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COMMUNICATION RESEARCH ISSUES AND METHODS
JAMES A. ANDERSON University of Utah
McGRAW-HILL, INC. New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota
Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Paris San Juan
Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
CONTENTS
PREFACE XV
S E C T I O N 1 T H E SCIENT IF IC S T U D Y O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N 1
1 Science and Scientists 3
SCIENCE 3
Characteristics of Science
EXERCISES 14
SCIENTISM 15
Science as Truth / Science as Progress / The Ideology
of Method
SCIENTISTS 17
The Roles of Science / The Roles of Observation / The
Roles of Discovery / Supporting Roles / Scientists in
Society / Characteristics of the Community of Human
Science
EXERCISES 23
SUMMARY 23
RELATED READINGS 24
2 Communication as a Field of Research 25
SYNOPSIS 25
A BRIEF AMERICAN HISTORY OF THE FIELD OF COMMUNICATION 26
HISTORICAL INSIGHTS INTO THE FIELD OF SPEECH 27
The Content of Speech / The Early Emphasis on Social
Science / The Historical Legacy
HISTORICAL INSIGHTS INTO THE STUDY OF JOURNALISM 30
The Search for Legitimation / Professional Education
/ Journalism's Relationship with the Social Sciences
/ The Legacy for Today's Research in Journalism
EXERCISES 35
IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMUNICATION 35
THE SOCIOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 36
VI CONTENTS
THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION 37
How the Choice of Elements Affects Research
VARIABLES WITHIN LEVELS AND ELEMENTS 40
LEVELS, ELEMENTS, AND VARIABLES: THE INTEREST GROUPS OF
THE FIELD 41
PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH 42
TRADITIONS IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH 44
PARADIGMS IN EMPIRICAL SCIENCE 45
EXERCISES 48
COMMON THREADS 48
Communication Is Central / Meaning / Process / Context
SUMMARY 50
RELATED READINGS 50
3 Presuppositions of Research in Communication 51
SYNOPSIS 51
THE MANNER OF ENGAGEMENT 52
The Attribute Model of the Individual / The Situated
Individual / Aggregates and Memberships / The Study
of Aggregates / The Notion of Memberships /
Dyads / Summary: The Manner of Engagement
EXERCISES 67
MEANING 67
Content and Meaning / The Interpretation of Behavior /
The Differing Perspective of the Actor versus the
Observer / Direct Participation and Indirect Observation
EXERCISES 74
ARGUMENTATION IN SCIENCE 75
Factual Claims / Forms of Argument / Nature of Valid
Conclusions
EXERCISES 81
SUMMARY 81
Engagement / Meaning / Argumentation in Science
RELATED READINGS 83
Recent Research Using Aggregates / Recent Research
Using Memberships (Groups) / Recent Research
Using Dyads / Recent Research Using Different
Perspectives on Meaning / Analytical Comment on
Different Perspectives on Explanatory Objectives and
Methods of Reasoning
SECTION 2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 87
4 An Introduction to Quantitative Research 89
SYNOPSIS 89
CONTENTS
THE TERMS AND TECHNIQUES OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 89
Developing New Constructs
HYPOTHESES 91
Hypotheses: Examples / Implied Hypotheses / The
Purpose of Hypotheses / The Nature of Hypothesis:
Summary
EXERCISES 97
PROTOCOLS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 97
Survey Protocols / Experimental Protocols / Isolation of
the Treatment Effect / Control Variables / Control
Given by the Protocol / Protocol Design and the Testing
of Hypotheses / Protocols: An Analytic Summary
EXERCISES 105
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS 105
Devising the Conditions of the Test / Choosing an
Approach / Laboratory Controls versus Mundane
Realism / Selecting Conditions: A Summary /
Conducting Systematic Observations /
Systematic Analysis of Observations /
Constructing Arguments / Testing the Hypothesis:
A Summary
THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THEORY 113
SUMMARY 114
EXERCISES 115
RELATED READINGS 115
Measurement 116
SYNOPSIS 116 CONCEPTS AND MEASUREMENT 116
Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Components
VALIDITY 119
Internal Validity / Conceptual Validity / External
Validity / Evaluating Validity: An Example
EXERCISES 122
OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT 122
Explanatory Purpose and Measurement / Defining What Is
Measured / Consistency of Method / Accuracy,
Precision, and Reliability
RELIABILITY 125
Sources of Unreliability / Measures of
Reliability / Presumptions and Problems in
Reliability / The Analysis of Reliability: Some
Examples / Reliability: A Summary
EXERCISES 1
VIII CONTENTS
OBSERVATIONS, MEASUREMENT, AND NUMBERS 132 Nominal Measurement / Ordinal Measurement / Interval
Measurement / Ratio Measurement / Levels of
Measurement: Review and Comment
ISOMORPHISM 139
The Demand Characteristics of Measurement / Evaluation
of the Isomorphism of Measurement
PRACTICAL METHODS OF MEASUREMENT 140
Characteristics of Good Measurement / What Difference
Does It Make, Anyway?
