Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez

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Community Participation in

Forest Management in the Yilo

Krobo District

Gerardo Oscar Paez

November 2009

This dissertation is submitted to the University of Ghana in partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of MA in Development

Studies degree


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DECLARATION

I declare that this work has been my original research project carried out under

the Supervision of Dr. Daniel Kwabena Twerefou of the Department of

Economics and Dr. George Owusu of Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic

Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra

All references cited in this work are duly acknowledged. However, I am solely

responsible for any errors and omissions.

Supervisor Date Signature

Dr. Daniel Kwabena Twerefow ................... ..........................

Dr. George Owusu ................... ..........................


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DEDICATION

I wish to dedicate this work to my two major sources of inspiration, Amanda

and Nestor. Also to my family as this work would not have been possible

without their support.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Dr. Daniel Kwabena Twerefou for his invaluable contributions

and time spent. Also thank the Director of ISSER Prof. Ernest Aryeetey for his

support.

I am grateful to all the respondents of the survey and the members of all the

institutions that kindly participated. Special thanks to the members of the Yilo

Krobo District Authority, the Regional Forestry Commission Office and the

Ministry of Food and Agriculture for providing me with valuable data.


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ABSTRACT

This study addresses the challenges of participation in forest management in

the context of political decentralization in the Yilo Krobo District of Ghana in

order to debate the possible implications of an inclusive natural resource

management approach for the local livelihoods.

This paper argues that capacity in the communities studied ought to be built up

by providing the UCs with the physical as well as educational infrastructure that

would enable the communities to be included in the participation process.

Moreover, District Authorities should establish a process of negotiation with

members of the community with regards to the best uses the community can

give to the forest reserve.

It also supports a shift to empowerment that ought to be sought by the District

Authorities to allow people to take part in the decisions taken with regards to

forest management as well as providing women with special mechanisms for

participation, that adjust to their necessities and time availability.

The study recommends actions in four priority areas: setting up mechanisms

for indigenous practices and institutions, provision of capacity to the Unit

Committees, encouraging participation of women and other excluded groups

and clarifying land tenure.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 11

INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 11

1.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 11

1.2. Problem Statement ........................ .......................... .......................... ......................... ......... 12

1.3. Objective of the study .............................................. ......................... .......................... ......... 13

1.4. Justification ....................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 14

1.5. Structure of the study ........................ .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 15

CHAPTER 2 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 16

LITERATURE REVIEW ......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ............. 16

2.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 16

2.2. Participation General Concepts ....................... .......................... .......................... ................. 17

2.3. The Ghanaian Context ........................ .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 22

2.4. Problems Found in Forest Management Globally ....................................... .......................... 30

2.5. Alternative approaches to participation in forest management ........................... ................. 32

CHAPTER 3 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 36

METHODOLOGY ....................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 36

3.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 36

3.2. General description of the study area and sites .............................................. ...................... 37

3.3. Methods applied ........................ ......................... .......................... .......................... ............. 42

3.4. Data analysis .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 48

3.5. Some methodological issues in research design ................................ ........................... ........ 49

CHAPTER 4 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 52

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ......................... .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 52

4.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 52

4.2. Demographic Characteristics ....................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 52


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4.3. Extent and nature of participation ............................... .......................... .......................... .... 55

4.4. Capacity for effective participation ..................... .......................... .......................... ............. 58

4.5. Forest Resource Management and political decentralization ....................... ......................... 59

4.6. Forest Resource Management and the Boti Falls Reserve ....................... .......................... .... 61

4.7. Discussion of findings ......................... .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 66

CHAPTER 5 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 72

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................ .......................... ......................... ......... 72

5.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 72

5.2. Recommendations ......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ......... 72

5.3. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 74

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 77

APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................81


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LIST OF TABLES

Number Description

Table 2.2.3 Typology of Participation

Table 3.2.2.4 Population Distribution by Area Council

Table 4.2.2 Level of education by sex (Percentages)

Table 4.2.3 Occupation of respondents

Table 4.5.1 Perception of participation in decision

making

Table 4.5.2 Perception of political participation by sex

Table 4.6.2 Location of the Forest Reserve


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LIST OF FIGURES

Number DescriptionFigure 4.2.1 Age distribution forest users interviewed

Figure 4.3.1 Participation in FRM projects

Figure 4.3.2 Participation in FRM projects by sex

Figure 4.3.2 Participation in FRM projects Sort of

Project

Figure 4.3.3 Project activities description

Figure 4.4 Proposition of projects perception

Figure 4.6.2 Perceptions of best use of reserved land


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LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABREVIATIONS

ACs Area Councils

FC Forestry Commission

NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products

RFD Rural Forestry Division

RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal

UCs Unit Committees


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY

1.1. Introduction

Forest histories are revealed as mutually constituting interplays of ecological

process, social practice, policy intervention and response. Policy makers often

do not see this, and are thus surprised when their schemes fail. (Leach, 2008:1)

Amanor (2003) observes that contemporary environmental policies in West

Africa are increasingly becoming decentralized, arguing that these policies are

not more democratic. In Ghana, Wiggins et al. (2004) argue that with the 1994

Forest and Wildlife Policy, communities were given a central role in

participation in natural resource management. In addition, the authors suggest

that despite the good intentions and effort put in formulating environmental

policy, little of this translates into effective action in the field.

This work aims to study the degree of participation of forest communities in

natural resource management in the Yilo Krobo District in order to debate the

possible implications of an inclusive natural resource management approach

for the local livelihoods.


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As an introduction to the thesis, this chapter provides a background to the

study and clarifies the research problem seeking to introduce the concepts that

inform and guide the study. After situating the study within the broader concept

of political community participation in Ghana in general and the district in

particular, the study objectives are presented. The last part of the chapter

briefly introduces the chapter-by-chapter organization of the thesis.

1.2. Problem Statement

This study explores the interactions of people living in the Boti Forest Reserve

margins of the Yilo Krobo District with its environment, authorities and

institutions. In particular it focuses on identifying the key tensions of the

decentralization process in order to address the causes of the low community

participation in forest management in the district.

According to the Medium Term Development Plan 2006-2009 (Yilo Krobo

2006:15) community participation in governance is generally low in the

district. There is high level of apathy among some people. The situation is more

serious with the women, than their male counterparts. The same document

states that the River Ponpong, which supplies water to the fall (Boti waterfall),

dries up at certain times of the year, especially between December and April

due to problems with the maintenance of the reserve protecting the river. There

are illegal farming and felling of trees for fuel wood and charcoal in the reserve

and along the river upstream. (Yilo Krobo 2006:63)


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Ribot (2003) suggests that decentralization takes place when a central

government formally transfers powers to actors and institutions at lower levels

in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy. In order to increase both

efficiency and equity in natural resource management, decentralization is being

promoted by development agents, natural resource managers and some

environmentalists. However, Ribot argues that the implementation of

environmental decentralization laws fall short of producing the most basic

conditions necessary for effective decentralization. Research questions that

arise are how do forest users interact with their environment and with the

environmental authorities in the conservation of their forests? what are

people's perceptions of their relationship with the authorities regarding forest

management? what are the barriers to participation in forest management in

the area studied and what may be the possible solutions?

