSa] mlh osQ vuqlkjyksder dks eksM+us dh dksf'k'k djrs gSaA ;g dk;Z Hkk"k.kksa] iqLrdksa] ys[kksa] jsfM;ks] Vsyhfotu vkfn osQ ekè;els fujUrj vkSj l?kurk ls fd;s tkrs gSaA izHkkod xqV izpkj osQ lkèkuksa ij dkiQh [kpZ djrs gSaA ;g dguk xyrgS fd ncko&lewg osQoy Hkz"Vkpkj] fj'or vkSj vU; xUns ekè;eksa dk gh lgkjk ysrs gSaA lp iwNk tk;s rks vcos vfèkd&ls&vfèkd ijks{k rjhdksa dk lgkjk ysus yxs gSaA

ncko&lewg osQ dk;Zμvktdy vesfjdk esa ncko&lewg dk egÙo igys dh vis{kk cgqr gh vfèkd c<+ x;kgSA 'kq: esa bl ns'k esa ,sls xqVksa dks 'kadk dh n`f"V ls ns[kk tkrk FkkA yksx bUgsa yksdrU=k osQ fy, [krjukdle>rs FksA dkyZ ts- izsQMfjd us fy[kk gS fd ¶xr ih<+h esa bu xqVksa dks uSfrd Øksèk vkSj Hk; dh n`f"V lsns[kk tkrk FkkA xUns jktuhfrK rFkk jktuhfrd 'kkL=k osQ izcq¼ fo|kFkhZ nksuksa gh bUgas ?k`.kkLin le>rs FksA bUgsa,sls nq"V vkSj ikih 'kfDr le>k tkrk Fkk tks vkèkqfud yksdrU=k vkSj ljdkj dh tM+ m[kkM+us dks m|r FksAysfdu vkt ckr oqQN vkSj gh gSA bUgsa yksdrU=k dk vkèkkj ekuk tkus yxk gSA ,d vkSj Jfed oxZ laxfBrxqVksa osQ ekè;e ls 'kks"k.k fo#¼ vkokt mBkus yxs gSa] rFkk ljdkj ls vius vfèkdkjksa dh ek¡x djus yxs gSa]nwljh vksj iw¡thifr ,oa m|ksxifr vkil esa xqV cukdj vius fgrksa dh j{kk djus yxs gSaA vc ,sls xqVksa dksthou vkSj lekt dk vfLrRo cuk, j[kus osQ fy, vfuok;Z ekuk tkus yxk gSA

;g Li"V gS fd ncko&lewg vkt u osQoy vifjgk;Z gS] cfYd mudk vkSfpR; Hkh U;k;laxr gSA ;s ljdkjdh uhfr;ksa osQ fuekZ.k esa lgk;rk iznku djrs gSaA ;s fofHkUu fgrksa] etnwjksa] f'k{kdksa] O;kikfj;ksa vkfn dh vkoktlaxfBr :i ls ljdkj rd igq¡pkus ls liQy jgs gSaA vkt ;g roZQ iqjkuk iM+ x;k gS fd ykWfcbax ,d Hkz"VvkSj csbZeku rjhdk gSA ;fn dksbZ ncko&lewg fu;af=kr rjhosQ ls dke ugha djrk gS ;k vxj Hkz"Vkpkj dk jkLrkviukrk gS rks ;g ljdkj dh detksjh gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd vesfjdk esa nckolewg dks ,d lgh vkSj nq#Lrjktuhfrd vL=k osQ :i esa viuk fy;k x;k gSA

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bruk gh ugha] ncko&lewg O;fDr dh xfjek dh j{kk djus vkSj muosQ foosd dks c<+kus esa Hkh lgk;rk igq¡pkrsgSaA gj ns'k vkSj ljdkj esa ,sls O;fDr;ksa dk vHkko ugha gSa tks ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa dh vkykspuk djrs gSa] fujUrjdjrs gSa vkSj iwjh 'kfDr ls djrs gSa] ijUrq ljdkj osQ dkuksa esa tw¡ rd ugha jsaxrhA ml O;fDr osQ fopkjksa ;kHkk"k.kksa dk ljdkj ij izHkko ugha iM+rk] ysfdu tc ,sls gh O;fDr lekt vkSj ljdkj ij viuk izHkko Mkyusesa liQy gks tkrs gSaA [kkldj vesfjdk tSls cM+s&cM+s vkSj fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa bl nf"Vdks.k ls ncko&lewgksa dhfurkUr vko';drk gSA blosQ vHkko esa O;fDr osQ fopkjksa] mldh xfjek vkSj mlosQ foosd dk dksbZ egÙo ughajg tk;sxkA ;gh dkj.k gS fd ugha pkgus osQ ckotwn ncko&lewg dk fodkl cM+h rsth ls gqvk gSA

vesfjdk esa ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd nks pqukoksa osQ chp jktuhfrd f'kfFkyrk vk tkrh gSA nyksa dk ukeksfu'kku][kkl dj LFkkuh; Lrj ij feV gh tkrk gSA ncko&lewg bl vUrjky esa cgqr gh egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnkdjrs gSaA os ljdkjksa osQ vUrjky esa rFkk fuokZpuksa dh vofèk esa fopkj 'kSfFkY; dks jksdrs gSa rFkk tu&thouesa jktuhfr osQ izfr mRlkg ,oa #fp mRiUu djrs gSaA pqukoksa osQ ckn os vius Kkr vuqHko] fo'ks"krk rFkklkaf[;dh vkfn dh lgk;rk ls foèkkue.My ,oa lfefr;ksa dks izHkkfor djrs gSa vkSj vius fgr osQ vuqlkj dkuwucuokus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA vk£Fkd ekeyksa esa mudk ncko cgqr T;knk jgrk gSA os etnwjh dh nj esa deh&os'khdjok ldrs gSa] dke djus osQ ?kaVksa esa deh djok ldrs gSa] O;olk; dh lsok&'krks± esa rCnhyh yk ldrs gSaA,sls gh dk;ks± dh flf¼ osQ fy, os ljdkj dks izHkkfor djus esa yxs jgrs gSaA ykWch dh izFkk osQ fodkl dk;gh jkt gSA fofHkUu xqVksa dh ykWfc;k¡ lkyksa Hkj ok¯'kxVu vkSj jkT; dh jktèkkfu;ksa esa dke djrh jgrh gSa]rFkk dkuwu vkSj iz'kklu dks izHkkfor djrh jgrh gSaA

vesfjdk esa ncko lewg yksder vkSj ljdkjh uhfr;ksa osQ chp ,d ck¡èk osQ leku dke djrs gSaA os fofHkUuO;olkf;d vkSj vk£Fkd fgrksa dk izfrfufèkRo djrs gSa vkSj ljdkj ls mu fgrksa dh j{kk osQ fy, lEioZQ LFkkfirdjrs gSaA bl lEcUèk esa ih- gs¯jx us fy[kk gS fd ¶izHkkod xqV O;olkf;d vkSj vk£Fkd fgrksa esa foHkkftrleqnk; dk izfrfufèkRo djrs gq, 'kfDr;ksa osQ izfr è;ku vkd£"kr djrs gSa] ftuosQ erHksnksa osQ chp lerk gksuhpkfg, vkSj ftuesa leUo; LFkkfir gksuk pkfg,A¸1

iztkrU=k dh ,d fopkj.kh; leL;k gS fd lHkh yksxksa dks fdlh izdkj leqfpr izfrfufèkRo fn;k tk,A izfrfufèk;ksadk pquko HkkSxksfyd vkSj {ks=kh; vkèkkj ij gksrk gSA bl vkèkkj ij pqus x;s izfrfufèk lHkh fgrksa dk leku :ils izfrfufèkRo ugha dj ikrs gSaA vr% fo'ks"k fgrksa osQ izfrfufèkRo dh leL;k cuh jg tkrh gSA ncko&lewg bldeh dks iwjk djrs gSaA [kkldj vesfjdk ,sls ns'k esa] tgk¡ fgrksa vkSj O;olk;ksa dh Hkjekj gS] izfrfufèkRo osQn`f"Vdks.k ls ncko&lewg dk egÙo c<+ tkrk gSA ;g dguk xyr ugha gksxk fd vfèkdka'k O;fDr;ksa osQ fy,ncko&lewg gh lPpk izfrfufèk dk dke djrs gSaA

;g Li"V gS fd vesfjdk esa ncko&lewgksa dk izHkko fdlh ns'k ls vfèkd gS mUgsa ^vn`'; lkezkT;* dguk xyrugha gksxkA vkt mudk izHkko bruk vfèkd c<+ x;k gS fd mUgsa oSèkkfud rkus&ckus esa lhfer vkSj fu;af=kr djusdh ;kstuk Hkh cuk;h tk jgh gSA

Úkal esa ncko&lewg (Pressure groups in France)

ncko&lewg dk ftruk izHkko vesfjdk] fczVsu ;k Hkkjr esa gS mruk Úkal esa ugha gSA pw¡fd 'kklu&'kfDrO;oLFkkfidk osQ vk¡py ls fudydj dk;Zikfydk osQ gkFk esa pyh xbZ gS blfy, ncko&lewg dk izHkkoÚkal esa de gks x;k gSA fiQj Hkh ,slh ckr ugha gS fd Úkal esa ncko&lewg lekIr gks x;k gSA mldk egÙoiw.kZvfLrRo Úkal esa fo|eku gSA

Úkal esa vkt Hkh cgqr ls laxBuksa dk izHkqRo dk;e gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ Úkal esa cM+h O;kikfjd laLFkk,¡ (Large

Business Concerns), Confederation Nationable du Patronat Francais (C.N.P.F) esa eq[; :i ls laxfBrgSa ftl ij cgqr&cM+h VSDlVkby] LVhy vkSj osQfedy iQeks± dk izHkqRo dk;e gSA la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk osQ

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us'kuy ,lksfl,'ku vkWiQ eSuqiSQDplZ (National Association of Manufactures) ls fdlh Hkh ekeyksa esa ÚkalosQ ;s laxBu detksj ugha gSA buosQ izHkko dh rqyuk bl vesfjdh laxBu ls c[kwch dh tk ldrh gSAC.N.P.F. dh 'kk[kk osQ :i esa NksVs O;olkf;d laLFkku] O;olkf;d nqdkunkj vkfn ‘Confederation General

deg Petitest Mayenne Enterprises’ (P.M.E.) esa laxfBr gSaA oSls ;s 'kk[kk,¡ iw.kZ:is.k Lok;Ùk'kklh gSa vkSjC.N.P.F. bu laLFkkuksa ij fo'oLr ugha gSaA

Úkal osQ fdlku Hkh fgr&lewgksa osQ :i esa laxfBr gSaA muosQ lkr izkj osQ o`gr~ fgr&lewg gSaA bu lkr izdkjosQ fgr&lewg dh pksVh ij isQMsjs'ku us'kuy Msl flUMhosQV Mq ,DlIyk;Vs.Vl ,xzhdksYl (Federetion

National des Syndicate du Exploitants Agricoles) (F.N.S.E.A) gSA F.N.S.E.A. dh lnL; la[;k yk[kksaesa gSA buosQ y{; vU; ns'kksa osQ fdlku ncko&lewg dh rjg gh gSaA

oSls ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd Úkal esa Jfed&la?k (Labour Union) vUroZQyg ls xzflr gSa] fiQj Hkh mudhxfrfofèk;k¡ ijEijkxr ykWch dks lapkfyr djrs gSa rFkk mudh pksVh ij (Confederation General du Travail

(C.C.T.) vofLFkr gSA blosQ vykok cgqr ls egÙoiw.kZ la?k gSa ftuesa (The Catholic Confederation

Francias des Travaileurs Chretiens) (C.F.T.C.) vkSj lektokfn;ksa }kjk lapkfyr yxHkx 4 yk[k lnL;ksaokyk (Confederation General du Travail Force Overare (C.G.T.F.O.) gSA izR;sd la?k lkekftd lqj{kkosQ ekeys esa vius la?k osQ lnL;ksa vkSj ljdkjh foHkkxksa osQ chp eè;LFkrk dk dke djrk gSA mnkgj.k osQ rkSjij Jfedksa dk ncko&lewg] fMfVj;ksa vkSj iz'kkldksa ij ,d tSlk Mkyk tkrk gSA fiQj Hkh Úkalhlh Jfed la?kksadks ykWch dh xfrfofèk;ksa esa fczfV'k vkSj vesfjdh la?kksa dh rqyuk esa de liQyrk feyh gSA Úkalhlh fgr&lewgesa ifjokj la?k lekt dY;k.kdkjh fo|ky; dk;Z osQ fy, iz;Ru'khy jgrs gSaA fyfiy&lewg Hkh Úkal dk ,dncko&lewg gh gS ftldk mís'; xzkeh.k vkSj futh fo|ky;ksa osQ fy, jktdh; lgk;rk izkIr djuk gSA



1- fczVsu osQ ncko lewgksa dks nks oxks± esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gS ---------------- vkSj ---------------- A

2- ---------------- dks iqu% nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμmRiknu lewg (Producer group) vkSjmiHkksDrk lewg (Consumer group)A

