comparative anatomy short reviewer

8/12/2019 comparative anatomy short reviewer

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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY LECTURE NOTES

LECTURE 1 Origin and DiversityLECTURE 2 Diversity and PhylogenyLECTURE 3 Diversity and PhylogenyLECTURE 4 Biological DesignLECTURE 5 Lie !istoryLECTURE " The integ#$ent

LECTURE % Cranial s&eletonsLECTURE ' Post(cranial s&eletonsLECTURE ) *#sclesLECTURE 1+ The Res,iratory -yste$LECTURE 11 The Circ#latory -yste$LECTURE 12 The Digestive -yste$LECTURE 13 The Urogenital -yste$LECTURE 14 The Endocrine -yste$LECTURE 15 The .ervo#s -yste$LECTURE 1" -enseory organs

Introduction, Origin and Diversit

Co$,arative anato$y is a s#/0ect a/o#t or$s their #nctions and their evol#tion

#nctionstr#ct#res si$ilar dierent

si$ilar ,hylogenyconvergence,arallelis$

evol#tion

dierent inde,endent evol#tionconvergence

nothing to co$,are

s *ayr ,#t it /iology is a $it#re o t6o 7#ite distinct real$s8 #nctional /iology is red#ca/le tothe level o ,hysical sciences9 6hile historical /iology is not red#ca/le9 it has to /e considered in ter$s o

,hylogeny and the #ni7#e evol#tionary history o the gro#, /eing st#died:enerally disci,lines in /iology /elong to only one real$ Bioche$istry ,hysiology and $olec#lar

/iology are ea$,les o the #nctional /iology9 ea$,les o historical /iology are to,ics s#ch assyste$atics genetics and evol#tion

Co$,arative anato$y is one o the e6 disi,lines 6hose e,lanations are ,artly #nctional and ,artly historical state o#nd in an organis$ is deter$ined not only /y the ,hysical as,ects o thedesign /#t is deter$ined also /y the history o the lineages Physical ,art is a #niversal ,heno$enon /#tthe history o the organis$ is #ni7#e

ter!s and conce"ts

,hylogeny8 inheritanceevol#tion8 $odiication and inheritanceconvergence8 o#nd in distantly related gro#,s9 evolved inde,endently

,arallelis$8 o#nd in closely related gro#,s9 evolved inde,endentlyinde,endent evol#tionconvergence8 #nrelated gro#,s

Na!es and events#

1 evol#tionCarol#s Linnae#s ;1%+%(1%%'<8 s,ecies #nchanged9 #sed characters to gro#, organis$s=ean Ba,tiste de La$arc& ;1%44(1'2)<8 ,rogressive change o characters ;and s,ecies< dictated /y#se or dis#se



lred R#ssel >allace ;1'23(1)13<8 s#rvival o the ittestCharles Dar6in ;1'+)(1''2<8 s#rvival o the ittest tree o lie

2 $or,hologyco$,arative $ethods:eorges C#vier ;1%")(1'32<8 or$ and #nctionco$,arative $ethodss,ecies i$$#ta/leRichard O6en ;1'+4(1')2<8 archety,esho$ology

*or,hological conce,ts receive inor$ation ro$ anato$y ,hysiologyreceive insights ro$ ,hylogeny and ,aleontology

?#nctions and Biological Role

Preada,tation8 str#ct#res evolve not 6ith a ,#r,ose /#t 6ith a @,otential@

Re$odeling8 evol#tion is not a/o#t inventing ne6 things it is $ainly a/o#t s6itchingalteration ,haryngeal slits8 ilter(eeding9 gills8 gas echangeins8 /alance9 li$/8 ,ro,#lsion9 ore(li$/s8 gras,ing $a&ing gest#res

Phylogeny is /ased on cladistic $ethods Phylogeny is not a act /#t a hy,othesis that is constantly /eingchallenged

ho$ology can /e ancestral ;,ri$itive< or evolved ;derived<only shared derived ho$ology ;syna,o$or,hy< diagnoses a $ono,hyletic gro#,

nalysis o verte/rate design three ste,s

1 T!E AUE-TO.8 not so easy as it so#nds Use tools to hel, deine the 7#estions s#ch as dissectiontaono$y

2 T!E ?U.CTO.8 detect and descri/e ,eror$ance #sing vario#s recording techni7#es

3 BOLO:CL ROLE8 ,ronghorn@s high s,eed not or esca,ing ,redator /#t to $ove /et6een

scattered reso#rces

/ac& to to,

Diversit and P$%ogen

Chordate Phylogenydeter$ine ,ri$itive and derived characteristicsdiscover $ono,hyletic gro#,s#nderstand character evol#tion

Phyl#$ ChordataUrochordataCe,halochordataCraniata ;erte/rata<

Sna"o!or"$iesChordata8 notochord ,haryngeal slits endostyle dorsal hollo6 nerve cord ,ostanal tailUrochordataCe,halochordataCraniata ;erte/rata<8 verte/ral col#$n;verte/ral col#$n is a ne6 str#ct#re< head

&ac'(trace our ancestor )ro! Homo sapiens# Homo sapiensPri$ates ;other $on&eys and a,es added<