1.3. Objective of the study

The objective of this study is to explore the different interactions that the Yilo

Krobo residents have with the local forests and the environmental authorities

in order to examine their actual participation in forest management. I aim to

contribute to research that could be used by the district authorities and

conservation bodies in order to achieve the outcome of sustainable

development with social justice in the Yilo Krobo District.


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1.4. Justification

According to Forsyth et al. (1998), since the United Nations Conference on the

Human Environment in 1972, the role of poverty in both causing and being

caused by environmental degradation was acknowledged. In the Yilo Krobo

District, where according to the Medium Term Development Plan 2006-2009

(Yilo Krobo 2006) more than 60% of the population live in rural areas and the

average per capita income ... is very low and cannot pay for individuals basic

necessities, the conservation of the environment represents a key priority for

the District authorities.

In addition, since the year 2000 Ghana has adopted the targets of the

Millennium Development Goals as the minimum requirements for socio

economic development and poverty reduction (Republic of Ghana, 2006). This

research contributes to the realization of MDG's 1 (eradicate extreme poverty

and hunger), MDG3 (Promote gender equality and empower women) and

MDG7 (ensuring environmental sustainability).

This research will also contribute at the national level to the strategies of the

Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy II (Republic of Ghana, 2006) towards

decentralization of powers.

At the local level, this study will contribute to the District priorities in

promoting good governance, civic responsibility and the objective of ensuring

...transparency, accountability, rule of law, public participation in decision-


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making and improve service delivery of public institutions and security (Yilo

Krobo, 2006:18).

1.5. Structure of the study

The study is divided in 5 chapters, where chapter 1 is the introduction; the

review of literature on similar issues occurring worldwide is analyzed in

chapter 2; in chapter 3 the study describes the methodology applied to collect

and analyze the information necessary; chapter 4 contains the analysis of the

data and chapter 5 contains the conclusion and recommendations.


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

The importance of forests and of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the

quality of life and even survival of very large numbers of poor rural people in

tropical developing countries now seems indisputable. Trees and forests

contribute in many ways to improving diets, combating hunger and increasing

incomes in local communities and rural households in developing countries.

Thus, food security, income, employment, energy sources and overall well being

of rural people in these countries are linked to the forests (Shand, 1997).

Since 1994 a number of policies have been put in place to promote community

participation in forest management in Ghana, however, these policies have had

little impact on their implementation. Several studies highlighted the need to go

beyond increasing participation for its own sake to making participation

effective. These studies concluded that in Ghana despite the fact that policies on

forest decentralization are well developed, its implementation has been slow

(Oppon Sasu, unpublished; Wiggins et al. 2004).


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This chapter reviews relevant literature on the interactions of forest users with

their environment and with political systems. This review seeks to both build

on the strengths of relevant studies as well as to bring together the information

available on community participation in forest management in the West African

and the global contexts.

2.2. Participation General Concepts

2.2.1 Terms used in this studyParticipation: According to Agarwal (2001: p. 1624), views diverge on how

participation is defined, whom it is expected to involve, what is expected to

achieve, and how it is brought about. At its narrowest, participation in a group

is defined in terms of nominal membership and at its broadest, in terms of a

dynamic interactive process in which the disadvantaged have voice and

influence decision making. In terms of objectives, at its narrowest participation

is judged almost entirely by its potential efficiency effects and at its broadest by

its ability to enhance equity, efficiency, empowerment and environmental

sustainability. This study adopts the broadest definition of participation that,

as suggested by Agarwal, it is believed to achieve the outcomes of sustainable

forest management in the communities studied.

Decentralization: Mawhood and Smith define decentralization as any political

act in which a central government formally cedes powers to actors and


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institutions at lower levels in a political-administrative and territorial

hierarchy (Mawhood, 1983; Smith, 1985; cited in Ribot et al., 2006: 2).

Institutions: O'Donell defines them as regularized patterns of interaction that

are known, practiced, and regularly accepted (if not necessarily normatively

approved) by given social agents who by virtue of those characteristics, expect

to continue interacting under the rules and norms formally or informally

embodied in those patterns. Sometimes, but not necessarily, institutions

become formal organizations: they materialize in buildings, seals, rituals, and

persons in roles that authorize them to speak for the organization (O'Donell,

1993:4).

Forest management: According to Wiersum, it refers to the total set of

technical and social arrangements involved in the protection and maintenance

of forest management for specific purposes, and the harvesting and distribution

of forest products. In this respect, the author suggests that forest management

should therefore be considered to include all conscious human activities

directed at maintaining its production capacity. (Wiersum 1997: 7)

2.2.2. Political DecentralizationDecentralized institutions are viewed as likely to perform better on the criteria

of efficiency and equity for several reasons. Local authorities are presumed to

have better time- and place-specific information which leads to better-targeted

policies and lower transaction costs (World Bank, 1997). According to Ribot et


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al. (2006), decentralization improves competition among jurisdictions and

promotes greater political participation.

Olowu (2001) argues that by simply assuming that a more democratic

participation will be possible by bringing the power closer to the people we are

excluding the political aspects of decentralization. In this sense, devolutionary

decentralization confronts two major political problems. The first one is the

unwillingness of political and administrative leaders to share the power

inherited from colonial times. The second political issue is that in many

instances is the local elite who may capture decentralized power and utilize it to

repress the local minorities, women and foreigners in the various communities.

Agarwal (2001) suggests that there are limits to what participation alone can

achieve in terms of efficiency, given pre-existing socio-economic inequalities

and relations of power. In this respect, Boone also observes the pre-existence of

a social context as influencing decentralization schemes. The author states that

governments may have important stakes in established power-brokers as well

as in local-level social and political hierarchies that can extend beyond the reach

of the state (Boone, 1998: 25; cited in Crook & Sverrison, 1999)

2.2.3. Decentralization and Community Participation

According to Ribot (2003) decentralization takes place when a central

government formally transfers powers to actors and institutions at lower levels

in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy. In order to increase both

efficiency and equity in natural resource management decentralization is being


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promoted by development agents, natural resource managers and

environmentalists. However, Ribot argues that the implementation of

environmental decentralization laws fall short of producing the most basic

conditions necessary for effective decentralization.