3- lcls igys ykW¯cx dh izFkk ---------------- esa vkjEHk gqbZA

4- vesfjdk esa fgr lewg ---------------- dk :i ys pqdk gSA

5- izQkal osQ ---------------- Hkh fgr lewg osQ :i esa laxfBr gSaA


jktuhfrd ny dk vk'k; ukxfjdksa osQ ,sls lewg ls gS tks lkoZtfud iz'uksa osQ fo"k; esa leku fopkjj[krk gS vkSj jktuhfrd bdkbZ osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gq, viuh dfYir uhfr dks foLrkj nsus osQ fy,'kklurU=k dks gLrxr djuk pkgrk gksA

jktuhfrd ny iztkrU=k dh vkèkkjf'kyk gSA nksuksa esa vR;Ur ?kfu"B lEcUèk gSA nyksa osQ fcuk iztkrU=kthfor ugha jg ldrk gSA mUgsa ¶iztkrU=k dk izk.k¸ dgk tkrk gSA os 'kklu O;oLFkk osQ ,d vfHkUuvax gSaA mUgsa ljdkj dk ^prqFkZ vax* (Fourth organ of the Government) dgk x;k gSA

jktuhfrd ny iztkrU=k esa f'k{kk osQ lkèku gSaA ;s turk dks fofHkUu izdkj ls jktuhfrd f'k{kk iznku djrsgSaA ;s turk dks lkoZtfud iz'uksa ,oa leL;kvksa osQ izfr tkx:d jgus dh f'k{kk nsrs gSaA jktuhfrd nyturk osQ le{k gj leL;k osQ fofHkUu rFkk fojksèkh igyqvksa dks j[krs gSa ftlls turk dks jktuhfrd

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leL;kvksa dk Kku izkIr gksrk gS] mueas jktuhfrd psruk vkrh gS] turU=k dh liQyrk osQ fy, ,dLoLFk vkSj psru'khy jktuhfrd okrkoj.k dh vko';drk gSA

jktuhfrd ny 'kklu osQ fofHkUu vaxksa osQ chp dM+h dk dke djrs gSaA ljdkj i`Fko~Q&i`Fko~Q foHkkxksaesa c¡Vh jgrh gSA ysfdu lEiw.kZ ljdkj ,d lko;o osQ leku gSA vr% ;fn fofHkUu foHkkxksa esa lkeatL;LFkkfir u fd;k tk; rks 'kklu&;a=k dk iqtkZ&iqtkZ vyx gks tk;xk vkSj ljdkj foiQy gks tk;xhAjktuhfrd ny fofHkUu foHkkxksa esa lkeatL; LFkkfir djus dk loksZÙke lkèku gSA lalnh; iz.kkyh esaO;oLFkkfidk rFkk dk;Zikfydk esa vfHkUu lacaèk jgrk gS D;ksafd nksuksa osQ lnL; ,d gh ny osQ vuq'kklurFkk dk;ZØeksa ls c¡èks jgrs gSaA vè;{kkRed iz.kkyh esa Hkh nyksa dk egÙo bl vFkZ esa dkiQh c<+ tkrkgS D;ksafd fofHkUu 'kklu&vaxksa dh iw.kZ i`Fkdrk dks ny&O;oLFkk ls gh nwj fd;k tkrk gSA

jktuhfrd ny fczfV'k 'kklu&iz.kkyh dh fo'ks"k cqfu;kn dk ewykèkkj gSA ;g dguk vuqfpr u gksxk fdfczfV'k lafoèkku osQ fodkl esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk Hkh laxBu gqvk vkSj erkfèkdkj osQ izlkj osQ lkFk&lkFk;g laxBu vfèkdkfèkd tfVy] lqn`<+ ,oa vuq'kkluc¼ gksrk x;kA fczfV'k 'kklu dh lalnh; fo'ks"krkvksaosQ liQy lapkyu esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk eq[; gkFk gS vke pquko] eaf=keaMy dk xBu ,oa dk;Zdj.k]laln~ dh dk;Zokfg;ksa dk lapkyu] ljdkjh uhfr;ksa dk fuèkkZj.k] turk dk 'kklu ij fu;a=k.k vkfn lalnh;fo'ks"krkvksa dh vfHkO;fDr nyh; O;oLFkk osQ ekè;e ls gh gksrk gSA ogk¡ lezkKh dh ljdkj (Her

Majesty’s Government) ny dh ljdkj gS vkSj fojksèkh ny lkezkKh dk fojksèkh ny (Her Majesty’s

Opposition) gSA baXySaM esa jktuhfrd nyksa dk ;|fi dksbZ oSèkkfud vfLrRo ugha gSA rFkkfi muosQ vHkkoesa vaxzsth 'kklu&O;oLFkk dk leLr Lo:i gh cny tk,xk vkSj bldh vusd ijEijk,¡ rFkk vfHkle;u"V gks tk,xhA

fczfV'k ny&izFkk dk lcls izeq[k fo'ks"krk f}nyh; O;oLFkk (Two party system) gSA fczVsu esa lnk nksny jgs gSaA tc dHkh Hkh rhljs ny dk tUe gqvk gS ernkrkvksa us pquko esa ,d ny dks lekIr djfn;k gSA izkjEHk esa ^f}xq* vkSj ^Vksjh* fiQj vuqnkj ny vkSj mnkj ny rFkk vktdy vuqnkj ny vkSjetnwj ny gSaA

vesfjdk esa Hkh f}nyh; izFkk gS_ fdUrq Úkal esa cgqnyh; O;oLFkk gSA bldk dkj.k ;g gS fd v¡xzsthLi"V cgqerokyh ljdkj rFkk o`gr~ jktuhfrd vkSj vkfFkZd vkèkkjksa ij vofLFkr jktuhfrd nyksa osQ i{kesa gSA ;ksa rks lkE;oknh ny vkSj mnkj nyμtSls NksVs&NksVs ny gSa ysfdu mldk LFkku ux.; gSA

fczfV'k ny&O;oLFkk dh nwljh fo'ks"krk osQUnzhdj.k (Centralization) gSA lkjk ny Åij ls uhps rd] ,dlw=k esa c¡èkk jgrk gSA ny osQ usrkvksa rFkk ny osQ osQUnz ij iwjs ny ij fu;a=k.k jgrk gSA blosQ foijhrvesfjdk esa foosQUnzhdj.k nyksa dh fo'ks"krk gSA

osQUnzh;dj.k dk LokHkkfod ifj.kke gSμvuq'kkluA fczVsu esa jktuhfrd ny vesfjdh nyksa dh vis{kk cgqrT;knk vuq'kkflr gSaA vesfjdk esa dk¡xzsl osQ vUnj ;k mlosQ ckgj vuq'kklu dh bruh deh gS fd fjifCydu;k MseksozsQfVd ny osQ vuq;k;h vius usrkvksa dh vkKk dk ikyu ugha djrs rFkk euekus :i ls fdlhfoèks;d ij ernku djrs gSaA baXySaM dh laln esa lnL;ksa dks fdl le; cksyuk gS] D;k cksyuk gS rFkk fdlfoèks;d osQ i{k ;k fojksèk esa er nsuk gS ;g lc ny&lpsrd fuf'pr djrs gSaA

ny dk osQUnzh; laxBu iwjs jk"Vª esa laxfBr ny dks fu;af=kr djrk gSA ny dh LFkkuh; bdkb;ksa dks laxBuosQ osQUnzh; funsZ'ku osQ vUnj dke djuk iM+rk gSA ny dk dksbZ lnL; jk"Vªh; usrkvksa osQ ckgj ugha tkldrk gSA

phuh lkE;oknh ny dk laxBu lksfo;r lkE;oknh ny ls feyrk&tqyrk gSA bldk laxBu fijkfeM(Pyramid) osQ vkdkj dk gSA ,d vax osQ Åij nwljk vax gksrk gSA uhps ls ysdj Åij rd lHkh

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vax Jà[kyk&c¼ (Hierarchical) rFkk O;ofLFkr gSA bl fijkfeM dk vkèkkj LFkkuh; ny laxBu vFkoklsy (Cell) gS vkSj 'kh"kZ ij ny dh osQUnzh; lfefr dk iksfyr C;wjks (Polit Bureau) gSA bu fofHkUu Lrjh;laxBuksa osQ lacaèk dk vkèkkj iztkrkaf=kd osQUnzokn (Democratic Centralism) gSA

lcls fuEu Lrj LFkkuh; ny&laxBu vFkok lsy (Cell) gksrs gSaA muosQ Åij xzkeh.k rFkk 'kgjh dk¡xzslgksrh gSA ;s iqu% dkm.Vh ;k E;qfufliy dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa dks pqurh gSA dkm.Vh ;k E;qfufliy dk¡xzslosQ Åij izknsf'kd dk¡xzslksa vkSj muosQ Åij osQUnzh; jk"Vªh; dk¡xzsl gksrh gSA nyh; laxBu dh ,d izeq[kfo'ks"krk ;g gS fd fuEu Lrj dk laxBu vius ls Åijh Lrj osQ laxBu dk pquko djrk gSA

iksfyrC;wjks (Polit Bureau)% osQUnzh; lfefr }kjk fuokZfpr ,d NksVk dk;Zdkjh fudk; gSA mldh lnL;la[;k 50 gSA ;g ny dk izeq[k jktuhfrd vax gSA ;g lEiw.kZ ny osQ laxBu dks lapkfyr djrkgSA ;g ny dh osQUnzh; lfefr osQ vfèkos'ku dks vkeaf=kr djrk gSA

iksfyr C;wjks ls Hkh izHkkodkjh rFkk fØ;k'khy fudk; mldk LFkk;h lfefr (Standing Commitee) gSA;g lEiw.kZ ny dk efLr"d gSA blesa ny osQ jk"Vªh; Lrj osQ mPpdksfV osQ bus&fxus usrk LFkku ikrsgSaA tSls pkÅ ,u ykbZ] ekvks&Rls&rqax] fyÅ 'kkvks&ph] pkÅ rsg] psu ;qu] fyu I;kvks tSls f'k[kj osQusrkA bu lfefr;ksa dh fLFkfr jk"Vªh; uhfr fuekZ.k esa loksZifj gSA

baXySaM osQ ncko lewg ny osQ vUnj gh lfØ; izHkko Mkyrs gSaA vuqnkj ny vkSj etnwj ny nksuksa esa lsizR;sd ls dksbZ&u&dksbZ xqV lEc¼ jgrk gSA mnkgj.k osQ fy, Jfed la?k lkèkkj.kr% etnwj ny ls vkSjÑ"kd ny lkèkkj.kr% vuqnkj ny ls lEcUèk j[krs gSaA fczVsu esa ncko&lewg osQ fodflr ugha gksus dk,d dkj.k ;g Hkh gS fd ogk¡ futh foèks;dksa dh lkekU;r% mis{kk dh tkrh gS vkSj muosQ ikfjr gksusdh lEHkkouk de gksrh gSA vr% ncko lewg nyksa osQ vUnj gh viuk izHkko izn£'kr djrs gSa rFkk vn`';:i ls vius dk;Z djok fy;k djrs gSaA

fczVsu osQ ncko lewgksa dks nks oxks± esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμfgr (Interest Groups) vkSj oSpkfjd lewg(Ideas Groups) fgr lewgksa dks iqu% nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tk ldrk gSμmRiknd lewg (Producer Groups)

vkSj miHkksDrk lewg (Consumer Groups)A

1965 esa fczfV'k m|ksx ifjla?k (Confederation of British Industries) dh LFkkiuk gqbZ tks m|ksxksa lslacafèkr cM+s&cM+s jk"Vªh; la?kksa dks feykdj cuk gSA fczfV'k m|ksx la?k (Confederation of British

Industries), fczfV'k fu;kstd ifjla?k (British Employer Confederation) vkSj fczfV'k jk"Vªh; la?k(National Association of British Manufactures) eq[; ncko lewg gSa tks fczfV'k m|ksx ifjla?k dkfuekZ.k djrs gSaA ifjla?k ,d cgqr cM+k laxBu gS] tks vius lnL;ksa dks O;kolk;h] f'k{kk] fu;kZr vkfnls lacfèkr ijke'kZ nsrk gSA

oSpkfjd lewg (Ideas Groups) fgr lewg ls fHkUu gksrs gSaA os HkkSfrd iQk;ns osQ fy, ugha] cfYd oqQNfopkjksa dks c<+kok nsus osQ fy, clk, tkrs gSaA muosQ lkeus oqQN vkn'kZ jgrs gSa] ftudh izkfIr osQ fy,os laxfBr gksrs gSa rFkk iz;kl djrs gSa tSls us'kuy dEisu iQkj n ,cksfy'ku vkWiQ osQfiVy ifu'kesaV(National Compaign for the Abolition of Capital Punishment) ,d vkn'kZ ls izsfjr FkkA

la;qDr&jkT; vesfjdk esa ncko&lewgksa us ns'k dh lfØ; jktuhfr esa ftl izdkj ;ksxnku fn;k gS] og fo'oesa vU;=k dgha ugha feyrk gSA ;gk¡ lpeqp esa mUgksaus vn`';&lkezkT; (Anonymous Empire) dk :iys fy;k gSA bl ns'k esa fgr&lewg dk¡xzsl osQ lnL;ksa dks O;fDrxr :i ls cgqr vfèkd izHkkfor djrsgSaA ;gha ij lcls igys ^ykWfcbax* (Lobbying) dh izFkk vkjEHk gqbZA

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vktdy vesfjdk esa ncko&lewg dk egÙo igys dh vis{kk cgqr gh vfèkd c<+ x;k gSA 'kq: esa blns'k esa ,sls xqVksa dks 'kadk dh n`f"V ls ns[kk tkrk FkkA yksx bUgsa yksdrU=k osQ fy, [krjukd le>rs FksAdkyZ ts- izsQMfjd us fy[kk gS fd ¶xr ih<+h esa bu xqVksa dks uSfrd Øksèk vkSj Hk; dh n`f"V ls ns[kktkrk FkkA xUns jktuhfrK rFkk jktuhfrd 'kkL=k osQ izcq¼ fo|kFkhZ nksuksa gh bUgas ?k`.kkLin le>rs FksA bUgsa,sls nq"V vkSj ikih 'kfDr le>k tkrk Fkk tks vkèkqfud yksdrU=k vkSj ljdkj dh tM+ m[kkM+us dks m|rFksA ysfdu vkt vesfjdk esa ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd nks pqukoksa osQ chp jktuhfrd f'kfFkyrk vk tkrh gSAnyksa dk ukeksfu'kku] [kkl dj LFkkuh; Lrj ij feV gh tkrk gSA ncko&lewg bl vUrjky esa cgqr ghegÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk djrs gSaA os ljdkjksa osQ vUrjky esa rFkk fuokZpuksa dh vofèk esa fopkj 'kSfFkY;dks jksdrs gSa rFkk tu&thou esa jktuhfr osQ izfr mRlkg ,oa #fp mRiUu djrs gSaA bUgsa yksdrU=k dk vkèkkjekuk tkus yxk gSA