*a$$alia ;other hairy /easts added<$niota ;re,tiles added<Tetra,oda ;a$,hi/ians added<-arco,terygia ;l#ngish and coelacanth added<Osteichthyes ;actino,terygians added<:nathosto$es ;chondrichthyians added<erte/rates ;la$,reys added<Craniata ;hagish added<Chordata ;ce,halochordates and #rochordates added<

gnatha8 a ter$ or hagish and la$,rey co$/ined:nathosto$es

ChondrichthyesOsteichthyes

ctino,terygii-arco,terygii

ctinistiaChoanata

Di,noiTetra,oda

;early tetra,ods<$,hi/ia$niotes

Re,tiliaTest#dinesDia,sida

rchosa#ria ;Croc and /irds<-7#a$ates

*a$$alia*onotre$esTheria

*etatheriaE#theria

/ac& to to,

&io%ogica% Design

-iFe8relationshi,s a$ong length area and vol#$es#race area8 che6ing intestinal a/sor,tion /reathing ca,illariesvol#$e and $ass8 increase in $ass co$,ared to s#race area

-ha,e8alter length area and vol#$e as ani$al change in siFeallo$etry

Bio$echanics#nits and derived 7#antities

$etric #nitsvelocity acceleration orce ,o6er 6or& ,ress#re

tor7#es and leverslie on land8 gravity

lie in l#id8dyna$ic l#ids8 drag /o#ndary layer Reynolds n#$/er8 R e G ρlU μ



ρ8 density; l8 sha,e and siFe9 U8 velocity thro#gh l#id9 μ8 viscositystrength o $aterial

orces acting on /ody8 co$,ression tension shear

Bio$aterials res,onse to stress ail#re

Other ,hysical ,rocesses i$,ortant in anato$ydi#sion and echange8 ,ress#res ,artial ,ress#re9 co#nterc#rrent echangeo,tics de,th ,erce,tion acco$$odation

/ac& to to,

Li*e +istor

ontogeny8 ro$ ertiliFation to death o individ#als

e$/ryology8 ro$ ertiliFation to /irth hatching

1 ertiliFation8 the #nion o s,er$ and eggyol& contents diers8 $icrolecithal $esolecithal $acrolecithal

2 cleavage8 cell divisioncleavage ,attern diers8 holo/lastic $ero/lastic discoidalyol& contents aect cleavage ,atterns

3 :astr#lation and .e#r#lationa the or$ation o /lastocoel

/ the or$ation o /lasto,orec the or$ation o g#t ;gastrocoel<8

cell $ove$ents8 e,i/ody invol#tion invagination dela$ination ingressiond the or$ation o ne#ral t#/e ;s,inal cord<e or$ation o three ger$ layers the or$ation o coelo$8

4 organogenesisa histogenesis8 e,itheli#$ connective tiss#e

/ organsc ne#ral crest and ectoder$al ,lacodes

5 etrae$/ryonic $e$/ranes ;a$niotes<a$nion chorion;ectoder$< allantois yol& sac ;endoder$<

" $at#ration and $eta$or,hosis

heterochrony can e,lain $any o the $or,hological diversitya ,era$or,hosis

/ ,aedo$or,hosis

% /iogenetic la6 and von Baer@s la6a /iogenetic la6 ;reca,it#lation !aec&el<8 ancestor@s or$ rea,,ears in the ontogeny o descedents

/ von Baer@s la68 the rese$/lance /et6een e$/ryos o ancestors and descendents/ac& to to,

T$e integu!ent

the $ost ,ro$inent and i$,ortant organthe irst deensethe $ost versatile organ



the $ost cons,ic#o#s

ro$ ectoder$ and $esoder$ ;der$ato$e<

der$al scales and #nicell#lar glands ,lacoid scale cos$oid scale ganoid scale ;only ena$el< teleost scale ;only la$ellar /one<

e,ider$al scales and $#lticell#lar glands

&eratiniFed str#ct#res

re,tile scales&in lac& $any glands

/ird eather #ro,ygial gland

$a$$al hair and glandsglands8 se/aco#s 6a s6eat $a$$ary lagnds

Teeth8

s,ecialiFations o the integ#$ents

a nails cla6s hooves / horns and antlersc /aleend scalese der$al ar$or $#c#sg color8 $elano,hores irido,hores erythro,hores

/ac& to to,

Crania% s'e%etons

the s&eletal syste$8 eos&eleton and endos&eleton

s&#ll ;crani#$<8 ro$ dierent ,hylogenetic and e$/ryonic so#rcess,lanchnocrani#$ ;visceral s&eleton<chondrocrani#$8 endochondral /one or cartilageder$atocrani#$8 der$al /ones

chondrocrani#$8 loor and lateral side o /rain9 $ostly #sed to other ele$ents occi,ital series re$ains

s,lanchnocrani#$8 ro$ /ranchial archesarch8 ,haryngo/ranchial e,i/ranchial cerato/ranchial hy,o/ranchial /asi/ranchial

origin o 0a6s8serial theory ro$ an original % arches 1st /eco$es $andi/#lar 2nd /eco$es hyoidco$,osite theory8 1+ or $ore arches co$,le loss and #sion or$s the 0a6s

ty,es o 0a6 attach$ent8 ho6 $andi/le ;lo6er 0a6< is attached to the s&#ll ,aleostylic8 agnathans no attach$ent