Ribot (2007) suggests that representative local authorities can be strengthened

through recognition; however, they may be weakened if they receive too little

power to be effective, or if parallel institutions overshadow or appropriate their

ability to serve public interest. Manor (2005), in this sense, provides the

example of under-funded local governments with a mandate to manage natural

resources operating in an arena with over-funded environment committees.

As a result, Ribot (2003) concludes that countries and agencies claiming to

undertake or support democratic decentralization of natural resources have

widely failed to empower democratic local governments as they transfer just a

few public powers over natural resources to existing and new democratic local

governments. As a result, governments, international agencies and international

non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are choosing to transfer these powers

to a wide array of other local institutions, empowering chiefs, headmen and

other customary leaders across Africa, in some cases threatening democratic

decentralization reform efforts.

2.2.4. Community Participation Typology

Agarwal (2001) provides a typology of participation (see table 2.2.3). According

to the author, achieving effective participation would involve a shift from the


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lower level (Nominal Participation) to the higher level (Empowerment), with

levels defined not by how a group is initiated but by the extent of peoples

activeness.

Mathbor (2008) suggests that local peoples involvement in all stages of

development projects enhances effective participation.

Table 2.2.3 Typology of Participation

Form/Level of participation Characteristic features

Nominal Participation Membership in the group

Passive Participation Being informed of decisions ex facto;

or attending meetings and listeningin on decision making, without

speaking-up.

Consultative Participation Being asked and opinion in specific

matters without guarantee of

influencing decisions.

Activity-Specific Participation Being asked to (or volunteering to)undertake specific tasks.

Interactive (empowering) Having voice and influence in the

Participation groups decisions.

Source: Agarwal (2001)

2.2.5. Decentralization and the role of indigenous institutions

Korten and Alfonso (1983) suggest that the most effective way to ensure

success of development efforts is through encouraging local participation in

development planning decisions. The authors suggest that an alternative to

Western approaches to environmental project planning in developing countries

may be developed by exploring and improving indigenous approaches to

environmental conservation.


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According to development scholars, historically, the use of improper planning

strategies with little use of indigenous local knowledge has often resulted in

inefficient allocation of resources and manpower resulting in failed attempts to

alleviate rural poverty. In this regard, Appiah-Opoku & Mulamootil (1997)

observe that the Western concept of development is widely interpreted as

necessitating change, and is often characterized as a movement from the old or

archaic (traditional) to the new (modern). This concept has proved unsuitable

to be applied in the African context and brings the necessity for development

planners of the introduction of traditional and indigenous institutions in

development processes.

2.3. The Ghanaian Context

2.3.1. Political Decentralization in Ghana

According to Owusu (2004), the present form of decentralization being

implemented in Ghana can be traced back to 1988 when a comprehensive set of

policies were designed to decentralize the system of Government. The aim of

these policies is to promote popular participation and ownership of the

machinery of government by shifting the process of governance from command

to consultative processes, and by devolving power, competence and resources

to the district level.

In this context of decentralized government, Owusu (2004) suggests that

District Assemblies were given responsibilities for the development of the


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districts. For this purpose, they were provided with executive, legislative and

deliberative powers, as well as administrative and technical support in order to

articulate the views and aspirations of the people within districts. On a lower

level are the sub-district structures, Unit Committees (UCs) and Area Councils

(ACs) that are local organs of the District Assemblies with no independent

powers. UCs and ACs are essentially consultative bodies with no budgets of

their own.

According to Oppon Sasu, (unpublished) UCs are the base structure of the local

government system, which play the important roles of education, organization

of communal labor, revenue raising, ensuring environmental cleanliness, and

implementing and monitoring self-help projects among others. Oppon Sasu

(unpublished), observes that District assemblies are made up of 67 percent

elected representative and 33 percent government appointees. This split

between elected and appointed members leaves a significant participation and

accountability deficit, with the appointment system encouraging upward

accountability to the Central Government rather downward accountability to

the local electorate.

Owusu (2004) mentions two different sources of revenue for the District

Assemblies, internal and external, the latter includes grants from central

governments, whilst internal ones includes rates, fees, licenses, and trading

services. However, Owusu suggests that in many districts these internal

revenue generating resources are either inadequate or poorly developed due to


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the general poverty level and the underdevelopment of infrastructure and

services. Therefore most District Assemblies depend on government revenue

for the implementation of their development projects.

Evaluating the effectiveness of Ghanas decentralization process, Korateng &

Larbi (2008) argue that notwithstanding all the institutional and legal backing

to decentralization, in practice there has been an increased concentration of

power and resources in key sector Ministries, Departments and Agencies. The

authors affirm that key actors in the process have been competing rather than

cooperating, resulting in a weakening of the local governments capacity to

manage the decentralization process.

In addition, Wardell & Lund (2006) suggest that recent decentralization

initiatives in Ghana have witnessed a proliferation of actors with the

maintenance of central government controls that are aimed to limit the political

and fiscal autonomy of the District Assemblies. This has led to an increasing

reliance of District assemblies on the central government and/or external

funding. As a result, the authors conclude, District Assemblies are now more

dependent on central government assistance and/or external funding to meet

their recurrent expenditure than they were in the 1960s.


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2.3.2. Forest management and participation in Ghana2.3.2.1. Background

Wiggins et al. (2004) highlight the importance of sound environmental policies

for rural communities of the forest margins suggesting that given the high

degree to which they depend on the use of local natural resources,

inappropriate environmental policy may reduce jobs and incomes of people,

most of whom are already poor by any definition.

According to Appiah-Opoku & Mulamoottil (1997) Ghana has experienced

development planning without systematic analysis of the potential

environmental impacts since 1919 when the colonial British government

introduced a 5-year development plan. According to the authors, this trend

continued after the countrys independence from the British with a strong

reliance on modernization theory as the major development strategy which

focused on urban industrialization and rejected indigenous life-styles in favor of

modern systems.

In the late 1980s under the auspices of the Forest Resource Management

Project, a Rural Forestry Division (RFD) was established with a specific

mandate to promote community participation in forestry activities in

northern Ghana. The RFD channeled much-needed resources to the regional

and district forest offices to support the maintenance and patrolling of forest

reserve boundaries as well as the establishment of village woodlots. RFD was

dissolved as part of the major sectoral reforms implemented in the late 1990s


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through the Forest Sector Development Project that culminated in the creation

of a Forest Services Division accountable to a revamped Forestry Commission

(Forestry Commission, 2001; cited in Wardell & Lund 2006). The FC formed

community forestry committees at the unit level to enhance community

empowerment and participation in resource management (Oppon Sasu,

unpublished).

2.3.2.2. Problems faced in forest management in Ghana

Oppon Sasu (unpublished) suggests that in Ghana decentralization policies in

the forest sector have been evaluated by several studies, which in many

occasions concluded that implementation of policies on decentralization of

forest management has been slow despite the fact that policies are well

developed.