• ncko&lewg dk ftruk izHkko vesfjdk] fczVsu ;k Hkkjr esa gS mruk Úkal esa ugha gSA pw¡fd 'kklu&'kfDrO;oLFkkfidk osQ vk¡py ls fudydj dk;Zikfydk osQ gkFk esa pyh xbZ gS blfy, ncko&lewg dk izHkkoÚkal esa de gks x;k gSA fiQj Hkh ,slh ckr ugha gS fd Úkal esa ncko&lewg lekIr gks x;k gSA mldkegÙoiw.kZ vfLrRo Úkal esa fo|eku gSA

• Úkal esa vkt Hkh cgqr ls laxBuksa dk izHkqRo dk;e gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ Úkal esa cM+h O;kikfjd laLFkk,¡(Large Business Concerns), Confederation Nationable du Patronat Francais (C.N.P.F) eq[;:i ls laxfBr gSa ftl ij cgqr&cM+h VSDlVkby] LVhy vkSj osQfedy iQeks± dk izHkqRo dk;e gSA la;qDrjkT; vesfjdk osQ us'kuy ,lksfl,'ku vkWiQ eSuqisQDplZ (National Association of Manufactures) lsfdlh Hkh ekeyksa esa Úkal osQ ;s laxBu detksj ugha gSA buosQ izHkko dh rqyuk bl vesfjdh laxBuls c[kwch dh tk ldrh gSA

• Úkal osQ fdlku Hkh fgr&lewgksa osQ :i esa laxfBr gSaA muosQ lkr izdkj osQ o`gr~ fgr&lewg gSaA bu lkrizdkj osQ fgr&lewg dh pksVh ij isQMjs'ku us'kuy Msl flUMhosQV Mq ,DlIyk;Vs.Vl ,xzhdksYl(Federation National des Syndicate du Exploitants Agricoles) (F.N.S.E.A) gSA F.N.S.E.A. dhlnL; la[;k yk[kksa esa gSA buosQ y{; vU; ns'kksa osQ fdlku ncko&lewg dh rjg gh gSaA


••••• vkSfpR; % mi;qDrrk

••••• oSpkfjd lewg % ;s lewg HkkSfrd iQk;ns osQ fy, ugha oqQN oSpkfjd iQk;ns dks c<+kok nsus osQ fy, tkustkrs gSaA


1- jktuhfrd ny dk vFkZ ,oa ifjHkk"kk crkb;sA

2. ;w,l,] ;wosQ vkSj izQkal esa jktuhfrd nyksa osQ Lo:i ,oa lkaxBfud <k¡ps dk foospu dhft,A

3. phuh x.kjkT; esa lkE;oknh ny dh Hkwfedk dk foospu dhft,A

4. fgr lewg (Interest group) vFkok ncko lewg (Pressure group) dh ;wosQ] ;w,l, vkSj izQkal esa D;kHkwfedk gS\ fgr lewg vFkok ncko lewg osQ egRo dk o.kZu dhft,A

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1. fgr vkSj oSpkfjd lewg 2. fgr lewg 3. vesfjdk

4. vn`'; lkezkT; 5. fdlkuA






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bdkbZμ14% Hkw&e.Myhdj.k (Globalization)


mís'; (Objectives)


14-1 rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj Hkwe.Myhdj.k (Comparative Politics and Globalization)

14-2 fodflr vkSj fodkl'khy lektksa dh vuqfØ;k (Responses from Developed and Developing

Societies)





mís'; (Objectives)


rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj Hkwe.Myhdj.k osQ lg&lEcaèkksa dks foosfpr djus esaA

fodflr vkSj fodkl'khy lektksa vFkok ns'kksa dh vuqfØ;k dks le>us esaA


rqyukRed jktuhfr vkèkqfud jktuhfr foKku dh egÙoiw.kZ nsu gSA eSØhfMlZ (Macridis) rFkk okMZ (Ward) osQ'kCnksa esa] ¶rqyukRed jktuhfr ,d ,slk xkbZM (Guide) ;k ekxZn'kZd gS] tks ?kj cSBs&fcBk, gesa ns'k&fons'k dhlSj djk nsrk gSA 'kklu vkSj jktuhfr osQ rqyukRed vè;;u }kjk ge ;g tku ldrs gSa fd fofHkUu ns'kksa osQ fuokfl;ksaosQ jktuhfrd vkpj.k vkSj muosQ jktuhfr vkn'kks± esa D;k fHkUurk,¡ gSa rFkk os ,d tSlh leL;kvksa dk lekèkkufdu rjhdksa ls djrs gSaA¸ ;|fi ;g vè;;u ,sfrgkfld dky ls pyk vk jgk gS rFkkfi bldk egÙo vkèkqfud;qx esa gh c<+k gSA bldk dkj.k ;g gS fd çR;sd fo"k; osQ oSKkfud vè;;u osQ fy, rqyukRed vè;;u vfuok;ZgS vkSj fcuk rqyukRed vè;;u osQ fdlh Hkh fo"k; dh oSKkfud O;k[;k lEHko ugha gSA ;gh ckr jktuhfr foKkuij ykxw gksrh gSA tsñlhñ tkSgjh (J.c. Johri) us rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k osQ egÙo ij çdk'k Mkyrs gq, Bhd fy[kkgS fd ¶'kfDr la?k"kZ esa fyIr fofHkUu jktuhfrd vkSj lkekftd laLFkkvksa osQ vuqHkooknh vUos"k.k osQ {ks=k esa ;gl`tukRed rFkk lEo¼ZukRed vkèkkj çLrqr djrk gSA¸

14-1 rqyukRed jktuhfr vkSj Hkwe.Myhdj.k (Comparative Politics andGlobalization)

'kklu vkSj jktuhfr osQ rqyukRed vè;;u dh mi;ksfxrk rFkk egÙo dk vè;;u fuEufyf[kr 'kh"kZdksa osQ vUrxZrfd;k tk ldrk gS %&

1- jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks le>uk (To understand Political Behaviour) % 'kklu vkSj jktuhfr osQrqyukRed vè;;u dh mi;ksfxrk ;g gS fd blls jktuhfr O;ogkj dks le>us esa lgk;rk feyrh gSA rqyukRed

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bdkbZμ14% Hkw&e.Myhdj.k


vè;;u }kjk ge jk"Vªh;] vU; jk"Vªksa rFkk vUrjkZ"Vªh; jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks vPNh rjg le> ldrsgSaA rqyukRed vè;;u osQ }kjk gh gesa ;g irk pyrk gS fd fofHkUu lektksa osQ yksxksa dk jktuhfr O;ogkj ijLijfHkUu D;ksa gksrk gSA ;g lEHko gS fd nks ns'kksa dh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ ,d tSlh gksus osQ ckotwn Hkh jktuhfrd fØ;kvyx&vyx gksA çkphu dky esa vke turk jktuhfr esa dksbZ :fp ugha j[krh Fkh ijUrq vkèkqfud ;qx esa turkblesa #fp ysus yx xbZ gSA vc jktuhfr dqN yksxksa rFkk fo'ks"k oxks± rd gh lfefr ugha jg xbZ cfYd blesayk[kksaμdjksM+ksa yksx Hkkx ysrs gSaA vkt jktuhfrd xfrfofèk;k¡ çR;sd O;fDr dks çHkkfor djrh gSa vkSj ml dks ,dfo'ks"k çdkj dk O;ogkj djus osQ fy, ckè; djrh gSaA blfy, lHkh çdkj dh jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa esa vke O;fDrvfèkd #fp ysus yxk gSA

çR;sd lekt esa vfHktuksa (Elite) rFkk cqf¼thfo;ksa dks fo'ks"k LFkku çkIr gksrk gSA ;gh ugha jktuhfrd fopkjksa dkçpyu] ijh{k.k o ewY;kadu djosQ jktuhfrd thou dks u;k :i nsrs gSaA os jktuhfrd lekt esa uohu fopkjksadks lqn`<+rk ls LFkkfir djrs gSaA os vU; ns'kksa esa jktuhfr dk cM+h xgjkbZ ls vè;;u djrs gSa rFkk mudh rqyukviuh ns'k dh 'kklu O;oLFkk ls djosQ ,sls lq>ko nsrs gSa tks 'kkldksa rFkk 'kkflrksa osQ fgr esa gksaA bl çdkj cqf¼thohjktuhfrd O;ogkj rFkk ns'k osQ ekxZn'kZd rFkk lpsrd cu tkrs gSa ijUrq cqf¼thoh ;g lc dqN rqyukRed jktuhfrosQ vè;;u ls gh çkIr dj ldrs gSaA jktuhfr dk rqyukRed vè;;u fons'kksa esa i;ZVu osQ leku gSA

rqyukRed jktuhfr vè;;u vke turk dks fofHkUu Lrjksa ij gksus okys jktuhfrd

?kVuk&pØksa dk Kku djkrk gSA

2- jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh lekurkvksa vkSj fofHkUurkvksa dks le>uk (To understand the Similarities

and Differences between Political System) : O;ogkj esa jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa osQ uke ,d tSls gksus osQ ckotwnHkh dk;Z ,d tSls ugha gksrsA mnkgj.kLo:i vejhdk] Úkal vkSj Hkkjr esa dk;Zikfydk osQ vè;{k dks jk"Vªifr(President) dgrs gSa ijUrq bu rhuksa ns'kksa esa u rks jk"Vªifr osQ dk;Z ,d tSls gSa vkSj u gh bu ns'kksa dh 'kkluç.kkfy;k¡ ,d tSlh gSa ijUrq jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa osQ bl O;kogkfjd :i dks le>us osQ fy, 'kklu vkSj jktuhfrdk rqyukRed vè;;u djuk cgqr vko';d gSA D;wck vkSj phu esa ,d gh ny ik;k tkrk gS vkSj og gS lkE;oknhnyA feÏ vkSj ratkfu;k esa Hkh ,d nyh; i¼fr ikbZ tkrh gSA vr% jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa dh lekurkvksa rFkkvlekurkvksa dks le>us osQ fy, rqyukRed vè;;u cgqr lgk;d gSA

3- fdlh Hkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lanHkZ dk Kku (Knowledge Regarding Contextual Elements of any

System) % 'kklu vkSj jktuhfr dk rqyukRed vè;;u fdlh Hkh jktuhfrd O;oLFkk osQ lanHkZ dks le>us esalgk;d fl¼ gksrk gSA mnkgj.kLo:i ç'u mRiUu gksrk gS fd D;ksa lalnh; 'kklu ç.kkyh baXySaM esa ljdkj esaLFkkf;Ro yk ldh ijUrq Úkal esa ljdkjksa dh vfLFkjrk dk dkj.k cuh\ fczVsu] vejhdk] vkLVªsfy;k bR;kfn ns'kkasesa nks nyh; ç.kkyh D;ksa gS tcfd Hkkjr vkSj Úkal bR;kfn ns'kks esa cgq&nyh; ç.kkyh gSA rqyukRed vè;;u osQvkèkkj ij gh ge dg ldrs gSa fd Úkal dh vis{kk baXySaM esa lalnh; 'kklu ç.kkyh liQy jgh D;ksafd baXySaMesa lalnh; 'kklu ç.kkyh dk fodkl vkS|ksxhdj.k ls iwoZ gks pqdk Fkk tcfd Úkal esa lalnh; 'kklu ç.kkyh dkfodkl vkS|ksxhdj.k osQ i'pkr~ gqvkA

4- jktuhfrd ç.kkfy;ksa osQ xq.kksa rFkk nks"kksa dk irk pyrk gS (Merits and Demerits of Political System

are Revealed) : 'kklu vkSj jktuhfr osQ rqyukRed vè;;u ls gesa fofHkUu jktuhfrd ç.kkfy;ksa osQ xq.kksa rFkknks"kksa dk irk pyrk gSA rqyukRed vè;;u osQ }kjk gh irk pyrk gS fd veqd ns'k esa veqd 'kklu i¼fr D;ksaliQy gS vkSj muosQ xq.k dkSu ls gSaA mnkgj.kLo:i baXySaM esa lalnh; 'kklu ç.kkyh liQy gS tcfd Hkkjr esa mruhliQy ugha gSA rqyukRed vè;;u osQ }kjk irk yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd baXySaM esa lalnh; 'kklu ç.kkyh osQ liQy

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gksus osQ D;k dkj.k gSa vkSj Hkkjr esa vliQy gksus osQ D;k dkj.k gSaA rqyukRed vè;;u ls gh ;g Kku çkIr fd;ktk ldrk gS fd lalnh; rFkk vè;{kkRed i¼fr;ksa dks liQy cukus osQ fy, fdu 'krks± (conditions) dk gksukvko';d gSA