e#a#tostylic8 ,lacoder$s and acanthodians9 to s&#llhyostylic8 $ost gro#,s9 thro#gh hyoid arch and derivativescaniostylic8 $a$$als to der$al /ones



der$atocrani#$8acialor/italte$,oralva#lt

,alatal$andi/#lar

Phylogeny o the -&#ll

=a6less verte/rates8 6ell develo,ed sense organs not ,redaceo#s

:nathosto$es8 ,lacoder$s8 ,redators s&#ll heavily ossiiedChondrichthyans8 ,redators $andi/le and #,,er 0a6 $ove$entctino,terygians8 head s,ecialiFed or eeding

s#s,ensori#$8 ca#sing the 0a6 to ,rotr#de-arco,terygiansTetra,ods8 internal nares lattened s&#ll

s#ction eeding /#ccal ,#$,ing$niotes8

s&#ll enestra8 or 0a6 $ove$ent and closings&#ll &inesistong#e in cha$eleon$a$$als8 t#r/inates tong#e secondary ,alate $iddle ear /ones

#nctions o s&#lls ,rey ca,t#re

in 6ater8 s#ction eeding and s#s,ension eedingin air8 s6allo6ing

/ac& to to,

Post(crania% s'e%etons

ial s&eleton8 notochord and verte/ral col#$n co$/ined to deine the long ais o /ody9 or $#scle attach$ent ,revent telesco,ing o the /ody and s#,,ort

verte/rae8general $or,hology8 ne#ral arch interne#ral arch centra he$al archregionaliFation8 atlas ais cervical thoracic l#$/ar sacral ,ostsacral ca#dal

Centr#$8 sha,ean i$,ortant str#ct#re or ,hylogenetic reconstr#ction

Ri/s8 /et6een $yose,t#$dorsal and ventral

/ici,ital8 ca,it#l#$ to ,ara,o,hysis and t#/erc#l#$ to dia,o,hysis

stern#$8 endochondral

:astralia8 a/do$inal ri/s

Phylogeny

regionaliFation lateral ,rocesses



,,endic#lar syste$

?ins8 ,ectoral ,elvicin rays8 ceratotrichia ;&eratiniFed in elas$o/ranch< le,idotrichia ;chondriied or /ony in /ony ish<

L$/sstylo,odi#$ Fe#go,odi#$ a#to,odi#$

Origin o ,aired insgill arch theoryin(old theory

Li$/s and girdles

,elvic girdle8 endochondral ,ectoral girdle8 d#al origin /oth endochondral and der$al/ac& to to,

Musc%es

$ove$ent heat ,rod#ction electric organs

classiication o $#scles

s&eletalcardiacs$ooth

str#ct#res o s&eletal $#scles

$#scle cells9 $#scle organ tendons ;a,one#rosis ascia<

*#scle contraction8tension(length c#rve or single $#scle i/er

,ro,erties o $#scle i/ers1 color8 $yoglo/in2 tonic and t6itch i/ers ;ta/ 1+1<

>hole $#scle contraction8 co$/ination o ,assive and active tension

:raded orce8 /y rate $od#lation or selective contraction o $otor #nits

*ai$#$ orce ,ro,ortional to cross section area o $#scle

i/er orientation8 ,arallel or ,innate $#scles

velocity o shortening8 long $#scle i/ers

distance o shortening8

Bone($s#cle lever syste$8 near ,oint o rotation or s,eed9 a6ay ro$ ,oint o rotation or strength

*#scle ho$ologiesattach$ent si$ilarity



#nctional si$ilaritynervo#s innervatione$/ryology ;H<

e$/ryonic origins

1 $esenchy$e8 s$ooth $#scles o /lood vessel 6alls2 hy,o$ere8 s$ooth $#scle o g#ts to cardiace $#scles3 ,araial $esoder$8 s&eletal $#scles

so$ites8 in the tr#n& so$ito$eres8 in the head

cranial $#sc#lat#re

0a6 and ,haryngeal8 hy,o/ranchial $#scles ro tr#n& so$ites9 and /ranchio$eric $#sc#lat#re ro$ headso$ito$eres

etrinsic eye $#scles8 three o$ito$eres

Postcranial $#sc#lat#redierentiation o e,aial and hy,aial $#scles

a,,endic#lar $#sc#lat#re8 dorsal and ventral $#scles all ro$ $yoto$e

tetra,od ,ectoral and oreli$/ $#scles ro$ /ranchio$ericaial $#sc#lat#redorsal $#sclesventral $#scles

tetra,od ,elvic $#scles ro$ dorsal and ventral $#scles

Cranial $#sc#lat#re /ranchio$eric $#sc#lat#re8 $andi/#lar hyoid and /ranchial archeshy,o/ranchial

/ac& to to,

T$e Res"irator Sste!

di#sion not eno#gh or large ani$als 6hich have $ore oygen de$ands

The rate o di#sion de,ends on s#race area distance and the resistance to di#sion /y the tiss#e

lso i$,ortant is the ,artial oygen ,ress#re n 6ar$ and stagnant 6ater the oygen $ay co$e o#t othe /ody