Major problems outlined by the literature are: top-down approaches from

government, the capture of power by local elites, under-resourcing of local

institutions, under-value of indigenous knowledge, low women participation in

decision making processes.

2.3.2.2.1. Top-Down approaches to Natural Resources Management

Amanor (2003) suggests that most West African states have initiated

decentralization programs, with devolution of natural resource management as

an important component. Most national forestry services in the region now

recognize the importance of community forestry, collaborative forestry, or joint

forest management and have developed a critique of previous practices based


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on exclusionary top-down approaches. However, the author argues that global

and national agencies aim to get rural communities to participate in the

programs, rather than creating a platform where rural people can make their

own inputs into natural resource policy. (Amanor 2003:1)

Moreover, the author highlights that participatory forest management policies

applied are rooted in neoliberal economic philosophy which needs to make

forestry management more efficient by involving communities therefore

lowering the transaction costs of management (Amanor 2003:1). This, in the

authors opinion would explain the low participation in forestry projects of

many local communities.

2.3.2.2.2. Capture of power by the local elites

The problem of local elites capture ofpower in Ghanaian communities has been

described by Crook (2003). The author observes that even though in recent

years local peoples participation in community development associations has

thriven, these are run by local elites that do not necessarily enhance

representation of the poor. Thus, existing social hierarchies are seldom

challenged in decisions taken in public meetings called by such associations.

Wardell and Lund (2005) study on access to forest reserves in Northern Ghana

shows that the restrictive laws on access to land and resources in forest

reserves and policies put in place by the government as well as regulations of

the Forestry Department, have provided a context for monetary and political

rent seeking for other political agents (Wardell and Lund, 2005: 1888) who


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may use central government policy and directives to reinforce their authority at

the local level. The authors demonstrate in their study that access to land is not

a right but a tolerated crime.

2.3.2.2.3. Under-resourcing of local institutions

Agrawal and Gibson (1999) suggest that effective institutionalization of

community-based conservation requires that local groups have access to

adequate funds for implementing the rules they create. In addition, Amanor and

Brown (2003) in a review of the impact of decentralization and local

environmental management observed that the performance of the

decentralized structures have been weak as far as environmental management

is concerned due probably to the chronic under-resourcing of the

decentralization process and its resulting incapacity.

Oppon Sasu (unpublished) further suggests that the weaknesses of local

institutions in the Ghanaian decentralization process and effective

implementation of collaborative forest management approaches are one of the

key shortfalls of the decentralization process.

2.3.2.2.4. Low women participation in forest management

The importance of including women in forest management in West African

Countries is highlighted by several studies. A major reason is, as Agrawal et al.

(2006) point out, that women are active users of forest management. This has

to do, in large part, with social and cultural expectations which accord women

primary responsibility for collecting forest products for household use.


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Elmhirst & Resurreccion (2008) suggest that sustainable development policy

initiatives that seek to ameliorate environmental degradation and its negative

livelihood effects not only bring gendered impacts and responses, but also

produce particular framings of gender and gendered power relations. In this

sense, Agrawal et al. (2006) suggest that the state plays a very important role in

ensuring the interests of women are protected.

Someshwar (1993) emphasizes the importance of the state on facilitating the

formation of institutions that give voice to the disempowered groups suggesting

that in unequal societies, decentralization of decision-making does not

necessarily result in increased participation by all sections of the population,

the disempowered groups would likely continue to be outside such process.

Someshwar argues that contrary to current perceptions, management of natural

resources cannot and should not be completely divorced from the state.

Leach (1994) points out that a gender-sensitive forest management strategy

accounts for gender-differentiated activities, property rights, and forest

resource claims, and situates them within the context of a web of social

relations. A gendered approach to community-based resource management

recognizes that questions of rights and control, above all others, implicate the

social relationships within which resources are managed and used.

Furthermore, focusing exclusively on women obscures their relations with men,

implying that womens and mens resource-management activities proceed

along isolated, parallel tracks.


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2.4. Problems Found in Forest Management Globally

2.4.1. Communities seen as static bodies

According to Biesbrouck (2002) working with communities has become a

cultural policy paradigm alongside linked to attempts at sustainable forest

management. Mearns et al (1999) suggest that communities are assumed to be

relatively homogeneous, with members' shared characteristics that distinguish

them from 'outsiders'. Equally fundamental is the assumption of a distinct and

relatively stable local environment which may have succumbed to degradation

or deterioration, but has the potential to be restored and managed sustainably.

The community is seen as the appropriate unit to carry out such restoration and

care, and is envisaged as being capable of acting collectively towards common

environmental interests.

Agrawal & Gibson (1999) expand on this matter suggesting that the vision of a

community as a homogeneous whole fails to attend to differences within

communities. This vision ignores how these differences affect resource

management outcomes, local politics, and strategic interactions within

communities as well as the possibility of layered alliances that can span

multiple levels of politics. The authors conclude that the term community must

be examined in the context of development and conservation by focusing on the

multiple interests and actors within communities, on how these actors

influence decision-making, and on the internal and external institutions that

shape the decision-making process. The authors suggest that a focus on


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institutions rather than community is likely to be more fruitful for those

interested in community-based natural resource management.

2.4.2. Assumptions about deforestation and forest cover

Leach & Fairhead (2000) suggest that analyses of determination of past forest

cover in Ghanaian forests used in today's estimates are highly questionable.

Many authors have simply assumed that the entire forest zone (around 8

million hectares) was forest. Such statistics are usually linked to images of rapid

population growth from and initially low baseline, swelled by immigration into

forest areas. The authors argue that in fact even as early as 1933, the forester

Meniaud suggested that statistics exaggerated the extent of forest cover.

Moreover, study renders invalid the notion that an equilibrium of low (or no)

population and undisturbed forest existed throughout the West African forest

zone at the turn of the twentieth century.

Leach & Fairhead (2000) argue that neo-Malthusian deforestation narratives

misrepresent the relationships between people and forests and obscure

processes by which people have enriched landscapes with trees, and in which

the peopling of a landscape has sometimes meant an expansion of tree and

forest cover. These perspectives usually result in policies and programs that fail

to include local people from taking part on decision making processes, and end

up excluding local peoples access to their property (to combat or redress forest

loss) in the name of biodiversity and resources preservation or climate change.


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2.5. Alternative approaches to participation in forest management

Mathbor (2008) suggests thatpeoples involvement in all stages of development

projects (such as needs assessment, decision making, implementation and

evaluation) enhances effective participation. Taking into account the problems

faced by mainstream participatory approaches put in practice by the central

and local governments of Ghana, this study reviews alternative approaches that

may be incorporated to address the issues of sustainable forest uses and

practices.