5- jktuhfr dks oSKkfud vè;;u cukuk (Making Politics a Scientific Study) %& rqyukRed jktuhfr osQvè;;u dks ,d oSKkfud vè;;u cukrk gSA vkjEHk ls gh jktuhfr 'kkL=k osQ fo}ku~ ,oa fopkjd jktuhfr dks foKkucukus osQ fy, ç;Ru'khy jgs gSaA jktuhfr 'kkL=k dks foKku cukus osQ fy, oSKkfud i¼fr;ksa dk gksuk Hkh vko';dgSA vkSj oSKkfud i¼fr;ksa esa rqyukRed i¼fr dk cgqr egÙo gSA vjLrw us 158 lafoèkkuksa dk vè;;u djus osQi'pkr~ Økafr osQ dkj.kksa vkSj Økafr dks jksdus osQ mik;ksa dk foospu fd;k FkkA rqyukRed jktuhfr] jktuhfrdçfØ;kvksa ij ç;ksx djosQ fuf'prrk dks fuèkkZfjr djrh gSA lu~ 1945 osQ ckn] tc ls O;ogkjokn dk tUe gqvkgS] rc ls vkt rd jktuhfr 'kkL=k dh oSKkfudrk dh [kkst dh vkèkqfudre vfHkO;fDr ge rqyukRed jktuhfrdvè;;u esa gh ikrs gSaA O;ogkjokn us rqyukRed jktuhfr dks foKku dk :i nsus esa lgk;rk dh gSA ihVj ,p-edZy (Peter H. Merkel) osQ vuqlkj ¶rqyukRed vè;;u osQ vkèkkj ij gh jktuhfr 'kkL=k foKku dh Js.kh esavk ldk gS vkSj lEHkor% blfy, vjLrw osQ ckn ls vkt rd çfrf"Br vkSj Js"Bre fopkjd jktuhfr osQ rqyukesa :fp ysrs jgs gSaA¸ jktuhfr dk rqyukRed vè;;u djrs le; igys vejhdk] Úkal] fczVsu vkfn ;wjksi osQ ns'kksaosQ 'kklu rFkk jktuhfr dk rqyukRed vè;;u fd;k tkrk Fkk] ysfdu vc ,f'k;k vkSj vÚhdk osQ fodkl'khyns'kksa esa 'kklu ,oa jktuhfr dk Hkh rqyukRed vè;;u fd;k tkrk gSA blh rjg igys osQoy vkSipkfjd laLFkkvksafoèkkue.My] dk;Zikfydk ,oa U;k;ikfydk dk vè;;u fd;k tkrk Fkk] ysfdu vc vukSipkfjd laLFkkvksaμnckolewgksa] ernku] tuer vkfn dk Hkh vè;;u fd;k tkrk gSA vr% rqyukRed i¼fr igys dh vis{kk vfèkd O;kidvkSj mi;ksxh cu xbZ gS ftl dkj.k og vfèkd oSKkfud cu xbZ gSA

6- çpfyr jktuhfrd fl¼kUrksa dh iqu% çekf.kdrk (Re-validification of Existing Political Theories)%rqyukRed jktuhfr dh egÙoiw.kZ mi;ksfxrk ;g gS fd bldh lgk;rk ls çpfyr jktuhfrd fl¼kUrksa dk] pkgsos vkn'kZoknh fl¼kar gksa ;k vkuqHkfod fl¼kUr] iqu% ijh{k.k fd;k tkrk gS vkSj mudh çekf.kdrk tk¡ph tkrhgSA ge rqyukRed jktuhfrd vè;;u ls ;g fu"d"kZ fudky ldrs gSa fd iqjkus LFkkfir jktuhfrd fl¼kUr orZekudh ifjofrZr ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa Hkh ekU; gSa ;k ugha vkSj ;fn ekU; gSa rks fdrus mfpr vkSj fdrus vuqfpr gSaA rqyukRedjktuhfr LFkkfir jktuhfrd fl¼kUrksa dh iqu% tk¡p djus osQ fy, uohu midj.k o uohurk;qDr fofoèk rF;miyCèk djkrh gS rkfd mudh çekf.kdrk dk iqu% ijh{k.k lEHko gksA ,d le; Fkk tc yksdrU=k osQ jktuhfri{k ij tks fn;k tkrk Fkk ijUrq vc jktuhfrd i{k osQ lkFk&lkFk vkfFkZd i{k ij Hkh cy fn;k tkrk gSA

7- jk"Vªksa osQ ?kfu"B lEcUèkksa osQ dkj.k rqyuk vfuok;Z (Close Relations Between Countries Led toComparison) :vkt lalkj osQ lHkh ns'k ,d nwljs osQ lehi vk x, gSaA foKku dh mUufr] lapkj rFkk ;krk;krosQ lkèkuksa osQ fodkl us ns'kksa dh nwjh dks cgqr de dj fn;k gSA nwjh de gksus ls jk"Vªksa esa ?kfu"Brk c<+h gSa vkSjijLij ?kfu"Brk c<+us ls ,d nwljs dh 'kklu i¼fr] jguμlgu] lEcUèkksa] ;kstukvksa dh liQyrk rFkk rduhdhvknku&çnku esa Hkh #fp c<+ tkrh gSA vr% rqyukRed vè;;u vfuok;Z gks tkrk gSA çksñ gSfjax (Prof. herring)

osQ 'kCnks esa] ¶ns'kksa osQ lkFk gekjs lEcUèk gSa] mudh laLd`fr] fopkjèkkjk] bfrgkl vkSj mu leLr rÙoksa dk tksjktuhfr ij çHkko Mkyrs gSa] rqyukRed vè;;u cgqr t:jh gSA blls u osQoy mu ns'kksa dh jktuhfr O;oLFkkdks T;knk vPNh rjg le>k tk ldrk gS] cfYd ge viuh O;oLFkk dk Hkh lgh ewY;kadu rqyukRed vè;;u}kjk gh dj ldrs gSA¸ (Careful studies that deal comparatively with the cultures and the ideologies,the historical development and the whole complex of forces that seek final expression politicallywould lead not only to a better understanding of the countries of the world with which we mustdeal but should likewise enable us to understand ourselves better)

8- jktuhfrd okLrfodrk osQ vè;;u osQ fy, (For the Study of Political Reality) % jktuhfrd okLrfodrkdks tkuus osQ fy, rqyukRed jktuhfr dk cM+k egÙo gS rqyukRed vè;;u dk lacUèk ,sls rjhosQ ls ubZ rduhdksa

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vkSj mikxeksa osQ ekè;e ls jktuhfrd okLrfodrk osQ vè;;u osQ fu:i.k ls gS] ftlls jktuhfr dk leLr {ks=kblosQ vUrxZr vk tk,A

9- jktuhfr esa fl¼kar fuekZ.k (Theory-building in Politics) % rqyukRed jktuhfr dk egÙo jktuhfr esa^fl¼kUr fuekZ.k* (Theory-building in Politics) dh n`f"V ls Hkh gSA rqyukRed vè;;u ls gh fdlh 'kkL=k osQfl¼kUrksa dk fuekZ.k o fu;eksa dk fu:i.k lEHko gksrk gSA çkphu dky ls gh jktuhfr 'kkL=k esa ,sls fl¼kUrksa vkSjlkekU; fu;eksa dh [kkst dh tkrh jgh gS tks lEiw.kZ fo'o osQ jktuhfrd O;ogkj dks eksVs :i esa le>us esa lgk;rkdjsaA jktuhfrd fl¼kUrksa dks eksVs rkSj ij nks Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk tkrk gSμvkn'kZu fl¼kUr (Normative Theory) rFkkvkuqHkfod fl¼kar (Empirical Theory)A vkn'kZd fl¼kUr esa jktuhfrd O;oLFkkvksa osQ ckjs esa dksbZ dYiuk djyh tkrh gS vkSj ckn esa ml dYiuk dks jpukRed :i fn;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kLo:i IysVks us nk'kZfud jktk(Philosopher King) dh dYiuk dh vkSj mlosQ vkèkkj ij gh vkn'kZ jkT; (Ideal State) dk fopkj çLrqr fd;kAbl çdkj osQ vkn'kkZRed fl¼kUr dk Bksl rF;ksa ls dksbZ lEcUèk ugha gksrk vkSj u gh rqyukRed jktuhfr bl çdkjosQ fl¼kUrksa osQ fuekZ.k esa dksbZ lgk;rk djrh gS ijUrq vkèkqfud fl¼kUrksa esa jktuhfrd O;ogkj osQ okLrfod rF;ksadks le> dj fl¼kUrksa osQ fuekZ.k dk ç;Ru fd;k tkrk gSA rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ vè;;u dk egÙo vkuqHkfodfl¼karksa osQ fuekZ.k esa gh gSA

Hkwe.Myhdj.k (Globalization): 20oha 'krkCnh osQ mÙkjk¼Z esa Hkwe.Myhdj.k rFkk vU; mHkjrh çofÙk;ksa dk o.kZufuEufyf[kr gS %

(d) O;oLFkkvksa dk vè;;u % 1960 ls ysdj 1980 osQ n'kd esa rqyukRed jktuSfrd fo'ys"k.k esa dkiQh fodklgqvkA bldk {ks=k foLr`r gqvk vkSj blesa cM+h la[;k esa ns'k 'kkfey fd, x,A uhfr fopkjèkkjk] 'kkldh; vuqHkovkSj blh çdkj osQ dbZ ekunaMks dk mi;ksx fd;k x;kA gkykafd 1980 osQ n'kd esa lkekU; fl¼kar ls vyx gVdjlanHkZ dh çklafxdrk ij cy fn;k tkus yxkA va'kr% ;g lkekftd foKkuksa esa ,sfrgkfld tk¡p iM+rky osQ fiQjls c<+ jgs çHkko dks çfrfcafcr djrk gSA ;g ml ,sfrgkfld lekt'kkL=k* osQ mn; dks Hkh n'kkZrk gS tks ifj?kVukvksadks O;kid vkSj o`gn lanHkZ esa ns[kus dh dksf'k'k djrk gSA laLd`fr vkèkkfjr vè;;uksa dk tksj c<+k vkSj jk"Vªh;rkvkèkkfjr ns'k vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd laLFkkxr fof'k"V jk"Vª ij fo'ks"k cy fn;k tkus yxkA cM+h O;oLFkkvksa* ij cyfn;k tkus yxk vkSj ekWMy fuekZ.k dk ßkl gqvkA fof'k"V lanHkZ vkSj laLd`fr;ksa ij cy fn, tkus osQ dkj.k rqyukdk ekunaM O;kid fd;k x;kA NksVh O;oLFkkvksa* ;k {ks=kksa osQ Lrjksa ij rqyuk dh ço`fÙk tkjh jgha tSls bLyke èkeZdks ekuusokys ySfVu vesfjdk osQ ns'k] vÚhdk] nf{k.k ,f'k;k vkfnA

([k) ukxfjd lekt vkSj turkaf=kd n`f"Vdks.k % lksfo;r la?k osQ fo?kVu osQ ckn ^bfrgkl dk var* dhvoèkkj.kk lkeus vkbZA ÚSaflfl iQqD;q;kek us n ,UM vkWiQ fgLVªh uked ys[k fy[kkA ckn esa mUgksaus blh fo"k; ijn ,UM vkWiQ fgLVªh ,.M n ykLV eSu uked iqLrd fy[khA mUgksaus vius bl ys[k vkSj iqLrd esa dgk fd ekuoljdkj osQ vafre Lo:i* esa mnkjoknh çtkra=k dh LFkkiuk vkSj fot; ls fopkjksa dk bfrgkl lekIr gks x;kA ;g1950 osQ n'kd ls pyh vk jgh ^fopkjèkkjk dk var* fo"k; ij gks jgh cgl dk Hkh ifjpk;d gS ftldk tUe'khr;q¼ dh pje voLFkk esa vkSj if'pe esa lkE;okn osQ iru osQ lanHkZ esa gqvk FkkA if'peh mnkjoknh fo}kuksaus ;g ckr lkeus j[kh fd if'pe osQ vkS|ksfxd lekt esa gq, vkfFkZd fodkl ls jktuSfrd leL;k,¡ gy gks xb±tSls vktknh vkSj jkT; 'kfDr osQ ekeys] etnwjksa osQ vfèkdkj vkfn tks vkS|ksxhdj.k osQ lkFk&lkFk vkxs c<+sAvesfjdk osQ lekt'kkL=kh Msfu;y csy us viuh iqLrd esa crk;k fd bl fodkl osQ lanHkZ esa ,d fopkjkRedloZlEefr Fkh ;k jktuSfrd O;ogkj osQ eqís ij oSpkfjd erHksnksa dks LFkkfir dj fn;k x;k FkkA ;gk¡ ;g è;ku j[kukpkfg, fd bl HkweaMyhd`r nqfu;k esa vHkh Hkh lkjh ?kVuk,¡ if'peh iw¡thokn osQ bnZ&fxnZ ukp jgh gSA iw¡thokn dhrFkkdfFkr fot; osQ lanHkZ esa ukxfjd lekt vkSj turka=khdj.k osQ vè;;u lacaèkh n`f"Vdks.kksa esa ukxfjd lektdk egÙo c<+k vkSj vkèkqfud iw¡thokn fo'o esa O;fDrxr vfèkdkjksa dh j{kk dh ckr dh tkus yxhA