Res,iratory organs8

:ills8 internal gills8 ,haryngeal slits inter/ranchial se,t#$ o,erc#l#$eternal gills

L#ngs8 trachea glottis /ronchi /ronchioles dead s,ace tidal vol#$e

:as /ladders8 ,ne#$atic d#ct

c#taneo#s res,iration



accessory air(/reathing organs8

ventilation $echanis$s

cilia8 not or ventilation /#t or clearing tract and s#race

$#sc#lar $echanis$s

1 6ater ventilation8 d#al ,#$,2 air ventilation8 /#ccal ,#$,3 air ventilation8 as,iration ,#$,

La$,rey8 a$$ocoete8 vel#$ ventilation9 ad#lts8 in and o#t thro#gh gill o,eningshagish8 vel#$ $ove$ent and then ro$ nostril to ,harynelas$o/ranchs8 holo/ranch and he$i/ranch s,iracle

/ony ish/ac& to to,

T$e Circu%ator Sste!

cardiovasc#lar syste$8 ro$ $esoder$ /lood /lood vessels8 arteries veins and ca,illaries

/lood ,ess#re and circ#lation$icrocirc#lationsingle and do#/le circ#lationheart8 ro$ $esoder$9 sel(contractile ,ro$ote the or$ation o vessels

Phylogenyventral aorta aortic arches eternal carotids dorsal aorta internal carotids aorta ca#dal arteries ;,aired

,arietal arteries s#/clavian iliac genital renal ,ortal syste$8 he,atic and renal /asic ,attern8 shar& ea$,leaortic archesheart

veno#s syste$8 syste$ic syste$8 three ,airs in e$/ryos8 vitelline veins cardinals lateral a/do$inals

he,atic ,ortal syste$8 ro$ veins o the digestive tract

!eart8sin#s venos#s sinoatrial valve atri#$9 atrioventric#lar valve9 ventricle con#s arterios#s se$il#nar valvehagish 6ith heart ;/ranchial heart< and other accessory hearts ;ca#dal ,ortal cardinal<a$,hi/ians 6ith s,iral valves in con#s

s,ecial circ#$stancesaccessory air(/reathing organs8 to air /ladder g#tdiving8 /radycardia ;decreased heart rate< anaero/ic $eta/olis$ increases9 $icrocirc#lation changese$/ryo circ#lations8

#$/ilical vein8 oy /lood a6ay ro$ ,lacenta to liver hal to liver other hal to d#ct#s venos#s tohe,atic vein /lood in the he,atic vain 0oins t6o cava to right atri#$ not to ,#l$onary artery $ost

thro#gh d#ct#s arterios#s to dorsal aorga9 in heart ora$en ovale allo6s $ost /lood to let atri#$at /irth8 ,lacental circ#lation ceases neonate l#ng e,andrise in /lood oygen sti$#late the contraction o $#scle in d#ct#s arterios#s and closing it and /eco$es



liga$ent#$ arterios#$$ore /lood in l#ngs and $ore /lood ret#rns to let atri#$ closing o the se,t#$ o ora$en ovaled#ct#s venos#s or$s ro$ the original #$/ilical vein

heat transer8 dol,hin /ear s&in sin#s in #ng#lates and carnivores/ac& to to,

T$e Digestive Sste!

digestive tracts and digestrive glands

co$,onents /#ccal cavity ,alateteethtong#eali$entary canal

eso,hag#ssto$achintestinescloaca

s,ecialiFations in the ali$entary canal

glandsoral glandsliver

,ancreas

#nctionsa/sor,tionood ,rocessinger$entation

/ac& to to,

T$e Urogenita% Sste!

-tr#ct#re o the $a$$alian &idney$ed#lla corte caly ,elvis #reter to #rinary /ladder #rethra#riniero#s t#/#le in corte loo,s and t#/#les in $ed#lla

#riniero#s t#/#lesne,hron ;ne,hric t#/#le<8

glo$er#l#srenal ca,s#le ;Bo6$an@s ca,s#le<

,roi$al inter$ediate and distal t#/#les

collecting t#/#le8

Prone,hros8 transitional$esone,hros8 e$/ryos in ad#lt a$,hi/ians called o,isthone,hros$etane,hros8 ad#lt &idney in a$niotes d#ct is the #reter

&idney ,hylogeny

la$,reys and hagish8 anterior aglo$er#lar ,rone,hros ;to coelo$<9 ,osterior glo$er#lar t#/#les to



,rone,hric d#ct ;archine,hric d#ct<$ost ish8 ,rone,hros #nctional or so$e ti$e $ost ish@s ,rone,hros degenerate adn re,laced 6ith a$esone,hros and into o,isthone,hros

Tetra,ods8 o,isthone,hros8a$niotes8 e$/ryo &idney is the $esone,hrosonly $a$$als and so$e /irds have loo,s to ,rod#ce #rine 6ith concentrations greater than /lood

/ird loo,s are inde,endently evolved

Iidney #nctionre$oving nitrogenino#s 6aste8 #ricotelis$ a$$onotelis$ #reotelis$os$oreg#lation8 6ater and salt8 os$oconor$er and os$oreg#lators

6ater eli$ination8 hy,eros$otic ani$als in resh6ater8 iltration &idney6ater conservation8 hot(dry and sea8 eli$inate iltration need ;aglo$er#lar &idney<