2.5.1. Indigenous approaches or Endogenous Development

According to Wiersum (1997) several studies have indicated that local people

living in or near forests should not be considered as mere gatherers of forest

products and/or as people who are transforming forests into agriculture. In

many cases they are active forest managers who are involved in purposeful

activities to safeguard the continuous availability of the valuable forest

management.

Wiersum (1997: 9) suggests that for common property forest management

regimes to function properly there should exist an indigenous institution for

forest management with the following characteristics:

A structure for group members to make decisions on the required resource

management practices;


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Group control over the behavior of the group members, which ensures that

the planned management practices are carried out;

Control over the distribution of collected forest products;

Ability to exclude outsiders.

Such an institution need not be a formal forest management organization. A

cultural/religious institution may ensure a similar effect (Wiersum 1997: 9).

Appiah-Opoku & Mulamoottil (1997) highlight some limitations that can be

found in the integration of indigenous systems in environmental assessment.

The barriers include the higher illiteracy rate among members of indigenous

institutions, language problems, and the difficulty in changing entrenched

attitudes. There is also skepticism on the part of government officials and

scientists that indigenous institutions and their ecological knowledge systems

have been almost irreversibly eroded by the assimilation of indigenous peoples

into Western culture. The authors observe that some of these barriers could be

removed through community-based action research and intensive public

education through the media, formal education system, and with the help of

non-governmental organizations.

2.5.2. Adaptive and Deliberative governance approaches

According to Leach (2008), moves towards alternative governance approaches

that respond adaptively and reflexively must be seen as essentially political.

Such politics is in part a politics of knowledge, which can be informed by


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scientific analyses of contexts, systems, and their properties, but fundamentally

requires an opening up of debate through a diversification of knowledge bases.

But it is also a politics linked to the real political economy of environment and

development.

Leach (2008) suggests that science policy processes which have emerged

historically through the intersection of national and globalised needs and

practices, have produced a set of dominant concepts and approaches which

strongly drive environmental development in relation to tropical forests. By

contrast, the author observes that recent work on adaptive governance offers

suggestions for addressing some of the challenges of dealing with intertwined

and dynamic socio-ecological systems. Rather than the implementation of

singular plans, adaptive governance emphasizes the interaction of multiple

institutions in guiding a complex system towards an improved state or

trajectory (transformability) or maintaining it in a desired state or trajectory

(resilience) (Leach, 2008: 1791).

Leach (2008) emphasizes that adaptive governance emphasizes flexibility,

experimentation and learning as strategies for anticipating and dealing with

unintended consequences. Such governance approaches are thus deemed

appropriate to situations of rapid change and high uncertainty. Nevertheless,

they tend to assume that there are shared goals around what system properties

should remain resilient, or that consensus can be built through the governance

process. To address these, it could be argued, requires approaches to forest


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governance that are also deliberative and reflexive which emphasize bringing

together diverse actors to render explicit, and discuss and negotiate, their

particular views of the world.

Leach (2008) suggests that deliberation would need to bring local forest users

into dialogue with policy makers and scientists of both equilibrial and

nonequilibrial persuasions. Reflexive governance goes further to engage with

the implications of plural framings of what constitutes the social-ecological

system, and the implications of sustainability goals, recognizing that these are

contingent and conditioned by divergent social values, historical experiences,

interests, and institutional commitments. Goals are thus rarely determined once

and for all, since knowledge, values and interests in social-ecological systems

evolve and develop over time.


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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

Models and policies could go awry if intra-household dynamics are assumed

(as they often are) to exist in isolation, without examining the extra household

socio-economic and legal institutions within which households are embedded,

and how these institutions might themselves be subject to change (Agarwal,

1997: 2).

In order to gather information which would contribute to an understanding of

the complexity of issues surrounding community participation and local

people's use of forest management, no one method is sufficient. Thus, a multiple

methodology is required in order to clearly understand the complex

relationship between nature (forests), society (human activities) and the

authorities.

This chapter discusses the strategy and the various methods of data collection

employed in this study. Some methodological issues in research design and

fieldwork have also been considered. The chapter begins with a description of


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the study area and choice of the study sites. The final section discusses the main

methods of data analysis applied in this study.

3.2. General description of the study area and sites

The study was conducted in the Yilo Krobo District which covers an estimated

area of 805 sq km. It shares boundaries with Manya Krobo District in the North

and East, Damgbe West and Akwapim North Districts in the South; New

Juabeng, East Akim and Fanteakwa Districts in the West (Yilo Krobo, 2006).

There are two forest reserves in the district. These are the Boti Falls Forest

Reserve and the Volta River Block 2 Forest Reserve at Klo-Begoro. Together,

they add up to 21.83sq km. The specific area of study lays in the surrounding

communities of the Boti Forest Reserve specifically the villages of Boti, Amanfro

and Huhunya.

According to the District's Authority (Yilo Krobo, 2006) one of the most

important items of aesthetic and scientific importance in the district is the

forest reserve of Boti. In this reserve, there are various tree species of scientific

importance due to conservation of biodiversity. These forest reserves also serve

as habitats for wildlife and as water sheds for the rivers.

3.2.1. Selection of the study area

A number of factors influenced the selection of the Boti Forest Reserve

surrounding villages for the purpose of this study.


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Firstly, Boti is a rural area. According to the 2000 Census the Boti area council

has the lowest per capita income of the seven area councils in the district (Yilo

Krobo, 2006), which means that many households rely on subsistence farming

in order to provide for their basic needs. Therefore the reserve provides a great

potential for land use, subsistence farming and trade in non-timber forest

products (NTFP) for the communities of the area.

Secondly, as the Medium Term Development Plan (Yilo Krobo, 2006) shows, the

Boti Falls Forest Reserve is one of the most important items of aes thetic and

scientific importance in the district. However, as the same document states,

problems with the maintenance of the reserves include illegal farming and

illegal felling of trees. The extraction of wood is done for fuel-wood and

charcoal burning. Therefore this zone offered the opportunity to uncover or

reveal possible conflicts and divergent opinions (regarding use rights) between

the local people who depend on the forests for NTFPs and the district

authorities whose motive has been to raise revenue by utilizing the Forest

Reserve as a tourist attraction.

Thirdly, Chambers analysis of project biases on field research notes that

research generate more research, and investment by donors draws research

after and funds it (Chambers, 1983: 17). As a consequence of what he calls

project bias, the area has not yet attracted the attention of researchers, more

attracted to study areas that have already been supported by donors funds (e.g.

areas utilized for commercial timber production or that have already been


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exploited as tourist attraction). Hence, the Boti Falls Forest Reserve is an area

where little information has been previously gathered.

In order to capture the full set of issues about how forest and tree resources

form part of livelihood structures, data was collected from communities around

the Boti forest reserve area for a period of five months - between February and

June 2009. The communities studied are Boti Falls Village, Asiafo Amanfro and

Huhunya, which are situated near the forest reserve margins.