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blosQ vykok n`f"Vdks.k esa ,d vkSj egÙoiw.kZ ifjorZu vk;k ftlesa ukxfjd lekt vkSj turka=khdj.k osQ ç'udks osQUæ esa j[kk x;kA bl çdkj ,d rjiQ tgk¡ cktkj tura=k osQ fodkl osQ fy, if'peh iw¡thokn osQ ledkyhufgr ls lacafèkr vè;;u gq, rks nwljh vksj Lok;Ùkrk çkIr djus okys] tutkfr;ksa osQ vkanksyu] nfyr vkanksyu] fuEutkfr;ksa osQ vkanksyu] efgykvksa osQ vkanksyu] i;kZoj.k osQ vkanksyu tSls tu vkanksyuksa dks osQUæ esa j[kdj vè;;ufd, x,A ;s vkanksyu iw¡th osQ fgr vkSj tu vfèkdkjksa osQ chp gksus okyh VDdj osQ ifj.kke FksA ;s vFkZO;oLFkkHkweaMyh; iw¡th osQ ;qx esa vkus okys mnkjokn vkSj cnyko dk Hkh çfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA bl çdkj rqyukRedjktuSfrd fo'ys"k.k esa vfLerk] i;kZoj.k] tkrh;rk] fyax] uLy vkfn ljksdkjksa osQ u, vk;ke tqM+sA

lu~ 1980 osQ n'kd esa bfrgkl osQ var* osQ fopkj osQ lkFk&lkFk HkweaMyhdj.k dh ubZ ifj?kVuk lkeusvkbZA HkweaMyhdj.k ,slh ifjfLFkfr;ksa] oSKkfud çkS|ksfxdh] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuSfrd ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk ukegS tks iwjs fo'o dks bl çdkj ,d lw=k esa ck¡èkrk gS fd fo'o osQ ,d dksus esa gks jgh ?kVuk dk vljfo'o osQ nwljs dksus esa iM+rk gSA

(x) lwpuk] laxzg.k vkSj çlkj % lwpuk vkSj lapkj çkS|ksfxdh esa baVjusV vkSj oYMZ okbM osc tSls vHkwriwoZfodkl HkweaMyhdj.k osQ egÙoiw.kZ i{k vkSj fuèkkZjd rÙo gSaA blosQ dkj.k mRiknu] laxzg.k vkSj vk¡dM+s dkfo'ys"k.k vklku gks x;k gS vkSj bls iwjh nqfu;k esa rsth ls iQSyk;k tk ldrk gSA blls u osQoy vk¡dM+ks dhmiyCèkrk lgt gks xbZ cfYd dqN ,sls u, eqís vkSj fo"k; Hkh lkeus vk, tks jk"Vª&jkT; dh ifjfèk dk vfrØe.kdjrs gSaaA bu u, fo"k;ksa osQ dkj.k ledkyhu HkweaMyhd`r nqfu;k osQ jktuSfrd ifjos'k esa Hkh egÙoiw.kZ ifjorZuvk;kA lkekftd vkanksyu osQ laxBuksa vkSj dk;ZdrkZvksa dk iwjh nqfu;k esa iQSyk lEidZ bldk ç.kke gSA bl çdkjosQ lEidZ lw=k osQ dkj.k turkaf=kd fopkj Hkh rsth ls iQSysA f'k;kikl osQ nf{k.kh eSfDldu jkT; osQ tkiklfVLvkvkanksyu esa baVjusV dk ç;ksx fd;k x;k Fkk vkSj vius vfèkdkjksa] lkekftd U;k; vkSj çtkra=k osQ fy, fd, tkusokys la?k"kZ ls lcdks ifjfpr djkus osQ fy, HkweaMyh; tulapkj dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k FkkA ledkyhu fo"k;ksa esaekuokfèkdkjksa osQ laoèkZu vkSj lqj{kk tSls eqís lkeus vk, tks lwpuk osQ laxzg.k vkSj çlkj ij vkèkkfjr FksA

14-2 fodflr vkSj fodkl'khy lektksa dh vuqfØ;k (Responses from Developedand Developing Societies)

fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd çfØ;k dh çd`fr dks le>us osQ fy, buosQ jktuhfr i;kZoj.k (PoliticalEnvironment)] jktuhfrd lajpukvksa (Political Structures) vkSj jktuhfrd O;ogkj (Political Behaviour)dh tkudkjh vko';d gSA bu rÙoksa osQ foLr`r vè;;u osQ fy, budh jktuhfrd laLd`fr] fgr lewgksa] jktuhfrdnyksa] tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa] vfèkdkjhra=k] pquko&çfØ;k vkSj jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk ij è;ku osQafær djuk pkfg,A

jktuhfrd laLd`fr (Political Culture): jktuhfrd laLd`fr dk vFkZ gS] fdlh lekt dh laLd`fr osQ os i{k tksmldh jktuhfr dks çHkkfor djrs gSaA oSls laLd`fr dh ladYiuk cgqr foLr`r gS ftlosQ varxZr fdlh leqnk; esaçpfyr ewY;ksa vkSj ekU;rkvksa osQ vykok dyk&foèkk,a (Art Forms)] çrhd&fpÉ] mRlo&iwoZ] iwtk&ikB vkSjjgu&lgu dk <ax Hkh vk tkrk gS] ijUrq jktuhfrd laLd`fr dk vè;;u djrs le; bUgsa ge ewY;ksa vkSj ekU;rkvksadh vfHkO;fDr ekudj mUgha ij viuk è;ku osaQfær djrs gSaA jktuhfrd laLd`fr esa eq[;r% ,sls ewY; (Values)]ekU;rk,a (Beliefs) vkSj ekud (Norms) vk tkrs gSa tks 'kkld&oxZ] 'kkluμç.kkyh vkSj 'kklu çfØ;k dks oSèkrk(Legitimacy) çnku djrs gSa] vkSj muosQ lanHkZ esa O;fDr dh fLFkfr dks fuèkkZfjr djrs gSaA

fodkl'khy ns'kksa dh jktuhfrd laLd`fr osQ ckjs esa dksbZ lkekU; èkkj.kk ugha cukbZ tk ldrhA ge osQoy ,slheq[;&eq[; ço`fÙk;ksa dh ppkZ dj ldrs gSa ftuls budh jktuhfrd laLd`fr dk lkekU; ifjp; fey ldrk gSA

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rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'k lkèkkj.kr% fo'kky vkdkj osQ gSa] vkSj muesa fofoèk laLd`fr;ksa] Hkk"kkvksa] èkeks±] tkfr;ksa] bR;kfnls tqM+s gq, yksx jgrs gSaA bu ns'kksa esa jkT; dh fLFkfr cgqr lqn`<+ ugha gSA vr% og lekt ij cgqr xgjk çHkkoMkyus dh fLFkfr esa ugha gSA jkT; dh fLFkfr dks lqn`<+ djus osQ fy, bu ns'kksa esa jk"VªμfuekZ.k (Nation-Building)

dk lgkjk fy;k tkrk gSA jk"Vª&fuekZ.k osQ ekè;e ls iwjs jk"Vª osQ yksxksa osQ fy, fu"Bk (Loyalty) dk ,d gh osQaæfodflr djus dk ç;Ru fd;k tkrk gS rkfd os viuh fu"Bk dks vius&vius ladh.kZ lewgksa rd lfefr u jgusnsa cfYd laiw.kZ jk"Vª dks viuh fu"Bk dk osQaæ cuk ysaA fiQj jkT;&fuekZ.k osQ ekè;e ls 'kfDr dk ,slk osQaæ fodflrdjus dk ç;Ru fd;k tkrk gS tks laiw.kZ jkT; esa 'kkafr vkSj O;oLFkk dk;e dj losQ] vksj jkT; dh lqj{kkRed,oa dY;k.kdkjh lsokvksa dks ns'k osQ dksus&dksus rd igq¡pk losQA fo?kVudkjh 'kfDr;ksa] HkkSxksfyd nwfj;ksa] ifjoguvkSj lapkj osQ vi;kZIr lkèkuksa osQ dkj.k rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa ;g dke çk;% cgqr eqf'dy ls gksrk gSA

bu ns'kksa esa çkFkfed f'k{kk (Primary Education) osQ dk;ZØe bl <ax ls cuk, tkrs gSa fd yksx vius latkrh;lewg (Ethnic Group) ls vkxs c<+dj laiw.kZ jk"Vª osQ çfr fu"Bk ls çsfjr gksaA tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa (Mass Media)

dh lgk;rk ls yksxksa dks Lokèkhurk laxzke dh ohj xkFkkvksa dh ;kn fnykbZ tkrh gS rkfd muosQ eu esa ,drk dhHkkouk dk lapkj gksA ijarq mÙkj&vkSifuosf'kd jkT; (Post-Colonial State) esa yksxksa dh ubZ ekaxksa (Demands)

vkSj vk'kkvksa (Expectations) osQ dkj.k tks u, }a} (Conflicts) iSnk gks x, gSa] mUgsa 'kkar djus osQ fy, iqjkuh;knksa dk lgkjk i;kZIr fl¼ ugha gksrkA

mÙkjμvkSifuos'kd jkT; (Post-Colonial State) %& ,slk jkT; tks mifuos'kokn (Colonialism) osQ f'koaQts lsu;k&u;k eqDr gqvk gksA lkèkkj.kr% rhljh nqfu;k (Third world) osQ ns'kksa ;k fodkl'khy ns'kksa (Developing

Nations) dks bl Js.kh esa j[kk tkrk gSA

dbZ fl¼kardkj ;g ekurs gSa fd mÙkj&vkSifuosf'kd jkT; esa fons'kh fgrksa (Foreign Interests) dk çHkqRo lekIrgks tkrk gS] vr% mls tulkèkkj.k dh vk'kkvksa vkSj vkdka{kkvksa dh iwfrZ dk lkèku cuk;k tk ldrk gSA ijarq ;FkkFkZvuqHko ls bl ckr dh iqf"V ugha gksrhA ,sls jkT; dk lSU; laxBu (Military Organization) vkSj vfèkdkjhra=k(Bureaucracy) mifuos'koknh ijaijk osQ lkaps esa <+ys gksrs gSa tks tulkèkkj.k osQ neu esa vH;Lr gksrs gSaA muosQ euesa tulkèkkj.k osQ çfr lsok ;k lgkuqHkwfr dh Hkkouk jkrksa&jkr iSnk ugha dh tk ldrhA oSls ;s nksuksa xqV jktuhfrdusr`Ro (Political Leadership) osQ lsod osQ :i esa dk;Z djrs gSa] ijarq mÙkj&vkSifuosf'kd jkT; esa lkèkkj.kr%jktuhfrd usr`Ro dk pfj=k Hkh cgqr Åapk ugha jg tkrkA tks jktuhfrK Lokèkhurk&vkanksyu osQ nkSjku daèks&ls&daèkkfeykdj fons'kh rkdr ls yM+s Fks] vc os vkSj muosQ mÙkjkfèkdkjh lÙkk dh çfrLièkkZ esa u, iawthifr oxZ dh lgk;rkij vkfJr gks tkrs gSa] ;gka rd fd dqN jktuhfrK vijkèk&yksd (Underworld) ls lgk;rk ysus esa Hkh ladkspugha djrsA u;k iwathifr oxZ vius&vki esa i;kZIr 'kfDr'kkyh ugha gksrk] ijarq lSfud vkSj vfèkdkjhra=kh; xqVra=kksa(Oligrachies) osQ lkFk lk¡B&xk¡B djosQ og viuh 'kfDr dks lqn`<+ dj ysrk gSA ,slh gkyr esa cgqr lkjs jktuhfrKturk dks >wBs vk'oklu nsdj] muosQ fy, NksVh&NksVh fj;k;rsa çkIr djosQ ;k mudh èkkfeZd] lkaçnkf;d rFkklatkrh; (Ethnic) Hkkoukvksa dks mÙksftr djosQ muosQ oksV cVksjus dk tqxkM+ djrs gSaA blosQ vykok] fons'kh 'kfDr;kaHkh ,sls ns'k esa vius uo&mifuos'kokn (Neo-Colonialism) dk tky iQSykdj mldk 'kks"k.k djrh gSaA dqyfeykdj] mÙkj&vkSifuosf'kd jkT; esa tulkèkkj.k dh Lora=krk osQ fy, u, [krjs vkSj ubZ leL;k,a iSnk gks tkrhgSaA bUgsa lqy>k, cxSj mldh Lokèkhurk (Independecy) dks lkFkZd ugha fd;k tk ldrkA

bu ns'kksa esa tkfr (Caste)] tutkfr (Tribe) vkSj èkeZ (Religion) bR;kfn osQ vkèkkj ij ijaijkxr usr`Ro dks tksekU;rk nh tkrh gS] mls ns[krs gq, jk"Vªh; Lrj ij LFkkuh; usr`Ro osQ lkFk le>kSrk t:jh gks tkrk gSA cgqlkaLd`frdlekt (Multicultural Society) esa bl rjg dk le>kSrk dHkh&dHkh jk"Vªh; Lrj ij ljdkj pykus esa lgk;dfl¼ gksrk gSA Hkkjr esa jk"Vªh; Lrj ij tks feyh&tqyh ljdkjsa (Coalition Governments) pykbZ xbZ gSa] os blçcaèk dk mi;qDr mnkgj.k çLrqr djrh gSaA ukbthfj;k esa Hkh jk"Vªh; usrkvksa us LFkkuh; vehjksaμvFkkZr~ LFkkuh;èkkfeZd 'kkldksa osQ lkFk le>kSrk djosQ ljdkj pykus esa cgqr lkjh vM+puksa dks nwj dj fn;k gSA