REPRODUCTE -J-TE*

*a$$alian re,rod#ctive syste$genital ridge ro$ s,lanchnic $esoder$9 ger$ cells or$ ro$ etrae$/ryonic endoder$ e$ale in

corte $ale in $ed#lla

$esone,hric d#ct8 6olian d#ct8 vas deerence$#llerian d#ct8 ovid#ct

e$ale re,rod#ctive syste$ovary8 hor$one and ova $esovari#$genital d#ct8

hag and la$,rey8 eggs into coelo$ and thro#gh secondary ,ores to cloaca or an#selas$o/ranchs8 $#llerian d#ct into #nnel shell gland isth$#s #ter#s9 archine,hric d#ct drains

o,isthone,hric &idney /ony ish8 $ost have a ne6 ovarian d#ct not ro$ $#llerian d#ct

a$,hi/ians8 /oth d#cts nor$ala$niotes8 $etane,hric d#ct is the #reter9 ovid#ct ,ersist arthine,hric d#ct r#di$entary

ovid#cts#ter#s

*ale re,rod#ctive syste$testis $esorchi#$cyclosto$e8 no d#cts archine,hric d#ct only #rineelas$o/ranchs8 r#di$entary $#llerian9 accessory #rinary d#ct or &ieney9 archine,hric d#ct or s,er$;vas deerens<

/ony ish8 archine,hric d#ct or #rine and s,er$ /#t also a se,arate testic#lar d#ct or s,er$

a$,hi/ians8 so$e8 archine,hric d#ct or #rine and s,er$9 $ost have accessory #rinary d#ct archi ors,er$a$niotes8 archine,hric d#ct or s,er$ only9 $a$$als have scrot#$ via ing#inal canal

co,#latory organs8 clas,ers s,er$atotheca ,enis he$i,enes

cloaca8 co,rode#$9 #rode#$9 ,roctode#$9

/ac& to to,

T$e Endocrine Sste!

thyroidthyroine ;tetraiodothyronine T4<



triiodothyronine T3lateral to trachea 6ith $any ollicles

,rinci,al cells8 or$s the 6alls o ollicles ,rod#ce colloid in 6hich the hor$one is stored

origin8 as an o#tgro6th o the ,harynendostyle in a$,hio#s and la$,rey is ho$ologo#scontrolled /y thyrotro,in ;thyroid(sti$#lating hor$one T-! ro$ ,it#itary<

#nction8 inhi/it $eta$or,hosis in la$,reys$eta/olis$8 elevate oygen cons#$,tion and heat ,rod#ction o tiss#es ;in endother$s<gro6th and $eta$or,hosis8 sal$on ,ro$ote change to s$olt9 in a$,hi/ians it arrest larval gro6th and

,ro$ote $eta$or,hosis$olt8 ,ro$ote slo#ghing and shedding o s&inre,rod#ction8 gonad $at#ration and oogenesis or s,er$atogenesis

#lti$o/ranchial /ody and ,arathyroid glandt6o are antagonistic#lti$o/ranchial /ody secrete calcitonin ;thyrocalcitonin<8 lo6er /lood level o calci#$

,arathyroid secretes ,arathyroid hor$one ;,arathor$one<8 elevate calci#$ level

#lti$o/ranchial /odies8 ro$ ith ,haryngeal ,o#ches se,arate and ,aired cell $asses in the throatregion ;in ish a$,hi/ians /irds re,tiles< cyclosto$es do not have the$ n $a$$als they aredis,ersed a$ong ,rinci,al cells in the 6alls o thyoid ollicles ;,araollic#lar cells<

so#rce is ne#ral crest

Parathyoid gland8 ventral edges o the ,haryngeal ,o#ches a/sent in ish and neotenic a$,hi/ians so itis ,ro/a/ly ,receeded /y gill cellschie cells are ,ro/a/ly the so#rce o ,arathor$one9 oy,hil cells o #n&no6n #nction

lo6 calci#$ level8 $#scle s,as$

#nction o ,arathor$one8 ,ro$oting &idney retention o calci#$ and raise /lood level o calci#$9 neteect is to ca#se /one re$oval and ree calci#$ calcitonin has the o,,osite eectish secrete so$atolactin ro$ the ,ars inter$edia ;,it#itary< 6hich inl#ence calci#$ ho$eostasisteleosts #se scales instead o /one as calci#$ reservoirs

adrenal gland8 a co$,osite organ ro$ t6o so#rcesadrenocortical tiss#e8 ,rod#ces corticosteroid hor$ones involves in ;1< 6ater resor,tion and sodi#$

trans,ort /y the &idney ;$ineralcorticoids<9 ;2< $eta/olis$ o car/ohydrates ;gl#cocorticoids<9 and ;3<re,rod#ction ;estrogen androgen and ,rogestogens< ro$ s,lanchnic $esoder$

chro$ain tiss#e or /odies8 ,rod#ce catechola$ines ;e,ine,hrine and nore,ine,hrine< ro$ ne#ralcrests

#nction8 as a/ove

,ancreatic islets8 co$,osites o eocrine o acini9 and ,ancreatic islets ;islets o Langerhans< /othdierentiate 6ithin the ,ancreatic divertic#l#$ an o#tgro6th o g#t

islets 6ith o#r cell ty,es8B cells8 ins#lin controls the overall $eta/olis$ o car/ohydrates ats and ,roteins8 inhi/it at