3.2.2. General description of the Yilo Krobo District

3.2.2.1. TopographyThe district lies within the semi-deciduous rain forest and the coastal savanna

zone of the country. There is the dry semi-deciduous (fire zone) which stretches

from the district to the lower part of the Manya Krobo District covering 855

square kilometers.

The area is predominantly mountainous. The Akwapim Ranges stretch into the

district from south-west to north-east across the district. With its

accompanying deep valleys, it provides an undulating landscape.

There are two main watersheds forming three river basins in the district. One of

the watersheds is located on the Akwapim Ranges where rivers flow in the

eastward direction on the lowlands into the Volta River. On the west of the

ranges, the rivers flow into he Ponpong River, which empties into the Volta

Lake.


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3.2.2.2. Climate and drainageThe Yilo Krobo District lays within the dry equatorial climatic zone which

experiences substantial amount of precipitation. This is characterized by a bi-

modal rainy season, which reaches its maximum during the two peak periods of

May June and September October. The annual rainfall is between 750mm in

the southeast and 1600mm on the slopes of the ranges in the northwest.

Temperature ranges between a minimum of 24.90 C and a maximum of 29.90 C.

A relative humidity of 60 93 percent is characteristic of the district.

3.2.2.3. Local natural resourcesThe Akwapim Range stretches into the district and divides it into a series of

highlands starting from the west of Somanya. There are several other isolated

rock outcrops depicting an undulating landscape. In between these highlands,

there are relatively flatlands of about 800ft above see level. Most of the

settlements are found on these lowlands.

Part of the Volta Lake stretches into the district at Bukunor. This has provided

opportunities for fishing and fishing related activities in the area. Numerous

streams and rivers drain into the lake. River Ponpong is the major river that

runs through the district.

There are two forest reserves in the district. These are the Boti Falls Forest

Reserve and the Volta River Block 2 Forest Reserve at Klo-Begoro. Together,

they add up to 21.83sq km. There are herbal species in these forest reserves.

Apart from individual herbalists who have been collecting some species from


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here, the Mampong Centre for Herbal Research is known to have harvested

some plants there for the purpose of preparing herbal medicine. Other species

that are found in these reserves are Wawa, Odum, Onyina and Mahogany.

The District is endowed with deposits of quality limestone and other stones that

are good for constructional works. There are also clay deposits in several parts

of the district including Okwenya.

3.2.2.4. Population, settlements and roadsThe district total population, according to the 2000 population Census was

86,107 signifying a 4.1% increase over the population in 1984. With a growth

rate of 2.6%, the districts population is currently estimated at 97,898. The

district is predominantly rural with more than 67% of its population living in

rural areas. The district is divided into seven area councils namely, Somanya,

Oterkpolu, Boti, Nkurakan, Nsutapong, Klo-Agogo and Obawale (Yilo Krobo,

2006). Table 3.2.2.4 shows the population distribution for selected Area

councils.

Table 3.2.2.4 - Population Distribution by Area Council (selected)

Area Council Total Population % No. of % hhold

households size

Somanya 33,080 38.42 8,065 4.1

Nkurakan 16,078 18.67 3,343 4.8

Boti 12,321 14.31 2,347 5.3

Source: Yilo Krobo Medium Term Development Plan, 2006; Compiled from

2000 Population Census.


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3.3. Methods applied

The complexity of the issues investigated, the use of both quantitative and

qualitative methodologies was needed and a less standardized and more

flexible approach.

A desktop data search was conducted in various institutions resources during

the initial stages of the study. Other methods of data collection applied included,

focused groups, interviews with key informants, survey and participant

observation. These methods are described in detail below.

3.3.1. Use of Rapid Appraisal Techniques

Rapid appraisal (RA) refers to a family of methodologies designed to

encourage the participation of local communities in the collection and use of

information to improve their livelihoods (Freudenberger, 1994: 1).

Given the nature of the study and the kind of information to be collected, the

research was based on qualitative data and complemented by the use of

quantitative methods. According to Bryman (1988), the advantages of

combining quantitative and qualitative research include:

The logic of 'triangulation'. This is an approach in which multiple

observers, theoretical perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies

are combined. Within this context, quantitative and qualitative research

may be perceived as different ways of examining the same research

problem albeit with differing objectives. By combining the two, the


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researcher's claims for the validity of his or her conclusions are

enhanced if they can be shown to provide mutual confirmation.

Quantitative and qualitative research can be combined in order to

produce a general picture

Structure and process - qualitative research presents a processual view

of social life whereas quantitative research provides a static account.

RRA has been considered an appropriate tool to be applied throughout this

study, as it helped to identify the competing, convergent, complementary and

conflicting interests and knowledge base among individuals as well as among

the 'experts' and 'locals', in the overall environmental/forest management and

community participation issues.

Furthermore, adopting on field work a learning principle has enabled the

researcher to obtain important and sensitive information about the local setting

and to reduce the influence of ethnocentrism. This principle is based on the

premise that rural forest dwellers are a repository of knowledge about their

local environment, trees, management skills and utilization of resources,

therefore, researchers should be able to open their mind, be good listeners and

be open to learn from the local people respecting their culture and traditions.

Sampling, data collection and analysis techniques are described in the following

sections.


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3.3.2. Sampling Methods

The communities studied were selected considering their location near Boti

Falls Forest Reserve. However, it was not possible to obtain adequate sample

frame from the District authorities, as no such list was readily available. In

addition, it would have been very time consuming and expensive to survey all

the households and population features, hence the use of purposive sampling.

Considering these aspects, a sample of 50 people willing to participate in the

survey were selected, which would be the sample frame of the study. Following

this, 24 forest users were selected using a systematic random sampling

technique.

Participants from the District Assembly, Forestry Commission, Ministry of Food

and Agriculture and Traditional Authorities were purposively selected. The

same applies for participants of the focused group discussion. Discussions were

held with the district Planning Officer and Assembly Person, the Forestry

Commission Regional Manager and field and administrative officers as well as

the Director of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.

3.3.3. Methods of data collection

In investigating how local people interact with their environment and the local

authorities it seemed that neither qualitative nor quantitative methodology

alone were able to achieve the research objectives. Therefore, an integration of

quantitative and qualitative methods was chosen to help unpack the


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interlocking deep-seated structures and processes that influence decision

making in the communities studied.

Methods of data collection applied include focused group discussions, desktop

data search, key informant interview, survey and participant observation.

3.3.3.1. Desk-top data search

A literature search was conducted in various institutions in Ghana, including the

districts Forestry Commission Office and Achimota Headquarters, District

Assembly offices and the Traditional council as well as the University of Ghana

and ISSER libraries to bring together what has already been done relating to

forestry and local livelihood security in Ghana. Also on-line journals and foreign

academic institutions' on-line sources were searched. Relevant documents

(such as policy and legislation materials) obtained from the search were

analyzed, in order to provide the framework for evaluating the situation on the

ground.