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rhljh nqfu;k esa caèkqRo (Kinship) osQ vkèkkj ij yksxksa osQ eu esa tks Hkkouk,a ?kj dj pqdh gSa] os dHkh&dHkh vkèkqfudlaLFkkvksa dks Bhd rjg dke ugha djus nsrhA ;gka jktuhfrK vkSj ç'kklfud vfèkdkjh fu;eksa osQ fu"i{k ç;ksx esa;Fks"V rRijrk ugha fn[kkrs cfYd viuh 'kfDr dk ç;ksx djrs le; vius fj'rsnkjksa] vius xk¡o ;k dchys osQ yksxksa]vius fe=kksa vkSj leFkZdksa dks iQk;nk igq¡pkus dks rS;kj jgrs gSaA dqN yksx bl HkkbZ&Hkrhtkokn (Nepotism) vkSjHkz"Vkpkj (Corruption) dks lkekftd nkf;Ro osQ fuokZg dh laKk nsrs gSaA

dbZ ckn ijaijkxr Hkkouk,a vkfFkZd fodkl esa lgk;d Hkh fl¼ gksrh gSaA mnkgj.k osQ fy,] çkphu çkP; fopkjddUÝ;wf'k;l us ;g f'k{kk nh Fkh fd cM+ksa dks viuk mÙkjnkf;Ro laHkkyuk pkfg,] vkSj NksVksa dks osQoy vkKkikyudjuk pkfg,A bu f'k{kkvksa dh çsj.kk ls phu] rkboku] flaxkiqj vkSj nf{k.kh dksfj;k esa vkfFkZd fodkl ls tqM+hgqbZ xfrfofèk;ksa esa rsth vk xbZA dbZ ckj O;fDroknh n`f"Vdks.k dh rqyuk esa ijaijkoknh n`f"Vdks.k jktuhfr xfr'khyu(Political Mobilization) vkSj vkfFkZd lg;ksx (Economic Cooperation) osQ fy, vfèkd mi;qDr fl¼ gksrkgSA fodkl'khy ns'k bl {ks=k esa viuh jktuhfrd laLd`fr ls ;Fks"V ykHk mBk ldrs gSaA

fgr lewg (Interest Groups): fodkl'khy ns'k eq[;r% iajijkxr lekt jgs gSa tgka fgr Li"Vhdj.k (Interest

Articulation) vkSj fgr lewgu (Interest Aggregation) osQ fodkl dh xqatkb'k cgqr de FkhA yksxviuh&viuh tkfr] tutkfr] èkeZ] Hkk"kk] laLd`fr] bR;kfn osQ çfr bruh xgjh fu"Bk j[krs Fks fd ;gka O;fDrxrfgrksa osQ vkèkkj ij u, lewgksa osQ fuekZ.k dh laHkkouk,a ux.; FkhaA

,sls lewg tks vius lnL;ksa osQ fdlh leku fgr (Common Interest) dks è;ku esa j[kdj laxfBr fd, tkrs gSa]vkSj ml fgr dh flf¼ osQ fy, os fu;fer :i ls ;k le;≤ ij lkoZtfud uhfr dks çHkkfor djus dk ç;Rudjrs gSaA vkèkqfud lekt esa dkexkjksa (Workers)] O;kikfj;ksa (Traders)] miHkksDrkvksa (Consumers)] bR;kfnosQ cgqr lkjs fgr lewg ik, tkrs gSaA

tu fHkUu&fHkUu O;fDr vius leku fgr dks igpku dj fgr lewg osQ :i esa laxfBr gksrs gSa rks bl çfØ;k dkfgr lewgu (Interest Aggregation) dgk tkrk gSA tc dksbZ fgr lewg vius lnL;ksa dh Hkkoukvksa dks è;kuj[kdj mUgsa fuf'pr ekaxksa (Demands) osQ :i esa O;Dr djrk gS rks bl çfØ;k dks fgr Li"Vhdj.k (InterestArticulation) dgk tkrk gSA

Lokèkhurk osQ ckn bu ns'kksa esa vkèkqfudhdj.k (Modernization) dh tks çfØ;k 'kq: gqbZ] mlus ijaijkxrthou&'kSyh dh txg vkS|ksxhdj.k (Industrialization)] 'kgjhdj.k (Urbanization)] eqæk&fofue; (MonetaryExchanges)] vkSipkfjd f'k{kk (Formal Education) vkSj tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa (Mass Media) osQ foLr`r ç;ksxdks c<+kok fn;kA tc yksxksa dh vfHk:fp;ksa vkSj fgrksa esa fofoèkrk iSnk gksrh gS rks lekt esa rjg&rjg osQ laxBuμtSlsfd fdlku la?k (Peasant Unions)] etnwj la?k (Trade Unions)] okf.kT;eaMy (chambers of Commerce) vkSjO;olkf;d lkgp;Z (Professional Associations) mHkjdj lkeus vkrs gSaA tc ijLij&fojksèkh laxBuksa esa 'kfDr'kkyhoxks± dksμtSls fd tehankjksa vkSj O;kikfj;ksa dks vius fgrksa ij vkap vkrh fn[kkbZ nsrh gS rks os fdlkuksa vkSj dkexkjksaosQ vkanksyuksa (Movements) dks lekt&fojksèkh xfrfofèk;ksa (Antisocial Activities) dh laKk nsdj iqfyl dh lgk;rkls muosQ neu dk ç;Ru djrs gSaA Hkkjr esaμ fo'ks"kr% fcgkj çkar esa ,slh ?kVukvksa osQ dbZ mnkgj.k feyrs gSaA

dbZ fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa detksj oxks± (weaker Sections) dks vius fgr lewg cukus ls grksRlkg fd;k tkrk gSAvfèkdka'k ysfVu vejhdh ns'kksa esa ;g O;oLFkk dh xbZ gS fd vkSipkfjd lewgksa osQ fy, dkuwuh ekU;rk (LegalRecognition) çkIr djuk vfuok;Z gksxkA dqN ns'kksa esa rks vkSipkfjd lewgksa dks ljdkj osQ fu;a=k.k esa gh j[kk tkrkgSA eSfDldks dk lÙkk:<+ ny (baLVhV~;w'kuy fjoksY;w'kujh ikVhZ) vius&vkidks fdlkuksa] etnwjksa vkSj tulkèkkj.k dkxBcaèku ekurk gSA vr% og bu lc {ks=kksa osQ vkSipkfjd lewgksa ij vius opZLo dk nkok djrk gSA

dHkh&dHkh fgr lewg brus 'kfDr'kkyh gks tkrs gSa fd ljdkj Hkh mUgsa :"V djus dk tksf[ke ugha mBk ldrh]vU;Fkk ljdkj Lo;a vfLFkj gks tkrh gSA bZjku osQ 'kkg dk iyk;u (1979)] nf{k.k dksfj;k esa jk"Vªifr ikdZ dhgR;k (1979)] vkSj feÏ esa jk"Vªifr lknkr dh gR;k (1981) ,slh fLFkfr;ksa osQ mnkgj.k çLrqr djrs gSaA

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fgr lewgu ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\

jktuhfrd ny (Political Parties): 1980 vkSj 1990 osQ n'kdksa ls igys rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa nyh; ç.kkfy;ka(Party Systems) lkèkkj.kr% cgqr detksj jgh gSaA ns[kk tk, rks lÅnh vjc] drj] tkWMZu] cgjhu] dqoSr] vkSjHkwVku tSls jktra=kh; ns'kksa esa rks dksbZ nyh; ç.kkyh jgh gh ugha] vkSj ogka dh jktuhfr ij 'kkld ifjokjksa (Ruling

Families) dk çHkqRo jgk gSA tgk¡&tgk¡ lSfud 'kklu (Military Rule) LFkkfir gksrk gS] ogka çpfyr jktuhfrnyksa ij dkuwuh çfrcaèk yxk fn;k tkrk gSμtSlk fd ikfdLrku esa dbZ ckj gqvkA ijarq tc ogka vlSfud 'kklu(Civilian Rule) dh ekax tksj idM+us yxrh gS] rc jktuhfrd ny fiQj ls mHkjdj lkeus vk tkrs gSaA

dqN ns'kksa esa ,dnyh; ç.kkyh dks blfy, c<+kok fn;k tkrk gS rkfd og jk"Vªh; usrk osQ fy, ;Fks"V leFkZu tqVklosQ] vkSj mlosQ dikik=kksa esa in&iqjLdkj osQ forj.k dk lkèku cu losQA ykbcsfj;k esa jk"Vªifr nksb us viuh fLFkfrdks lqn`<+ djus osQ fy, us'kuy MseksozsQfVd ikVhZ* dk l`tu fd;k] gkykafd og blls viuk mís'; iwjk ugha djik;kA ckaXykns'k esa tujy bj'kkn us tkrh; ikVhZ* (People's Party) dk ltu fd;k rkfd og bldh enn ls lSfud'kkld (Military Ruler) dk pksyk mrkjdj vlSfud 'kkld (Civilian Ruler) dk pksyk igu losQA tSjs esajk"Vªifr ekscwrw us viuk fufoZokn usrRo LFkkfir djus osQ è;s; ls çR;sd ukxfjd dks viuh ikVhZ fjoksY;w'ku ikWiqyjewoesaV* dk lnL; cuk fy;kA

vusd fodkl'khy ns'kks esa Lokèkhurk ls igys jk"Vªoknh vkanksyuksa us ,sls çHkko'kkyh nyksa dks tUe fn;k tks LokèkhurkosQ ckn Hkh cus jgsA ijarq ,sls ny nsj&losj detksj iM+ x,] D;ksafd os yksxksa dh ubZ&ubZ vk'kkvksa dh iwfrZ ughadj ik,A ?kkuk esa Dokesa uØwek osQ iru osQ lkFk mldh ^dUosa'ku ihiYl ikVhZ* Hkh yqIr gks xbZA

dbZ ns'kksa esa jk"Vªoknh vkanksyu osQ nkSjku tks çHkko'kkyh ny mHkjdj lkeus vk, Fks] os Lokèkhurk osQ ckn blfy,detksj iM+ x, D;ksafd os iqjkuh çfrHkkvksa osQ tksM+ dh ubZ çfrHkk,a ugha <wa<+ ik,A Hkkjr esa dqN gn rd bafM;uus'kuy dk¡xzsl* dk ;gh gky gqvk gSA

dqN ns'kks a esa ;g lkspk tkrk gS fd ns'k osQ vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ fy, ,d gh ny dk vfLrRo lcls mi;qDrgksxkA rat+kfu;k osQ jk"Vªifr U;sjsjs us ,sls ,d gh ny dk leFkZu fd;k] ijarq vc ogka vusd ny vfLrRoesa vk pqosQ gSaA

dbZ ns'kksa esa ,dny&çèkku ç.kkyh (One -party Dominant System) osQ foy; osQ ckn cgqnyh; ç.kkyh(Multiparty System) dk vkfoHkkZo gqvk gS] tSlk fd Hkkjr esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA bu ns'kksa dh ljdkjsa ,slslqfoèkktud xBcaBu (Convenent Coalitions) fl¼ gqbZ gSa ftudk è;s; lÙkk dks gfFk;kuk Fkkμ fdlh rjg dhfopkjèkkjkRed ,drk (Ideological Solidarity) dk ifjp; nsuk ugha FkkA

bDdhloha 'krkCnh osQ vkjaHk esa vusd ysfVu vejhdh ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd nyksa dh çfrLièkkZ lÙkk:<+ fof'k"V oxks±(Ruling Elites) osQ Hkhrj mnkjoknh vkSj vuqnkjoknh xqVksa (Liberal And Conservative Factions) dh ijLijçfrLièkkZ dk laosQr nsrh Fkh_ loZlkèkkj.k (Masses) dks bl çfrLièkkZ ls ckgj j[kk x;k FkkA osustq,yk ,dμek=k,slk ns'k gS tgka 1950 osQ n'kd osQ ckn lgh vFkZ esa nyh; çfrLièkkZ dk okrkoj.k jgk D;ksafd ogka dh 'kklu&ç.kkyhvkSj vFkZ&O;oLFkk rsy dh vk; osQ lgkjs fVdh jgh gSA

eSfDldksa esa lÙkk:<+ ny (baLVhV~;w'kuy fjoksY;w'kujh ikVhZ) yksd&er dks vius o'k esa j[kus osQ fy, lekpkj&i=kksarFkk tulaidZ osQ vU; lkèkuksa ij çfrcaèk yxkrk jgk gSA tc blls dke ugha pyrk] rc og lhèks gh eri=kksaesa èkkaèkyh (Ballot Rigging) ij mrj vkrk gSA