/rea&do6n ,ro$ote at synthesis and lo6er /lood level o atty acids inhi/it /rea&do6n o glycogen$ost i$,ortantly to /ind to cell $e$/ranes and ,ro$ote the entry o gl#cose into cells ;es, s&eletal andcardiac $#scles< lo6 ins#lin ca#se dia/etes $ellit#s

cells8 gl#cagon $o/iliFe stored ,rod#cts into #sa/le che$icals o,,osite to ins#linD cells so$atostatin8 inhi/its secretion o ins#lin and glocagonPP cells8 ,ancreatic ,oly,e,tides8 controlling gastrointestinal activities as ,ro$oting the lo6 o



gastric 0#ice

,it#itary gland ;hy,o,hysis<8 t6o so#rcesin#ndi/#l#$8 an o#tgro6th ro$ the dience,halon retains connection to /rain and /eco$es

ne#rohy,o,hysisRath&e@s ,o#ch8 a divertic#l#$ ro$ the sto$ode#$8 no connection to sto$ode#$ and /eco$es the

adenohy,o,hysiscan /e recogniFed /y tiss#e arrange$ents staining ,ro,erties or anato$ical ,osition

three regions o adenohy,o,hysis8 ,ars distalis8 $a0or ,ortion o adenohy,o,hysis9 into lo/es or s#/regions ,ars t#/eralis8 ant to distalis only in tetra,ods #nction H circadian rhyth$ ,hoto,eriod ,ars inter$edia8 re$nant o l#$en o Rath&e@s ,o#ch

t6o regions o ne#rohy,o,hysis8 ,ars nervosa$edian e$inence8 $ore anterior

cells in ne#rohy,o,hysis do not ,rod#ce hor$ones ;aons o hy,othala$#s secrete contents into it<hy,othala$#s secrete ne#rohor$ones ;releasing hor$ones or release(inhi/iting hor$ones< thro#gh

,le#s to sti$#late or inhi/it cells o the adenohy,othesis

in ne#rohy,o,hysisvaso,ressin ;antidi#retic hor$one D!<8 synthesiFed /y ne#rosecretory cells o the hy,othala$#s

acts on s$ooth $#scles in the 6alls o ,eri,heral arterioles ca#sing a rise in /lood ,ress#re 6hendehydrated D! carried /y /lood ca#se the collecting d#cts to /eco$e highly ,er$ea/le to 6ater and

,rod#ce concentrated #rine ;dia/etes insi,id#s8 dil#te #rine ,atient constantly thirsty<oytocin8 target on $yo$etri#$ ;s$ooth $#scle o the #ter#s< and $yoe,ithelial cells o the

$a$$ary glandin adenohy,o,hysis8

gro6th hor$one ;:!<8 target the liver increased ,rotein synthesis $e/iliFation o atty acidsdecreased #tiliFation o gl#cose

,rotactin ;PRL<8 ,ro$otes develo,$ent o $a$$ary gland and lactation d#ring ,regnancysti$#lates li,id synthesis d#ring ,re$igratory attening and s#,,ort /rooding /ehavior in /irds also cro,$il& aect tail regeneration in liFards and gro6th in a$,hi/ians in teleosts or os$oreg#lation ;or$igratory ish<

thyrotro,in ;T-! thyroid(sti$#lating hor$one<8 sti$#late thyroid to synthesiFe and release o T3and T4 into /lood

gonadotro,ins ;ollicle(sti$#lating hor$one ?-!9 and l#teiniFing hor$one L!<8?-! ind#ce develo,$ent o ovarian ollicles also $aintain s,er$atogenesis in $ales9L! to inaliFe $at#ration o ovarian ollicles rise in L! ,ro$ote ov#lation and or$ing cor,#s

l#te#$9 in $ales to sti$#lates interstitial cells o the testis to secrete testosteronecorticotro,in ;adrenocorticotro,ic hor$one CT!<8 sti$#late corte o adrenal gland to release

gl#cocorticoids$elano,hore(sti$#lating hor$one ;*-!<8 in ,ars inter$edia9 target on $elano,hores

gonadhor$ones s#,,ort secondary se characteristics $ainly estrogen and ,rogestogens

,ineal gland ;e,i,hysis<8 dorsal evagination o the $id/rain $ay involve in the release o CT! ro$adenohy,o,hysis vaso,ressin secretion inhi/ition o thyroid activity or i$$#ne syste$

secondary endocrine organsgastrointestinal tract

gastrin8 sto$ach sti$#late the secretion o gastric 0#icesecretin8 intestinal $#cosa o d#oden#$8 sti$#late the ,ancreas to release ,ancratic 0#ice

;al&aline< to /#er the chy$e



enterogastrone8 inhi/it #rth#r gastric secretion and $o/ilitycholecysto&inin ;CCI< o cholecysto&inin(,ancreoFy$in ;CCI(PK<8 ro$ intestinal $#cosa8

sti$#late relaation o s,hincter at the /ase o /ile d#ct the contraction o gall/ladder and e0ection o /ile also sti$#lates the ,ancreas to secrete ,ancreatic 0#ice containing enFy$es

&idneyrenin ;catalyFes the transor$ation o angiotensinogen in /lood to angiotensin and to

angiotensin in l#ngs ngiotensin is a vasoconstrictor that increase /lood vol#$e /y sti$#lating therelease o aldosterone ro$ adrenal gland aldosterone ca#se the distal t#/#les to rea/sort $ore sodi#$and then increase rea/sor,tion o 6ater

erythro,oietin ;EOP<8 red#ced oygen level in /lood sti$#lates the ,rod#ction o EOPsti$#late red /lood cell ,rod#ction

Endocrine Coordination

1 $a$$alian re,rod#ction

2 $eta$or,hosis/ac& to to,

T$e Nervous Sste!