3.3.3.2. Focused group discussions

Focused group discussions and transect walks were used in the initial stages of

data collection to gain an initial understanding of the rural setting and to

establish rapport with the local people as well as village leaders and key

informants. After the initial participation by the researcher in community

meetings as an outsider, separate meetings were held with different groups

such as women, men and youths.


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In addition, individual meetings with the 'experts' of each village were

organized in order to give them the opportunity to talk freely and to capture a

wide range of issues relating to forest use and participation. These meetings

were aimed at capturing information relating to aspects of culture, attitudes

and perceptions regarding farming practices and forest product use, land rights

and access issues and local people's perception of participatory approaches.

3.3.3.3. Key informant interview

Key informants are persons with particular occupational skills, persons in

positions of leadership in village political and/or administrative units, activists

or representatives of particular groups in the community and individuals who

for one reason or another are in a position to know 'something special' about

the community.

Following the forest user questionnaire interviews and analysis of the data,

semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected respondents and key

informants to further investigate key issues that emerged from the analysis of

the data. Interviews were held in different places and times with teachers,

members of the traditional authority, the director of the Ministry of food and

Agriculture and older residents living in the area.

3.3.3.4. Survey

A household is usually defined as a set of persons most of whom are linked by

kinship and marriage, acting as a joint consumption/residential unit having a

single budget; operationally, members of the group, whose core is a "family",


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eat from the same pot and live under the same roof (Almeida, 1996: 122). Elson

recognizes that households are in some sense pooling and sharing

organizations, but instead, she argues that this intra-household interaction is

problematic as there is considerable evidence that while women typically pool

and share their income, especially with their children, men are more inclined to

reserve part of their income for discretionary personal spending (Elson, 1995 in

Agarwal, 1997). In Addition, Agarwal (1997) argues that households are

comprised of a variety actors, with often conflicting preferences and interests.

They are arenas where decisions are made with respect to consumption,

production and investment of labor and resource allocation.

In this sense, ignoring the gender division of labor that happens intra-

household would have undermined the results of this study, hence interviewing

forest users at an individual level has been considered a more appropriate

approach. For the reasons above presented, the Forest User Questionnaire was

designed and administered to even number of male and female forest users

randomly selected from the villages studied and in depth interviews were

conducted to gather the data used in the analysis.

The questionnaire contains relevant sections for this study such as Socio-

demographic Characteristics, Economic Activities, Community Participation and

Forest Perceptions. The Forest User Questionnaire is enclosed to this study as

Appendix I. In order to interview the district authorities and other officials the


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Forest User Questionnaire was adapted to cover all the relevant information

needed. Open ended questions were used to collect qualitative data.

3.3.3.5. Participant observation

To supplement the above methods, I have also conducted my own detailed

direct observation and assessment of the environment as pertains to the

condition of the forests and forest management use, farm and off-farm activities

of the villagers, and product gathering in the forest reserve whilst engaging in

informal talks and discussions with the villagers. These informal discussions

were an essential component of this study as they allowed the researcher to

gain the confidence from the community and get informed of cultural and

everyday life issues villagers live.

According to May (2001), one of the main advantages of participant observation

is its flexibility. May suggests that participant observation is a continual

process of reflection and alteration of the focus of observations in accordance

with analytic developments. It permits researchers to witness people's actions

in different settings and routinely ask themselves a myriad of questions

concerning motivations, belief, and actions (May 2001: p.159).

3.4. Data analysis

The data was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively using statistical and

non-statistical techniques. The various responses for the close ended questions

were edited and coded accordingly. The open ended questions were classified


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into categories after studying the responses and analysis was based on

discussion and interpretation of trends and patterns in target participants

perceptions. Thereafter the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was

used for data entry and analysis. The analysis yielded frequency tables and

cross tabulations to facilitate examination of relationship between variables.

Some of the results are presented in tables, diagrams and figures where it was

considered necessary.

The conclusions drawn from the statistical analysis supplemented qualitative

assessments conducted in each community. These assessments allowed for

checks on indicators against the perceptions of community members to ensure

that they were accurate and reflected the reality of each community.

3.5. Some methodological issues in research design

An important issue has been how to become an insidee of the communities

studied, so as to achieve a thorough observation and acquire a deep and

comprehensive understanding of the issues being studied.

In order to identify potential informants and introduce myself to the

communities, assistance from the Forestry Commission District Manager and

officers was required given their experience working with the communities.

Prior to the field visit, a series of meetings were held with the District Forestry

Commission Manager, Forestry Officials and MOFA Officers aimed to ensure

that the study is focused on relevant themes and to establish the relevance of

the study objectives. After these initial discussions, mostly held in Somanya,


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permission to enter the communities was first sought from the District

Assembly's Planning Officer. After gaining permission from him, permission

was sought from the local chiefs and their elders followed by the local

committee chairman and its members.

3.5.1. Ethics in the interviewing process

Problems concerning the privacy and anonymity of sensitive issues that arose

during the interviews were avoided by maintaining constant neutrality and a

careful use of the information provided throughout the interviewing process

and subsequent stages of the research.

Despite the precautions taken, difficulties were found in communicating with

some members of the community given the fact that I can not speak Krobo, the

language used by most members of the communities for communication. In

these cases, I mediated these difficulties through the use of an interpreter and

cultural translator.

3.5.2. Limitations

Understanding in what ways values and research practice interact is the

beginning of the process of pursuing maximum accuracy. In this sense, May

(2001:47) suggests that an awareness of the limitations of our work, as well as

its strengths, enables us to reflect upon them in a productive fashion and take

appropriate action. In this respect, I am conscious that the research dynamic

and the data I collected have been influenced by my status as a white, male

researcher.


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CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter presents critical, objective and systematic analysis of empirical

data collected from a survey on Community Participation in Forest Management

in Yilo Krobo District. The research findings are presented in 7 sections that

reflect the studys objectives. The first section deals with the socio-demographic

characteristics of the population surveyed. The chapter is further organized into

sections and sub-sections that deal with forest management and community

participation issues in Yilo Krobo District.

4.2. Demographic Characteristics

Before discussing the main issues this research presents the demographic

characteristics of respondents.

4.2.1. Age distribution of forest users interviewedIn order to undertake systematic analyses, the study surveyed respondents of

varying backgrounds and occupations.The age distribution of the twenty-four

forest users interviewed is given in figure 4.2.1


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Source: Authors survey , 2009.