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tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa dh Hkwfedk (Role of the Mass Media): tulaidZ osQ lkèku&lekpkj&i=k] if=kdk,a]jsfM;ks] Vsyhfotu] bR;kfn vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ egÙoiw.kZ midj.k gSaA rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa ;s lkèku Hkh cgqrfodflr ugha gSaA lekpkj&i=k lkèkkj.kr% fof'k"Voxks± osQ miHkksx dh oLrq gSa] vkSj budk forj.k vfèkdka'kr% 'kgjksard lhfer gSA buosQ laikndksa dks lkèkkj.kr% dBksj vfHkospu (Strict Censorship) dk lkeuk rks ugha djuk iM+rk]ijarq fiQj Hkh os loZFkk fuMj ugha jg ikrsA ;fn çHkko'kkyh oxZ muls #"V gks tk,a rks mUgsa vius in ls gVk;k tkldrk gSA 1970 osQ n'kd esa vts±Vhuk vkSj fpyh esa vusd i=kdkjksa dks ;a=k.kk nh xbZ] dkjkokl fn;k x;k] ;k mudhthou&yhyk gh lekIr dj nh xbZA

fodkl'khy ns'kksa osQ lekpkj&i=kksa esa eq[;r% 'kgjksa osQ gh lekpkj Nkis tkrs gSa_ xk¡oksa dh n'kk ij fo'ks"k è;kuugha fn;k tkrkA rat+kfu;k esa 1980 osQ n'kd esa xk¡o&xk¡o esa eysfj;k iQSy x;k Fkk] ijarq ogka osQ lekpkj&i=kksa usbl ?kVuk dks lekpkj dk fo"k; cukus ;ksX; ugha le>kA dqN Hkh gks] Hkkjr esa xk¡oksa dh bruh mis{kk ugha dh tkrhA;gka xk¡oksa esa gksus okyh ?kVukvksaμfo'ks"kr% nq?kZVukvksa vkSj çkd`frd vkinkvksa osQ lekpkjksa dks tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksaesa ;Fks"V LFkku fn;k tkrk gS] vkSj lkekftd vU;k; dh ?kVukvksa dks rks [kkst&[kkst dj vkSj [kksn&[kksn dj çdk'kesa yk;k tkrk gSA

vÚ+hdk egk}hi esa 1600 Hkk"kk,a vkSj cksfy;ka çpfyr gSaA buesa T;knkrj cksfy;ka gh gSa tks cksyh tkrh gSa] fy[kdjugha Hksth tkrhA vr% nwj&njkt osQ {ks=kksa esa ogka jsfM;ks ls lekpkj igq¡pkuk lqfoèkktud jgrk gSA lkèkkj.kr% lkjhlwpuk cM+s&cM+s 'kgjksa ls xk¡oksa dh vksj çokfgr gksrh gS_ xk¡oksa ls 'kgjksa dh vksj dksbZ lwpuk çokfgr ugha gksrhAvc fodkl'khy ns'kks esa Vsyhfotu dk fjokt Hkh c<+ pyk gSA blls xk¡o osQ yksxksa dks 'kgjh thou dh rM+d&HkM+dosQ n`'; ns[kus dks feyrs gSa ftlls muosQ eu esa Hkh jgu&lgu osQ Åaps Lrj dh vkdka{kk tkx tkrh gSA vr% osljdkj osQ ikl fuR; ubZ ekaxsa Hkstus yxrs gSaA blls ljdkj dk dke T;knk eqf'dy gks tkrk gSA

ysfVu vejhdk vkSj vU; fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa Vsyhfot+u ij 'kq:&'kq: esa ,sls yksdfç; dk;ZØe fn[kk, tkus yxstks vejhdk esa rS;kj fd, tkrs FksA vc osQcy Vsyhfot+u osQ foLrkj osQ dkj.k vejhdk vkSj ;wjksi osQ mUur ns'kksaosQ dk;ZØe vkSj lekpkj lhèks gh rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa osQ Vsyhfotu ij ns[ks tkrs gSaA blls lwpuk osQ HkweaMyhdj.k(Globalization of Information) dks c<+kok feyk gSA lkFk gh foKkiu (Advertising) dk O;olk; Hkh mUur gksx;k gSA miHkksDrk&oLrqvksa dh ekax c<+h gS_ euksjatu osQ ,d&tSls <ax vkSj ,d&tSlh thou&'kSyh dk foLrkj gqvkgSA bl çofÙk us dqN gn rd if'pe osQ lkaLdfrd lkezkT;okn (Cultural Imperialism) dks Hkh c<+kok fn;k gSA

lkaLd`frd lkezkT;okn (Cultural Imperialism): og fLFkfr ftlesa dksbZ 'kfDr'kkyh jk"Vª lkaLd`frd midj.kksa(tSls fd fopkjksa] thou&'kSyh] lkfgR;] dykd`fr;ksa vkSj nwjn'kZu&dk;ZØeksa) dh lgk;rk ls nwljs ns'kksa osQ yksxksaosQ eu ij vius lkaLd`frd opZLo dh Nki NksM+rk gSA ;g nwljs ns'kksa ij çHkqRo (Domination) LFkkfir djus dk,slk xw<+ rjhdk gS ftlesa lSfud] vkfFkZd ;k jktuhfrd 'kfDr dk ç;ksx ugha fd;k tkrkA

lwpuk osQ çlkj osQ lkFk&lkFk bu lkèkuksa osQ ekè;e ls lkekftd thou dh tfVy leL;kvksa dks tulkèkkj.k osQè;ku esa yk;k tk jgk gS ftlls mlesa ubZ rjg dh ltxrk (Awareness) vk xbZ gSA vr% os jktuhfr esa vfèkdlfØ; gks x, gSa_ vkSj ljdkj ij T;knk ncko Mkyus yxs gSaA mudh ubZ&ubZ ekaxksa dks iwjk djus esa ljdkj dksvius lhfer lalkèkuksa osQ dkj.k cgqr eqf'dy dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA vr% ;g t:jh gks tkrk gS fd fodklosQ dk;ZØeksa esa yksxksa dh lgHkkfxrk (Participation) c<+kbZ tk,A ,sls gky esa ljdkj tu&f'k{kk dks c<+kok nsusosQ fy, tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa dk foLr`r ç;ksx djrh gSA bl rjg ifjokj&fu;kstu] LoPNrk] lk{kjrk] jksxksa dhjksdFkke vkSj lkekftd dqjhfr;ksa osQ mUewyu ls tqM+s gq, lans'k tu&tu rd igq¡pk, tkrs gSaA Hkkjr dk iYl iksfy;ksvfHk;ku ,slh xfrfofèk;ksa dk Toyar mnkgj.k gSA

vfèkdkjhra=k dh vfHko`fÙk (Attitude of Bureaucracy): laj{kd vfèkdkjhra=k (Guardian Bureaucray) ,slkvfèkdkjhra=k (Bureaucracy) tks vius&vkidks jkT; dh fLFkjrk (Stability) vkSj v[kaMrk (Integrity) osQ eq[;

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laj{kd osQ :i esa ns[krk gSA pquko dh jktuhfr (electoral Politics) osQ dkj.k tc ckj&ckj ljdkjsa cnyrh gSa];gka rd fd dbZ ckj fLFkj ljdkj cuus esa vM+pu vk tkrh gS] rc lja{kd vfèkdkjhra=k 'kklu dk lkjk mÙkjnkf;RoLo;a laHkky ysrk gS] vkSj ,sls lc dk;Z djus yxrk gS tks fuokZfpr ljdkj dks djus pkfg,A jktuhfrd mFky&iqFkyosQ le; tc dgha ljdkj èkjk'kk;h gks tkrh gS] ogka laj{kd vfèkdkjhra=k vjktdrk (Anarchy) ugha iQSyus nsrkcfYd ubZ ljdkj LFkkfir gksus rd ljdkj osQ lkjs dke&dkt pyrk gSA ,slh fLFkfr cgqèkk rhljh nqfu;k (Third

world) osQ ns'kks esa ikbZ tkrh gSA rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'k oSls rks ijaijkxr lekt gSa] ijarq mifuos'koknh nkSj esa ,slscgqr lkjs ns'kksa osQ 'kkldksa us ogka vkèkqfud vfèkdkjhra=kh; lajpuk,a (Modern Bureaucratic Sturtures) LFkkfirdj nh FkhA vr% bu ns'kksa dks Lokèkhurk osQ le; tks ç'kklfud O;oLFkk fojklr esa feyh] og buosQ fy, cgqrmi;ksxh fl¼ gqbZA ;gka rd fd jktuhfrd vfLFkjrk (Political Instability) osQ nkSj esa ;s vfèkdkjhra=k 'kklu dklkjk dke laHkky ysrs gSaA ,sls vfèkdkjhra=k dks laj{kd vfèkdkjhra=k (Guardian Bureaucracy) dgk tkrk gSAmnkgj.k osQ fy, ikfdLrku esa dbZ ckj jktuhfrd mFky&iqFky osQ nkSj esa ogka dk vfèkdkjhra=k ljdkj dk lkjkdke laHkkyrk jgk gSA

Hkkjrh; ç'kklfud lsok (Indian Administrative Service) dk <kapk Hkh mifuos'koknh nkSj dh nsu jgk gSA ;glsok bafM;u flfoy lfoZl* (Indian civil Service: ICS) dh mÙkjkfèkdkjh gS ftls fczfV'k jkt esa LFkkfir fd;kx;k FkkA mu fnuksa bls iQkSyknh <kaPkk* (Steel Frame) dgk tkrk FkkA vr% Hkkjrh; ç'kklfud lsok* vkt Hkh i;kZIrlqn`<+ gS] vkSj blus dbZ ckj laj{kd vfèkdkjhra=k* dh Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ gSA ;gka vfèkdkjhra=k lkèkkj.kr% jktuhfrdn`f"V ls rVLFk (Neutral) jgk gSA vr% ckj&ckj osQ jktuhfrd ifjorZuksa osQ ckotwn blus viuh ;g igpku dk;ej[kh gS] vkSj ubZ lkekftd uhfr;ksa dks dk;kZfUor djus esa cjkcj dk;Z&dq'kyrk dk ifjp; fn;k gSA

dksfj;k esa 1910 ls 1945 rd ogka osQ tkikuh 'kkldksa us jktuhfrd vkSj ç'kklfud ç.kkyh dk laiw.kZ fu;a=k.k viusgkFk esa j[kk Fkk] vkSj mlesa dksfj;k osQ ewy fuokfl;ksa dh Hkwfedk dks ux.; cuk fn;k FkkA nwljs fo'o ;q¼(1939&45) esa tc tkikfu;ksa dh ijkt; gqbZ] vkSj os dksfj;k ls fonk gks x, rks ogka osQ jktuhfrd vkSj ç'kklfudthou esa 'kwU; iSnk gks x;kA

bèkj dqN ekeyksa esa rhljh nqfu;k dk vfèkdkjhra=k vkèkqfud ekudksa (Modern Norms) osQ vuq:i ugha <y ik;kAbu ns'kksa osQ ijaijkxr lekt caèkqRo (Kinship) osQ caèkuksa ls c¡èks FksA ;s caèku vfèkdkjhra=k ij Hkh gkoh jgsA vÚhdkesa jktuhfrKksa] ç'kklfud vfèkdkfj;ksa rFkk lSfud vfèkdkfj;ksa ls ;g vk'kk dh tkrh gS fd os viuh lÙkk(Authority) dk ç;ksx djrs le; vius ifjokjksa dks iQk;nk igq¡pk,axsA bldk ifj.kke ;g gqvk gS fd ogka osQlekt esa HkkbZ&Hkrhtkokn vkSj ç'kklfud Hkz"Vkpkj dk cksyckyk gSA ukbthfj;k esa çR;sd jkT;&Økafr (Coup) osQckn cgqr cM+s iSekus ij iqjkus vfèkdkfj;ksa dks gVk;k x;k gSA phu osQ ç'kklu&ra=k esa Hkh blh rjg dk foLr`rHkz"Vkpkj iQSyk gqvk gSA

bruk gh ugha] rhljh nqfu;k esa ç'kklfud vfèkdkfj;ksa dks vius&vius {ks=k (Region)] tkfr (Caste) vkSj tutkfr(Tribe) dk LokHkkfod çfrfufèk ekuk tkrk gSA vr% os ;g vuqHko djrs gSa fd vius&vius lewg dks lgk;rkvkSj ykHk igq¡pkuk mudk nkf;Ro (Obligation) gSA bl n`f"Vdks.k us ^çfrfufèk vfèkdkjhra=k* (Representative

Bureaucracy) osQ fopkj dks c<+kok fn;k gSA

çfrfufèk vfèkdkjhra=k (Representative): ;g fopkj fd rhljh nqfu;k (Third World) osQ ns'kksa esa vfèkdkjhra=k(Bureaucracy) osQ lnL; blosQ varxZr vius&vius {ks=k (Region) tkfr (Caste)] tutkfr (Tribe)] Hkk"kk(Language) ;k èkeZ (Religion) osQ yksxksa dk çfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA vr% bu lewgksa osQ yksx vius bu rFkkdfFkrçfrfufèk;ksa ls ;g vk'kk djrs gSa fd os mudh leL;kvksa ij fo'ks"k è;ku nsaxs vkSj mudh lgk;rk djsaxsA bu vk'kkvksadks iwjk djuk ,d rjg ls vfèkdkjhra=k osQ lnL;ksa dk dÙkZO; gks tkrk gSA

ns[kk tk, rks çfrfufèk vfèkdkjhra=k dk fopkj vkSipkfjd n`f"V ls fdlh rjg osQ vfèkdkj ;k dÙkZO; dk l`tu

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ugha djrkA ijarq rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esaμtgka dh fo'kky tula[;k rjg&rjg osQ lewgksa esa c¡Vh gS vkSjvfèkdkjhra=k osQ lnL; Hkh HkkokRed Lrj ij vius ewy lewg ls tqM+s jgrs gSa] tgka lalkèkuksa (Resources) vkSjvoljksa (Opportunities) dk furkar vHkko gS] ogka ;g fopkj tulkèkkj.k dks dqN lkaRouk nsrk gSA vfèkdkjhra=kosQ ckjs esa ;g fopkj blosQ çfl¼ fl¼kardkj eSDl oscj (1864&1920) dh ladYiuk ls esy ugha [kkrkA

blosQ vykok] rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa dh fo'kky tula[;k vkSj O;kid fuèkZurk osQ dkj.k ogka ljdkjh {ks=k esajkst+xkj osQ volj c<+kus dh ekax yxkrkj mBkbZ tkrh gSA mls iwjk djus osQ fy, fuEu Lrjksa ij vko';drkls vfèkd deZpkjh j[k fy, tkrs gSa] vkSj mudh ;ksX;rk ij Hkh fo'ks"k cy ugha fn;k tkrk gS vkSj ç'kkluesa ykyi+Qhrk'kkgh* (Redtapism) dk cksyckyk gks tkrk gSA rhljh nqfu;k osQ ç'kklfud O;ogkj dh ;s fo'ks"krk,¡vfèkdkjhra=k osQ dkuwuh&rdZlaxr çfr:i (Legal-Rational Model) ls cgqr nwj tk iM+rh gSa ftldh ladYiukeSDl oscj (1864&1920) us çLrqr dh FkhA

fiQj] fodkl'khy ns'kksa osQ ç'kklfud vfèkdkjh T;knkrj fu;eksa vkSj çfØ;kvksa (Rules and Procedures) dkç;ksx vius mÙknkf;Ro ls cpus osQ fy, djrs gSa] yksd ç'kklu osQ y{;ksa dh iwfrZ osQ fy, ughaA ;g vfHko`fÙklkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd fodkl dh vko';drkvksa osQ foijhr fl¼ gksrh gSA bu lc =kqfV;ksa dks nwj djus osQfy, bu ns'kksa esa foèkkueaMy (Legislature) vkSj U;k;ikfydk (Judiciary) ls tqM+s gq, lpsr fof'k"V oxks± dksvfèkd lfØ; Hkwfedk fuHkkuh gksxh] vkSj i=kdkjksa (the Press) rFkk lkekftd vkanksyuksa (Social Movements)osQ dk;ZdÙkkZvksa dks fujarj ltx jguk gksxkA

pquko&çfØ;k (Election Process): rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa yksdra=k dks cgqr ljkgk tkrk gSA ijarq ogka mnkjyksdra=k (Liberal Democracy) dh laLFkk,a foLr`r :i esa fodflr ugha gks ikbZ gSA osQoy Hkkjr esa LokèkhurkosQ ckn yxkrkj fu;fer :i ls pquko gksrs jgs gSaA vU; ns'kksa esa ;s laLFkk,a FkksM+s&FkksM+s le; rd gh çpfyrjg ikbZ gSaA mnkgj.k osQ fy, ikfdLrku esa 1984 osQ pquko tujy ft;k&my&gd osQ vfèkuk;ra=k dh iqf"V osQfy, djk, x,] vkSj 2002 esa jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, tujy ijost eq'kjZiQ dh oSèkrk LFkkfir djus osQ fy, pqukodjk, x,A E;kaekj (cekZ) esa rks lSfud 'kklu us pquko dks et+kd gh cuk fn;kA ogka yacs lSfud 'kklu osQckn 1990 esa vke pquko djk, x, ftuesa ûs'kuy yhx i+QkWj MseksØslh* dks Hkkjh cgqer ls fot;h feyh] ijarqlSfud 'kklu us mls lÙkk lkSiusa ls budkj dj fn;kA

eSfDldks esa lkèkkj.kr% ,d gh ny osQ 'kklu dks dk;e j[kus osQ fy, pquko djk, x, gSa] vkSj buesa ckj&ckjfj'or (Bribery) vkSj cy&ç;ksx (Coercion) dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gSA osQU;k esa ,dnyh; 'kklu dks lqn<+ djusosQ fy, pquko osQ le; ,d gh ny osQ mEehnokjksa esa çfrLièkkZ (Competition) dh vuqefr nh xbZ gSA osQoy 1980vkSj 1990 osQ n'kdksa esa ysfVu vejhdk vkSj vÚhdk osQ dqN fgLlksa esa oLrqr% çfrLièkkZRed pquko djk, x,gSaA

fiQj] tgka&tgka çfrLièkkZRed pquko djk, x,] ogka Hkh çfrLièkkZ dk mís'; dqN fo'ks"k O;fDr;ksa] latkrh;lewgksa (Ethnic Groups) vkSj leqnk;ksa (Communities) dks ykHk igq¡pkuk jgk gS] fdlh fopkjèkkjk (Ideology)dks c<+kok nsuk ugha jgkA

dqN ns'kksa esa iSls nsdj <sj lkjs oksV cVksj fy, x, gSa] tSls fd 1985 esa fi+QfyihUl esa jk"Vªifr ekdksZl osQ'kklu&dky esa gqvkA 1986 esa mUgsa Hkz"Vkpkj osQ vkjksi esa vius in ls gVk fn;k x;kA

bu lc =kqfV;ksa osQ ckotwn rhljh nqfu;k esa pquko osQaæh; ljdkj vkSj LFkkuh; 'kklu osQ chp laidZ dh dM+hdh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSa] vkSj tula[;k esa jktuhfr ltxrk (Political Awareness) dks c<+kok nsrs gSaA varr% ;spquko fof'k"Voxks± osQ 'kklu dks if'peh txr~ vkSj varjkZ"Vª vfHkdj.kksa (International Agencies) dh n`f"V

esa oSèk Bgjkus dk dke djrs gSa tks fd fodkl'khy ns'kksa osQ fodkl esa vkfFkZd lgk;rk çnku djrs gSaA

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1- fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa jkT; dh fLFkfr dks lqn`<+ djus osQ fy, bu ns'kksa esa ---------------------------- dklgkjk fy;k tkrk gSA

2- rhljh nqfu;k esa ------------------ osQ vkèkkj ij yksxksa osQ eu esa dqN fof'k"V èkkj.kk,¡ ?kj dj pqdhgksrh gSa tks vkèkqfud laLFkkvksa osQ dke esa ckèkk mRiUu djrh gSA

3- fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa dbZ ckj ------------------------------ vkfFkZd fodkl esa lgk;d Hkh fl¼ gksrh gSaA

4- rhljh nqfu;k esa ------------------------- osQUæh; ljdkj vkSj LFkkuh; 'kklu osQ chp laidZ dh dM+hdh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA

5- rhljh nqfu;k osQ dqN lkE;oknh ns'kksa us tuxfr'khyu osQ ekè;e ls ------------------- çkIr djus dkç;Ru fd;kA


lwpuk vkSj lapkj çkS|ksfxdh esa baVjusV vkSj oYMZ okbM osc tSls vHkwriwoZ fodkl HkweaMyhdj.k osQ egÙoiw.kZi{k vkSj fuèkkZjd rÙo gSA blosQ dkj.k mRiknu] laxzg.k vkSj vk¡dM+s dk fo'ys"k.k vklku gks x;k gS vkSjbls iwjh nqfu;k esa rsth ls iQSyk;k tk ldrk gSA

Lokèkhurk osQ ckn bu ns'kksa esa vkèkqfudhdj.k (Modernization) dh tks çfØ;k 'kq: gqbZ] mlus ijaijkxrthou&'kSyh dh txg vkS|ksxhdj.k (Industrialization)] 'kgjhdj.k (Urbanization)] eqæk&fofue;(Montetary Exchanges)] vkSipkfjd f'k{kk (Formal Education) vkSj tulaidZ osQ lkèkuksa (Mass Media)

osQ foLrr ç;ksx dks c<+kok fn;kA tc yksxksa dh vfHk#fp;ksa vkSj fgrksa esa fofoèkrk iSnk gksrh gS rks lekt esarjg&rjg osQ laxBuμtSls fd fdlku la?k (Peasant Unions)] etnwj la?k (Trade Unions)] okf.kT;eaMy(chambers of Commerce) vkSj O;kolkf;d lkgp;Z (Professional Associations) mHkjdj lkeus vkrs gSaA

dHkh&dHkh fgr lewg brus 'kfDr'kkyh gks tkrs gSa fd ljdkj Hkh mUgsa :"V djus dk tksf[ke ugha mBk ldrh]vU;Fkk ljdkj Lo;a vfLFkj gks tkrh gSA bZjku osQ 'kkg dk iyk;u (1979)] nf{k.k dksfj;k esa jk"Vªifr ikdZdh gR;k (1979)] vkSj feÏ esa jk"Vªifr lknkr dh gR;k (1981) ,slh fLFkfr;ksa osQ mnkgj.k çLrqr djrs gSaA

1980 vkSj 1990 osQ n'kdksa ls igys rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa nyh; ç.kkfy;ka (Party Systems) lkèkkj.kr%cgqr detksj jgh gSaA ns[kk tk, rks lÅnh vjc] drj] tkWMZu] cgjhu] dqoSr] vkSj HkwVku tSls jktra=kh; ns'kksaesa rks dksbZ nyh; ç.kkyh jgh gh ugha] vkSj ogka dh jktuhfr ij 'kkld ifjokjksa (Ruling Families) dkçHkqRo jgk gSA tgka&tgka lSfud 'kklu (Military Rule) LFkkfir gksrk gS] ogka çpfyr jktuhfrd nyksa ijdkuwuh çfrcaèk yxk fn;k tkrk gSμtSlk fd ikfdLrku esa dbZ ckj gqvkA ijarq tc ogka vlSfud 'kklu(Civilian Rule) dh ekax tksj idM+us yxrh gS] rc jktuhfrd ny fiQj ls mHkjdj lkeus vk tkrs gSaA

vusd fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa Lokèkhurk ls igys jk"Vªoknh vkanksyuksa us ,sls çHkko'kkyh nyksa dks tUe fn;k tksLokèkhurk osQ ckn Hkh cus jgsA ijarq ,sls ny nsj&losj detksj iM+ x,] D;ksafd os yksxksa dh ubZ&ubZ vk'kkvksadh iwfrZ ugha dj ik,A ?kkuk esa Dokesa uØwek osQ iru osQ lkFk mldh dkWUosa'ku ihiYl ikVhZ* Hkh yqIr gks xbZA

dbZ ns'kksa esa ,dny&çèkku ç.kkyh (One -party Dominant System) osQ foy; osQ ckn cgqnyh; ç.kkyh(Multiparty System) dk vkfoHkkZo gqvk gS] tSlk fd Hkkjr esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA

tulaidZ osQ lkèku&lekpkj&i=k] if=kdk,a] jsfM;ks] Vsyhfotu] bR;kfn vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ egÙoiw.kZ midj.kgSaA rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa ;s lkèku Hkh cgqr fodflr ugha gSaA lekpkj&i=k lkèkkj.kr% fof'k"V oxks± osQ miHkksxdh oLrq gSa] vkSj budk forj.k vfèkdka'kr% 'kgjksa rd lhfer gSA

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Hkkjrh; ç'kklfud lsok (Indian Administrative Service) dk <kapk Hkh mifuos'koknh nkSj dh nsu jgk gSA;g lsok bafM;u flfoy lfoZl* (Indian civil Service: ICS) dh mÙkjkfèkdkjh gS ftls fczfV'k jkt esa LFkkfirfd;k x;k FkkA mu fnuksa bls iQkSyknh <kaPkk* (Steel Frame) dgk tkrk FkkA vr% Hkkjrh; ç'kklfud lsok*vkt Hkh i;kZIr lqn`<+ gS] vkSj blus dbZ ckj ^laj{kd vfèkdkjhra=k* dh Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ gSaA

;g fopkj fd rhljh nqfu;k (Third World) osQ ns'kksa esa vfèkdkjhra=k (Bureaucracy) osQ lnL; blosQ varxZrvius&vius {ks=k (Region) tkfr (Caste)] tutkfr (Tribe)] Hkk"kk (Language) ;k èkeZ (Religion) osQyksxksa dk çfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA vr% bu lewgksa osQ yksx vius bu rFkkdfFkr çfrfufèk;ksa ls ;g vk'kk djrsgSa fd os mudh leL;kvksa ij fo'ks"k è;ku nsaxs vkSj mudh lgk;rk djsaxsA

rhljh nqfu;k osQ ns'kksa esa yksdra=k dks cgqr ljkgk tkrk gSA ijarq ogka mnkj yksdra=k (Liberal Democracy)dh laLFkk,a foLr`r :i ls fodflr ugha gks ikbZ gSaA osQoy Hkkjr esa Lokèkhurk osQ ckn yxkrkj fu;fer :ils pquko gksrs jgs gSaA vU; ns'kksa esa ;s laLFkk,a FkksM+s&FkksM+s le; rd gh çpfyr jg ikbZ gSaA mnkgj.k osQ fy,ikfdLrku esa 1984 osQ pquko tujy ft;k&my&gd osQ vfèkuk;ra=k dh iqf"V osQ fy, djk, x,] vkSj 2002esa jk"Vªifr in osQ fy, tujy ijost eq'kjZiQ dh oSèkrk LFkkfir djus osQ fy, pquko djk, x,A

eSfDldksa esa lkèkkj.kr% ,d gh ny osQ 'kklu dks dk;e j[kus osQ fy, pquko djk, x, gSa] vkSj buesa ckj&ckjfj'or (Bribery) vkSj cy&ç;ksx (Coercion) dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gSA

bu lc =kqfV;ksa osQ ckotwn rhljh nqfu;k esa pquko oasQæh; ljdkj vkSj LFkkuh; 'kklu osQ chp laidZ dh dM+hdh Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA


ykyiQhrk'kkgh % ykyiQhrs ls caèkh iQkbyksa dks èkhjs&èkhjs vkxs ljdkus dh ço`fÙkA

rVLFk % xqVckth ls vyx jgukA


1- Hkw&e.Myhdj.k vkSj rqyukRed jktuhfr osQ var%lEcaèkksa ij çdk'k Mkfy,A

2- fodflr vkSj fodkl'khy lektksa esa Hkw&e.Myhdj.k dh vuqfØ;k dk fo'ys"k.k dhft,A

3- fodflr vkSj fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa jktuhfrd lkoZHkkSfedj.k ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A

mÙkj %& Lo&ewY;kadu (Answer: Self-Assessment)

(1) jk"Vª fuekZ.k vkSj jkT; fuekZ.k (2) caèkqRo (3) ijaijkxr Hkkouk,¡(4) pquko (5) vkfFkZd lao`f¼



2. rqyukRed jktuhfrμts-lh- tkSgjh] LVfy±x ifCy'ktZ izk-fy-] fnYyhA3- rqyukRed jktuhfr ,oa jktuhfrd laLFkk,¡μlh-ch- xsuk] fodkl ifCyf'kax gkml izk-fy- valkjh

jksM] fnYyhA4- rqyukRed jktuhfr dh :ijs[kkμ vkse izdk'k xkck] e;wj isij cSDl] uks,MkA

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Comparative Politics and Governmentebooks.lpude.in/arts/ba/year_2/DPOL202_COMPARATIVE...Constitutional Structure - Judiciary: US Supreme Court and Judicial Review, Judicial system