SUMMARY 143
EXERCISES 144 RELATED READINGS 144
6 Sampling 145
SYNOPSIS 146 POPULATIONS 146
Sample or Census / Representativeness
TYPES OF SAMPLES 149
Convenience Samples / Judgment Samples / Probability
Samples
EXERCISES 154
SAMPLING ERROR 154 Introduction to Sampling Error / Methods for Controlling
Error
SINGLE SAMPLE ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERROR 162
SAMPLING BIAS 164
EXERCISES 166 METHODS OF CONVENIENCE SAMPLING 166
METHODS IN JUDGMENT SAMPLING 167
METHODS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING 168 Selecting Samples from Lists / Sampling from Pictorial
Material / Procedural Sampling from Unknown
Populations / Methods for Stratified Samples / Sample
Size: Some Choices
SUMMARY 172
EXERCISES 173
RELATED READINGS 174
7 Statistics 175
SYNOPSIS 175
DESCRIBING NUMERICAL OBSERVATIONS 176 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES 177
The Meaningfulness of Observations and Averages
CONTENTS ix
DISTRIBUTIONS 179 DISPERSION 182
Variance and Standard Deviation
APPLICATIONS OF THE VARIANCE 183
Applications of the Standard Deviation / Relationship
between Averages and Measures of Dispersion
RELATIONSHIPS AND STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION 187
Connectedness and the DKT / Statistical Evidence and
the Relationship between Attributes
EXERCISES 190
MORE ON RELATIONSHIPS AND STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION 190
THE CHARACTER OF STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION 191
The Condition of No Association / The Condition of
Perfect Relationship / The Condition of Intermediate
Relationship / Sources of Intermediate Levels of
Association / The End of the Example: Findings from
the Campaign Study / Summary: Analysis of
Association
STATISTICAL MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION: CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS 198 An Analysis of the Product-Moment Correlation
Coefficient / Correlation and Partitioning Variability
MEASURES OF STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION: LINEAR FUNCTIONS 201
EXERCISES 202 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE IN MULTIVARIATE DATA SETS 203
Multivariate Analyses over Single Multivariate Data
Sets / Multivariate Analysis over Multiple Data
Sets / Issues in Multivariate Analysis
SUMMARY 210
EXERCISES 211 RELATED READINGS 211
Statistics: Decision Making and Methods 212
SYNOPSIS 212
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 212 Inferential Statistics as Population Estimates / Inferential
Statistics as Decision Rules / An Example in Job
Satisfaction / Tests of Significance with Other
Statistics / Issues in Tests of Significance / Alternate
Decision Rules / Summary Analysis of Inferential
Statistics
EXERCISES 222
SOME PRACTICAL THOUGHTS ON STATISTICAL APPLICATIONS 223
ANALYZING THE BASIC TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE 223
Chi Square / Tests of the Mean / Correlation /
Multivariate Analyses
X CONTENTS
ANALYZING SURVEY DATA 228
ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOLS 231
READING STATISTICS 232
SUMMARY 233 RELATED READINGS 233
S E C T I O N 3 I S S U E S A N D M E T H O D S IN QUALITATIVE R E S E A R C H 235
9 An Introduction to Qualitative Research 237
INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 237
Immanual Kant / Edmund Husserl and
Phenomenology / Max Weber / Alfred Schutz /
Phenomenology and "Normal Science" / A Closing
Thought
BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 244
NORMATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 245
Inductive (Deductive) / Eidetic (Atomistic) / Subjective
(Objective) / Contextual (Generalizeable) / Mundane
(Purified) / Textual (Measurable) / Perservationistic
(Aggregated) / Interactive (Independent) / Interpretive
(Material) / A Summary Analysis of Qualitative Norms
EXERCISES 254
DOING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 254 Encountering the Other / Creating the Research Text /
Composing the Episode / Moving to Theory /
Summary of the Qualitative Approach
EXERCISES 265
RELATED READINGS 266
10 Design 267
EXPLANATORY PURPOSE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 267 A Focus on Social Action / Four Types of Explanation /
A Comment on the Individual in Individual Analysis
ANALYTICAL METAPHORS 272
The Metaphor of the Narrative / The Implicit Narrative of
Field Notes / The Metaphor of the Narrative: A
Summary / The Metaphor of Theater / Culture as
Metaphor
ANALYTIC METAPHORS: A SUMMARY 282
EXERCISES 282 DESIGNING THE STUDY: IDENTIFYING THE SCENE 283
Number of Actors / Range of Action / Settings /
Level of Actor Involvement / Conditions of
CONTENTS XI
Membership / Interactions / Coherence /
Compactness / Intimacy / Emotional Range /
Researcher Resources / Evaluating
the Research Potential of the Scene
DESIGNING A CONTRIBUTION TO THE DOMAIN OF THEORY 287
Dealing with the Separate Demands of Scene and
Theory / Relationship between Forms of Argument and
Dialectical Analysis / Summary: Defining the Research
Contribution
AN EXAMPLE: ILLUSTRATING DESIGN 291
SUMMARY 293
EXERCISES 294 RELATED READINGS 294
11 Participant Observation: Getting Started 295
SYNOPSIS 295 THE NATURE OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION 295
Levels of Participation / Levels of Observation /
Participation and Observation: A Summary
HANGING AROUND 298
GAINING ACCESS 299 GAINING ACCESS: GETTING PERMISSION 300
Getting Permission—Families and Friends / Getting
Permission—Loosely Coupled Memberships / Formal
Organizations / Getting Permission: An Analytic
Summary
GAINING ACCESS: NEGOTIATING A RESEARCH PRESENCE 306
Perspective Taking in Negotiation / Difficulties in
Negotiating a Presence / Negotiating a Research
Presence: An Analytic Summary
EXERCISES 309
LEARNING THE ROPES 309 Routines and Rhythms / Description of Actors /
Language / Maps and Tours /
Photographs / Kinships / Review of Policy
Statements / Learning the Ropes: An Analytic
Summary
STRATEGIES FOR EXPERIENCING MEMBER ACTIVITIES 315
The Apprentice and the Mentor / Playing / Take a
Course / Use Past Experience or Present Involvement
PARTICIPATING AS A MEMBER 317
Member Participation and Performance / Member
Participation and Marginality / Disengagement / On
Participating as a Member: An Analytic Summary
xii CONTENTS
SUMMARY 322
EXERCISES 322
RELATED READINGS 323
12 Participant Observation: Creating the Research Text 325
RITUALS: AN EPISODE IN THE WILDERNESS 325
SYNOPSIS 326
OBSERVING 326
Standards for Scientific Observation / What to Look
For / Taking Observation Notes / Observation: Final
Thoughts
INTERVIEWING 329
Strategies / Issues / Interviewing: The Round-up
RECORDINGS AND TRANSCRIPTIONS 331
Managing Recorded Materials / The Art of Transcribing
Video Recordings /
WRITING FIELD NOTES 335
Significant Detail / Acts and Context / State of
Mind / Character of the Interaction / Providing an
Interpretation / Final Thoughts on Field Notes
MANAGING NOTES AND MATERIALS 343
Managing Paper / Artifacts / Tapes / The Value of Files
EXERCISES 345
WRITING EPISODES 345
Episodes as Constructions / Inductive Nature of Episodic
Analysis / Accommodation of Information in Episodic
Analysis
WRITING THE ETHNOGRAPHIC ARGUMENT 349
Characteristics / Methods and Practices / Causes and
Consequences / Critical Dialectic / The Ethnographic
Argument: Final Thoughts
EVALUATING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 352
Explanatory Purpose / Source of Information / Evidence
of a Committed Study / Completeness /
Generalizeability / Propriety of the Argument /
Evaluation: A Summary
SUMMARY 355
EXERCISES 355
RELATED READINGS 356
13 Epilogue 357
ETHICS 357
The Ethical Demand for Publication / The Critique of
Purpose / Safeguarding Subjects / Respecting the
CONTENTS XJii
Data / Qualifying the Claims / Summary on Ethics EXERCISES 366 THE MOVE TOWARD SYNTHESIS 366
Motivations toward Unity / Arguments for Separatism / Toward a Genuine Attempt at Synthesis / Implications
A CRITICAL LOOK INTO THE FUTURE 370 Possible Beneficial Changes in Quantitative
Research / Areas of Growth in Qualitative Research A FINAL THOUGHT 374 RELATED READINGS 374
GLOSSARY 375 BIBLIOGRAPHY 388 INDEX 405