Central .ervo#s -yste$ ;C.-<8 /rain s,inal cordPeri,heral .ervo#s -yste$ ;P.-<8 all other nervo#s tiss#e

.e#roglia are s#,,orting no#rishing and ins#lating cells in the nervo#s syste$ .e#rons are the cells or trans$itting signals

P.-so$atic vs visceralaerent vs eerentsensory vs $otor general vs s,ecial

1 -,inal nervesdorsal root8 aerentventral root8 eerent

origin8 ne#rons in the s,inal cord and ro$ ne#ral cresteach s,inal nerve generally innervates a single so$ite

2 Cranial nerves8 roots in the /raincase1+ 12 13 cranial nerves

dorsal8 and ventral8

+ ;ter$inal<8 ;olactory< ;o,tic< oc#lo$otor trochlear trige$inal a/d#cens

acial octaval glosso,haryngeal



vag#s s,inal accessory hy,oglossal;lateral line nerves8 ro$ $ed#lla<see ta/les 1"1 and 1"2 or #nctions and associated /ranchial arches in cranial nerves

?#nctions o P.-s,inal releesa#tono$ic nervo#s syste$8 $otor ne#rons ro$ /rain and s,inal cord9 #nctions see Ta/le 1"4

sy$,athetic8Mthoracol#$/ar o#tlo6M ,reganglionic ne#ron short ,ostganglionic i/er long;acetylcholine<

,arasy$,athetic8 cranial nerves and 9 and s,inal nerves ro$ the sacral region long ,reganglionic ne#rons ganglion on visceral organ ;cholinergic<

C.-8 receive sensory inor$ation ro$interoce,tors8 eg ,ro,rioce,torseteroce,tors8 to#ch ,ress#re hearing sight s$ell taste etc$e$ory8

E$/ryology o C.-#sion o t6o ne#ral olds into a hollo6 t#/e 6ith l#id(illed ventriclesthree regions are or$ed8 ,rosence,halon $esence,halon and rho$/oce,halon

/asic str#ct#reso#tside the /rain and s,inal cord are $eninges ;$inin< 6ith three layers d#ra $ater arachnoid

,ia $ater /lood vessels in ,ia $ater cere/ros,inal l#id ;C-?<choroid ,le#s8 s$all t#ts o /lood vessels ,ro0ect into ventricles at s,eciic ,oint and is the

so#rce o C-?

-,inal Cord8gray $atter8 nervo#s cell /odies 6ithin the core6hite $atter8 $ainly i/ers s#rro#nding the gray $atter s,inal tracts8

ascending tracts8 carry ssensory i$,#lse ro$ s,inal cord to $ed#llaascic#l#s gracilis ascic#l#s c#neat#s in the dorsal region ;,ro,rioce,tors sensations<

s,inocere/ellar tracts8 carry ,ro,rioce,tive inor$ation to cere/ell#$lateroventral s,inothala$ic tract8 to thala$#s a/o#t sensation o ,ain and te$,erat#redescending tracts8 ro$ /rain to s,inal Cord

corticos,inal tract8 ro$ cere/ral corte to $otor ne#rons to the li$/stectos,inal tract8 associated 6ith o,tic and a#ditory ;t#rn head to nec&<

r#/ros,inal tract8 ro$ $id/rain to s,inal cord and involved in initiating coordinated$ove$ents

Brain

Prosence,halon8telence,halon8 olactory /#l/ cere/ral he$is,heredience,halon8 thala$#s ,ineal /ody hy,othala$#s ,it#itary*esence,halon8 tect#$ ;sensory< and tec$ent#$ ;$otor<Rho$/ence,halon8$etence,halon8 cere/ell#$ ,ons

$ylence,halon8 $ed#lla o/longata

*or! and *unction



hind/rain$ed#lla o/longata8 relees $ainly

location o n#clei o cranial nerves to ;in shar&s< or to ;$a$$als<$a0or ro#tes or descending and ascending ne#ral ,ass6ayscenter or visceral a#ditory and ,ro,rioce,tive relees

,ons8 on the loor o the hind/rains in a$niotes8 ,ontine n#clei convey inor$ation to cere/ellarcorte ro$ cere/ral corte

cerelell#$8 $edial cor,#s and a ,aired lateral a#ricle$aintaining e7#ili/ri#$9 inor$ation o senses and $otor in,#t are ,rocessed herereine$ent o $otor #nctions

$id/rainroo tect#$ receive sensory inor$ation ie o,tic tect#$ and tor#s se$ic#larisloor8 teg$ent#$ initiate $otor o#t,#t thro#gh and nerves

ore/raindience,halon

e,ithala$#s8 incl#de ,ineal gland ;/iologicl rhyth$ s&in ,ig$entation< and ha/en#larn#cle#s ;#nction #nclear<

hy,othala$#s8 loor o dience,halon$a$$illary /odies ;,art o the Pa,eF circ#it involved in re,rod#ctive /ehavior and short(ter$ $e$ory<9 res,onsi/le or ho$eostatis $echanis$s

ventral thala$#s8 s$all area /et6een the $id/rain and the rest o the dience,halondorsal thala$#s8 n#clei receiving sensory in,#t ;relay center or sensory inor$ation going to

cere/r#$<

telence,halon8 cere/ral he$is,heres and olactory /#l/sgyri8 ro#nded oldss#lci8 groovesiss#e8 dee, s#lc#s se,erating $a0or s#race regions o the cere/r#$

co$$iss#re8 /ands o ne#rons transversely crossing the $idline /et6een res,ective /rainregions

cor,#s collos#$8 co$$iss#re o#nd only in e#therians

cere/r#$ has t6o regions ,alli#$ dorsally and s#/,alli#$ ventrallye$/ryonic ive regions8 ;?ig 1"42< t6o in s#/,alli#$ and three in ,alli#$lateral ,alli#$8 receives olactory in,#t via the lateral olactory tractdorsal ,alli#$8 receive vis#al lateral line thala$ic and a#ditory sti$#li$eidal ,alli#$8 echange inor$ation /et6een the he$is,heres ;H<

re,tiles8 cere/r#$ as a res#lt o enlarged $edial ,alli#$

$a$$als8 cere/r#$ as a res#lt o enlarged dorsal ,alli#$ ;isocorte<hi,,oca$,#s8 $a$$alian $edial ,alli#$

se,t#$ ;o s#/,alli#$<8 $edial9 receive ino ro$ $edial ,alli#$ and to hy,othala$#s andteg$ent#$

striat#$ ;o s#/,alli#$<8 lateral9 6ith ,allid#$ are ,art o a n#clear gro#, called /asalganglia ;contraol o $ove$ent

*unctiona% associations o* "arts o* CNS

Li$/ic syste$8 irst descri/ed /y Pa#l Broca and later #nctions descri/ed /y =a$es Pa,eFNcere/ral corte i$$ediately encircling the cor,#s callos#$ and /rain ste$ ;incl#ding the dee,t

,arts o the cere/ral corte ;cing#late gyr#s< and $edial s#race o the te$,oral lo/e o the cere/ralcorte<





iris8 thin contin#ation o the #vea across the ront o the eye/all ,#,il8 not a str#ct#reretina8 three cell layers8 ,hotorece,tors ;rods cones<9 a$acrine cells ganglion cells

three cha$/ersanterior cha$/er8 /et6een iris and cornea ;a7#eo#s h#$or<

,osterior cha$/er8 /et6een iris and lens ;a7#eo#s h#$or<vitreal cha$/er8 vitreo#s h#$or

eye develo,ed ro$ $esenchy$es and o,tic ,lacodestart ro$ the o,tic vesicles o the telence,halon and ind#ced the overlying ectoder$ to or$ o,tic

,lacodes 6hich invaginates to or$ lens ,ri$odi#$ectoder$8 eyelids cornea and lens$esenchy$es8 choroid and sclerao,tic c#,8 iris and retina

,ineal co$,le8 roo o the dience,halon ,rod#ces the ,arietal organ ,hotoreco,tors in ana$niotes9 endocrine organ in a$niotes

o#r regions ;ro$ anterior<8 ,ara,hysis dorsal sac ,arietal organ and e,i,hysis

nrared rece,tors8

la/ial ,its acial ,its in so$e sna&es

*echanorece,tors hair cells ;$icrovilli<

1 lateral line syste$2 vesti/#lar a,,arat#s8 endoly$,h and ,erily$,h ;ro$ otic ,lacode<sei$circ#lar canals and at least t6o connecting co$,art$ents ;sacc#l#s and #tric#l#s<vesti/#lar e,itheli#$ in sacc#l#s and #tric#l#s ;ne#ro$ast organs< ;otolith rece,tor or $ac#la<

cristae ;sensory e,itheli#$ in se$icirc#lar canals

a#ditory syste$ ;lagena cochlea<8 an enlarge$ent o the sacc#l#s and or$ing cochlea in $a$$alsorgan o Corti8 sensory rece,tors in the lagena

eternal ear8 ,inna eternal a#ditory $eat#s

$iddle ear8 ty$,an#$ and ear ossicles

$iddle ear cavity and the e#stachian t#/e or$ ro$ the irst ,haryngeal ,o#ch$iddle ear ossicles8 sta,es ;col#$ella< ro$ the hyo$andi/#lar9 in all tetra,ods inc#s ;7#adrate< and

$alle#s ;artic#lar< onlyin $a$$als

inner ear8vesti/#lar a,,arat#s and the s#rro#nding ,erily$,hatic s,aces

Electrorece,tors8 ish head9 s,ecialiFed ne#ro$ast organs

/ac& to to,

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