Figure 4.2.1 shows that majority of interviewees occupied age groups 25-34

and 35-44, forming 50% of forest users interviewed. In the 25-34 group, 12.5%

of women and 16.7 % of males were interviewed, whilst for the age group 35

44, 12.5% of women and 8.3% of men were interviewed. This implies the

survey covered more youthful respondents with a cumulative response rate of

66.7% when we include the 15-24 group.

4.2.2. Educational level of respondents by sexAccording to Mohamed-Anwar (unpublished), education is usually associated

with greater knowledge and participation in decision making at both the

household and community levels. Table 4.2.2 below shows the educational level

of respondents disaggregated by sex. From this table it is clear that 21% have

completed primary school and 58% of the respondents have completed

secondary school. 8% of the respondents have completed post secondary


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education and 13% had no formal education. 88% of respondents had

completed at least one form of formal education. Level of education is an

important variable to consider as it has positive relationship with participation.

Table 4.2.2 shows the level of education disaggregated by sex.

Table 4.2.2 Level of education by sex (Percentages)

Educational level (Percentage)

TotalNone Primary Secondary

Post

secondary

Sex Male 4% 13% 29% 4% 50%

Female 8% 8% 29% 4% 50%

Total 13% 21% 58% 8% 100%


4.2.3. Occupational Distribution of respondents

Farming was the occupation of 29% of the people interviewed. The second most

common occupation of interviewees was trading with 21% of the survey

respondents. These occupational groups represent 50% of the respondents

against a remaining 50% composed of occupations such as charcoal burners,

teachers and civil servants among others. Table 4.2.3 shows the occupational

distribution of respondents.


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Table 4.2.3 Occupation of respondents

Frequency Percent

Farmer 7 29

Charcoal burner 2 8

Teacher 2 8

Civil servant 2 8

Student 2 8

Trader 5 21

Tour guide 2 8

Other 2 8

Total 24 100


4.3. Extent and nature of participation

4.3.1. Participation in forest management projects

Participation in Forest Management in Yilo Krobo District is described in Figure

4.3.1 which shows that 29.2% of the people interviewed participate in Forest

Resource Management projects, whilst 70.8% do not. This number does not

show the extent and character of participation, which is analyzed in section

4.3.4.


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4.3.2. Participation in forest management by sex

Figure 4.3.2 below shows the participation in forest management projects

disaggregated by sex; the majority of interviewees that participate in forest

resource management are male (57% of participants).

Source: Authors Survey, 2009.

4.3.3. Project ActivitiesAs shown in Figure 4.3.3, from the respondents that have participated in forest

activities, 42.9% participated in tree planting, 28.6% participated in workshops,


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14.3% participated in afforestation projects and 14.3% in environmental

education projects.


4.3.4. Character of activities performed by participants.As shown in figure 4.3.4 , 57% of the respondents described their participation

as manual labor,, 29% described their participation as attending project

meetings and 14% participated in the financial management.



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4.4. Capacity for effective participation

The decentralized model of forest management that Ghana adopted relies

largely on the ability of the Unit Committees to identify the community

priorities (see Owusu, 2004). In this light, how projects are proposed is one of

the variables that this study seeks to analyze. From the projects in which people

participated, 42.9% were brought to the community by NGOs, 14.3% of

projects were brought by the Forestry Commission and 14.3% by the District

Assembly.

It is important to highlight that, according to the district authorities, Unit

Committees (UCs) have not been set up in the Yilo Krobo District. This would

mean that district authorities have limited information on the communitys

needs at the time of decision making as UCs, as we have seen in previous

sections, are the structures put in place that take the decentralization process to

the grass-root level.

Another problem highlighted by the district authorities is the lack of competent

personnel working for the District Assembly. This was identified as a

contributory factor to the UCs ineffectiveness in mobilizing community

participation. This situation is unlikely to change in the shorter term as the

district authorities have not planned any major training for their personnel on

participatory practices. District authorities cited persistent lack of resources for

the implementation of the decentralization process as one of the main reasons

they did not provide capacity-building in participatory methods for UCs staff.


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4.5. Forest Resource Management and political decentralization

It is not possible to separate participation in forest management from the

broader context of political decentralization in which it happens. For this

reason, this study evaluated the perception of political decentralization of the

inhabitants of the villages selected. In particular, perceptions of measures that

promote participation of women were analyzed.

4.5.1. Perception of participation in decision makingWhen participants were asked about their ability to influence political decisions

in their communities, 75% answered yes,, and no in 20.8% (See Table 4.5.1)


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Table 4.5.1 - Perception of participation

in decision making

Do you influence

decision-making? Frequency Percent

Yes 18 75.0

No 5 20.8N/A 1 4.2

Total 24 100.0


4.5.2. Perceptions of Community Meetings by SexAn important finding of this study arose when we cross-checked peoples

perceptions of their political participation by asking them about their

participation in community meetings, one of the key arenas of participation in

rural towns. The results, cross tabulated by sex, were that women perceive

their opinions in community meetings are not as valued as male participants.

While 75% of respondents perceive that participate in decision making, only

20% of women think their opinions are as valued as men s. This discrepancy

may in some way be explained by the fact that participation in decision-making

takes place largely through community meetings, in which mens opinions were

felt to hold greater weight.

Table 4.5.2 - Perception of Consideration Given to Opinions in

Community Meetings by sex

Do you perceive your opinion is

considered in community

meetings?Yes No

Sex Male 80% 11%

Female 20% 89%

Total 100% 100%



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It seems unlikely that womens opinion will be increasingly considered in the

short term as 91% of the respondents were not aware of mechanisms for

womens participation in the Yilo Krobo District, including district authorities

and Forestry Commission officers.

4.6. Forest Resource Management and the Boti Falls Reserve

4.6.1. Brief description of the Forest ReserveAccording to the Districts Medium Term Development Plan 2006-2009, the

Boti Falls Forest Reserve, serves as habitat for wildlife and as watershed for

the river (Yilo Krobo,2006: 121). The ecological purpose of the reserve is

complemented by the use of the site as a tourist attraction.

The reserve is, according to the district authorities, a strictly reserved site. The

area is demarcated with boundary pillars, walls around the entrance, and lines

of trees along the back perimeter. Staff is paid by the local government to

control these boundaries, enforce laws governing use and access, and to carry

out management activities. According to the caretakers, there are also Forestry

Commission wildlife officers patrolling the site, although they were not

available to meet with the researcher at the time of surveying the reserve.

As a consequence of access restrictions, villagers are not allowed to enter the

reserve to enjoy the ecological benefits of the site unless they pay an entry fee

to the district authorities; an entry fee that due to the level of poverty of the

villages studied many villagers cannot pay.


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It is important to point that even though the Boti Forest Reserve has been kept

by the district authorities for conservation purposes, there are noticeable signs

of human activity inside the reserve. For example, there ar

Documents

Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez